Nutrition and Feeding of Sheep and Goats

CHAPTER SEVEN
Nutrition and Feeding of

Sheep and Goats
Alemu Yami
Objectives
To identify feed-related problems of sheep and goat production.
To identify alternative strategies for feed resource development.
To learn the structure and functions of the ruminant digestive tract
and possible ways of manipulating it to improve utilization of coarse
feedstuff.
4.
To learn the feeding habits of sheep and goats and implications for
feeding and nutrition.
5.
To learn methods to improve the feeding value of roughages
through chemical treatment.
6.
To learn the advantages and disadvantages of urea treatment and
supplementation using urea molasses blocks.
7.
To identify strategies for feeding sheep and goats during drought
periods.
8.
To learn appropriate methods of grassland and grazing
management.
9.
To learn appropriate feeding practices for different classes of sheep
and goats.
10. To identify the characteristics and feeding value of common
feedstuff.
1.
2.
3.
Expected Outputs
1.
2.
3.
Recognition of feed-related problems of sheep and goats in

different agro-ecological zones.
Knowledge and ability to practice alternative strategies for better
feeding of sheep and goats.
Skills to transfer improved sheep and goat feeding methods to
producers resulting in improved productivity of sheep and goats.
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7.1. General Introduction

The nutrition of sheep and goats is the most important factor affecting performance. Poor nutrition results
in low rates of production, often defined by growth and reproduction. It also affects the immune system
and the ability of an animal to fight disease. In extreme conditions of malnutrition, death can occur. In
many animal production systems, approximately two-thirds of improvements in livestock productivity can
be attributed to improved nutrition. In economic terms, feed cost accounts for about 70% of the total cost of
livestock production. The feasibility of livestock enterprises is, therefore, a function of the type of feed and
feeding system. It is estimated that up to a five-fold increase in tropical livestock productivity can be
attained if there is optimal feed resource utilization. Sheep and goat production in Ethiopia suffers from
feed shortages at all levels with an estimated 40% deficit in the national feed balance. This is aggravated by
seasonal availability of forage and crop residues in the highlands and by recurrent and prolonged drought in
the lowlands.
Improving performance through better nutrition is determined by three interrelated considerations:
the availability of nutrients;

type of feeding system; and
the level of feeding management.
7.2. Structure and Function of the Digestive Tract
Sheep and goats are ruminants. Ruminants have the ability to consume and digest coarse, fibrous feedstuffs
that form the major feed base in Ethiopia. The digestive tract of ruminants is unique in structure and
function, allowing them to digest the fibrous feeds they consume.
The following are some of the unique features of the ruminant digestive tract compared to monogastric
animals (animals with a simple stomach such as swine, dogs, cats, humans, etc.):
Ability to digest carbohydrate sources not digested by monogastrics.

Ability to use sources of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) to satisfy part of their protein needs.
Large stomach volume to accommodate and utilize bulky feeds.
Mouth and teeth well adapted for prehension and grinding of fibrous feeds.
Well-developed salivary glands for production of large volumes of saliva.
7.2.1. Structure of the ruminant stomach

The ruminant stomach has four compartments
known as the rumen, reticulum, omasum and
abomasum. Most fermentation and absorption
takes place in the rumen and reticulum. The two
organs are generally considered as a single organ
(reticulo-rumen) due to incomplete separation.
The reticulo-rumen is like a large fermentation vat
where much of the physical and chemical
breakdown of fibrous material occurs. Most of the
chemical breakdown is a result of enzymatic
activity of micro-organisms comprised of bacteria,
Figure 7.1. Structure of the ruminant stomach.
protozoa and fungi. Physical breakdown is due to
the strong movements of the reticulo-rumen and through rumination or chewing of the cud.
Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program
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The rate at which digestion occurs is governed, to a large extent, by the number and type of microorganisms present in the reticulo-rumen. A large and healthy population of micro-organisms results in
faster digestion of feed and an added source of protein for the animal as the micro-organisms are broken
down and digested later in the abomasum and small intestine. The population of micro-organisms is
specific to particular diets and changes gradually in response to the type of feed eaten. The rumen can
become upset when a sudden dietary change occurs because the micro-organisms cannot effectively digest
the new feed. The sudden introduction of a new feed can lead to scouring, loss of condition or even death
in severe cases.
7.2.2. Development of the ruminant stomach

Newborn ruminants have only a partially developed rumen and reticulum and are functionally monogastric
animals. They are unable to use ordinary carbohydrates except lactose (the carbohydrate in milk) or grainbased feeds. Milk is digested in a well-developed abomasum. Milk bypasses the rumen and goes directly
into the abomasum through the esophageal groove, a tube formed from two folds of muscular tissue in
the rumen that close upon suckling action of the lamb/kid. Digestive problems will result if the newborn is
weak and unable to suckle. In this situation, it must be artificially fed using a tube (see the Health chapter
for procedure).
Dry feed must be consumed for the rumen to
develop. The rumen becomes inoculated with
micro-organisms when the lambs/kids nibble on
dry feedstuff. The development of the stomach
complex enables lambs/kids to benefit from the
action of the micro-organisms. They then have
the capacity of:
Table 7.1. Development in the relative sizes of sheep

stomach compartments (% of total).
Age
Rumen
Reticulum
Omasum
Abomasum
24
61
62
8
11
11
8
6
5
60
22
22
At birth
2 months
Adult
microbial digestion of cellulose;

incorporation of non-protein nitrogen into microbial protein; and
synthesis of vitamin K and the B vitamins.
Ideally, the young animal should be confined and, from 2 to 3 weeks of age, supplied with a small amount
of easily digestible feed. This will promote faster rumen development. The lamb/kid will increase its feed
intake as the milk supply from the dam gradually decreases. Lambs and kids are very vulnerable to
malnutrition. Weaning is a critical time unless they are adapted to consuming solid feed and weaned to
high-quality diet.
7.2.3. Rumen environment and its manipulation

7.2.3.1. Rumen environment
An unhealthy and small population of rumen micro-organisms results in slow digestion and a slow passage
of feed. The following conditions should be maintained in the reticulo-rumen to allow micro-organisms to
grow and flourish.
Constant temperature and pH (~67).

Anaerobic environment conducive to rumen micro-organisms that are predominantly obligate anaerobes.
Ruminal contractions to stir and mix the microbes and contents.
Removal of the by-products of microbial digestion (volatile fatty acids, etc.).
Inadequate supply of nutrients, mainly nitrogen, sulphur and cobalt to the microbes will reduce microbial
growth, and consequently reduce digestion. Supplementation of these nutrients is required in many cases.
Often, the primary limitation is the concentration of ammonia (NH3) in the rumen. Continuous availability
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of NH3 is critical for proper function.

Nitrogen metabolism in the reticulo-rumen is an example of rumen micro-organisms influencing the
nutrition of sheep and goats. Most protein entering the rumen is broken into its constituents of a carbon
skeleton, nitrogen (usually in ammonia form), and the side groups of amino acids. Any non-protein
nitrogen entering the rumen, urea for example, is changed to ammonia. Ruminal micro-organisms use
these breakdown products to manufacture microbial protein, allowing for growth and expansion of the
microbial population. This microbial protein is later used by sheep and goats when the micro-organisms
pass into the small intestine and are digested.
The solubility of feed protein in the reticulo-rumen varies with the source. In some feeds, such as some
oilseed cakes, fish meal, feather meal, etc., a large proportion of the protein passes to the small intestine
without being solubilized in the reticulo-rumen. These proteins, referred to as bypass protein, are
digested in the small intestine. Because bypass proteins have not been altered by rumen micro-organisms,
they retain their original amino acid profiles. In cases of high quality protein, this is beneficial to the
animal. Forage legumes have intermediate rumen solubility. The solubility pattern of certain proteins can
be changed through methods such as heating to increase the proportion of bypass protein.
7.2.3.2. Manipulation of rumen fermentation
The fermentation process in the rumen can be manipulated to improve the utilization of feed by sheep and
goats by:
Increasing the digestibility of complex carbohydrates in poor quality roughages.

Altering the composition of microbial fermentation products (volatile fatty acids).
Decreasing the degradation of certain nutrients in the rumen and encouraging nutrient bypass.
There are different ways of manipulating fermentation of feeds in the reticulo-rumen. Methods that have
the largest effect on ruminal fermentation include chopping, heat treatment and chemical treatment.
Chopping: Results in increased digestibility largely because it increases the ease with which microbes can
attack feed particles. Digestibility will be reduced if chopping is too fine. Finely chopped feeds may pass
out of the rumen before microbes can adequately digest them.
Heat treatment: The effect of heat treatment depends on treatment conditions. Mild treatment can be used
to increase bypass protein. High or moderate temperature treatment for a long time results in reduction of
nutritive value, largely due to formation of insoluble protein complexes.
Chemical treatment: Protection of proteins (e.g., formaldehyde treatment of high quality proteins) is used
to increase bypass protein for high producing animals. Digestion of structural carbohydrates can be
increased by chemical treatment of poor quality hay and straws (e.g., alkali treatment, urea treatment).
7.3. Nutrients and Feedstuff

7.3.1. Nutrients
Nutrients are substances, supplied by feedstuffs, used by animals for maintenance and production.
Maintenance: All activities and body processes necessary for staying alive and maintaining an animals
bodyweight. Some specific components include:
Energy to support essential physiological functions.

Maintenance of body temperature.
Repair of body tissue.
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Production: Nutrients supplied above those required for maintenance allow for productive functions such
as:
Reproduction: Pregnancy and delivery make demands on the dam which should be met largely from her
diet. The fetus increases in size quickly during the last third of gestation, drawing on the body reserves
of the dam if she is not fed adequately.
Growth: Any growth requires nutrients; sheep/goats require large quantities of energy and protein during
the main period of growth between weaning and attaining mature body weight.
Lactation: Milk production requires high levels of energy, protein, and water.
Extra activity: Livestock in pastoral systems walk long distances in search of feed, particularly in the dry
season. Animals may walk 1015 km each day, which requires a great deal of energy.
There are six nutrients found in feedstuffs and animals, namely water, carbohydrates, fats (lipids), protein,
minerals, and vitamins. Energy is not a nutrient but is derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats,
and protein. A major constituent of most feedstuffs is water. The other nutrients are said to compose the
dry matter of a feedstuff and largely determine its feeding value. Plants contain mostly carbohydrates
whereas proteins predominate in animals. Minerals and vitamins occur in relatively small quantities in both
plants and animals.
Carbohydrates: Most livestock feeds are derived from plants and, thus, animal diets contain high
proportions of carbohydrates. Most plant carbohydrates, due to their chemical nature, are used more
effectively by ruminants such as sheep and goats than by monogastric animals. Carbohydrates are present
in very small amounts in animals because they are directly used as sources of energy.
Carbohydrates can be classified as simple sugars or as complex carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose.
Starch is the major component of grains and is readily available for digestion by both monogastrics and
ruminants. Cellulose is often referred to as fiber and is not broken down by mammalian enzymes.
Cellulose is degraded by enzymes produced by micro-organisms in the rumen. Roughages (hay, straw,
browse, etc.) contain fiber and are not rich in available energy as are concentrates. The fiber in roughages
can be used to provide energy through microbial fermentation in the rumen. Animals need a supply of
carbohydrates in the diet at all ages. Carbohydrates consumed in excess of an animals requirements are
converted and stored as fat.
Fats: Fats are concentrated forms of energy that are generally present in small quantities in the common
feeds of sheep and goats. Fats are important in the diet to increase the energy value. The fat in an animal is
largely manufactured from carbohydrates. Fat deposited during periods of good feed supply may be
mobilized at times of shortage as a source of energy. Sheep generally deposit more fat in the body than
goats.
Proteins: Animals require a considerable amount of protein because their bodies and products (meat, milk)
are composed of high levels of protein. Most common feeds are low in protein, and supplying proteins to
livestock is a major challenge. Protein is costly, and the higher the percentage of protein in a feed, the
greater the cost.
Minerals: Although required in small quantities, minerals are very important to the living organism. They
form part of the structure of the skeletal system and play a role in most body processes. Plants obtain their
minerals from the soil. The mineral composition of a feedstuff largely depends on the mineral composition
of the soil. Mineral composition of plants is affected by plant species and stage of growth. Young, leafy
materials generally have a good supply of all the essential minerals, particularly calcium. Cereal grains
have satisfactory amounts of phosphorus and potassium but are poor sources of calcium. Roots and tubers
are poor in all minerals.
Minerals are divided into two groups, macro-minerals, those required at 0.1% or more in the diet, and
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micro-minerals, those required at very small amounts (part per million (ppm)) levels. Macro minerals
include calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chlorine, sulphur, and magnesium. Micro minerals
include iron, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, iodine, selenium, molybdenum, and others. Mineral
deficiencies can lead to decreased growth and reproduction. There are some areas of Ethiopia deficient in
one or more minerals, e.g., copper in the Rift Valley region.
Vitamins: Vitamins stimulate the bodys function or metabolism. Some vitamins have a general effect
while others control a specific reaction or activity. In practical feeding of sheep and goats, the main
vitamins of concern are A and D. Vitamin A is a general growth promoter and helps the stock resist
infection while Vitamin D is important mainly for maintenance of healthy bones. The B-complex group
and Vitamin K are synthesized by rumen micro-organisms, and hence there is no need to supply them
through the feed. Even vitamins A and D are not a major concern in the tropics where sheep and goats
generally have access to pasture or rangeland.
Energy: While not considered a nutrient, energy is vital to an animals survival. The breakdown of
nutrients, mainly carbohydrates, provides the actual physical energy an animal needs for maintenance and
production. Excess energy is accumulated in the form of body fat, which is essential for production and to
enable animals to survive periods of low feed intake. Energy is measured in megajoules or calories (1
calorie = 4.2 joules). Carbohydrates, followed by fats, are the primary energy sources. Excess protein can
also make contributions.
7.3.2. Feedstuffs
Feeds are classified according to the amount of specific nutrients they supply. Two main classes of
feedstuff are roughages and concentrates.
Roughages: These are bulky feeds
containing relatively large amounts of
poorly digestible material, that is, more
than 18% crude fiber. They can be of two
categories, namely dry and succulent based
upon their moisture content.
Succulent feeds usually contain more
Table 7.2. Nutrient composition of feeds used for sheep and

goats.
Feedstuff class
Dry matter
(%)
Straws / stovers
Cereals
Grasses
Oilseed cakes
Green legumes
8892
8991
20
8991
1527
than 75% moisture and include:

Pasture
Cultivated fodder crops
Tree leaves
Root crops
Silage
Dry roughages contain only 1015% moisture.
Hay and crop residues fall in this category
Crude protein
(%DM)
34
911
1022
2250
1724
ME
(MJ/Kg DM)
5.57.5
1214
912
1214
1012
Concentrate: A feed or feed mixture which has high amounts of protein, carbohydrates and fat, contains
less than 18% crude fiber and is usually low in moisture. Concentrates are rich in either energy or protein
and are thus expensive. They can also be categorized on the following basis:
Energy-rich concentrates: Feeds with high levels of energy but low in protein content. These can be of
the following types:
Grains and seeds: best energy sources but generally expensive due to use as human food.
Mill by-products: cheaper and widely used (e.g. brans, shorts).
Root crops.
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Protein-rich concentrates:
Oilseed cakes: The by-products left after extraction of oil from oilseeds. The protein and energy
contents of these products in Ethiopia vary widely depending upon the oil extraction method used,
traditional/home extraction, expeller method or solvent-extraction method. Of these, the cake
produced by the traditional method contains the highest amount of oil while the solvent-extraction
method produces a product with the least amount of oil. Conversely, the protein content is highest in
the solvent-extracted cakes and lowest in the traditional method.
Brewers grain: These are by-products of the brewery industry. Dried brewers grains contain about
18% crude protein and 15% crude fiber. There is substantial production of this product from home
brewing.
7.4. Nutrient Requirements and Deficiencies

7.4.1. Nutrient requirements
Nutrient requirements of sheep and goats depends on their physiological state and function and contains
allowances for maintenance and production. The larger the animal, the more feed it needs to maintain its
body function. As production increases, so does nutrient demand and feed requirement. Nutrient
requirements of sheep and goats are similar and will be presented together for the purpose of this
handbook. Specific nutrient requirements for
sheep and goats in Ethiopia are not available.
Table 7.3. Daily maintenance requirement estimates for
energy and digestible crude protein (DCP).
Requirements for different animal functions
derived from information on animals in the
DCP (g/day)
Live weight ME (MJ/kg dry matter)
tropics are presented below.
(kg)
Confined Extensive Maintenance Pregnancy
10
20
30
40
50
60
The overall nutrient requirements of a

particular sheep or goat are the sum of its
maintenance
requirement
and
other
physiological functions (e.g., pregnancy,
growth,
lactation
etc.).
Maintenance
requirements are presented in Table 7.3.
2.32
3.91
5.30
6.58
7.78
8.92
3.25
5.47
7.42
9.21
10.89
12.49
15
26
35
43
51
59
30
50
67
83
99
113
Source: Devendra (1982); NRC (1981).
Requirements for lactation depend on the level of milk production and its composition. Requirements for
lactation are presented in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4. Daily nutrient requirements per kg of milk
production.
Fat content
of milk (%)
3.5
4.5
5.5
ME
(MJ)
4.5
5.2
5.7
DCP (g)
Ca (g)
P (g)
47
59
73
0.8
0.9
1.1
0.7
0.7
0.7
Source: Devendra and McLeroy (1982).
The nutrient requirement for pregnancy rises

substantially during the last two months of
gestation. It is particularly high if the dam is
carrying twins or triplets. There is a need to
increase nutrient content of the diet during this
period to prevent low birth weights and/or
serious loss of body condition by the dam.
Table 7.5. Micro-mineral requirements and toxic levels.

