Hydraulic drive system

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article does not cite any references or sources.

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged andremoved. (August 2007)

This article may require copy-editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone or spelling.
You can assist by editing it. (January 2008)

A hydraulic or hydrostatic drive system or hydraulic power transmission is a drive or transmission

system that uses hydraulic fluid under pressure to drive machinery. The term hydrostatic refers to the
transfer of energy from flow and pressure, not from the kinetic energy of the flow.

Such a system basically consists of three parts. The generator (e.g. a hydraulic pump, driven by
an electric motor, a combustion engine or awindmill); valves, filters, piping etc. (to guide and control the
system); the motor (e.g. a hydraulic motor or hydraulic cylinder) to drive the machinery.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Principle of a hydraulic

drive

• 2 Hydraulic cylinder

• 3 Hydraulic motor

• 4 Hydraulic valves

• 5 Open and closed systems

• 6 See also

• 7 External links

[edit]Principle of a hydraulic drive

Principle of hydraulic drive system

Pascal's law is the basis of hydraulic drive systems. As the pressure in the system is the same, the force
that the fluid gives to the surroundings is therefore equal to pressure x area. In such a way, a small piston
feels a small force and a large piston feels a large force.

The same counts for a hydraulic pump with a small swept volume, that asks for a small torque, combined
with a hydraulic motor with a large sweptvolume, that gives a large torque.

In such a way a transmission with a certain ratio can be built.

Most hydraulic drive systems make use of hydraulic cylinders. Here the same principle is used- a small
torque can be transmitted in to a large force.

By throttling the fluid between generator part and motor part, or by using hydraulic pumps and/or motors
with adjustable swept volume, the ratio of the transmission can be changed easily. In case throttling is
used, the efficiency of the transmission is limited; in case adjustable pumps and motors are used, the
efficiency however is very large. In fact, up to around 1980, a hydraulic drive system had hardly any
competition from other adjustable (electric) drive systems.

Nowadays electric drive systems using electric servo-motors can be controlled in an excellent way and
can easily compete with rotating hydraulic drive systems. Hydraulic cylinders are in fact without
competition for linear (high) forces. For these cylinders anyway hydraulic systems will remain of interest
and if such a system is available, it is easy and logical to use this system also for the rotating drives of the
cooling systems.

[edit]Hydraulic cylinder
Main article: Hydraulic cylinder

Hydraulic cylinders (also called linear hydraulic motors) are mechanical actuators that are used to give a
linear force through a linear stroke. A hydraulic cylinder is without doubt the best known hydraulic
component. Hydraulic cylinders are able to give pushing and pulling forces of millions of metric tons, with
only a simple hydraulic system. Very simple hydraulic cylinders are used in presses; here the cylinder
consists out of a volume in a piece of iron with a plunger pushed in it and sealed with a cover. By
pumping hydraulic fluid in the volume, the plunger is pushed out with a force of plunger-area * pressure.

More sophisticated cylinders have a body with end cover, a piston-rod with piston and a cylinder-head. At
one side the bottom is for instance connected to a single clevis, whereas at the other side, the piston rod
also is foreseen with a single clevis. The cylinder shell normally has hydraulic connections at both sides.
A connection at bottom side and one at cylinder head side. If oil is pushed under the piston, the piston-rod
is pushed out and oil that was between the piston and the cylinder head is pushed back to the oil-tank
again.

The pushing or pulling force of a hydraulic cylinder is:

F = Ab * pb - Ah * ph
F = Pushing Force in N
Ab = (π/4) * (Bottom-diameter)^2 [in m2]
Ah = (π/4) * ((Bottom-diameter)^2-(Piston-rod-diameter)^2)) [in m2]
pb = pressure at bottom side in [N/m2]
ph = pressure at cylinder head side in [N/m2]

Apart from miniature cylinders, in general, the smallest cylinder diameter is 32 mm and the smallest
piston rod diameter is 16 mm.

Simple hydraulic cylinders have a maximum working pressure of about 70 bar, the next step is 140 bar,
210 bar, 320/350 bar and further, the cylinders are in general custom build. The stroke of a hydraulic
cylinder is limited by the manufacturing process. The majority of hydraulic cylinders have a stroke
between 0,3 and 5 metres, whereas 12-15 metre stroke is also possible, but for this length only a limited
number of suppliers are on the market.
In case the retracted length of the cylinder is too long for the cylinder to be build in the structure. In this
case telescopic cylinders can be used. One has to realize that for simple pushing applications telescopic
cylinders might be available easily; for higher forces and/or double acting cylinders, they must be
designed especially and are very expensive. If hydraulic cylinders are only used for pushing and the
piston rod is brought in again by other means, one can also use plunger cylinders. Plunger cylinders have
no sealing over the piston, or the piston does not exist. This means that only one oil connection is
necessary. In general the diameter of the plunger is rather large compared with a normal piston cylinder,
because this large area is needed.

Whereas a hydraulic motor will always leak oil, a hydraulic cylinder does not have a leakage over the
piston nor over the cylinder head sealing, so that there is no need for a mechanical brake.

Common faults

-add here-

[edit]Hydraulic motor
Main article: Hydraulic motor

The hydraulic motor is the rotary counterpart of the hydraulic cylinder.

Conceptually, a hydraulic motor should be interchangeable with hydraulic pump, because it performs the
opposite function -- much as the conceptual DC electric motor is interchangeable with a DC electrical
generator. However, most hydraulic pumps cannot be used as hydraulic motors because they cannot
be backdriven. Also, a hydraulic motor is usually designed for the working pressure at both sides of the
motor. Another difference is that a motor can be reversed by a reversing valve. Another factor affecting
the operation of hydraulic motors is fluid flow rate. Pressure in a hydraulic system is like the current in an
electrical system and fluid flow rate is the equivalent of voltage. Pressure provides the force and flow rate
the speed. The size of the pump decides the flow rate not just the pressure.

[edit]Hydraulic valves
These valves are usually very heavy duty to stand up to high pressures. Some special valves can control
the direction of the flow of fluid and act as a control unit for a system.

[edit]Open and closed systems

Principle circuit diagram for open loop and closed loop system.

An open system is one where the hydraulic fluid is returned into a large unpressurised tank at the end of a
cycle through the system. In contrast a closed system is where the hydraulic fluid stays in one closed
pressurised loop without returning to a main tank after each cycle. See open and closed systems.

[edit]See also
Hydraulic machinery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An excavator; main hydraulics: Boom cylinders, swingdrive, cooler fan and trackdrive
Fundamental features of using hydraulics compared to mechanics for force and torque increase/decrease in a transmission.

Hydraulic machinery are machines and tools which use fluid power to do work. Heavy equipment is a
common example.

In this type of machine, high-pressure liquid — called hydraulic fluid — is transmitted throughout the
machine to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders. The fluid is controlled directly or
automatically by control valves and distributed through hoses and tubes.

The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very large amount of power that can be transferred
through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the high power density and wide array of actuators that can
make use of this power.

Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering
medium.Pneumatics, on the other side, is based on the use of a gas as the medium for power
transmission, generation and control.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Force and torque multiplication

• 2 Hydraulic circuits
 • 3 Constant pressure and load-sensing

systems

○ 3.1 Five basic types of load-

sensing systems

• 4 Open and closed circuits

• 5 Hydraulic pump

• 6 Control valves

• 7 Actuators

• 8 Reservoir

• 9 Accumulators

• 10 Hydraulic fluid

• 11 Filters

• 12 Tubes, Pipes and Hoses

• 13 Seals, fittings and connections

• 14 Basic calculations

• 15 See also

• 16 References and notes

• 17 External links

[edit]Force and torque multiplication

A fundamental feature of hydraulic systems is the ability to apply force or torque multiplication in an easy
way, independent of the distance between the input and output, without the need for mechanical gears or
levers, either by altering the effective areas in two connected cylinders or the effective displacement
(cc/rev) between a pump and motor. In normal case hydraulic ratios is combined with a mechanical force
or torque ratio for optimum machine designs, like in boom movements and trackdrives for an excavator.

Examples

(1) Two hydraulic cylinders interconnected:

Cylinder C1 is one inch in radius, and cylinder C2 is ten inches in radius. If the force exerted on C1 is
10 lbf, the force exerted by C2 is 1000 lbf because C2 is a hundred times larger in area (S = πr²) as C1.
The downside to this is that you have to move C1 a hundred inches to move C2 one inch. The most
common use for this is the classical hydraulic jack where a pumping cylinder with a small diameter is
connected to the lifting cylinder with a large diameter.

(2) Pump and motor:

If a hydraulic rotary pump with the displacement 10 cc/rev is connected to a hydraulic rotary motor with
100 cc/rev, the shaft torque required to drive the pump is 10 times less than the torque available at the
motor shaft, but the shaft speed (rev/min) for the motor is 10 times less than the pump shaft speed. This
combination is actually the same type of force multiplication as the cylinder example (1) just that the linear
force in this case is a rotary force, defined as torque.

Both these examples are usually referred to as a hydraulic transmission or hydrostatic transmission
involving a certain hydraulic "gear ratio".