Mineral
Copper
Molybdenum
Cobalt
Manganese
Zinc
Requirement
711
0.50
0.100.20
2040
2033
Toxic level
25
10
10
1000
750
Source: NRC (1982).
Table 7.6. Water content of various feeds.

Feed
Succulent feeds (roots, tubers and green fodders)
Silage
Cereal grains, milling by-products, hay
Crop residues
%
8090
7580
1216
812
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ALEMU YAMI
The nutrient requirements for growth are dependent on growth rate. A supply of 0.035MJ ME/day is
required per gram of growth.
Water is the most critical of all nutrients required by sheep and goats, and yet it is an often forgotten
nutrient. Water is necessary for all life functions including digestion of food. The animals body is 70%
water. Water availability is one of the first limiting resources for livestock production in many parts of the
country. Inadequate water supply will dramatically decrease the production of livestock. They will eat less,
digest feedstuff poorly, and are more prone to digestive and metabolic problems. The animal body can lose
nearly all fat and over half of its protein and still live. However, if the animal loses 20% of its body water it
will die.
Animals can get their water from the following sources:
Drinking water.
Free water found in feed.
Metabolic water from nutrient oxidation in the body.
Animal feeds contain variable quantities of water. The percentage variation is summarized in Table 7.6.
In the wet season, or in humid areas, sheep and goats may eat forage composed of 7080% water and may
need little or no drinking water. However, most feeds in the tropics have low moisture content and thus
drinking water is essential for animals. Coarse, fibrous feeds need to be accompanied by adequate drinking
water for proper digestion. The feed needs to absorb water in the rumen for it to be effectively digested by
ruminal micro-organisms.
The amount of water an animal needs depends on the species, breed, climate, type of feed eaten, the type
and level of production desired (milk, growth, etc.). Tropical breeds kept in arid and semi-arid areas may
only need to drink once every 24 days in the dry season. They have better ability to reduce water loss
through urine and feces than temperate breeds that may need twice as much water in the same environment.
Goats are able to extract almost all excess water from the digestive system, making very efficient use of
whatever amount of water is available. This is one reason goats can survive in arid regions.
It is normally recommended that sheep and goats be supplied four times the amount of water as the amount
of feed dry matter (DM) consumed, i.e., 4 kg water for 1 kg feed DM. They may need more water at higher
temperatures. The situation is different with lactating animals. Milk is more than 90% water and the
recommendation for lactating animals is to provide an additional 2 liters of water per liter of milk
produced. The water requirement of sheep and goats is about 1.5 to 2.5 liters per day.
7.4.2. Nutrient deficiencies

Energy and protein: This is a major problem limiting production. Protein deficiency is most serious
during the dry season while energy deficiency is more serious and visible during the wet season. Apart
from weight loss and possible death under extreme conditions, fertility is reduced due to energy and/or
protein deficiency.
Minerals: Mineral deficiencies can cause metabolic problems that bring about reductions in productivity,
and in extreme cases, death. Mineral deficiencies are often difficult to detect since their only manifestation
could be reduced productivity, which can also be to the result of poor nutrition or parasite infestation.
However, severe deficiencies are more readily apparent and can be recognized from specific symptoms.
Mineral deficiencies are best confirmed by the analysis of blood samples.
There is evidence of sodium, phosphorus, copper, cobalt, zinc and manganese deficiencies in scattered
areas of the country. Copper deficiency has been identified in many parts of the Rift Valley. Areas of
copper, manganese and iron toxicity have also been identified (Figure 7.2). Mineral deficiency symptoms
and possible supplementation sources are summarized in Table 7.7.
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Figure 7.2. Mineral deficiency sites in Ethiopia.
Table 7.7. Mineral deficiency symptoms and possible supplementation sources.

Mineral
Calcium
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Sodium
Copper
Types and classes of

animals most affected
Deficiency symptoms
MAJOR MINERALS
Deformed bones, retarded growth
Young animals, newly
kidded does and newly
lambed ewes, finishing
sheep and goats on high
grain diets
Deformed bone, retarded growth, poor
fertility, soil eating
Falling on side with legs alternately
rigidly extended and relaxed, frothing
and profuse salivation, weight loss,
excitability
Chew on wood and/or lick dirt, loss of
appetite, slow growth
Difficulty in walking, deformed

forelimbs, poor fertility
Zinc
Stiff joints, salivation, swelling of feet,

poor testicular development and low
libido, reduced growth rate, reduced
conception rates and high incidence of
abortions
Milk, green feed, ground

limestone
Young, growing animals
Milk, cereals
Young and growing

animals, can also occur in
adults
Bran, oilseed cakes
All classes
Common salt
MINOR MINERALS
Swayback young ones unable to walk Young lambs/kids
on their back legs, scouring, stiff legs,
dull coat
Manganese
Feed source
Young lambs/kids,
Adults
Young lambs/kids,
Adults
Seeds, tracemineralized salt

containing copper
sulfate at 0.5%
Bran
Cereal grains, corn
gluten feed and meal
added to tracemineralized salt
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Vitamins: All sheep and goats require dietary vitamins A, D and E. Dietary sources of the B vitamins and
Vitamin K are required by lambs and kids before the rumen becomes functional. Consumption of green
vegetation provides adequate carotene (Vitamin A precursor), which can be stored for up to six months and
can thus be used during dry periods when animals have to depend on dry vegetation. Vitamin D deficiency
is not a problem unless animals are confined for a long period of time without exposure to the sun.
7.5. The Feeding Habits of Sheep and Goats

Sheep and goats differ in their feeding habits. Selection and intake of forage depends not only on the
available plant resources but also on the feeding behavior of animals. Knowledge of feeding habits that
have nutritional implications is important in improving sheep and goat nutrition. A comparison of the
feeding habits of sheep and goats is presented in Table 7.8 and Figure 7.3.
Goats prefer to consume a wide variety of feedstuffs. Goats are more selective and browse more, especially
under extensive conditions, than sheep. The selectivity of goats is reduced under intensive management.
Goats generally have better body condition compared to sheep under the same grazing conditions, mainly
due to their ability to select a nutritious diet.
Goats prefer to eat feed at a height of 20120 cm. They have the ability to stand on their hind legs for long
periods and can even climb trees in order to reach parts of trees they prefer. They also have mobile upper
lips and tongues that enable them to consume leaves between thorns.
The preference of goats for consuming browse can be used in the control of invasive species on grasslands.
Keeping a mixture of browsers and grazers can maintain rangeland grazing areas rather than allowing them
to become overgrown with brush. The mixed species of livestock kept by pastoralists enables simultaneous
use of vegetation at different heights.
Table 7.8. Comparison between sheep and goats.
Characteristics
Activity
Feeding pattern
Variety in feeds
Salivary secretion rate
Recycling of urea in saliva
Dry matter intake:
For meat production
For milk production
Digestive efficiency
Retention time
Water intake per unit dry matter
Water economy
Water turnover rate
Dehydration:
Feces
Urine
Fat metabolism
Goats
Can stand on its hind legs to access browse;
Can walk longer distances
Browser; more selective
Preference greater
Greater
Greater
Sheep
Walk shorter distances
Grazer; less selective
Preference limited
Moderate
Less
3% of body weight
46% of body weight
With coarse roughage higher
Longer
Lower
More efficient
Lower
3% of body weight
3% of body weight
Less efficient
Shorter
Higher
Less efficient
Higher
Less water loss

More concentrated
Increased during periods of water shortages
Higher water loss

Less concentrated
Less evident
Source: Devendra,C. 1986. Feeding systems and nutrition of goats and sheep in the tropics. In Adeniji, K.O., and Kategeli, J.A.
Proceedings of the workshop on the improvement of small ruminants in eastern and southern Africa. 1822 august 1986. Nairobi
Kenya. pp.91110.
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a. Feeding heights (cm) above ground for different livestock

species
113
b. Goats browsing
Figure 7.3. The feeding habits of sheep and goats.
7.6. Available Feed Resources for Sheep and Goats

Natural grazing land is the predominant feed source for sheep and goats in Ethiopia. Very little land is
planted to introduced pastures or forage crops. This is especially true for the pastoral and agro-pastoral
areas. Grazing areas are usually communally owned. Crop residues and agro-industrial by-products
represent a large proportion of feed resources in the mixed croplivestock system. Reliance on crop
residues for animal feed is ever-increasing as more land is cropped to feed the fast-growing human
population. This has decreased available grazing land and has forced livestock to graze more fragile, less
productive lands not suited for high livestock numbers. Erosion and environmental degradation result in
decreased soil fertility and forage productivity. This, in turn, leads to poor animal productivity. Table 7.9
presents a summarized listing of feed resources in Ethiopia by cropping system.
Table 7.9. Availability of feed resources by cropping system.
CoffeeEnset system
Coffeecrop system
Crop production system
Natural grazing
Hay
Enset by-products
Sugar cane tops/leaves
Root crop leaves
Local brewery by-products
Natural grazing
Hay
Cereal crop residues
Oilseed cakes
Enset by-products
Sugar cane tops/ leaves
Root crop leaves
Molasses*
Milling by-products*
Natural grazing
Hay
Cereal crop residues
Pulse crop residues
Oilseed cakes
Sugar cane tops/leaves
Molasses*
Milling by-products*
Pastoralagropastoral system
Natural grazing
Standing hay
Browse
*available only near sugar factories.
7.6.1. Natural pasture and browse

Natural pastures supply the bulk of sheep and goat feed. They are composed of indigenous forage species
and are subject to severe overgrazing. Grazing occurs on permanent grazing areas, fallow land and on land
following harvest. Both fallow land and crop stubble provide poor grazing for a very short period just after
harvest. The availability and quality of native pasture varies with altitude, rainfall, soil type and cropping
intensity. Average pasture yield for the highland areas is estimated to be 4 tons/ha. In many areas, natural
pastures are invaded by species of low palatability. The wearing out and/or loss of teeth induced by
unpalatable and tough vegetation is a problem that reduces the grazing ability of sheep and goats at an early
age.
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Grazing and browsing comprise the feed supply in pastoral areas. The higher rainfall areas of the pastoral
zone are characterized by dense thorn bush of low carrying capacity.
When compared with tropical grasses, browse is richer in protein and minerals in the dry season. The crude
fiber content of browse also tends to be lower than that of grasses and usually ranges between 20 and 40%
and is even lower in shoots and leaves. The low content of crude fiber suggests that the energy content of
browse is higher than that of dry grass. Browse could, therefore, supplement the low protein content of
grass forage during dry periods.
7.6.2. Crop residues and fallow grazing

Crop residues are fibrous materials that are by-products of crop cultivation. Crop residues have low crude
protein content in the range of 313% of the dry matter. This is a basic limitation in residues such as straw
and bagasse with crude protein contents around the border-line level of 67% required to create an
appropriate rumen environment to promote dry matter digestibility and intake. Most residues are deficient
in fermentable energy and minerals. Crop residues have low palatability and digestibility that leads to poor
intake, particularly when fed as the sole roughage.
The availability of crop residues is closely related to the farming system, the type of crop produced and the
intensity of cultivation. Teff, wheat and barley straws are the major residues available in the highlands.
Pulse crop residues like chickpeas, haricot beans and lentils are also important. Residues of maize and
sorghum form the bulk in the lowlands. The common practice in utilizing crop residues is feeding in the
long dry form.
b. Enset residue
a. Wheat straw
c. Sweet potato vines
d.Corn stover and cobs

Figure 7.4. Crop residues.
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Crop residues are often left in the field or accumulated in places where the crop is threshed. Transportation
of crop residues, even over short distances, can become difficult and costly because of their bulk. The
production of crop residues is also seasonal, available in very large quantities right after harvest and less
available thereafter.
7.6.3. Agro-industrial by-products

Agro-industrial by-products result from the processing of agricultural produce such as oilseeds, sugarcane
and citrus, and from slaughterhouses during the slaughter and processing of livestock. In comparison to
crop residues, these products are very good in their composition of useful nutrients and digestibility. The
feeding value of such by-products varies considerably.
Most of the oilseed produced in Ethiopia is exported
whole without processing. This represents a loss of
by-product oilseed meal that could be fed to
livestock. The case of molasses is similar in that it
is exported rather than kept and used in-country.
7.6.4. Thinnings and leaf strips from maize

and sorghum
Thinning and leaf stripping from cereals such as
maize and sorghum are widely practiced in eastern
Ethiopia, serving as important sources of feed. This
is a useful practice that should be expanded to other
parts of the country.
Figure 7.5. Sheep feeding on local brewing byproduct and sweet potato tubers.
Thinning: Farmers use high seeding rates initially.

The extra seedlings are eventually thinned out as necessary and fed to livestock.
Leaf stripping: Farmers start stripping maize leaves about 90 days after planting or as soon as the cob can
be seen, with removal of one leaf per plant per week starting with the bottom leaves. If properly
implemented for an extended period of time, this could supply 800 kg/ha of valuable fodder with an
average crude protein content of 13% and digestibility of 64%.
7.7.
Voluntary Feed Intake and Its Improvement
The amount of feed an animal eats will affect its health and productivity. Generally, the more feed an
animal eats, the better. Feed consumption is a voluntary activity and it is difficult to force an animal to eat.
Understanding the factors that affect feed consumption and how these factors can be manipulated is
important.
The factors that determine the quantity and quality of feed consumed can be categorized as those related to
the animal, the feed and the presentation of the feed. This applies whether in situations where an animal is
stall-fed as well as where it is free-grazing.
Feed-related factors: These include factors such as taste, smell and physical ease with which the animal
can eat the feed.
If the feed is contaminated with urine and feces, smells bad, or tastes bad, the animal will reduce its
intake.
Long, coarse grasses or crop residues like maize stover are difficult for sheep and goats to consume.
They should be chopped to facilitate intake.
If coarse feeds are used, the animal will need access to plenty of water as such feeds with high dry
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matter content need to soak up water to be digested. Highly digestible feeds are rapidly degraded
and absorbed, passing quickly through the digestive tract. This stimulates appetite because the
animal soon feels empty.
Presentation factors: Animals are very selective in what they consume. If excess feed is offered, the
total amount eaten by an animal will be more than if it had only a small amount from which to select. In
very hot climates, the heat can reduce the amount that the animals eat. Animals may stop eating during
the hottest part of the day because they have difficulty regulating body temperature rather than because
they are full. In hot environments, allowing animals to graze early in the morning and late in the evening
can significantly increase the amount eaten.
Animal factors: These include the effects of the physiological state of the animal (e.g., pregnancy,
growth, etc.)
Supplementation is one method used to improve feed intake. Supplementing a deficient nutrient in a diet
will improve intake. Supplementation of available nitrogen (protein and/or non-protein nitrogen sources) to
diets with poor fermentable nitrogen will improve digestion, and consequently intake, by promoting
multiplication of micro-organisms in the reticulo-rumen. Supplementation of sulphur will also promote
digestion and intake.
7.8. Feed-Related Constraints of Sheep and Goat Production in Ethiopia

Constraints of sheep and goat production related to nutrition and feeding can be summarized as follows:
Inadequate feed supply mainly due to small land-size and overstocking brought about by the shrinking
amount of land reserved for grazing.
Low feeding value of available feed resources resulting in low efficiency of utilization.
Much of the feed consumed is utilized to fulfill maintenance requirements with little surplus for
production.
Fibrous feeds with poor digestibility and low intake result in low levels of overall production.
Poor quality of feeds for lambs/kids at weaning, causing a sharp drop in weight and possible death.
Poor nutrition of lactating dams, resulting in low milk yields and poor rates of growth and survival
among lambs and kids.
Deficiencies of protein and energy, which are the main nutritional factors limiting productivity of
sheep and goats. Mineral deficiencies, such as a lack of sodium in feeds with high moisture content
or in a specific area are also of concern.
Poor presentation methods of feed to confined sheep and goats.
Uncertain availability and high cost of supplements (e.g., oilseed cakes) and other alternative feeds.
Inability to make maximum use of the limited total feed resources.
Crop residues and agro-industrial by-products that could be fed to animals are largely wasted or
inefficiently used because infrastructure for transporting, processing and marketing feedstuff is
underdeveloped. One example is the large amount of bagasse from sugar factories.
Efficient use of the rangelands by pastoralists is hampered by the lack of information on where
adequate grazing conditions exist. Institutionalized information in pastoral communities as to where
to move herds to find grazing exists based upon previous experience. Such information may be of
little value when drought occurs.
Shortage of grazing resources as a result of bush encroachment caused by overgrazing, cultivation
of marginal areas and inadequate water supply.
Marked seasonal variation in the quantity and quality of feed supply.
Dry season:
o
Acute shortage of feed during the dry season. Available feeds during this period are of
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very poor quality (low in protein and high in fiber).

Low digestibility and low voluntary intake of available feeds.
Adequate rumen function is necessary to digest and utilize nutrients in feeds. A crude
protein content of below 7% is inadequate for proper rumen function. This occurs when
the protein content of pasture forage falls below this level and/or when animals are fed
only on crop residues.
Limited intake of feeds with poor digestibility: Poorly digested feed leaves the digestive
tract slowly, thus occupying digestive tract space and limiting intake of additional feed.
Poor availability and access to water.
Rainy season:
o
o
o
7.9.
Low dry matter intake from grazed forages due to high moisture content of vegetation.
Reduction of grazing area due to cropping of most of the land in croplivestock production
systems.
Wastage and/or deterioration of valuable grazing resources that animals cant utilize at this
time of year.
Improved Feeding Strategies of Sheep and Goats
Strategies for ensuring appropriate nutrition of sheep and goats include:
Matching sheep and goat production systems to available feed resources;

More efficient use of agricultural and industrial by-products as sources of feed; and
Encouraging increased intake.
Molasses
Cereals/ by-products
Tree fodder
Urea
molasses
Protein-limiting
Energy
limiting
Leguminous
forages
Finishing
meat
animals
Breeding
females at
mating
Which nutrients are

limiting?
Targeting feed
resources
Seasonal
shortages
Feeding
strategies
Growing
feeds
Late
pregnancy
and lactation
Feed
conservation
Hay
Legume
leaf meal
Silage
Crop byproducts
Figure 7.6. Feeding Strategy Considerations.

Adapted from: http://www.smallstock.info/info/feed/feed-strat.htm
118
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7.9.1. Matching sheep and goat numbers to available feed resources

One of the strategies of increasing feed availability is through increasing offtake of animals through sale
(destocking). This will increase the amount of feed available to the remaining animals. Feed efficiency can
also be increased if older, mature animals are sold leaving younger, growing animals that utilize feed
nutrients more efficiently.
The scope for increasing offtake can be attained by taking the following steps. (Improvement of marketing
is presented in more detail in the Marketing section of this handbook.)
Organizing producers into marketing cooperatives.

Improving the infrastructure of livestock marketing.
Providing market information through the mass media (i.e., prices and volume of livestock traded in
various markets).
Regulating the standards of products and services and negotiating favorable trade agreements in export
markets.
7.9.2. More efficient use of feed resources

There are various means of improving the efficiency of utilization of available feed resources. The
following are some of the possibilities.
7.9.2.1. Supplementation
Ruminant diets are generally based on fibrous feeds that have low digestibility and are deficient in protein,
minerals and vitamins. These characteristics keep intake and productivity low. Provision of appropriate
supplementary feedstuff during critical periods of the year is important to enhance productivity or at least
avoid body-weight loss. This is especially true for livestock consuming poor-quality pasture and crop
residue-based diets.
A supplement is a semi-concentrated source of one or more nutrients used to improve the nutritional value
of a basal feed, e.g., protein supplement, mineral supplement. Supplementation may be at various levels
and for different reasons. It may be done to assure survival, to assure maintenance or to assure production
and reproduction. Supplementation can be done by providing a complete feed or by giving specific
nutrients. Supplementation can enable animals to consume more forage, to digest the same quantity of
forage more efficiently or to overcome a nutrient deficiency that critically limits performance.
Grazing stock may sometimes be supplemented with hay or straw to provide bulk for prevention of
nutritional disorders. This is when the pasture is very lush with high moisture or protein content or where
there is a danger of bloat in legume-rich swards.
Bypass nutrients, with the exception of those from legume leaves, come generally from rather expensive
feeds which are either in demand for human nutrition (cereals) or exported for foreign exchange (oil seeds).
However, because recent research has shown that inclusion at a low rate in the diets is beneficial, these
supplementary feeds should be economical in many situations.
Most supplements are expensive and their use in ruminant nutrition competes with monogastric animal
and/or human nutrition. Moreover, they are generally not easily available. Optimum utilization of these
scarce resources is, therefore, essential. This targeted use of supplements is referred to as strategic
supplementation and is designed to have maximum effect and optimum economic benefits. This can be
achieved by identifying and providing critically deficient nutrients based on the following considerations:
Supply rumen microbes with the necessary rumen-degradable nitrogen and other essential nutrients to
enhance their capacity to degrade poor-quality roughages in the rumen. This is a first priority.
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Supply small amounts of bypass nutrient sources to increase utilization of absorbed nutrients and animal
performance.
Supplement during times of most critical deficiency of a nutrient, giving priority to supplementation of
the most critically deficient nutrient.
Make better use of supplements by giving priority to the physiologically most vulnerable groups of
sheep and goats, e.g., pregnant animals during the last third of gestation, lactating females, young
growing lambs, etc.
The main objective of supplementation is to catalyze the more efficient utilization of poor-quality
roughages. For this reason the term "catalytic" supplement has also been used to describe these effects. The
role of a supplement ceases to be "catalytic" when it exceeds about 30% of the diet dry matter, at which
point it assumes a major role and substitutes the basal roughage source.
Steps in the provision of supplementary feed

Three levels of supplementation are recommended for effective utilization of roughage resources and
improving animal productivity. The first creates an appropriate environment in the reticulo-rumen for
effective fermentation of poor-quality roughages. The second step is to further improve fermentation
through additional supplementation with a small quantity of highly digestible forage. The third stage is
supplementing a source of protein that can bypass rumen fermentation and be utilized in the small intestine
for high productivity. The level of the forage and the bypass protein source can be increased as much as
possible to support further productivity. These steps are presented below in more detail:
Step 1. Fermentable nitrogen sources: The first supplement to be considered should be a source of
fermentable nitrogen (usually urea) to ensure a crude protein level of at least 7% of the total diet for
effective fermentation of roughages. As a general rule, if a deficiency is suspected, urea should be added at
the rate of about 12% of the organic matter in the diet. Feeding molasses/urea blocks or high-urea (10%)
liquid mixtures with molasses is a convenient way of ensuring a continuous supply of ammonia-nitrogen in
the rumen, as is treating poor quality roughages with urea. Urea treatment of roughages has the added
advantage of improving the feeding value of the roughage.
Step 2. Highly digestible forage: The second supplement should be a source of highly digestible forage,
preferably legume, given at about 1020% of the diet. This helps to ensure a more efficient rumen
environment for the digestion of fiber.
Step 3. Bypass protein source: The third supplement should be a source of bypass protein such as an
oilseed meal, cereal bran, etc., that should be given in amounts not to exceed 30% of the total diet dry
matter. The 30% limit is to prevent depression/substitution of the intake of the basal poor-quality roughage
diet. Lower amounts may be more economical. The optimum economic level and the degree of response to
the supplement will depend upon the fermentability of the basal diet. Providing bypass protein to sheep and
goats owned by small farmers is often difficult, and at times, too expensive. Oilseed cakes and other
protein sources that have been heat-treated have considerably higher proportion of bypass protein.
Types of supplements
Concentrate supplementation
Supplementary concentrates such as oilseed cakes, cereals and cereal by-products provide readily
fermentable carbohydrates, nitrogen and other essential nutrients. Problems associated with concentrate
supplementation and justifications for its use are outlined below.
Problems of concentrate supplementation:

Concentrates are expensive and may not be readily available.
o
Availability and prices of agro-industrial by-products are generally lower in and around
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urban areas. Prices in rural areas are higher because of the high cost of transportation in
Ethiopia.
Many smallholder farmers scattered in the rural areas have limited market access for sale of
animals. This reduces the economic incentive to supplement concentrate feeds to increase sheep
and goat productivity.
Despite these problems, the following points justify concentrate supplementation:
Scarcity of nutrients from other cheaper sources for high production.

Restriction in energy uptake imposed by roughages.
Beneficial economic return, i.e., increased sale price of produce higher than the cost of concentrate
required for production.
Supplementation with forage legumes
Dietary protein, rather than energy, is the main limiting factor in many situations. A realistic alternative
approach to supplying protein through oilseed cakes or other purchased feedstuff is the use of good quality
leguminous forages as sources of supplementary protein. Forage legumes may be in the form of
herbaceous, shrubby or tree legumes. Forage legumes have the following advantages:
Are rich in protein and other nutrients such as minerals and vitamins.
Can enhance the utilization of poor-quality roughages in smallholder mixed farming systems.
Have the added advantage of improving soil fertility by fixing nitrogen, and thereby enhancing crop
yield and maintaining soil fertility.
Wilting or drying improves the feeding value of the foliage from fodder trees possibly due to:
Increases in proportion of bypass protein reaching the intestine due to decreased solubility in the
rumen.
Reduction in anti-nutritional factors in the legumes.
The legume used should have high protein content and supply both fermentable and bypass protein.
Legume forages rich in tannins are superior as bypass protein sources since tannins link with proteins
during mastication and reduce their degradation in the rumen. The ideal concentration of condensed tannins
is 2040 g/kg diet dry matter; higher levels are detrimental. Sheep can adapt to high tannin levels.
Condensed tannin-containing forage in the diet is beneficial provided that it is only used as a supplement
(e.g., less than 25% of the diet dry matter). Tropical legumes are generally richer in tannins than temperate
legumes and therefore function better as sources of bypass protein. Examples of tropical legumes known to
contain tannins are leucaena, glyricidia and sesbania. The presence of toxic substances in some species can
cause problems in unadapted animals, especially if offered in large quantities. It is, therefore, advisable to
gradually adapt animals to such feeds.
The protein content of forage legumes is generally related to stage of maturity. Protein content decreases
with age while yield increases with age. The appropriate compromise between composition and yield needs
to be made. Do not harvest the last regrowth before the dry season starts. This will ensure a better stand
during the dry season. The effect of stage of maturity on
protein content is presented in Table 7.10.
Table 7.10. Effect of stage at harvest on
protein content of legumes.
Methods of increasing the supply of forage legumes: The

supply of forage legumes can be increased by promoting
the integration of forage legumes into the farming system.
Integration of forages into the farming system is presented
in more detail in the Forage and Pasture section of this
handbook. The following conditions need to be considered
Grade
Prime
1
2
3
4
Maturity of Legumes
Pre-bloom
Early bloom
Mid-bloom
Full bloom
Beyond full bloom
% CP
>20
1719
1416
1113
810
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in integrating forage legumes into a farming system.
Limited increase in the competition for land and other resources.

Availability of labor and planting materials at the right time.
Availability of market outlets and attractive profit margins for sheep/goats and their products.
Many approaches can be used to integrate forage legumes into the farming system. The major ones are:
Fodder banks: Concentrated units of legumes usually planted near homesteads in order to ensure proper
management and minimize misuse.

Use of forage legumes in crop mixtures: Involves intercropping in the form of undersowing a cereal
with a compatible legume at the right time. This practice has advantages of increasing the nutritive value
and yield of the overall material harvested (grain, crop residue and legume).
Use of forage legumes in crop rotations: Provides similar benefits to intercropping forage legumes in
crop mixtures. Association of forage legumes in crop rotations has also been demonstrated to improve
the nitrogen content of the soil, thereby benefiting future crop production.
Incorporation of tree legumes: Forage tree legumes can be incorporated into the farming system in
different forms. These include alley farming, as hedgerows, as a fence line along the homestead, along
the borders of crop land and as fodder banks. Browse plants especially leucaena, glyricidia and sesbania
need to be developed further for areas receiving good rains. In addition, new feed resources in
rangelands should be identified and developed. The leaves of trees can be used as a high quality
supplement to crop residues and grazing. Tree legumes such as glyricidia, erythrina and leucaena have
great potential as sources of legume fodder, particularly as they are high-yielding perennials and possess
deep-rooted systems that may have access to ground water and nutrients that may not be available to
smaller leguminous plants.
Use of legumes with feed/food value: Such a tree legume is pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) with the pod
serving as food and the leaves serving as animal feed.
Table 7.11. Composition of leguminous trees/shrubs.
Fodder Trees/shrubs
Leucaena leaves and shoots
Glircidia leaves and shoots
Pigeon pea leaves and shoots
Sesbania grandifloria leaves and shoots
Calliandra leaves/pods/stem less than 8 mm
Protein
22
23
23
26.9
36/17.9/29.1
Fiber
20
21
30
12.3
Supplementation with legume straw
Residues of food legume crops such as peas, beans, peanuts, etc., are relatively high in crude protein
content and can serve as supplements.
Other feedstuffs of supplementary value
There are also feedstuffs other than those mentioned above that can be used as supplements. Examples of
such supplements are:
Brewery by-products that could be available to farmers in the vicinity of breweries. Local brewery byproducts are also available in many areas.
Poultry waste is a product that can be used as a supplement for sheep and goats, replacing other protein
concentrates, in areas where intensive poultry production is practiced. There could be two types of
poultry waste, namely:
Poultry litter: a product from poultry farms where birds are raised on floors. It contains poultry
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droppings, bedding material and spilled poultry feed. Poultry litter is a product with 1535% protein
depending on the proportion of the above constituents. It is also characterized by its high ash
content with substantial levels of calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulphur and copper.
This product can thus serve as a good source of fermentable nitrogen and essential minerals to sheep
and goats.
Poultry excreta: obtained from poultry raised on cages. It is free from other constituents (bedding
material and generally from spilt feed). As a result, it is higher in its nitrogen content than poultry
litter. It can serve as a good supplement in the dry form.
Mineral supplementation
Very little is known about the mineral nutrition of

sheep and goats in Ethiopia. The limited studies
available indicate that clinical and sub-clinical mineral
deficiencies are wide spread. It is, for example, known
that there is widespread deficiency of sodium,
phosphorus and copper in sheep and goats in the
Ethiopian Rift Valley area. Mineral deficiencies can
result in substantial reductions in performance of
sheep and goats. Using plants at a young stage
supplies the highest amount of minerals to the animal
as mineral content of plants declines with maturity.
Mineral supplementation can be done through the use
of multi-nutrient blocks that contain the deficient Figure 7.7. Local mineral lick being bagged for sale in
minerals. Ideally, specially formulated mineral
the Rift Valley.
supplements are provided in the form of a mineral lick. Such a lick is manufactured in Awassa but it is not
widely available in other parts of the country. Supplementation of common salt is widely practiced in many
parts of Ethiopia. Salt supplementation is especially useful in hot areas where sheep and goats lose large
amounts of salt through perspiration.
Farmers in many parts of the country use local mineral soils as mineral supplements. Supplementation of
Bole to Arsi sheep resulted in higher gains than unsupplemented sheep and ranked similar to sheep
supplemented with a commercial mineral lick. The licks were found to be good in their sodium and copper
compositions. Encouraging farmers to regularly feed local mineral licks such as Bole, megado, etc.,
traditionally used in many parts of the country, is beneficial. Goats obtain higher amounts of minerals
because they consume more browse and consume a wider array of vegetation than sheep.
7.9.2.2. Fodder conservation
The supply of feed fluctuates in most parts of the tropics. Preserving surplus feed in the wet season for use
in the dry season is one method of making the supply of feed to livestock more evenly distributed
throughout the year. Any surplus forage should be conserved for use during the dry season when feed
supply is scarce and feed quality is poor. Hay- and silage-making are two main methods of preserving
forages.
7.9.2.3. Effective utilization of crop residues
Generous feeding: Goats are the most selective feeders of all domestic ruminants. They are able to select
the more nutritious leaf and leaf sheath components against the less nutritious stem. Offering crop residues
to goats and sheep at a 50% refusal rate instead of the conventional 1020% results in increased feed intake
in terms of quality and quantity. This will lead to improved body weight gain.
Such a feeding strategy of allowing 50% refusal of the residue could be wasteful. The practice is justified
only if the rejected straw could also be utilized by less selective ruminants like cattle or alternatively used
for other purposes such as fuel, bedding, compost, soil mulch, etc.
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Urea treatment: This is one method of improving the feeding value of roughages. It involves spraying a
solution of urea onto dry roughage and covering it with locally available materials to create a sealed
condition.
7.9.2.4. Proper exploitation of natural browse
The widespread traditional use of browse as an available source of quality feed during the dry season is
vital to maintaining seasonal and yearly stability of livestock production in drier areas. Browse supplies
goats with the bulk of their nutritive requirements and complements the diet of sheep with protein, vitamins
and minerals. Foliage from trees and shrubs in pastoral areas provides more edible biomass than pasture.
Moreover, browse remains green and high in protein content when pastures become dry. Proper and
strategic use of these feed resources as supplements during dry periods can help minimize seasonal
fluctuation in productivity.
Plant browse trees.