[edit]Hydraulic circuits

A simple open center hydraulic circuit.

The equivalent circuit schematic.

For the hydraulic fluid to do work, it must flow to the actuator and or motors, then return to a reservoir.
The fluid is then filtered and re-pumped. The path taken by hydraulic fluid is called a hydraulic circuit of
which there are several types. Open center circuits use pumps which supply a continuous flow. The flow
is returned to tank through the control valve's open center; that is, when the control valve is centered, it
provides an open return path to tank and the fluid is not pumped to a high pressure. Otherwise, if the
control valve is actuated it routes fluid to and from an actuator and tank. The fluid's pressure will rise to
meet any resistance, since the pump has a constant output. If the pressure rises too high, fluid returns to
tank through a pressure relief valve. Multiple control valves may be stacked in series[1]. This type of
circuit can use inexpensive, constant displacement pumps.

Closed center circuits supply full pressure to the control valves, whether any valves are actuated or not.
The pumps vary their flow rate, pumping very little hydraulic fluid until the operator actuates a valve. The
valve's spool therefore doesn't need an open center return path to tank. Multiple valves can be connected
in a parallel arrangement and system pressure is equal for all valves.

[edit]Constant pressure and load-sensing systems

The closed center circuits exist in two basic configurations, normally related to the regulator for the
variable pump that supplies the oil:

Constant pressure systems (CP-system), standard. Pump pressure always equals the pressure setting
for the pump regulator. This setting must cover the maximum required load pressure. Pump delivers flow
according to required sum of flow to the consumers. The CP-system generates large power losses if the
machine works with large variations in load pressure and the average system pressure is much lower
than the pressure setting for the pump regulator. CP is simple in design. Works like a pneumatic system.
New hydraulic functions can easily be added and the system is quick in response.

Constant pressure systems (CP-system), unloaded. Same basic configuration as 'standard' CP-system
but the pump is unloaded to a low stand-by pressure when all valves are in neutral position. Not so fast
response as standard CP but pump life time is prolonged.

Load-sensing systems (LS-system) generates less power losses as the pump can reduce both flow and
pressure to match the load requirements, but requires more tuning than the CP-system with respect to
system stability. The LS-system also requires additional logical valves and compensator valves in the
directional valves, thus it is technically more complex and more expensive than the CP-system. The LS-
system system generates a constant power loss related to the regulating pressure drop for the pump
regulator:

Power loss =

The average ΔpLS is around 2 MPa (290 psi). If the pump flow is high the extra loss can be considerable.
The power loss also increase if the load pressures varies a lot. The cylinder areas, motor displacements
and mechanical torque arms must be designed to match in load pressure in order to bring down the
power losses. Pump pressure always equals the maximum load pressure when several functions are run
simultaneously and the power input to the pump equals the (max. load pressure + ΔpLS) x sum of flow.
[edit]Five basic types of load-sensing systems
(1) Load sensing without compensators in the directional valves. Hydraulically controlled LS-pump.

(2) Load sensing with up-stream compensator for each connected directional valve. Hydraulically
controlled LS-pump.

(3) Load sensing with down-stream compensator for each connected directional valve. Hydraulically
controlled LS-pump.

(4) Load sensing with a combination of up-stream and down-stream compensators. Hydraulically
controlled LS-pump.

(5) Load sensing with synchronized, both electric controlled pumpdisplacement and electric controlled
valve flow area for faster response, increased stability and less system losses. This is a new type of LS-
system, not yet fully developed.

Technically the down-stream mounted compensator in a valveblock can physically be mounted "up-
stream", but work as a down-stream compensator.

System type (3) gives the advantage that activated functions are synchronized independent of pump flow
capacity. The flow relation between 2 or more activated functions remains independent of load pressures
even if the pump reach the maximum swivel angle. This feature is important for machines that often run
with the pump at maximum swivel angel and with several activated functions that must be syncronized in
speed, such as with excavators. With type (4) system, the functions with up-stream compensators have
priority. Example: Steering-function for a wheel loader. The system type with down-stream compensators
usually have a unique trademark depending on the manufacturer of the valves, for example "LSC" (Linde
Hydraulics), "LUDV" (Bosch-Rexroth Hydraulics) and "Flowsharing" (Parker Hydraulics) etc. No official
standardized name for this type of system has been established but Flowsharing is a common name for it.

[edit]Open and closed circuits

Open loop and closed loop circuits

Open-loop: Pump-inlet and motor-return (via the directional valve) are connected to the hydraulic
tank.The term loop applies to feedback; the more correct term is open versus closed "circuit".