Maintain the necessary balance of forage species by selective bush clearing.
Feed browse either by trimming or lopping leaves and branches or by beating down the fruits or pods.
Acacia species, once mature, produce large quantities of protein-rich seed. Herders move their flocks to
these areas during the dry season and feed their flocks on the pods. Herders use long poles to shake pods
down from the trees for consumption by their animals. There is scope for storing these pods and using them
as a supplement for weaners or for sheep and goats suckling twins. Pods are also a marketable commodity.
Figure 7.8. A herder using a long pole to shake the pods

down from an Acacia tree.
Figure 7.9. Acacia pods.
7.9.2.5. Specific strategies for arid and semi-arid areas
Arid areas
Development strategies in arid zones should focus on preserving and improving productivity of the
rangelands.
Rangeland improvement techniques include:
Reduced stocking rates.

Allowing range vegetation an opportunity for regrowth by:
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controlled and deferred grazing, or

periodic resting.
Providing extended and additional watering facilities for stock.

Reseeding.
Shrub planting.
Controlling cultivation in areas unsuited for sustained crop production.
Moving excess animals to areas of higher forage availability.
Establishment of a monitoring system to better inform users where grazing is abundant or scarce would
help pastoralists use rangelands more productively. This will also warn them of possible future feed
shortages due to drought so that they can take steps to mitigate the potential impact of drought on their
livelihoods. The following can help to do this:
Encourage locally managed and controlled land- and water-management systems.
Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to improve management and monitor rangeland use
and degradation.
Give due attention to the development of high potential sites, such as river valleys, for feed production.
Semi-arid and sub-humid areas

The major task here is to improve the utilization of natural forages and crop residues and introduce more
nutritious fodder and pasture crops.
Focus should be on:
The planting and establishment of improved fodder crops, leguminous tree crops, pastures and especially
forage crops that will provide more energy and/or protein.
Use of chemical and mechanical interventions to improve the digestibility of crop residues and other
low-quality roughages.
Use of non-protein nitrogen, bypass protein (protein that is resistant to degradation in the rumen), and
other protein supplements to correct dietary deficiencies and to improve protein utilization.
Mineral supplementation to correct the major and minor mineral deficiencies of grazed forages, fodder
crops, and crop residues.
Use of improved methods of storing high protein or high energy feeds harvested in the wet season for
consumption during the dry season.
Exercises / Points for Discussion

1. What feed resources are available in your area?
2. Do farmers supplement their animals? If yes,
a. With what?
b. Are all animals supplemented indiscriminately?
c. Targeted to specific categories?
d. Are times of year and/or physiological state considered in supplementation?
3. Describe the feeding practice in your area Are there unique experiences you want to share?
a. What are the main feeding/nutrition related problems?
b. What attempts have you made to improve the situation?
c. What more will you do after this training?
4. How is grazing land owned in your area?
a. Describe actual problems related to grazing in your kebele.
b. Are there traditional arrangements that can and should be encouraged?
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Transferable Message
Utilization of communal grazing lands can be improved with know-how and cooperation.
1. Teach users of a communal grazing area about the need for collaboration in managing the
communal grazing.
2. Show them the problems of the current system of management.
3. Show them options for better utilization.
4. Enquire about traditional practices of utilization and base your improvement proposals on these
practices.
7.9.2.6. Improving poor quality roughages
Treatment of roughages
Sheep and goats in tropical environments will have to eat feeds that contain a lot of fiber during most parts
of the year. The bulky and fibrous nature of coarse feeds results in poor nutrient supply and reduced intake.
Such feeds have to remain in the rumen for extended periods of time before they are sufficiently digested to
move out of the rumen and allow more feed consumption. It is common for animals to lose weight and
condition, produce less and even have difficulty breeding when fed on these low quality roughages.
One approach to improving the feeding value of poor quality roughages is through treatment. Treatment of
roughages, either physically or chemically, is aimed at rendering the structural constituents more accessible
to microbial digestive enzymes in the rumen.
Treatment methods
Physical treatment
The main objective of this method is to reduce the size of the roughage to expose more surface area for
microbial degradation in the rumen. This involves hydration (soaking) and chopping.
Soaking coarse crop residues such as maize stover: Dryness increases time spent chewing per bolus and
thus reduces total intake. Hydration has a potential to overcome these constraints. Soaking causes swelling
of cell-wall structures, making them more accessible to cellulolytic microbes. In addition, it reduces the
dustiness and dryness of the feed. Soaking per se has potential to overcome some of the constraints to
intake of maize stover. The voluntary feed intake of chopped maize stover can be improved by 23% by just
increasing moisture content from 30 to 60%. Results of work at Bako Research Center indicate that sheep
performance improved from losing 54 g/head/day to gaining 21 g/head/day as a result of soaking.
Supplementation with 5% linseed meal (fermentable nitrogen source) doubled the consumption of the
stovers and resulted in a daily gain of 53 g/head/day.
Chopping: Chopped feed can be easily eaten. Chopping also minimizes selection and facilitates mixing
with other feeds. Chopping some of the coarser green feeds such as elephant grass will also increase the
amount eaten. Chopping can be done using a machete knife or by special manual or motor-driven choppers
that are very efficient. Moistening chopped dry roughages can also improve utilization through increasing
intake and digestibility.
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a Chopping stover
b. Chopping fodder beet
c. Feeding chopped sweet potato tubers in the

southern region
Figure 7.10. Chopping and feeding roughages.
Chemical treatment
Chemical methods are relatively efficient and easy to put into practice. The effects of chemical treatment
include hydrolysis of chemical bonds that involve lignin. The chemicals used in treatment of roughages are
mainly alkalis. The most effective alkali is sodium hydroxide or caustic soda. It is, however, not commonly
used due to its high cost and risk of use.
The most common methods of chemical treatment use either ammonia or urea, which are relatively less
effective but are cheaper and less hazardous to use. Moreover, treatment with ammonia or urea has the
added advantage of improving the nitrogen content of the treated roughage. Treatment is recommended
where roughage constitutes over half the diet or where higher levels of production are desired. The type of
treatment will depend on local circumstances.
Ammonia treatment is suitable for large operations such as cooperatives in areas where there is a supply of
anhydrous ammonia and where the necessary infrastructure of tankers is available for its distribution. The
application of this treatment method will not be discussed in detail because of low applicability under
present Ethiopian conditions. Urea treatment is more applicable for smaller quantities of roughage treated
on small farms. Urea treatment of crop residues is being practiced in Ethiopia.
Ammonia treatment: Ammonia (anhydrous, gaseous) treatment requires a supply of industrially produced
ammonia together with a distribution network. Factors for the success of ammonia treatment include:
Amount of ammonia used: 2.53.5 kg per 100 kg DM of straw.

Temperature and duration of the treatment: generally, a longer period of treatment is required at low
temperatures and shorter period at higher temperatures.
Moisture level: optimum moisture level for successful treatment is between 15 and 25%.
Sealing: an air tight seal is required.
Nature of the forage to be treated: low-digestible roughage.
NUTRITION
Figure 7.11. Ammonia treatment from a tanker.
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127
Figure 7.12. Baled straw waiting ammonia treatment.
Urea treatment: The fact that fertilizer-grade urea is available in many developing counties like Ethiopia
makes it a preferred treatment technique for improving the nutritional quality of low-quality roughages (LQR)
such as crop residues and agro-industrial by products, e.g., bagasse. The simplicity of its application is an added
advantage of the technique.
Ammonia is released through urea degradation done by the action of micro-organisms. These microorganisms are normal inhabitants of LQR that produce urease in the presence of moisture. With adequate
moisture and suitable temperature, urea is degraded to ammonia
which then permeates through the straw. Nitrogen released through Table 7.12. Nutritive values of straw
this process is bound to the straw, thus increasing the total nitrogen
before and after urea
content. Digestibility of the fibrous LQR is also increased by the
treatment.
action of the treatment.
Before
After
Urea treatment of LQR improves the crude protein content,
digestibility and intake of LQRs. The magnitude of improvement is
shown in Table 7.12.
Crude protein
Digestibility
Intake
35%
4050%
710%
4555%
+2040%
The most common recommended level of urea is 5 kg per 100 kg of material (5% urea measured on air-dry
LQR). The moisture or water level in the LQR to be treated determines how much water should be added.
It may range from 0.3 to 1 liter of water per kg straw with the minimum being applied in areas with water
scarcity.
An appropriate level of water is necessary for
effective urea treatment as well as packing of the
material to exclude air. However, care should be
taken to avoid use of excess water as it will lead to
risk of mold growth and leaching of urea to the
bottom of the pit or trench. Table 7.13 lists the
recommended amount of water to be added to
achieve a final moisture content of 30%.
Table 7.13. Recommended amount of water to be

added to achieve a final moisture content
of 30%.
Water to add (liter
or kg per 100 kg of
residue)
23
30
Initial dry
matter of
LQR (%)
85
90
Expected moisture
content in the final
treated material
30
30
With some experience, the initial dry matter content of LQR can be estimated by handling. A very dry
material (i.e., 90 or 95% dry matter) is brittle and does not stick to the hands. Conversely, a wetter residue
(i.e., 85% dry matter) feels a little sticky and moist. It also tends to bend rather than break easily.
The water to be added per 100 kg of roughage can alternatively be calculated using the following formula:
W to be added / 100 kg of R =
Initial % DM of R + weight of U
= % of final DM to be achieved
100 kg of R +W to be added
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128
Where,
W = water
R = roughage
DM = dry matter
U = urea
For example, if:
1. Initial dry matter of roughage = 94%;
2. Final moisture content to be achieved = 50%
3. Urea level = 5%
Then, the amount of water to be added (W) is calculated as:
W = (94 + 5) / (100 + 5 + W) = 0.50
W = (99)/105 + W = 50/100
W = 99 100 = 50(105+W)
W = 93 liters of water
Exercise
Calculate the amount of water needed for urea treatment using the following information:
1. Initial dry matter of roughage = 94%;
2. Final moisture content to be achieved = 40%
3. Urea solution used for treatment = 4%
Urea is weighed and dissolved in a measured quantity of water according to Table 7.12. A hanging scale
can be used to weigh the urea, and a measuring cylinder or any locally available material can be used to
measure water.
Urea is added to the LQR by first mixing the weighed amount of urea in the water to be added. The ureawater solution is then sprinkled on the residue as it is added to the pit in different batches. A good way of
doing this is to add 10 kg of residue and then sprinkle the appropriate amount of urea-water solution (this
would be 2.3 liters for 10 kg of straw with an initial dry matter concentration of 85%, or 3 liters for dry
matter content of 90 %).
After each batch of LQR and urea-water solution is added to the pit, there should be thorough mixing with
a stirring rod/stick or by hand so that the solution is uniformly spread on to the LQR to be treated. This can
be done in the pit or on a plastic sheet on the ground prior to packing in the pit.
There are many different designs of pits or trenches for urea treatment. A common recommendation is 1 m
wide, at least 2 m long and 1 m deep (Figure 7.13a). A 1 2 1 m pit will typically hold between 150 and
200 kg of common LQR, with the top of the pile being at or slightly above ground level.
NUTRITION
a. An empty 1 2 1 m pit
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129
b. Above-ground pits
c. Above-ground pit made of bricks
Figure 7.13. Types of pits for urea treatment.
a. Pit lined with Enset leaves
b. Pit with grass lining
c. Pit with plastic lining, mixing sprinkled

straw
Figure 7.14. Pits with different lining materials.
Figure 7.15. Treatment of traditional stacks and bales of roughage.
The pit should not allow air or rain water to enter the LQR being treated. Therefore, the pit is typically
lined with material such as heavy plastic.
A concrete pit, placed above ground, lined with plastic will produce a good result. But concrete, bricks, and
plastic may not be available or may be too expensive, in which case, other alternatives can be used. For
example, Figure 7.14a shows lining a pit with Enset leaves, green ones nearest to the sides of the pit and
dried leaves on top, closest to the treated material. In fact, except for the shape, the pit is similar to that
normally used in kocho fermentation. Depending upon availability, banana leaves or bamboo leaves
could also be used. In areas with more rain, stacks can be placed against a wall or, as is seen in India, a fine
meshed wire such as chicken wire can be used to contain the straw. The treated residue should be packed
(Figure 7.16).
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130
It is useful to construct more than one adjacent pit so that treated LQR from one pit can be used while the
next pit is being treated. This helps to ensure a continuous supply of treated residue for feeding.
Apart from pits or trenches, plastic bags (Figure 7.16b) that can hold 2025 kg of treated straw may be
used. Such bags have an advantage in that individual bags can be opened when they are actually needed to
feed animals.
An airtight condition is easily achieved by applying a plastic cover. When straw is stacked against firm
structures (walls, inside pits, meshed wire), it can be compacted by trampling. Wet straw compacts better
and will not allow air to enter. Chopping LQR such as maize and sorghum stover before treatment helps
better compaction and treatment.
a. Packing teff straw mixed with urea-water solution in a pit lined with heavy plastic
b. Packing treated straw in a plastic bag
Figure 7.16. Packing treated straw to remove air.
After sealing the pit with plastic or other locally available

material such as green leaves, placing soil over the pit will
aid in packing and ensuring that rain water does not enter the
treated LQR. Construction of a shade over the pit will further
prevent entry of rain water into the pit in high-rainfall areas
(Figure 7.17).
A number of factors influence the length of time needed for
most effective urea
treatment. One of the
most important is
outside temperature.
Higher temperatures
Figure 7.17. A shade over urealessen the length of
treatment pit.
time needed, and
cooler temperatures increase the length of time required. Because
longer treatment times than necessary do not have adverse effects,
it is commonly recommended that the pit remain closed for at least
3 weeks, and preferably 1 month.
The effectiveness of the urea treatment process can be evaluated
using the following physical measures.
Figure 7.18. Treated straw (left) and
untreated straw (right).
Color: Well-treated roughages will have a uniform, dark-brown

color throughout the treated material (Figure 7.18). Dark areas
NUTRITION
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131
indicate over-dosage while lighter color indicates under-dosage of the urea solution. Non-uniform
coloration is a result of the urea solution not spread uniformly during mixing and packing the treated
material.
Smell: A strong pungent smell of ammonia should be present when the sealed material is opened. Absence
or lack of such odor, a weak smell or presence of a moldy smell indicates poor treatment. The presence of
the ammonia smell doesnt generally repulse animals especially if they are used to it.
Texture: Well-treated roughage is soft. A wide variation in texture indicates non-uniform treatment.
Absence of mold: Mold doesnt develop in a well-sealed environment of ammonia. Absence of mold is an
indicator of good treatment.
When feeding urea-treated LQR, the pit should be opened from one side as necessary to remove the needed
amount of residue. The remaining part should remain closed. This prevents air from entering to minimize
chances for spoilage. It is best to open the pit as seldom as possible, such as no more than once per day.
The treated LQR will be higher in digestibility and crude protein than the untreated material. Therefore,
some farmers will feed urea-treated LQR to their animals with the highest nutritional requirements, such as
lactating or fattening animals. Other farmers will feed limited amounts of the treated LQR as a supplement,
with the remainder of diets being untreated LQR or grazed forage.
An adaptation period may be needed for animals that have not previously consumed urea-treated LQR.
This allows them to become familiar with the feedstuff and, in particular, with the ammonia odor. The
level of treated LQR being fed can be gradually increased over a period of 12 weeks, perhaps being mixed
with feedstuff previously being given. Adaptation will be most rapid when animals are given little choice.
Such an adaptation period is also a good idea when adapting ruminants to any diet containing non-protein
nitrogen, although this is rarely a concern for crop residues properly treated with urea. In some cases,
residual ammonia might lower intake. In such circumstances, the treated straw should be aerated for a few
hours or overnight before feeding to allow the ammonia odor to disappear.
By treating with urea, animal performance can be increased or a greater number of animals can be fed with
the same level of performance (i.e., growth or milk production). Animals fed urea-treated LQR may
require no supplemental concentrate or will need lower levels to achieve a desired level of animal
performance compared with animals fed untreated LQR. Feeding urea-treated LQR alone will lead to
some increase in production, but the full potential will only be realized when the correct supplements are
added. A supplement of bypass protein such as cottonseed cake or nougseed cake is required for high
performance.
There has to be a good economic reason for a farmer to feed treated straw, and the effect has to be visible.
For these reasons straw treatment has been most successfully undertaken when fed to responsive animals as
a basal diet, for example, in fattening programs. The following points require attention to promote this
technology.
The cost of sealing the pit can be reduced by using cheap local materials to create the required airtight
conditions.
Strategic feeding of treated residues (e.g., to pregnant and milking animals) should be encouraged.
Adequate explanation and demonstration is necessary.
Adaptation to local conditions should be made; e.g., use of local measurements for the amount of urea
and residue to be treated.
The treatment of crop residues can be done any time as long as the residue, water and urea required for the
treatment are available. The best period recommended, however, is just after harvest, because:
ALEMU YAMI
132
water and forage supplies are still available at this time;

the farmer has ready cash for purchasing the urea and the time to do the treatment: a family of 4 can treat
about 1 ton of straw in 4 hours;
the treatment operation can be carried out whilst the traditional stack is being constructed; and
the weather is conducive.
Exercises / Points for discussion

Have you previously tried to demonstrate urea treatment of roughages to farmers in your kebele?
1. If yes, what is your experience?
2. If not, why?
Transferable Messages
Urea treatment of roughages improves poor quality roughages and sheep and goat performance.
1. Select 5 model farmers from different areas in your keblele and convince them about the value of
treating low-quality roughages with urea.