Closed-loop: Motor-return is connected directly to the pump-inlet. To keep up pressure on the low
pressure side, the circuits have a charge pump (a small gearpump) that supplies cooled and filtered oil to
the low pressure side. Closed-loop circuits are generally used for hydrostatic transmissions in mobile
applications. Advantages: No directional valve and better response, the circuit can work with higher
pressure. The pump swivel angle covers both positive and negative flow direction. Disadvantages: The
pump cannot be utilized for any other hydraulic function in an easy way and cooling can be a problem due
to limited exchange of oil flow. High power closed loop systems generally must have a 'flush-valve'
assembled in the circuit in order to exchange much more flow than the basic leakage flow from the pump
and the motor, for increased cooling and filtering. The flush valve is normally integrated in the motor
housing to get a cooling effect for the oil that is rotating in the motorhousing itself. The losses in the motor
housing from rotating effects and losses in the ballbearings can be considerable as motorspeeds will
reach 4000-5000 rev/min or even more at max vehicle speed. The leakage flow as well as the extra flush
flow must be supplied by the charge pump. Large charge pumps is thus very important if the transmission
is designed for high pressures and high motor speeds. High oil temperatures, is usually a major problem
when using hydrostatic transmissions at high vehicle speeds for longer periods, for instance when
transporting the machine from one work place to the other. High oiltemperatures for long periods will
drastically reduce the life time for the transmission. To keep down the oil temperature, the system
pressure during transport must be lowered, meaning that the minimum displacement for the motor must
be limited to a reasonable value. Circuit pressures during transport around 200-250 bar is recommended.

Closed loop systems in mobile equipment are generally used for the transmission as an alternative to
mechanical and hydrodynamic (converter) transmissions. The advantage is a stepless gear ratio
('hydrostatic' gear ratio) and a more flexible control of the gear ratio depending on the load and operating
conditions. The hydrostatic transmission is generally limited to around 200 kW max. power as the total
cost gets too high at higher power compared to a hydrodynamic transmission. Large wheel loaders for
instance and heavy machines are therefore usually equipped with converter transmissions. Recent
technical achievements for the converter transmissions have improved the efficiency and developments in
the software have also improved the characteristics, for example selectable gear shifting programs during
operation and more gear steps, giving them characteristics close to the hydrostatic transmission.

Hydrostatic transmissions for earth moving machines, such as for tractor loaders, are often equipped with
a separate 'Inch pedal' that is used to temporarily increase the diesel engine rpm while reducing the
vehicle speed in order to increase the available hydraulic power output for the working hydraulics at low
speeds and increase the tractive effort. The function is similar to stalling a converter gearbox at high
engine rpm. The Inch-function affects the preset characteristics for the 'hydrostatic' gear ratio versus
diesel engine rpm. when a close loop can take responce.

[edit]Hydraulic pump

An exploded view of an external gear pump.

Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system develops in
reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of maintaining flow against a load of
5,000 psi.

Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by volume). They are
powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts, or a
flexible elastomericcoupling to reduce vibration.

Common types of hydraulic pumps to hydraulic machinery applications are;

 Gear pump: cheap, durable, simple. Less efficient, because they are constant displacement, and
mainly suitable for pressures below 20 MPa (3000 psi).

 Vane pump: cheap and simple, reliable (especially in g-rotor form). Good for higher-flow low-pressure
output.
 Axial piston pump: many designed with a variable displacement mechanism, to vary output flow for
automatic control of pressure. There are various axial piston pump designs, including swashplate
(sometimes referred to as a valveplate pump) and checkball (sometimes referred to as a wobble plate
pump). The most common is the swashplate pump. A variable-angle swash plate causes the pistons
to reciprocate.

 Radial piston pump A pump that is normally used for very high pressure at small flows.

Piston pumps are more expensive than gear or vane pumps, but provide longer life operating at higher
pressure, with difficult fluids and longer continuous duty cycles. Piston pumps make up one half of
a hydrostatic transmission.

[edit]Control valves
Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of a spool inside
a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the housing, intersecting grooves
and channels route the fluid based on the spool's position.

The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position the supply fluid is
blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes the hydraulic fluid to an actuator and
provides a return path from the actuator to tank. When the spool is moved to the opposite direction the
supply and return paths are switched. When the spool is allowed to return to neutral (center) position the
actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in position.

Directional control valves are usually designed to be stackable, with one valve for each hydraulic cylinder,
and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack.

Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking, spools typically have
a clearance with the housing of less than a thousandth of an inch (25 µm). The valve block will be
mounted to the machine's frame with a three point pattern to avoid distorting the valve block and jamming
the valve's sensitive components.