2. Demonstrate urea treatment to the model farmers.
3. Ask the model framers to treat roughage at their farms following the demonstrated procedures.
4. After one month, organize a demonstration for other farmers at each of the model farms on the
procedures of treating and using treated roughages to feed sheep and goats.
Supplementation using urea and molasses

Reasons for using urea and molasses
The micro-organisms in the rumen synthesize enough protein to meet maintenance requirements of
ruminants provided there is sufficient nitrogen and energy available in the rumen for their growth and
development. Urea is a non-protein nitrogen (NPN) product which can be used as a nitrogen source when
transformed to ammonia by the micro-organisms in the rumen. Molasses, which is an excellent carrier for
urea, can be the supplementary energy source.
The nitrogen from urea is used by rumen microbes to make protein known as microbial protein, which is
later utilized by the host ruminant when the microbes are digested by the ruminant in the small intestine.
The microbes also require sulphur (S) to use nitrogen efficiently. It is not necessary to add sulphur where
high levels of molasses are fed because of the sufficient level of sulphur in molasses. Supplements based
on a low-cost mixture of molasses and urea were developed and used in different countries for this reason.
Methods of feeding urea supplements
Methods of feeding urea have primarily been concerned

with providing it in sufficient quantities to be of value to
the animal, and at the same time reducing the risk of
mortality from urea toxicity. The following guidelines
should be followed for use of urea in sheep and goat
diets.
Table 7.14. A typical basic liquid mixture

of urea and molasses.
Ingredients
Urea
Water
Molasses
Parts by weight
1
10
10
NUTRITION
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133
Do not include urea at more than 1% of the total diet or 3% of the concentrate portion.
Do not use urea in creep diets because of reduced intake of creep diet or potential urea toxicity.
Introduce urea into the diet gradually over a two- to three-week period.
Feed urea-containing diets at regular intervals for efficient utilization.
Urea can be supplemented to sheep and goats in different forms. Some of these methods are described
below.
Urea supplement as a liquid in troughs
This involves feeding urea and molasses in troughs placed in the grazing area. This is a cheap and simple
method of feeding urea that requires low labor. It involves use of a roller-drum lick feeder. Urea intake is
regulated by changing the concentrations of the components of the mix. A typical basic liquid mixture is
shown in Table 7.14.
Roller drums like that shown in Figure 7.19 can be used for cattle. For sheep, a type of wooden float has
been developed for use with troughs, as sheep are unable to rotate the large drums. Some farmers have
developed a very light small drum for sheep with apparently successful results.
Figure 7.19. Cattle licking a roller drum.
Urea supplement as a block lick
Mixtures of liquid molasses and urea, which provide

fermentable nitrogen, and are a good source of
minerals, have been used for many years. Molasses
in the liquid form is difficult to transport (requiring
expensive tanker trucks), to store (requiring storage
tanks), to handle (is highly viscous) and to distribute
to animals (troughs or other receptacles needed). The
solidification of molasses is a way of solving the
difficulties encountered in distributing and feeding
molasses and also allows for the incorporation of
various other ingredients.
As the name suggests, these are lick blocks that
Figure 7.20. A lick-feeder for sheep that has a
contain urea, molasses, vitamins, minerals and
slatted wooden float on the surfaces of the liquid in
perhaps other nutrients. The feeding of the blocks is
a trough.
a convenient and inexpensive method of providing a
range of nutrients, which may be deficient in the diet,
that are required by both the rumen microbes and the animal. The ingredients are designed to provide a
wide rage of nutrients to cover all potential deficiencies.
ALEMU YAMI
134
Urea molasses blocks (UMB) have proven to be an excellent tool for the improvement of ruminant feeding.
They are cheap, relatively safe and a practical means of supplying nutrients. They create an efficient rumen
ecosystem which favors the growth of young animals and milk production. They also improve conception
rates and the size of offspring. The urea molasses block technology should be encouraged in Ethiopia to
make better use of available feed resources at the small farmer level.
The common ingredients used in making feed blocks are:
Molasses
Urea
Fibrous feeds such as wheat bran
Salt
Cement (a binding agent).
Molasses is used to induce animals to eat the block drawn by its sweet taste. It also provides energy and
some other nutrients such as minerals like sulphur. The block should not contain more than 4050%
molasses or it will break too easily and take too long to dry.
Urea, known to farmers as fertilizer for crop production, is used to make the blocks. It is advisable that the
amount of urea be limited to 10% to avoid poisoning. Urea is essential in improving digestibility and
providing protein. Cereal bran is the most common fibrous feed used. The bran provides protein and helps
hold the block together. Finely chopped straw, bagasse, or finely ground leaves from leguminous shrubs
(leucaena, calliandra, etc.) can substitute for cereal bran.
Urea
Molasses
Wheat bran
Figure 7.21. The major ingredients.
Salt in the range of 510% is added to the blocks to supply minerals and to control the rate of consumption.
Calcium carbonate and dicalcium phosphate can be added to provide additional calcium and phosphorus.
Cement is used to make the block hard. About 1015% is sufficient. Higher levels make the blocks too
hard. Cement also provides calcium. Clay such as that used in brick-making can be mixed with cement to
improve block hardness and reduce drying time. It can also reduce cost of making the block.
Other ingredients can be added to provide additional nutrients. Oilseed cakes or brewery by-products can
be added to supply protein. Trace mineralized salt can be used to provide additional minerals that may be
lacking. Use of trace mineralized salt is recommended in the Rift Valley area. Alternative ratios of
combining ingredients to constitute various formulations of blocks are shown in Table 7.15.
NUTRITION
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135
Table 7.15. Practical examples of formulae for making urea molasses blocks (composition in %).
Alternative Formulae
Ingredients
Wheat bran
Molasses
Urea
Salt
Quick lime
Cement
Triple phosphate
Dicalcium phosphate
Oilseed cake
Clay
Total
25
40
10
4
25
50
10
5
5
5
27
10
8
5
5
10
35
20
8
8
5
5
40
10
10
5
7
5
40
5
10
5
7
10
23
50
5
5
5
10
2
25
45
15
5
0
10
0
23
50
10
5
10
10
2
25
31
10
3
25
34
10
3
22
50
9
5
15
15
35
39
10
5
6
5
3
13
13
20
100
20
100
100
100
100
100
10
1
100
5
15
100
20
100
100
100
100
100
14
How to make urea molasses blocks

Urea molasses blocks (UMB) can be manufactured on the farm. Manufacture is easy and simple and
different processes exist which may be used according to local conditions. The manufacturing can be
divided into four stages:
1. Preparing the components
2. Mixing
3. Molding
4. Drying
Preparing the components
The amount of the different ingredients depends on the size of the block to be manufactured and the
formula to be used. Table 7.16 shows the amount of ingredients to be mixed to make 1, 5, 15 or 25 kg of
block based on formula alternative A in Table 7.15.
Table 7.16. Amounts of ingredients to mix to make different sizes of UMB.
Size of block to be made
No.
Ingredient
1 kg
5 kg
15 kg
25 kg
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Molasses
Urea
Bran
Cement
Oil cake
Mineral mix
Salt
40
10
25
10
10
1
4
400 g
100 g
250 g
100 g
100 g
10 g
40 g
2 kg
0.5 kg
1.25 kg
0.5 kg
0.5 kg
0.05 kg
0.2 kg
6 kg
1.5 kg
3.75 kg
1.5 kg
1.5 kg
0.15 kg
0.6 kg
10 kg
2.5 kg
6.25 kg
2.5 kg
2.5 kg
0.25 kg
1 kg
100
1,000 g
Total
8
Water (to mix the cement)
40 g
5,000 g
0.2 kg
15,000 g
25,000 g
0.6 kg
1 kg
Mixing
Good mixing is crucial for good block-making. Urea must be mixed thoroughly by breaking up lumps to
avoid pockets of high concentration that could harm animals. Do the following to mix the ingredients.
Weigh the amount of ingredients needed based on the formula of the block.
Add urea to the molasses while continuously mixing.
ALEMU YAMI
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Mix the urea with molasses thoroughly by stirring for about 20 minutes.
The molasses can be heated in the sun to improve handling and mixing.
Never add water to molasses. It has to be thick.
Add bran and any other fibrous material such as nougseed cake, if it is part of the formula, and mix
thoroughly.
Make the cement into a paste with water prior to adding to the rest of the ingredients.
Mixing the salt with cement accelerates hardening.
High levels of molasses and urea tend to decrease block hardness. Check block hardness after drying and
make the following adjustments to the formula.
If the block is too hard, reduce the proportion of cement or clay and slightly increase the proportion of
molasses. If too soft, increase cement or clay and reduce molasses.
Figure 7.22. Mixing urea, molasses and bran.
Casting and molding
Once the ingredients are thoroughly mixed, place the mixture into molds. Any local container, such as
tin cans or small buckets can be used as a mold. Using a plastic sheet to line the molds will make block
removal from the mold easier.
Wooden mold Debre Zeit

Research Center
PVC tube mold Debre Zeit

Research Center
Mold made of metal

sheets Holeta
Research Center
Machine for making

construction blocks
Figure 7.23. Different types of molds.
Molding using wooden bars
Molding using small tin cans
Removing molded blocks for drying
Figure 7.24. Molding urea molasses blocks.
Example of steps of molding urea molasses blocks using sheet metal molds
The mold
Step 1. Filling the mold
Step 2. Compacting
Step 3. Opening the mold
Step 4. Removing block from the mold
Step 5. UMB ready for drying
Figure 7.25. Steps of molding urea molasses blocks using sheet metal molds.
solid
138
ALEMU YAMI
Drying and storage of urea molasses blocks
Remove the blocks from the molds after 24 hours and

place on racks to dry. Leave the blocks to dry for at least
5 days depending upon the weather condition.
Characteristics of a good urea molasses block
A block is considered good when it fulfils the following:

Ingredients are well-distributed throughout the block.
It does not have lumps of urea and lime.
Figure 7.26. Drying urea molasses blocks.
It is hard enough to resist being squashed

between fingers or breaking when a person
steps on it.
The sticky molasses can be felt when holding
the block. The amount of molasses needs to be
increased if the block doesnt feel sticky.
Feeding and intake of urea molasses blocks
Blocks should be fed as a lick so that only the top

surface is accessible to animals. This prevents
animals from pushing the blocks around, breaking
them up and consuming large chunks that could
cause urea toxicity.
Figure 7.27. Sheep licking urea molasses

blocks (Technique being used by farmers after
demonstration by ESGPIP trained Kebele
Development Agents.
Blocks should be introduced to animals slowly and

should be fed after animals have consumed adequate forage. This prevents animals from consuming too
much at any one time. Urea molasses blocks should never form the main diet. They are meant to be a
supplement to a basal diet of forage. Allow access by animals for one hour per day during the first week
of adaptation, two hours during the second week and free access after the third week. Some animals may
need to be forced to consume the blocks by preventing access to lush feed other than dry roughage during
the adaptation period.
Block hardness will affect its rate of intake. If too soft, it is consumed too rapidly and there is the risk of
toxicity. If too hard, intake may be too little. Urea at high levels is unpalatable. High levels of urea in
urea molasses blocks may reduce intake of the block as well as of straw due to the bitter taste.
High levels or imbalances in minerals may result in excessive consumption in a short time, also leading
to urea poisoning. Precautions should be taken to avoid this problem of over-consumption in droughtprone areas, particularly towards the end of the dry season when feed is scarce.
Precautions while supplementing with urea molasses blocks
It is essential to note the following while supplementing urea molasses blocks.
Feed to ruminants only (sheep, goats, cattle, camels).

Do not feed to monogastrics, i.e., horses, donkeys, or pigs.
Do not feed to young ruminants less than six months of age (lambs, kids).
Blocks should be used as a supplement and not as the basic ration.
A minimum of coarse forage in the rumen is essential.
Never give blocks to an emaciated animal with an empty stomach. There is the risk of poisoning
NUTRITION
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139
due to excessive consumption.

The amount of blocks fed to sheep and goats should be limited to 100 g/day.
Blocks should never be supplied in ground form or dissolved in water as this can result in overconsumption.
Supply sufficient amount of water.
In kebeles where ingredients for making urea molasses blocks (UMB) are available, making and
using UMB supplementation improves performance of sheep and goats.
1. Demonstrate to farmers on how to make and use UMB.
2. Demonstrate to small-farm urban/peri-urban youth on how to manufacture and supply UMB to
farmers as a business venture.
7.10. Strategies for Sheep and Goat Feeding and Management during Drought
Many parts of Ethiopia experience extended periods of drought, leading to shortages of fodder and water.
During these periods, sheep and goats are unable to meet their nutrient needs for maintenance and will
begin to lose weight as body reserves are depleted. As this happens, the females do not come into heat
and so do not breed. Those already pregnant will produce very weak lambs and kids. During very long
dry spells animals will die, with the youngest, weakest and oldest dying first.
In most cases, no single strategy will be sufficient to solve this problem. Each situation will require a
unique set of strategies. Some common options are discussed below. The options to employ and their
degree of implementation depend on the prevailing circumstances.
7.10.1. Selling stock

This option should almost always be the first measure taken in the early period of drought. As the
drought progresses, stock should be sold by class, starting with finished young stock, then replacement
stock, aged stock and older breeders, until a nucleus of healthy, young, sound, breeding females most
valuable for restocking when the drought ends remains.
The timing of selling stock and the condition of the stock at sale are important considerations. Prices
received are likely to be better if stock is sold early in the drought before the market becomes congested
with a high supply of animals. Stock should be in reasonable condition to fetch higher prices. This
strategy is more effective for prolonged droughts.
Selling only a small percentage of stock may be necessary during short droughts. This will normally be
compensated by increased performance per animal of the remaining stock as a result of reduced stocking
rate.
7.10.2. Supplementation
Supplementary feed can be provided only if it is available in drought-stricken areas. This usually means
that the transport of feed into these areas must be organized by the government or an aid program.
Concentrates are preferred to roughages for drought feeding because of higher nutrient density.
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7.10.3. Maintenance feeding

In a short drought, maintenance feeding is likely to be a low-cost strategy. However, maintenance
feeding can be expensive if the drought is prolonged. This strategy is more successful if implemented in
association with reduction of animal numbers before commencing feeding.
Protein-rich concentrates, enough to satisfy about half of the animals maintenance requirements, should
be given provided that there is still some poor quality vegetation available. If the drought worsens, the
complete maintenance requirement will have to be fed by means of supplementary feed. If the protein
content of the available concentrate is low, it may be necessary to feed a protein supplement such as urea
at the rate of a few grams per day. Oilseed cake has been demonstrated to be especially useful for
stimulating roughage consumption during a drought. When a limited quantity of supplement is available,
it should be supplied to those members of the flock that are most needy.
7.10.4. Humane destruction

Humane destruction of livestock is another strategy which may be applicable at times of very low
livestock prices, or when animals are unfit to be transported. Humane destruction should be carried out
when animals are approaching a condition too poor to survive. Decreasing competition for feed will help
the remaining animals to stay in better condition and be more productive following the drought.
7.10.5. Adjusting grazing strategies during drought

Below is a list of strategies to help producers avoid crisis in times of drought. It is best to assess options
at the first sign of drought.
Adjust stocking rate to the carrying capacity of dry years. Reduce stocking rate early. Increase
stocking rate gradually after the drought, over a period of 13 years.
Graze areas with limited water reserves first.
Rest pastures or delay grazing in all pastures periodically. Lengthen pasture rest periods during slow
or no growth times. Plants can withstand severe grazing if followed by proper rest periods. These rest
periods allow plants time to replenish tissues above and below the ground.
Maintain emergency pastures that can be used during emergencies.
7.10.6. Adjustment of animal management

The following changes in animal management are useful to improve utilization of feed resources during
drought.
Parasite control: Animals under nutritional and heat stress are less resistant to parasites than under
normal conditions. Strategic deworming during a drought will relieve some of the nutritional stress on
the animal and "clean up" the herd for the next favorable season.
Herd segregation: Young animals are not able to compete with mature ones for pasture or supplemental
feed. Drought feed is costly and it is important to feed only those animals that really need it. Vulnerable
classes can be segregated and given preferential treatment. The older, dry animals can be moved to
poorer pasture or range areas.
7.10.7. Early weaning and creep feeding