The spool position may be actuated by mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure, or solenoids which
push the spool left or right. A sealallows part of the spool to protrude outside the housing, where it is
accessible to the actuator.

The main valve block is usually a stack of off the shelf directional control valves chosen by flow capacity
and performance. Some valves are designed to be proportional (flow rate proportional to valve position),
while others may be simply on-off. The control valve is one of the most expensive and sensitive parts of a
hydraulic circuit.
 Pressure relief valves are used in several places in hydraulic machinery; on the return circuit to
maintain a small amount of pressure for brakes, pilot lines, etc... On hydraulic cylinders, to prevent
overloading and hydraulic line/seal rupture. On the hydraulic reservoir, to maintain a small positive
pressure which excludes moisture and contamination.

 Pressure reducing valves reduce the supply pressure as needed for various circuits.

 Sequence valves control the sequence of hydraulic circuits; to ensure that one hydraulic cylinder is
fully extended before another starts its stroke, for example.

 Shuttle valves provide a logical or function.

 Check valves are one-way valves, allowing an accumulator to charge and maintain its pressure after
the machine is turned off, for example.

 Pilot controlled Check valves are one-way valve that can be opened (for both directions) by a foreign
pressure signal. For instance if the load should not be hold by the check valve anymore. Often the
foreign pressure comes from the other pipe that is connected to the motor or cylinder.

 Counterbalance valves are in fact a special type of pilot controlled check valve. Whereas the check
valve is open or closed, the counterbalance valve acts a bit like a pilot controlled flow control.

 Cartridge valves are in fact the inner part of a check valve; they are off the shelf components with a
standardized envelope, making them easy to populate a proprietary valve block. They are available in
many configurations; on/off, proportional, pressure relief, etc. They generally screw into a valve block
and are electrically controlled to provide logic and automated functions.

 Hydraulic fuses are in-line safety devices designed to automatically seal off a hydraulic line if
pressure becomes too low, or safely vent fluid if pressure becomes too high.

 Auxiliary valves. Complex hydraulic systems will usually have auxiliary valve blocks to handle various
duties unseen to the operator, such as accumulator charging, cooling fan operation, air conditioning
power, etc. They are usually custom valves designed for the particular machine, and may consist of a
metal block with ports and channels drilled. Cartridge valves are threaded into the ports and may be
electrically controlled by switches or a microprocessor to route fluid power as needed.
[edit]Actuators

 Hydraulic cylinder

 Rotary actuator (hydraulic)

 Hydraulic motor (a pump plumbed in reverse)

 hydrostatic transmission
 Brakes
[edit]Reservoir

The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate volume changes from: cylinder
extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion and contraction, and leaks. The reservoir is also
designed to aid in separation of air from the fluid and also work as a heat accumulator to cover losses in
the system when peak power is used. Design engineers are always pressured to reduce the size of
hydraulic reservoirs, while equipment operators always appreciate larger reservoirs. Reservoirs can also
help separate dirt and other particulate from the oil, as the particulate will generally settle to the bottom of
the tank.

Some designs include dynamic flow channels on the fluid's return path that allow for a smaller reservoir.

[edit]Accumulators

Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to store energy by using
pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston. On one side of the piston is a charge of
pressurized gas, and on the other side is the fluid. Bladders are used in other designs. Reservoirs store a
system's fluid.

Examples of accumulator uses are backup power for steering or brakes, or to act as a shock absorber for
the hydraulic circuit.

[edit]Hydraulic fluid
Also known as tractor fluid, hydraulic fluid is the life of the hydraulic circuit. It is usually petroleum oil with
various additives. Some hydraulic machines require fire resistant fluids, depending on their applications.
In some factories where food is prepared, water is used as a working fluid for health and safety reasons.

In addition to transferring energy, hydraulic fluid needs to lubricate components, suspend contaminants
and metal filings for transport to thefilter, and to function well to several hundred
degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.

[edit]Filters

Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are continually produced by mechanical
components and need to be removed along with other contaminants.

Filters may be positioned in many locations. The filter may be located between the reservoir and the
pump intake. Blockage of the filter will cause cavitation and possibly failure of the pump. Sometimes the
filter is located between the pump and the control valves. This arrangement is more expensive, since the
filter housing is pressurized, but eliminates cavitation problems and protects the control valve from pump
failures. The third common filter location is just before the return line enters the reservoir. This location is
relatively insensitive to blockage and does not require a pressurized housing, but contaminants that enter
the reservoir from external sources are not filtered until passing through the system at least once.

[edit]Tubes, Pipes and Hoses

Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for hydraulics. The tubes
have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with standard diameters up to 100 mm. The tubes are
supplied by manufacturers in lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and plugged. The tubes are interconnected by
different types of flanges (especially for the larger sizes and pressures), welding cones/nipples (with o-
ring seal), several types of flare connection and by cut-rings. In larger sizes, hydraulic pipes are used.
Direct joining of tubes by welding is not acceptable since the interior cannot be inspected.

Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available. Generally these are used for
low pressure. They can be connected by threaded connections, but usually by welds. Because of the
larger diameters the pipe can usually be inspected internally after welding.Black pipe is non-
galvanized and suitable for welding.

Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility. Hoses are used when pipes
or tubes can not be used, usually to provide flexibility for machine operation or maintenance. The hose is
built up with rubber and steel layers. A rubber interior is surrounded by multiple layers of woven wire and
rubber. The exterior is designed for abrasion resistance. The bend radius of hydraulic hose is carefully
designed into the machine, since hose failures can be deadly, and violating the hose's minimum bend
radius will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses generally have steel fittings swaged on the ends. The weakest
part of the high pressure hose is the connection of the hose to the fitting. Another disadvantage of hoses
is the shorter life of rubber which requires periodic replacement, usually at five to seven year intervals.

Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are internally oiled before the system is commissioned. Usually
steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and other couplings are used, the paint is removed under the
nut, and is a location where corrosion can begin. For this reason, in marine applications most piping is
stainless steel.

[edit]Seals, fittings and connections

In general, valves, cylinders and pumps have female threaded bosses for the fluid connection, and hoses
have female ends with captive nuts. A male-male fitting is chosen to connect the two. Many standardized
systems are in use.

Fittings serve several purposes;

 1. To bridge different standards; O-ring boss to JIC (hydraulic), or pipe threads to face seal, for
example.

2. To allow proper orientation of components, a 90°, 45°, straight, or swivel fitting is chosen as
needed. They are designed to be positioned in the correct orientation and then tightened.

3. To incorporate bulkhead hardware.

4. A quick disconnect fitting may be added to a machine without modification of hoses or valves

A typical piece of heavy equipment may have thousands of sealed connection points and several different
types:

 Pipe fittings, the fitting is screwed in until tight, difficult to orient an angled fitting correctly without over
or under tightening.

 O-ring boss, the fitting is screwed into a boss and orientated as needed, an additional nut tightens the
fitting, washer and o-ring in place.

 Flare seal, a metal to metal compression seal with a cone and flare mating.

 Face seal, metal flanges with a groove and o-ring are fastened together.

 Beam seal, a costly metal to metal seal used primarily in aircraft.

 Swaged seals, tubes are connected with fittings that are swaged permanently in place. Primarily used
in aircraft.

Elastomeric seals (O-ring boss and face seal) are the most common types of seals in heavy equipment
and are capable of reliably sealing 6000+ psi (40+ MPa) of fluid pressure.

[edit]Basic calculations
Hydraulic power is defined as Flow x Pressure. The hydraulic power supplied by a pump: P in [bar] and Q
in [lit/min] => (P x Q)÷ 600 [kW]. Ex. Pump delivers 180 [lit/min] and the P equals 250 [bar] => Pump
power output = (180 x 250)÷600 = 75 [kW].

When calculating the power input to the pump, the total pump efficiency ηtotal must be included. This
efficiency is the product of volumetric efficiency, ηvol and the hydromechanical efficiency, ηhm. Power input
= Power output ÷ ηtotal. The average for axial piston pumps, ηtotal = 0.87. In the example the power source,
for example a diesel engine or an electric motor, must be capable of delivering at least 75 ÷ 0.87 = 86
[kW]. The hydraulic motors and cylinders that the pump supplies with hydraulic power also have
efficiencies and the total system efficiency (without including the pressure drop in the hydraulic pipes and
valves) will end up at approx. 0.75. Cylinders normally have a total efficiency around 0.95 while hydraulic
axial piston motors 0.87, the same as the pump. In general the power loss in a hydraulic energy
transmission is thus around 25% or more at ideal viscosity range 25-35 [cSt].

Calculation of the required max. power output for the diesel engine, rough estimation:

(1) Check the max. powerpoint, i.e. the point where pressure times flow reach the max. value.

(2) Ediesel = (Pmax·Qtot)÷η.

Qtot = calculate with the theoretical pump flow for the consumers not including leakages at max. power
point.

Pmax = actual pump pressure at max. power point.

Note: η is the total efficiency = (output mechanical power ÷ input mechanical power). For rough
estimations, η = 0.75. Add 10-20% (depends on the application) to this power value.