Creep feeding: Creep feeding is simply providing supplemental feed separately to young animals while
they are still suckling. Creep rations should contain 1213 MJ/kg of metabolisable energy with a protein
content of between 13 and 16% depending on the protein levels in the forage.
Early weaning: Grazing forages decline rapidly in quality and quantity during droughts. Early weaning
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and disposal of weaned lambs/kids during drought periods will help reduce pasture requirements and
help breeding animals maintain their body condition. This is critical in improving conception rates.
7.11. Cactus (Opuntia spp.) as an Emergency Feed Resource in Arid Areas

7.11.1. Characteristics of cactus
Getting appropriate plant species to grow in arid areas is a permanent concern. Cactus is such a plant that
can play this role. Cacti are more efficient than grasses or legumes in converting water to dry matter due
to their specialized photosynthetic mechanism. Cactus plantations create living fodder banks to feed
animals during drought and to combat desertification. The increased importance of cacti in arid zones is
because of their ability to:
be relatively drought-resistant, survive and remain succulent during long droughts;

produce large quantities of fodder during the rainy season, which can be utilized during the dry season;
have a high carrying capacity;
supply succulent fodder to animals during droughts;
tolerate severe utilization and have high recovery ability;
have low establishment and maintenance costs;
tolerate a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, so that they can be planted where the production
of ordinary fodder crops is uncertain;
produce forage, fruit, and other useful products;
and
prevent long-term degradation of ecologically
weak environments.
Cactus fruits are consumed by humans as an
emergency food during food shortage periods. This
is a widespread practice in many parts of Tigray
and some parts of Hararghe. Opuntia cladodes
(young leaves) behave like common forage crops
and have the following characteristics:
They have high contents of water (90%), ash
(20%) and calcium (1.4%), soluble carbohydrates

and vitamin A.
They are poor in crude protein (4%), fiber (10%)
and phosphorus (0.2%).
Their digestibility is comparable to a good forage
crop, with average digestibility ranging from 60
to 70% for organic matter, 3570% for crude
protein and 4050% for crude fiber.
Cactus cladodes are highly palatable, with
average daily consumptions of 69 kg for sheep
and goats. Cactus intake does not reduce intake
of fibrous feed. Cactus consumption improves
rumen conditions which enhances the intake of
fibrous feed.
The high moisture content of cactus cladodes
helps mitigate the problem of animal watering in
Figure 7.28. Spineless cactus varieties.
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dry areas. Research clearly shows that water intake is nil when daily cactus intake by sheep is about
300 g of dry matter.
Feed values of spiny or spineless cactus are similar. Spines are not a limiting factor because they can
be removed.
Cactus, fed in any form during an emergency, will keep animals alive.
As a consequence of its composition and other characteristics, the following should be observed when
feeding cactus:
Cactus should be supplemented with an

appropriate and cheap nitrogen source.
Moreover, a special mineral supplement is
required to provide sufficient sulphur and
phosphorus to maintain an appropriate
Calcium to Phosphorus ratio.
Cactus is rich in soluble carbohydrates and
Ca, but poor in P. Therefore, it is
recommended to:
limit the amount of grain and molasses in
the diet to avoid decreasing rumen
cellulolytic activity, and
feed animals with fibrous feeds (straw,
hay, etc.) before giving the cactus.
a. Manual chopping of cactus (Tunisia).
7.11.2. Some practical considerations

Spines: The spines from spiny varieties of
cactus can be removed through burning
individual pads or chopping large pads using
tools and machines. In some countries like
Mexico and the USA, the whole standing plant
is burned before grazing.
Laxative effects: A laxative effect appears
when the volume of cactus in the diet is high
(more than 5060% of the DM intake). This
problem is easily solved by feeding small
amounts of straw or hay prior to cactus
distribution; this is sufficient for normal transit.
b. Small electrical chopper (Brazil)
Different varieties are available for use. For best

results, some cactus varieties, such as Opuntia
pads, need to be chopped before feeding to
animals.
Figure 7.29. Chopping Opuntia pads.
7.12. Feeding Different Classes of Small Ruminants

Little information is available on the nutrient requirements of animals at various physiological states
under tropical conditions. The amounts of energy and protein or amino acids supplied to the animal
determine productivity. Both energy and protein must be supplied in sufficient quantities and balanced
to meet requirements and optimize feed utilization. Energy in ruminants is largely supplied by volatile
fatty acids (VFA) that arise from the rumen fermentation of all types of organic matter, though the
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majority comes from carbohydrates. The principal way of increasing VFA energy is to increase intake
and/or the rumen degradability. This can be accomplished by supplementation with a nitrogen source or,
in the case of poor quality roughages, urea treatment.
Table 7.17. The first limiting nutrients for different physiological functions of
sheep and goats.
Physiological function
Growth (lean tissue)
Growth (fattening)
Puberty (egg and sperm production)
Pregnancy
Lactation
Limiting nutrients
Amino acids
Energy, amino acids
Energy, amino acids
Energy, amino acids
Energy, amino acids
7.12.1. Productive functions and the need for supplementary nutrients

Growth: Growing animals have a very high requirement for amino acids for tissue synthesis. High
growth rates cannot be supported by the products of fermentative digestion alone. Bypass protein
supplements are essential.
Reproduction: The growth of the fetus has little effect on the dams protein and energy demand until
the last third of gestation when most fetal tissues are formed. It appears that rumen function, even on
diets of low digestibility, can support the birth of a viable offspring of normal weight. Urea
supplementation can enhance milk production to a level that ensures survival of the offspring. But to
allow the young animal to grow, milk yield must be further stimulated by feeding a bypass protein
source.
Milk production: The major constraint to milk production from diets based on crop residues and agroindustrial by-products is the availability of nutrients to provide the glucose for lactose (milk sugar)
synthesis. A dietary source of lipid can reduce any imbalance caused by relative deficiencies of
glucogenic energy in the end-products of rumen digestion. For many feeding systems in the tropics, the
level of fat in the diet could be a primary constraint to milk production.
7.12.2. Feeding different classes of animals

A balanced feeding program for sheep and goats should contain forages, hay, grains, browse and shrub
plants and a source of bypass protein. Keep the following points in mind while feeding different classes
of animals.
Balance feed availability and number of animals kept.

Adjust the number of animals to the level of feed.
Produce more feed to meet requirements.
A ration that is modified whenever necessary to meet the changing requirements of animals during
different stages of the reproductive cycle is usually more economical.
The amount of feed supplied should be accurately adjusted to the requirements of the animal so that
feed is not wasted by feeding more than the animal needs.
Feeds of similar nutritive values/properties can be interchanged based on prices in order to obtain each
essential nutrient from the cheapest available source.
Experience and observation will show what feeds animals like and how much they will eat. Some
guidelines for feeding different groups of animals are indicated below.
Adult breeding males: Adult males used for breeding need to be well-fed to maintain their body
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condition for mating. Breeding males need to be supplemented beginning two weeks before start of
breeding. They shouldnt, however, be allowed to become too fat. Breeding males need to be supplied
with plenty of water and allowed to exercise. Supply of good pasture is enough when not being used
for mating. Feed as follows starting two weeks before and during breeding season:
Grass/crop residues, free choice (as much as they can consume).
Supplement legumes, up to 1 part for every 46 parts of grass/residue consumed.
Alternatively, supplement a handful (about 250 grams) of concentrate containing, for example,
49% bran, 49% nougseed cake, 1% limestone and 1% salt. The allowance should be higher (400
600 g) if the male is large and is serving a large number of females.
Dry breeding females: A dry female that has recently been weaned from her lambs/kids can be
maintained on good quality pasture or fed good quality hay depending on her physical condition at
weaning. Very thin animals that are adversely affected by the stress of lactation (especially those that
gave birth to twins or triplets) need supplementation in addition to forage for adequate preparation for
the next breeding and conception. Thin breeding females should be flushed before breeding. Flushing
is the practice of feeding the ewe/doe so that she starts to gain weight about two weeks before
breeding. Flushing may increase lambing percentage and embryo survival. Flushing can also reduce
mortality of offspring. Flushing works best on females in poor body condition.
Young, replacement females: Young females selected for breeding need extra feed for growth so that
they will be large enough and in good shape for breeding. They should be fed as follows:
Grass/crop residue, free choice.
Supplement legumes, up to 1 part for every 3 parts of grass/residue consumed.
Supplement a handful (250300 g) of a mixed concentrate containing, for example, 49% bran,
49% nougseed cake, 1% limestone and 1% salt.
Pregnant females: Pregnant females need feed to support the growth of the fetus. They shouldnt be
fed to become too fat. Females that are too fat will have trouble lambing/kidding.
Females in early pregnancy should receive:
o Grass/crop residue, free choice.
o One part legume for every 3 parts grass/residue.
o A handful of concentrate, 200 g/head/day mixed concentrate containing, for example,
49% bran, 49% nougseed cake, 1% limestone and 1% salt or 500 g of wheat bran.
Females in late pregnancy (23 weeks before the due date): This is by far the most critical
period during which correct feeding is important as the fetus grows fastest at this stage of
development. They should receive:
o Free access to good pasture and other roughage.
o One part legume for every 3 parts grass/residue.
o Concentrate, 250400 g/head/day mixed concentrate containing, for example, 49% bran,
49% nougseed cake, 1% limestone and 1% salt or 1 kg wheat bran depending on
condition of the animal.
Lactating females: The requirement of these classes of animals is similar to females in late
pregnancy. Their rations should generally contain 1416% crude protein. They have high requirements
for milk production. They should receive:
Grass/crop residue, free choice.
One part legume for every 3 parts grass/residue.
Concentrate: 250300 g/head/day mixed concentrate containing, for example, 49% bran, 49%
nougseed cake, 1% limestone and 1% salt or 1 kg wheat bran. The level of concentrate should be
higher for high milk producers. An allowance of concentrates at the rate of one third of the
amount of milk produced is necessary.
Young lambs/kids before weaning: Newborn lambs and kids should be supplied with colostrum
within the first hour after birth. Colostrum helps protect them against diseases due to its content of
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antibodies and high nutritional value. For the first few weeks of life, all a lamb/kid needs for
nourishment is its mother's milk. Hay, water and protein supplements should be placed near the
lambs/kids so that they start to eat and drink. Young ones can begin to consume other feeds at about
six weeks of age. They should be fed the best quality feeds available to help them grow and get them
accustomed to eating feeds other than milk. The feed needs to be of high quality because they can eat
only small amounts. They should receive:
High quality young forage, free choice.
Supplementary legumes as much as are available.
Free choice supply of concentrate. The concentrate should be fed in creep feeders so that only the
lambs/kids can consume it. This prevents the adult animals from eating the feed intended for the
young animals.
A simple creep feeder used by farmers around Ambo (on-farm trial supported
by the ESGPIP)
Lambs eating a supplement in the

creep while the dam is kept out
Figure 7.30. Creep feeding increases weaning weights and helps with early weaning.
Weaned lambs/kids: Weaning involves removing young ones from the milk diet to other forms of
feed. This separation can be stressful. Lambs/kids are very vulnerable to disease and growth
depression at the time of weaning unless they are weaned on to high quality feeds. Weaning at two to
three months of age depending upon management is possible. Abrupt weaning is unnatural and should
be avoided. Ideally, weaned lambs/kids should receive:
High quality young forage, free choice.
Free choice supplementary legumes.
Free choice concentrates. They can be started with 70 g/day of mixed concentrate or 150 g wheat bran,
and the amount can be increased as they grow.
1. Feeding animals by separating them into groups with similar physiological requirements gives
them the attention they need and substantially improves feed resource utilization.
2. Creep feeding as a management tool reduces lamb/kid mortality. It also improves growth at this
stage of development when they have fast growth rates.
7.13. Intensive Feeding of Sheep and Goats before Slaughter

Intensive feeding of sheep and goats before slaughter under Ethiopian situations can be categorized into
two systems:
Production of conditioned animals: This system is intended for the supply of animals of acceptable
condition to the slaughterhouses for ultimate export. These animals may also go into a finishing
operation targeted at supplying the local market.
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Finishing: This is the process of feeding sheep and goats to slaughter weight with adequate finish (fat
deposit). This targets the local market, which has high demand for fat animals.
The operation of large feedlots by export slaughterhouses is becoming feasible. The principal functions
of such feedlot operations are to assemble large numbers of sheep and goats, often with different
backgrounds, and produce a homogenous product. The following guidelines will serve these operations
and also small farmers that want to fatten smaller numbers of sheep and goats.
7.13.1. Advantages of fattening

Fattening is one strategic feeding option that can have the following advantages under Ethiopian
conditions:
Technically, it is quite simple and within the capabilities of small farmers to implement; moreover, the
results are highly visible. This helps ensure farmers confidence in the technique. Other techniques
such as feeding to boost reproductive performance are less convincing because the farmer may not be
sure that the extra feed resulted in any benefit.
Benefits can be realized within a short period unlike other animal production activities.
Fattening generates cash income that is eagerly sought by farmers.
Fattening is generally profitable because the value per kilogram of live weight increases as both
weight and condition increase.
7.13.2. Fattening systems

Traditional systems: Farmers generally condition their animals and market them. This feeding operation
takes a very long time because it is generally based on low quality feeds. It is also associated with huge
fluctuations in the weights and conditions of the animals depending on feed availability. Several
improved traditional systems are in use, but they are not widespread. For example, systems of sheep
fattening exist in the Adillo area of the southern region where conditioned animals are fattened by
feeding sweet potatoes and other high value ingredients. These fattened animals fetch very high prices.
Agro-industrial by-product-based fattening: Fattening of sheep based on agro-industrial by-products
is also practiced around the Adama area. This system can be promoted to other similar areas that have
agro-industrial by-products. Fattening using agro-industrial by-products, such as sugar-processing byproducts, is feasible in places like Wellega where valuable feed resources such as molasses and corn
(grain and residue) are widely available. Protein sources like oilseed cakes can be purchased from nearby
processing plants, and/or forage legumes can be grown in the area. Brewery by-products are also
available from the Bedele Brewery to serve as protein sources. The Horro sheep breed, one of the fastgrowing breeds in Ethiopia, is also indigenous to this area. Table 7.18 shows examples of rations for
areas where by-products are available. Local equivalents of the weights indicated can be used whenever
scales are not available.
Table 7.18. Molasses-based rations.
Ingredient
Straw
Molasses
Oilseed cake
Brewers dried grain
Urea
Molasses urea block
Ration I
Ad lib
350 g
125 g
10 g
Ration II
Ad lib
250 g
100 g
Free choice
Ration III
Ad lib
200 g
200 g
Free choice
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7.13.3. Feeding management of finishing sheep and goats
The fattening program should be started after the necessary feed supplies are secured. Underfeeding
and incorrect timing are the most common causes of failures in fattening activities.
The objective in a fattening operation is to convert as much of the feed to body tissue as possible. It is
thus necessary to minimize the movement of animals during the fattening period. They should be
allowed only limited exercise.
The animals should have shelters that protect them from adverse environment. The shelter need not be
expensive and can be made of locally available materials.
The success of a finishing operation depends on the first two weeks after arrival of animals. They may
have traveled long distances and will be stressed, hungry, and thirsty. It is recommended that the
following guidelines be followed during this period.
Right after arrival, rest the animals for a few hours in a dry, clean, sheltered area with access to
fresh water. Then offer grass hay or mixed grasslegume hay.
Hand-feed salt during the first two weeks, then provide trace mineral salt in a separate feeder.
Afterwards, these supplements can be mixed in the complete diet, but salt should continue to be
provided ad libitum (free choice).
Animals should have feed available at all times including evenings. If there is no feed left in the
morning, feed supply for the following day should be increased.
Adjust the animals to the fattening concentrate diet over a two week period by feeding the concentrate
after the animals consumed enough roughage to provide bulk. Gradually increase the intake of the diet
every two days, while providing free access to the basal roughage diet.
Drench for internal parasites and treat for external parasites before the start of the feeding operation.
This will improve feed utilization and performance.
Sort the animals by weight/size and feed in uniform weight groups.
Cull non-performing animals.
Feed for 90120 days. The length of the feeding period depends upon the desired animal condition.
What is desired for the export market may be just conditioning without the amount of fat desired by
the local market. Thus, animals for export can be sold at a time when the desired condition is attained.
Water should be available at all times. Inadequate water supply will affect performance.
7.13.4. Selection of sheep and goats for finishing
Select animals that are healthy and have no visible physical defects. Avoid emaciated animals as their
poor condition may not entirely be due to nutritional factors. Emaciated animals often take a long time
to recover. Target animals with medium body condition.
The animals should have a large skeletal frame (long legs, loin, etc.) capable of producing a heavy
carcass.
Avoid animals that are too old. Check that the teeth are sound. This has implications on feed
utilization. It is advisable to select sheep/goats aged between 2 and 4 years for fattening.
Castration influences the fattening process. Castrated animals deposit more fat while uncastrated
animals have more muscular growth. The selection of castrated or uncastrated animals depends on the
final product desired and market conditions.
7.13.5. Feedstuff for growing and finishing sheep and goats