(3) Calculate the required pumpdisplacement from required max. sum of flow for the consumers in worst
case and the diesel engine rpm in this point. The max. flow can differ from the flow used for calculation of
the diesel engine power. Pump volumetric efficiency average, piston pumps: ηvol= 0.93.

Pumpdisplacement Vpump= Qtot ÷ ndiesel ÷ 0.93.

(4) Calculation of prel. cooler capacity: Heat dissipation from hydraulic oil tanks, valves, pipes and
hydraulic components is less than a few percent in standard mobile equipment and the cooler capacity
must include some margins. Minimum cooler capacity, Ecooler = 0.25Ediesel

At least 25% of the input power must be dissipated by the cooler when peak power is utilized for long
periods. In normal case however, the peak power is used for only short periods, thus the actual cooler
capacity required might be considerably less. The oil volume in the hydraulic tank is also acting as a heat
accumulator when peak power is used. The system efficiency is very much dependent on the type of
hydraulic work tool equipment, the hydraulic pumps and motors used and power input to the hydraulics
may vary a lot. Each circuit must be evaluated and the load cycle estimated. New or modified systems
must always be tested in practical work, covering all possible load cycles. An easy way of measuring the
actual average power loss in the system is to equip the machine with a test cooler and measure the oil
temperature at cooler inlet, oil temperature at cooler outlet and the oil flow through the cooler, when the
machine is in normal operating mode. From these figures the test cooler power dissipation can be
calculated and this is equal to the power loss when temperatures are stabilized. From this test the actual
required cooler can be calculated to reach specified oil temperature in the oil tank. One problem can be to
assemble the measuring equipment inline, especially the oil flow meter

Hydraulic fluid
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
used hydraulic fluid

Hydraulic fluids, also called hydraulic liquids, are the medium by which power is transferred
inhydraulic machinery. Common hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil or water.[1] Examples of
equipment that might use hydraulic fluids include excavators, brakes, power
steering systems,transmissions, backhoes, garbage trucks, aircraft flight control systems and industrial
machinery.

Hydraulic systems like the ones mentioned above will work most efficiently if the hydraulic fluid used has
low compressibility.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Functions and properties

• 2 Composition

○ 2.1 Base stock

○ 2.2 Other components

○ 2.3 Biodegradable

hydraulic fluids

• 3 Brake fluid

• 4 Safety

• 5 Trade names

• 6 Aircraft hydraulic systems

○ 6.1 Specifications

○ 6.2 Contamination

• 7 See also

• 8 References

• 9 External links

[edit]Functions and properties

The primary function of a hydraulic fluid is to convey power. In use, however, there are other important
functions of hydraulic fluid such as protection of the hydraulic machine components. The table below lists
the major functions of a hydraulic fluid and the properties of a fluid that affect its ability to perform that
function:[2]

Function Property

 Low compressibility (high bulk

modulus)
Medium for power transfer and
control  Fast air release

 Low foaming tendency

 Low volatility

Medium for heat transfer

 Good thermal capacity and conductivity

 Adequate viscosity and viscosity index

Sealing Medium
 Shear stability

 Viscosity for film maintenance

 Low temperature fluidity

 Thermal and oxidative stability

 Hydrolytic stability / water tolerance

Lubricant
 Cleanliness and filterability

 Demulsibility

 Antiwear characteristics

 Corrosion control

 Proper viscosity to minimize internal

Pump efficiency leakage

 High viscosity index

 Fire resistance
Special function
 Friction modifications

 Radiation resistance
Environmental impact
 Low toxicity when new or decomposed
  Biodegradability

Functioning life
 Material compatibility
[edit]Composition

[edit]Base stock
The original hydraulic fluid, dating back to the time of ancient Egypt, was water. Beginning in the
1920s, mineral oil began to be used more than water as a base stock due to its
inherent lubrication properties and ability to be used at temperatures above the boiling point of water.
Today most hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil base stocks.

Natural oils such as rapeseed (also called canola oil) are used as base stocks for fluids
where biodegradability and renewable sources are considered important.

Other base stocks are used for specialty applications, such as for fire resistance and extreme
temperature applications. Some examples include: glycol, esters, organophosphate
ester, polyalphaolefin, propylene glycol, and silicone oils.
[edit]Other components
Hydraulic fluids can contain a wide range of chemical compounds, including: oils, butanol, esters
(e.g. phthalates, like DEHP, and adipates, like bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate), polyalkylene
glycols (PAG), phosphate esters (e.g. tributylphosphate), silicones, alkylated aromatic hydrocarbons,
polyalphaolefins (PAO) (e.g. polyisobutenes), corrosion inhibitors, etc.
[edit]Biodegradable hydraulic fluids
Environmentally sensitive applications (e.g. farm tractors and marine dredging) may benefit from using
biodegradable hydraulic fluids based upon rapeseed (Canola) vegetable oil when there is the risk of an oil
spill from a ruptured oil line. Typically these oils are available as ISO 32, ISO 46, and ISO 68 specification
oils. ASTM standards ASTM-D-6006, Guide for Assessing Biodegradability of Hydraulic Fluids and
ASTM-D-6046, Standard Classification of Hydraulic Fluids for Environmental Impact are relevant.

[edit]Brake fluid
Brake fluid is a subtype of hydraulic fluid with high boiling point, both when new (specified by the
equilibrium boiling point) and after absorption of water vapor (specified by wet boiling point). Under the
heat of braking, both free water and water vapor in a braking system can boil into a compressible vapor,
resulting in brake failure. Glycol-ether based fluids are hygroscopic, and absorbed moisture will greatly
reduce the boiling point over time. Silicone based fluids are not hygroscopic, but their inferior lubrication is
not suitable for all braking systems.[3]
[edit]Safety

Because industrial hydraulic systems operate at hundreds to thousands of PSI and temperatures
reaching hundreds of degrees Celsius, severe injuries and death can result from component failures and
care must always be taken when performing maintenance on hydraulic systems.

Fire resistance is a property available with specialized fluids.

[edit]Trade names
Some of the trade names for hydraulic fluids include Tellus, Durad, Fyrquel, Houghton-Safe,
Hydraunycoil, Lubritherm Enviro-Safe, Pydraul, Quintolubric, Reofos, Reolube, and Skydrol.

[edit]Aircraft hydraulic systems

The use of hydraulic systems in aircraft almost certainly began with braking systems.[citation needed] As aircraft
performance increased in mid-20th century, the amount of force required to operate mechanical flight
controls became excessive, and hydraulic systems were introduced to reduce pilot effort. The hydraulic
actuators are controlled by valves; these in turn are operated directly by input from the aircrew (hydro-
mechanical) or by computers obeying control laws (fly by wire). See flight controls.

Hydraulic power is used for other purposes. It can be stored in accumulators to start an auxiliary power
unit (APU) for self-starting the aircraft's main engines. Many aircraft equipped with the M61 family of
cannon use hydraulic power to drive the gun system, permitting reliable high rates of fire.

The hydraulic power itself comes from pumps driven by the engines directly, or by electrically driven
pumps. In modern commercial aircraft these are electrically driven pumps; should all the engines fail in
flight the pilot will deploy a propeller-driven electric generator which is concealed under the fuselage.
[4]
This provides electrical power for the hydraulic pumps and control systems as power is no longer
available from the engines. In that system and others electric pumps can provide both redundancy and
the means of operating hydraulic systems without the engines operating, which can be very useful during
maintenance.
[edit]Specifications

Aircraft hydraulic fluids fall under various specifications:

Common petroleum-based:

 Mil-H-5606: Mineral base, flammable, fairly low flashpoint, usable from −65 °F (−54 °C) to 275 °F
(135 °C), red color

 Mil-H-83282: Synthetic hydrocarbon base, higher flashpoint, self-extinguishing, backward compatible

to -5606, red color
 Mil-H-87257: A development of -83282 fluid to improve its low temperature viscosity.

Phosphate-ester based:

 BMS 3-11: Skydrol 500B-4, Skydrol LD-4, Skydrol 5 and Exxon HyJetIV-A plus – Typically light
purple, not compatible with petroleum-based fluids, will not support combustion.
[edit]Contamination

Special, stringent care is required when handling aircraft hydraulic fluid as it is critical to flight safety that it
stay free from contamination. It is also necessary to strictly adhere to authorized references when
servicing or repairing any aircraft system. Samples from aircraft hydraulic systems are taken during
heavy aircraft maintenance checks to check contamination.

Hydraulics is a topic in applied science and engineering dealing with the mechanical properties
of liquids. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the
engineering uses of fluid properties. In fluid power, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and
transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through most science and
engineering disciplines, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control
circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement, river channel
behavior and erosion.

Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface flow, such as occurring
in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries andseas. Its sub-field open channel flow studies the flow in
open channels.

The word "hydraulics" originates from the Greek word ὑδραυλικός (hydraulikos) which in turn originates
from ὕδραυλος (hydraulos) meaningwater organ which in turn comes from ὕδωρ (hydor, Greek for water)
and αὐλός (aulos, meaning pipe).