Finishing can be accomplished with diets containing different proportions of roughages and concentrates.
The proportion depends on the type of feeds available, the desired length of feeding and the types of
animals to be finished.
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Concentrates:
Concentrates are fed for energy. Grains and grain products commonly fed are shelled corn, wheat,
sorghum and oats. Liquid feedstuff, such as molasses, can also be used as a source of dietary
energy. Alternative energy sources, such as beet and citrus pulp can be fed to growing and
finishing sheep and goats, but in most situations performance will not equal that obtained from
grains and grain by-products. The use of these feeds depends on the price differential in utilizing
them for fattening compared to other alternative uses.
High-protein concentrate sources most commonly fed are nougseed cake, cottonseed cake, linseed
cake, sunflower seed cake, brewers grains, distillers grains and other similar feeds.
Roughages:
A wide variety of roughages can be fed to growing and finishing lambs. The amount of roughage
to feed depends on the objective of feeding the roughage. The roughage may be added to simply
add bulk or contribute to the feeding value. The role of roughage in short-term intensive feeding
is generally to provide bulk.
7.13.6. Weight of animals

Weights of animals at the start of the feeding operation govern the duration of feeding and the types and
amounts of feedstuff needed. Lightweight (1520 kg) animals can use more roughage, whereas heavier
lambs (>25 kg) require more concentrates and a shorter feeding period. Therefore, lightweight sheep and
goats are more desirable for conditioning based on a larger proportion of roughage, whereas heavier
animals perform best where high concentrate diets are used.
Finishing heavier animals (>30 kg initial weight) in dry lot allows for rapid turnover and more efficient
use of facilities. There are many practical feeding programs based on available feedstuffs that will
produce the most efficient gains at least cost (Table 7.19).
Table 7.19. Sample feeding programs for finishing in a dry lot.
Ingredient
Ground corn
Ground cobs
Chopped grass hay
Oilseed cake
Dried legume hay
Liquid molasses
Dicalcium phosphate
Trace mineral salt
Diet I (%)
Weight (kg)
To 30
30-40
40 to
market
52
62
72
20
10
11
10
5
1
1.5
11
10
5
1
1.5
11
10
5
1
1.5
Diet II (%)
Weight (kg)
To 30
30-40
40 to
market
49
59
69
33
23
13
11
11
11
5
5
5
1
1
1
1.5
1.5
1.5
To 30
60.5
10
23
5
1
1.5
Diet III (%)

Weight (kg)
30-40
40 to
market
60.5
59.5
10
10
23
23
5
5
1
1
1.5
1.5
Short term intensive feeding based on locally available feedstuffs is an economically more feasible
activity than keeping animals for long periods of time on maintenance-level feeding.
1. Demonstrate to farmers the cost-benefit of short term fattening versus keeping animals for long
periods of time;
2. Demonstrate to farmers that this can be a viable business venture.
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7.14. Feeding Management

Feeding sheep and goats is both a science and an art. While diets are scientifically formulated, experience
in the feeding and management of small ruminants is important in gaining optimum feed utilization.
Feed should be stored and used as carefully and economically as possible. Proper care should be taken
during storage and handling to avoid spoilage and loss; in feeding techniques and livestock management
to avoid wastage; and in ensuring that different types of feeds are used in the context of a balanced
feeding system. Some principles and applications of feeding management of sheep and goats are
presented below.
7.14.1. Improving feed utilization and efficiency
If livestock are to make the best use of feed, they must be healthy and correctly handled. Routine
control of epizootic diseases and internal and external parasites are important to achieve efficient use
of feedstuff.
Feed animals based on their requirements. Both overfeeding and underfeeding result in feed wastage.
7.14.2. Proper storage of feed
Stored feed must be kept dry and protected from animals, moisture and fire.
Cover hay stacks with thatching or other material.
Store feed in a well-ventilated area to avoid mold development and excessive heating.
Feeds, especially concentrates, should be stored on pallets to avoid direct contact with the floor, which
could cause spoilage.
Buy concentrate feeds only in quantities required for one month.
If possible, concentrate feeds should be stored as individual ingredients. Mixing should be in
quantities that can be used in a one-week period. Mixed feeds spoil faster.
Baled fodder is simpler to handle and requires less storage space compared with loose fodder. It is,
therefore, advisable to bale roughages. Baling can be done on small farms using a box baler without
requiring expensive equipment.
7.14.3. Adapting sheep and goats to new feeds and increasing consumption of less
palatable feeds
Sudden diet changes, especially switching from a diet high in roughage to concentrate, should be
avoided. Dietary changes should be gradual. The micro-organisms in the reticulo-rumen that help
sheep and goats utilize feed require time for adaptation. The sudden introduction of a new feed can
lead to scouring and loss of condition or even death in severe cases. A new feed or a feed that is not
highly palatable should first be given in very small amounts with the quantity being increased
progressively over a period of up to 15 days. There are, for example, observations that sheep and goats
initially can refuse to consume some multipurpose trees and other feeds that have a strong smell. Some
suggestions for use of new feeds are given below:
Always present the new feed when animals are hungry.

Mix new or less palatable feed with feeds the animals like to consume. The level of the new feed
can be increased gradually. Mixing with feeds such as molasses or salt can shorten the adaptation
period.
If the above strategies do not work, one can try forcing the animals to eat the new feed or go
hungry. If they are persistent in their refusal, another approach or a different feedstuff may need
to be used.
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7.14.4. Separate feeding and/or grazing
It is common for all classes of sheep and goats to graze together on communal land. This does not
allow for feeding different classes of animals differently. For example, pregnant or lactating females
should be fed differently than breeding males that should receive a maintenance diet.
Individual animals within groups of sheep or goats differ in their nutritional needs. When feed
resources are limited, animals with highest requirements should be targeted. For example, young
stock and pregnant females have special needs and should be treated differently from other animals.
Young lambs and kids need additional feed supplementation especially if they are born as twins or
triplets. This can be done by using creep feeders that only allow access to the supplement by young
animals.
7.14.5. Presentation of feed
Little attention is given to the method of presentation of feed in improving feed intake and feed
utilization. However, it has a crucial role in terms of its effect on the amount of feed eaten as well as
the amount wasted. Sheep like to graze while goats like to browse. Raising the feed offered to goats
high above the ground and simulating a browsing situation, by tying bundles of feed from a tree or
barn roof, may stimulate feeding behavior. It will also help keep the feed clean and reduce wastage.
Hay rack for goats (adopted from

Peacock, 1996)
Hay rack for sheep
Hay rack made of bamboo
Figure 7.31. Different types of hay racks.
7.14.6. Feeding based on palatability
If a feed has high nutritive value, but low palatability,

its dry matter intake will be low. Where farmers cut
and carry forage of different species, it is important to
know forage palatability ranking. Some farmers are
aware of this fact and make use of forage ranking
effectively. They do this by offering the forage of the
lowest palatability first and that with highest
palatability last.
A keyhole barrier made of wood
7.14.7. Provide fresh feed
Supplying fresh feed in smaller quantities more often

will help stimulate consumption compared with
offering larger amounts at one time.
A tombstone barrier made of wood
Figure 7.32. Different types of barriers and
racks that reduce wastage.

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151
7.14.8. Minimize wastage
Sanitation: Under confined or tethered feeding situations, a clean and dry floor will mean less
wastage. Feed that falls to a clean floor is more likely to be acceptable if offered again than feed
contaminated by mud and feces. Sheep and goats are selective feeders and easily refuse to eat dirty or
smelly feed. Feed that is refused by sheep and goats may, in most instances, be used for cattle, which
are generally less selective. This is one way of effectively utilizing available feed resources
Chopping: Feeding roughages in the chopped form reduces wastage and improves feed utilization.
Chopping green feed and stover has the following advantages:
Reduces selectivity.
Permits thick-stemmed material to be easily eaten.
Can increase consumption of unpalatable feeds.
Allows for mixing with other ration components.
Uneaten, coarse bits of chopped fodder may be added to dung cakes and so are used as fuel.
Poor feeding techniques:
When dry fodder is fed loose in the field, wastage will be less if distributed little by little so that
the stock eat it all and wait for more.
Long hay and straw should be fed from racks or mangers; feeding on the ground, apart from being
wasteful, is a health hazard.
Provision of appropriate feeders:
Feeding on the ground results in considerable feed wastage and contributes greatly to the spread
of disease, especially internal parasites. If sheep and goats are able to stand in their feed or in their
feeders, they will inevitably defecate and urinate in the feed. Feeders need to be raised off the
ground and constructed in such a way to keep the animals out as much as possible. Provision of
appropriate feeders also reduces competition. There must be enough space at the feeder for all
sheep and goats to be fed easily without fighting. Young animals should be fed separately from
older ones to avoid competition and trampling.
Feed troughs for concentrate and hay racks for forage feeding are required. The size of racks and
troughs is decided by the body size of the sheep and goats. Approximately 3040 cm per animal is
the minimum. Movable troughs are usually 24 m long. Fodder should not be put on the ground
for sheep and goats. A feeding rack can be made from wood or other locally available material
such as bamboo. The rack should be high enough to prevent adult sheep and goats from putting
their heads in it and from jumping into the rack. The bottom should be above the normal head
height.
It should be noted that the feeding behavior of goats is different from that of sheep and a barrier is
needed to prevent animals from jumping into the trough. In a system called tombstone or keyhole
barrier, each animal puts its head through an individual wooden barrier to eat without being able
to push its body into the trough. Suggested dimensions for a concentrate trough is 30 cm wide
with sides 15 cm high and standing on 15 cm legs.
In general, lowered troughs are not desirable because mud or soil can get into the trough and sheep and
goats are tempted to put their feet in. When only a limited amount of supplementary feed is given, it is
essential that the trough is long enough to allow all sheep to eat at once. Some troughs are fitted with a
yoke to restrain animals during the short period of supplementary feeding. Such structures allow
individual recording of the amount of concentrate consumed by an animal.
Feed racks: Racks should be used wherever possible. Hay, crop residue, as well as cut green
vegetation (if using cut-and-carry system), can most easily be fed in racks made with slatted sides
and hung so that the feed is presented off the ground and at approximately head height.
Galvanized metal racks are more durable than racks made of wood, but are more expensive. There
should be enough feeder space for all animals to eat at the same time. Providing more than one
feeder is a good option.
ALEMU YAMI
152
A hay rack made of wood
A different make of rack
Hay rack made of metal
Figure 7.33. Different types of hay racks.
The height of the rack will depend on the height of the animals. The rack should be high
enough for the animals to reach up and pull the feed down. Do not place the racks too
high. If animals are constantly reaching up to get at the hay, dust and particles from the
hay will get into their eyes, and the irritation caused by the sharp particles can result in
an unpleasant condition called "Red Eye". Racks can be constructed using materials
available in the area; tree branches, bamboo, etc. The width between the bars depends on
the type of feed offered. The rack can be constructed as a mobile free standing structure
or attached to a wall for support. Placing a tray or another rack underneath will help to
catch feed that falls through and so prevent contamination on the ground. A feeding
space of 30 cm per animal is generally allowed. Feeding animals in smaller groups can
serve to give adequate chance for all. Portable mobile racks can be used for fieldfeeding.
Feeding troughs: Dry supplements and feeds that are chopped to small sizes should be fed on
feeders that do not have gaps. Waterproof containers like a plastic bucket or a similar container
can be used for wet feeds. Raising and providing support to such feeders will minimize spillage.
There are various designs for feeding troughs. Round bottom or U-shaped feeders are easier to
clean than feeders with square bottoms. Metal or hard plastic pans or containers are useful for
hand feeding small numbers of animals. Old car tires cut in half can also be used.
o
A feeding trough made of

burrowed wood
Trough made of metal

sheet
Trough made of half-cut barrel
Figure 7.34. Different types of feeding troughs.
Trough made of PVC pipe used

for feeding salt
NUTRITION
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a. Feeding trough fixed to a pole for

goats
153
b. Watering trough fixed to a pole
Figure 7.35. Raised feeding trough and waterer for goats.
Feeding racks and troughs placed on grazing areas should be:

Sited on hard-packed ground or on a well-drained part of the field, and
Shifted regularly to reduce damage to the sward.
o Housed stock should receive their feed and fodder in troughs and racks. Racks are often
fitted above the trough or manger so that any feed which falls from the rack is held in the
trough.
Provision of shades:
Appetite of animals will be depressed if the place where they are fed is hot and exposed to the
sun. They will eat more in a cool and shady place than in a place exposed to direct sunlight. It is,
therefore, advisable to locate feeders under the shade.
o
Proper storage by baling hay and crop residues saves storage space and reduces wastage.
Proper feeding management reduces wastage and improves feed utilization and performance of
sheep and goats.
1. Chopping feedstuff.
2. Use of feeding troughs/racks to reduce wastage.
3. Feeding animals of similar nutritional requirements in groups.
7.15. Characteristics and Feeding Values of Some Common Feeds for Sheep and
Goats
7.15.1. Cereals
Barley: Is easily digestible and therefore well suited for all kinds of animals. It contains more protein,
lysine and fiber than corn.
Corn: Constitutes the basis for concentrate rations in many countries. It is the cereal with the highest
metabolisable energy content which categorizes it among the best energy sources. It is low in protein and
especially deficient in the amino acid, lysine. Its utilization is limited only by the need to limit the
energy/protein balance. Utilization rates are commonly between 60 and 70%.
154
ALEMU YAMI
Millet: Millet is equivalent to sorghum as an energy source and higher in its lysine content. It may be
used as feed for livestock and poultry. It should always be ground.
Oats: Has the lowest metabolisable energy content among the cereals. It is a bulky feed with high
percentage of crude fiber. It is a palatable and digestible feed that also stimulates digestion. Oats has
higher crude protein content than most grains and is the most balanced in terms of amino acids.
Sorghum: The composition of sorghum is close to that of corn. It is, however, richer in cellulose and
less rich in fats. Sorghum may contain tannins, which have a depressing effect on the digestibility of
feeds. The content varies considerably (0.23%) depending on the cultivars. Considerable variations in
protein and starch contents also exist between varieties. Sorghum should be ground for efficient
utilization.
Wheat: Wheat is usually not used extensively in animal rations due to its value as human food and the
associated high cost. It is the best cereal grain for feeding animals next to corn. Wheat is usually best at
levels not exceeding 50% of the concentrate mix in sheep and goat diets because of digestive upsets that
may develop.
7.15.2. Cereal by-products

Brewers Dried Grains (BDG): The dried and extracted residue of barley malt alone or in a mixture
with other cereal grains or grain by-products resulting from the manufacture of beer. It has a high crude
protein content of 1624% of dry matter. It also has a high cellulose content of 920% of dry matter.
BDG has about 80% of the energy content of barley grain but is not as palatable as the original grain. It is
chiefly used interchangeably with other feeds of similar bulk in finishing rations.
Brewers Dried Yeast (BDY): Is the dried, non-fermentative, non-extracted yeast of the botanical
classification Saccharomyces resulting as a by-product from the brewing of beer. BDY must not contain
less than 35% crude protein. It is an excellent source of highly digestible, good quality protein.
Grain Screenings: Consists of 70% or more of light and broken grains along with weed seeds and other
foreign material that is separated with a screen in the cleaning of grain. Quality varies according to the
percentage of weed seeds and other foreign material. Most grain screenings are incorporated in ruminant
rations. Screenings are normally limited to 1520% of feedlot rations.
Wheat Bran: Is the coarse outer covering of the wheat kernel separated from wheat in commercial
milling. It is rich in niacin, Vitamin B1, phosphorus and iron. A large part of the phosphorus is phytin
phosphorus. Wheat bran is widely used in horse rations because of its bulky nature and laxative effects. It
is also a favored supplement in sheep rations.
Wheat Middlings: Is a by-product of the milling industry. Consists of the fine particles of bran, shorts,
germ and flour. Wheat Middlings should not contain more than 9.5% fiber. It is deficient in calcium,
carotene, and Vitamin D, but is widely used as a potential grain replacement in rations for all animal
species.
Wheat Shorts: A similar product to wheat bran and middlings but lower in its crude fiber content (max.
7%) and richer in its energy composition because it contains the finer wheat milling by-products
including a larger proportion of flour.
7.15.3. By-products of oil mills

Cottonseed meal: Is the finely flaked residue that remains after most of the oil from cottonseed has been
extracted. The nutritive value of this meal varies a great deal according to the manufacturing technique
used. The crude protein content of the decorticated meal can range between 40 and 50%. Cottonseed
meal is low in lysine, methionine and tryptophan and deficient in Vitamin D, carotene and calcium but
NUTRITION
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155
rich in phosphorus. It is an excellent protein supplement for ruminants, since they can tolerate gossypol
and do not require lysine and tryptophan in the diet.
Groundnut meal (Peanut meal): Can contain 4550% crude protein depending on the method of oil
extraction. It is low in methionine, lysine and tryptophan. It is also low in calcium; carotene and Vitamin
D. Groundnut meal is palatable and contains high quality protein. The meal can be contaminated with
molds, especially Asperigillus flavus that excretes a toxin known as aflatoxin. It shouldnt be stored for
more than six weeks since this product tends to spoil when held too long, especially in warm moist
climates.
Linseed meal (Flax meal): Is low in the amino acids lysine and tryptophan. It is also lacking in carotene
and Vitamin D, and only fair in the content of calcium and B-vitamins.
Nougseed meal: Is a product comparable in feeding value to undecorticated peanut meal. It is very
palatable and can be included in concentrate mixtures for all classes of livestock.
Rapeseed meal: May be used as a protein supplement for all classes of livestock. It may be used at
maximum levels of 20% in rations.
Sesame seed meal: Has analytical characteristic similar to groundnut meal. It is a little oilier, richer in
cellulose and a little poorer in total crude protein content. It has high methionine content and, thus, an
excellent quality plant protein supplement suitable for all animal species. No toxic factor is known in this
meal. The color of the expeller meal varies with the variable color of sesame seed varieties.
Soybean meal: Is a product obtained by grinding the flakes that remain after extracting most of the oil
from soybeans. It has the highest nutritive value of any plant protein source. The preponderance of
soybean meal is explained by its richness in the "indispensable" amino acids, notably lysine. The heat
treatment of soybean meal improves its digestibility and destroys the toxic anti-trypsin factor (ATF), of
which small amounts are present in crude soya. It contains 4050% crude protein, is very palatable and,
thus, suitable for all animal species.
Sunflower meal: The variation in feeding value is considerable due to differences in crude fiber and the
method of extraction. It is a suitable protein supplement for all animal species. Crude protein content
ranges from 35 to 40%.
7.15.4. Sugar refinery by-products

Cane molasses: Is a by-product of the manufacture of table sugar from sugarcane. It is a good energy
source but low in protein. It is very palatable and an excellent appetizer. It may be fed to any animal
species. Molasses is used mostly as a binder to mixed feeds to be pelleted. It also helps to reduce
dustiness of mixed concentrate.
7.15.5. Feeds of animal origin

Dehydrated poultry litter: Is poultry manure mixed with litter material from poultry managed under the
litter system of management. It is dried immediately after removal from the poultry house and preferably
milled and run over a magnet to remove stray metal scraps. Is a low-cost palatable feed that is fair in
energy but high in protein and minerals. Quality varies with the type of litter material used.
Poultry Manure: Is produced in cage systems of poultry husbandry. Fresh manure is about 30% crude
protein on a dry matter basis. The digestibility of crude protein and organic matter for ruminants is about
80 and 65%, respectively. Initially, the rumen organisms require an adaptation period of about three
weeks to fully utilize uric acid, which is the main nitrogenous compound in the manure. Poultry manure
intended for feeding must be dried immediately as fresh manure ferments very quickly.
156
ALEMU YAMI
7.15.6. Roughage sources

Bagasse, sugarcane: Is the fibrous residue of sugarcane that remains after the juice is pressed out. It is
one of the principal by-products of the sugar-making process. It may be used as low quality roughage.
Barley straw: Is usually superior to wheat straw but inferior to oat straw in feeding value. May be fed to
sheep and goats as a maintenance ration.
Bean straw: Varies widely in quality. It is satisfactory as a roughage source.
Corncobs: Are low quality roughage. May be fed to cattle or sheep except for feedlot animals in which
case they should be limited to very small quantities.
Corn husks: Are the most digestible of the corn residues that rank as follows: husks, leaf, cob and stalks.
Corn stover: Is the mature corn plant from which the ears have been removed.
Oat straw: Is the most nutritious and palatable of the cereal straws. It may constitute up to half the
roughage of breeding and stocker cattle, provided the other half consists of good legume hay.
Peanut hulls: The outer covering of peanut seeds. Are high in fiber, but have 8% protein on a moisturefree basis. These may constitute up to 10% of lamb finishing rations.
Pea straw: Is the residue remaining after separation of the seeds by threshing mature peas. It is worth
about 2/3 of legume hays.
Sorghum stover: Consists of the stalks and leaves left after removing the mature sorghum heads. It may
be grazed in the field, stored as dry roughage or ensiled. It is commonly fed to beef cattle. After harvest,
sorghum will send up new shoots if the moisture is favorable. The prussic acid content of these shoots
may be toxic to grazing animals.
Soybean hulls: Are the outer covering of soybean seeds. They are high in fiber and fair in protein
content. The hull constitutes some 8% of the seed weight. Soybean hulls are incorporated in commercial
feeds primarily because of their high fiber. They are best suited for use by growing sheep.
Soybean straw: Is the residue remaining after separation of the seeds by threshing mature soybeans. It is
a high-fiber, low-protein and high-lignin product. It should be fed with good quality hay at about a 1:1
ratio.
Wheat chaff: Includes the husks, hulls, joints and small fragments of straw that are separated from the
seeds in threshing of wheat. It is bulky, high in fiber and low in protein.
Wheat straw: Is the residue remaining after separation of the seeds by threshing of wheat. It is best fed
with good quality legume hay at about a 1:1 ratio.
Glossary of Nutrition Technical Terms

Ad libitum: A feeding system where animals are given unlimited access to feed. Synonymous terms
include full feeding, free choice, self-feeding.
Air-dry basis: Expression of the composition of a feedstuff. This may be actual, i.e., referring to feed
that is dried by means of natural air movement in the open or assumed dry matter content. Assumed
to be 90% dry matter.
Animal protein: Protein of animal origin derived from slaughterhouses and animal product processing
plants that can be used as ingredients in feed mixtures.
NUTRITION
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157
Anti-nutrients: Some feed ingredients and potential feeds contain factors that inhibit the digestive
process, causing reduced growth, diarrhea or pasting. They limit the amount of some feed ingredients
that can be added to the final feed. The anti-nutritional factors in some feed materials such as beans
can be destroyed by heat treatment (cooking).
Anti-oxidant: A chemical compound that prevents oxidative rancidity of polyunsaturated fats; added to
feed ingredients or feed mixtures for protection against oxidation.
Appetite: Desire to eat; could also be used to refer to the weight of feed dry matter consumed as a
percentage of live weight.
As fed: Refers to feed as normally fed to animals.
Available nutrient: A nutrient that can be digested, absorbed and used in the body for some useful
purpose.
Average daily gain (ADG): The mean daily increase in the live weight of an animal.
Balanced daily ration: A combination of feeds fed at one time or in portions at intervals, that will provide
the essential nutrients in such amounts as will properly nourish an animal for a 24-hour period.
Balanced ration: A combination of feeds that provides the essential nutrients in the proper amounts and
proportions to adequately nourish a particular animal.
Biological value: The usable proportion of the protein of a feed or feed mixture by an animal. It is a
measure of protein quality. A protein that has a high biological value is said to be of good quality.
Blend: A mixture, such that the constituent parts are rendered indistinguishable from one another.
By-product feeds: Secondary products from plant and animal processing and industrial manufacturing
that may be used for animal feeding.
Cake (press cake): Material resulting as a by-product from the processing of oilseeds to remove oil
using the mechanical or expeller method.
Calorie: amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.5 to
15.5C used as a measure of feed energy.
Chaff: Glumes, husks, or other feed covering together with other plant parts, separated from seed in
threshing or processing.
Commercial feeds: Feeds mixed by commercial feed manufacturers that specialize in the business, as
opposed to home-mixing.
Compaction: A condition when feed in the stomach and intestines of an animal becomes closely packed
causing constipation and/or digestive disturbances.
Complete ration: All feedstuffs (forages, grains, processed feeds etc.) combined in one feed mixture
that is nutritionally adequate for a specific animal in a specific physiological state, sometimes referred
to as a total mixed ration.
Concentrate: A class of feedstuff low in fiber (<18% crude fiber).
Creep: An enclosure or feeder used for supplemental feeding of nursing young that excludes their dams.
Crop residue: Portion of plant growth that remains after harvesting a grain or seed crop, e.g., straw,
stalks, husks, cobs, etc.
Deficiency: Lack or shortage of one or more basic nutrients.
Diet: A feed or mixture of feed ingredients including water regularly offered to or consumed by an animal.
Digestibility: The proportion of feed that is not excreted in the feces and, thus, assumed to be absorbed.
Digestion: Process of changing food to a form that can be absorbed from the digestive tract by the body
tissues (mainly the intestines).
Diluent: An edible substance used for mixing with and reducing the concentration of nutrients and/or
additives to make them more acceptable to animals, safer to use and more capable of being mixed
uniformly in a feed mixture.
Dry-matter basis: An expression of the level of a nutrient contained in a feed on the basis that the
material contains no moisture. Synonymous with 100% dry-matter basis, moisture free, oven dry.
Energy feeds: Feeds high in energy and low in fiber (<18% crude fiber), e.g., grains.
Expeller process: A process for the mechanical extraction of oil from oilseeds involving the use of a
screw press.
158
ALEMU YAMI
Feed (feedstuff): Any naturally occurring material suitable for feeding animals.
Feed additives: Non-nutritive products that improve animal performance or preserve feeds.
Feed conversion efficiency: Measure of the efficiency of feed utilization. It is expressed as units of feed
per unit of animal product meat, milk or eggs.
Feeders margin: Difference between the cost per unit weight of feeder animals and the selling price per
unit weight of the same animals when finished.
Feeding standards: Estimates of nutrient requirements for a specific function in a given environment.
Feedlot: A lot or plot of land on which animals are fed or finished for marketing.
Fibrous feed: Feed high in cellulose and/or lignin.
Finish: To fatten a slaughter animal. The term may also refer to the degree of fatness of such an animal.
Flushing: The practice of supplementing breeding animals two weeks prior and for one or two weeks
after breeding to improve fertility.
Fodder: Coarse feeds such as corn or sorghum stover.
Forage: Vegetative parts of plants fed to livestock in the fresh, dried or ensiled form.
Formula feed: Feed mixture consisting of ingredients mixed and processed in specific proportions.
Free choice: A feeding system by which animals are given unlimited access to the separate components
or groups of components constituting the diet.
Full feed: A situation where animals are being offered as much feed as they will consume safely without
going off-feed.
Gestation ration: Ration given to pregnant animals during the last trimester to provide the
additional nutrients needed for proper growth of the fetus and to keep the mother fit for optimum milk
production.
Grits: Coarsely ground grain from which the bran and germ have been removed. Usually screened to
uniform particle size.
Hulls: Outer covering of dry grain or other seed, especially when dry.
Ingredient: Constituent feed of a feed mixture.
Joule: A measure of energy. It is the work done when a force of one Newton is applied through a
distance of one meter. 4.184 Joules = 1calorie.
Laxative: Feed that induces bowel movement and relieves constipation.
Limiting amino acid: An essential amino acid of a protein that shows the greatest percentage deficit in
comparison to the amino acids contained in the same quantity of another protein selected as a
standard.
Maintenance ration: The minimum amount of feed required to maintain the essential body processes at
their optimum rate without gain or loss in body weight or change in body composition.
Mash: An expression of the physical form of a mixture of ingredients in the form of a meal.
Meal: An expression of the physical form of an ingredient that has been ground or otherwise reduced to
a particle size somewhat larger than flour.
Mechanically extracted: Fat extraction procedure from oilseeds by the application of heat and
mechanical pressure.
Medicated feed: Any feed that contains drugs for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.
Metabolic body weight: Measure of body size expressed as the body weight of the animal raised to the
three-fourths power (W 0.75).
Micro-ingredient: Any ration component normally measured in milligrams or micrograms per kilogram or
in parts per million (ppm), e.g., trace minerals, vitamins.
Non-protein nitrogen (NPN): Nitrogen that comes from sources other than protein but may be used by
ruminants and can, thus, form part of ruminant rations, e.g., urea.
Nutrient: Any chemical substance in feed that has specific functions in the nutritive support of animal
life.
Nutrition: The process of digesting, absorbing and converting feed into tissue and energy. It can also
refer to the study of this process.
NUTRITION
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159
Nutrient requirements: Minimum nutrient needs of animals without margins of safety for maintenance,
growth, reproduction, lactation and work. Nutrient requirements plus a safety margin is called "nutrient
allowance."
Off-feed: Not eating with normal healthy appetite.
Palatable feed: Feed that is well-liked and is eaten with relish.
Pellets: Agglomerated feed formed by compacting and forcing the material through openings by a
mechanical process.
Plant proteins: A category of feeds of plant origin high in their protein content, e.g., cottonseed meal,
peanut meal, etc.
Production ration: Additional allowance of ration for production over and above maintenance
requirements.
Protein supplements: Feedstuff that contain more than 20% protein or protein equivalent.
Protein quality: A term used to describe the amino acid balance of a protein. A protein is said to be of
good quality if it contains all of the essential amino acids in proper proportions and amounts needed
by a specific animal.
Ration: The total amount of feed or a mixture of feeds allotted to an animal for a 24-hour period with no
reference to quantity or quality.
Roughage: Feedstuff of plant origin that is high in crude fiber but low in digestibility and protein.
Scalping: Removing larger material by screening.
Solvent extraction: A method of extracting oil from oilseeds using solvents.
Supplement: A semi-concentrated source of one or more nutrients used to improve the nutritional value
of a balanced ration, e.g., protein supplement, mineral supplement.
True protein: A compound that will completely hydrolyze to amino acids.
Zero-grazing: Feeding of green fodder as green chop in a lot or stall.
References
Banerjee, G.C. 1982. A Textbook of Animal Husbandry. Oxford and IBH publishing Co.
Close W and Menke, K.H. 1986. Selected Topics in Animal Nutrition. DSE. pp. 170.
Devendra, C and Burns, M. 1983. Goat Production in the Tropics. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.
Pp. 183.
Devendra, C. 1986. Feeding systems and nutrition of goats and sheep in the tropics. In Adeniji, K.O.,
and Kategeli, J.A. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Improvement of Small Ruminants in eastern
and southern Africa. 1822 August 1986. Nairobi Kenya. pp.91110.
Gatenby, R.M. 2002. Sheep. The tropical Agriculturalist Series. McMillan publishers. pp.178.
Gipson, T. A., Merkel, R. C., Hart, S., Williams, K. and Sahlu, T. 2005. Meat Goat Production
Handbook. American Institute for Goat Research, Langston University, USA.
Nelson, R.H. 1979. An Introduction to the Feeding of Farm Livestock. 2
nd
ed. Pergamon press. pp 156.
Peacock C. 1996. Improving Goat Production in the Tropics. A manual for development workers.
OXFAM (UK and Ireland) and FARM_Africa, United Kingdom.
Roger C. Merkel and Subandriyo. 1997. Sheep and Goat Production Handbook for Southeast Asia. viii
+214 pp.
Steel, M. 1996. Goats. The Tropical Agriculturalist Series. McMillan publishers, UK. Pp.152.

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What are some of the unique features of the ruminant digestive tract compared to monogastric animals?

What are some of the unique features of the ruminant digestive tract compared to monogastric animals?

What are the four compartments of the ruminant stomach?

What are the four compartments of the ruminant stomach?

CHAPTER SEVEN

Nutrition and Feeding of

Recognition of feed-related problems of sheep and goats in

7.1. General Introduction

the availability of nutrients;

Ability to digest carbohydrate sources not digested by monogastrics.

7.2.1. Structure of the ruminant stomach

7.2.2. Development of the ruminant stomach

Table 7.1. Development in the relative sizes of sheep

microbial digestion of cellulose;

7.2.3. Rumen environment and its manipulation

Constant temperature and pH (~67).

of NH3 is critical for proper function.

Increasing the digestibility of complex carbohydrates in poor quality roughages.

7.3. Nutrients and Feedstuff

Energy to support essential physiological functions.

Succulent feeds usually contain more

Table 7.2. Nutrient composition of feeds used for sheep and

than 75% moisture and include:

7.4. Nutrient Requirements and Deficiencies

The overall nutrient requirements of a

Source: Devendra (1982); NRC (1981).

Source: Devendra and McLeroy (1982).

The nutrient requirement for pregnancy rises

Table 7.5. Micro-mineral requirements and toxic levels.

Source: NRC (1982).

Table 7.6. Water content of various feeds.

Sheep and Goat Production Handbook for Ethiopia

7.4.2. Nutrient deficiencies

Figure 7.2. Mineral deficiency sites in Ethiopia.

Table 7.7. Mineral deficiency symptoms and possible supplementation sources.

Types and classes of

Difficulty in walking, deformed

Stiff joints, salivation, swelling of feet,

Milk, green feed, ground

Young, growing animals

Young and growing

Bran, oilseed cakes

Seeds, tracemineralized salt

Sheep and Goat Production Handbook for Ethiopia

7.5. The Feeding Habits of Sheep and Goats

Less water loss

Higher water loss

Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program

a. Feeding heights (cm) above ground for different livestock

Figure 7.3. The feeding habits of sheep and goats.

7.6. Available Feed Resources for Sheep and Goats

Crop production system

*available only near sugar factories.

7.6.1. Natural pasture and browse

7.6.2. Crop residues and fallow grazing

c. Sweet potato vines

d.Corn stover and cobs

Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program

7.6.3. Agro-industrial by-products

7.6.4. Thinnings and leaf strips from maize