SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING & DESIGN

Bachelor of Science (Honours) (Architecture)

Building Structures (ARC 2523)
Project 1
Fettuccine Truss Bridge

Group Members

Student ID

Chan Jasmine

0308513

Charlene Chan

0308518

Kian Soon Jean

0314978

Lim Shu Yin

0307795

Nasreen Hajibeigy

0310538

Ye Min Aung

1006A79600

Content Page
1

Introduction

Methodology

Aims and Objectives

Precedent Study
4.1 History
4.2 Structure of the Bridge
4.3 Load Truss Analysis
4.4 Conclusion

Equipment and Materials

5.1 Equipment
5.1.1 Testing of Glues
5.2 Material
5.2.1 Properties of Fettucine
5.2.2 Quality Control

Experimenting Progress
6.1 Experimenting on Different Types of Trusses
6.1.1 Type of Truss
6.1.2 Load analysis
6.2 Design Features of trusses
6.3 Testing of beams
6.4 Full scale models testing
6.3.1 Mock-up (3)
6.3.2 Load Analysis
6.3.3 Improvements
6.5 Efficiency Calculations
6.6 Conclusion

Final Model Testing

7.1 Truss Design
7.1.1 Amendments and Modifications to Bridge Design
7.1.2 Fettuccine Bridge Construction
7.1.3 Joints
7.2 Load Analysis
7.3 Truss Bridge Testing
7.4 Efficiency Calculations

Conclusion

References

10 Appendix (Calculations cases)

1.0 Introduction
Truss bridge is a structure composed of load bearing elements that form triangular units which are
stressed in either tension or compression force on its joints. It is popular constructed due to its
efficiency in load transfer and materials used. Few basic examples of truss are Pratt truss, Howe truss
and Warren truss.

2.0 Methodology
This project was divided into two tasks. In the first task, each of us had analysed one truss system out
of six to determine which truss arrangement is the most effective. We had done calculations for each
truss system based on moments, internal forces, reaction forces and component forces.
In the second task, precedent study on truss bridges was done in order to understand the connections,
arrangement of truss and orientation of truss. By using the info obtained from the precedent study, a
fettuccine bridge was designed and constructed with 750mm clear span and maximum weight of 200g.
The bridge was tested until it failed.
As we aimed to reach a higher efficiency in our fettuccine bridge, aesthetic was not our priority. We
determined the strength of the fettuccine and chose those truss designs that fully utilised its
properties. Then, we tried out a few factors that could affect the efficiency of the truss bridge such as
number of layerings of one member, the height between two beams and the ratio between the height
and the width.
Workmanship is one of the most important factors in the efficiency of the truss bridge. We distributed
the job equally so that the outcome was even. We chose out the good quality fettuccine and omitted
the bad one. Then, we came out with cad drawings and followed it to get the measurements so that
human error and mistakes could be minimized.
For load testing, we had used different methods for different bridges that we had made. We had tried
to tie a recycle bag over the support of the bridge and put in random stuff into the bag. Later then we
measured the weight of the bag. Eventually we decided to use packs of fettuccine and 500ml water
bottle in the load testing to ease the calculation and enhance the accuracy.
Lastly, the analysis report is produced based on the outcome of the final testing of the fettuccine
bridge.

3.0 Aim and objectives

The aim of our group is to get a high efficiency truss bridge. Therefore we set 4kg load and weight less
than 200g as our target to reach during the load testing. The objectives of this project is to understand
the tension and compression strength of the fettuccine and the force distribution in a truss. Besides,
we have to design a perfect truss bridge which has high level of aesthetic value by using minimal
amount of fettuccine.
After the project, we were able to evaluate, explore and improve attributes of fettuccine and
understand the load distribution in a truss. We could evaluate and identify tension and compression
member and explore different arrangement of member in a truss structure.

4.0 Precedent Study

Old North Park Street Bridge
@ Concord, Massachusetts

Figure 4 (a): The old north park street bridge is now located at Riverside Park.

4.1 History
After the first wooden bridge that was used to connect the Grand Rapids and the City of Walker was
destroyed by flood, a new wrought iron Pratt truss bridge was built to replace it. The bridge provided
access for both pedestrian and vehicles across the Grand River. After serving for almost 88 years, the
bridge was determined to be deteriorated extremely which required expensive renovations. Hence, it
was planned to be demolished and sold to scrap yet the local preservation managed to save one span
of the bridge to be acknowledged as a historical significance.

4.2 Structure
The Old North Park Street Bridge was one of the longest Pratt truss bridge in Michigan with its length
of 589 feet. The bridge had five 116 foot spans set on piers in the river and each span was divided into
8 truss sections. The truss was characterised with outwards direction of diagonal members and
additional cross bracing in the middle of the span. The outer vertical members and the diagonal
members were thinner compared to the other members. The bridge was then reinforced with
concrete pavement to withstand more load as the circulation gets busier.

Figure 4(b): The connections between the beams and the thinner vertical members.

4.3 Load Analysis

As the bridge was paved with concrete to withstand heavier loads, the bridge deck was rested on the
beams that were connected to the vertical members. A pair of eyebars were bolted to the vertical
members to hold the diagonal members together. The outer two vertical members were much thinner
compared to the others. This is because the bridge is supported by four concrete piers in the river and
concrete abutments at each end.
Figure 4 (c): View of the entrance of old north park street bridge.

The vertical members were reinforced with truss to withstand more compression force. They were
connected to the beams through pin connection so that the force could be transmitted equally.
Wrought iron is good under tension, hence the diagonal members could be thinner as they were in
tension due to the strength of the material used.

Diagram 4(d): Compression and tension force in a Pratt truss bridge with cross bracings at the centre
section.

The arrangement of the truss makes the bridge has more tension members compared to the
compression members. The crossed X braces in the centre section of the bridge reinforced the
members in tension. As iron is good in tension, the Pratt truss design makes the bridge more efficient
since most of its members are in tension.

4.4 Conclusion
As fettuccine is good in tension but does not perform very well under compression, Pratt truss
design which has most of its members in tension is a suitable design for the bridge design.

5.0 Equipment & Material

5.1 Equipment
1. Weights (car keys, phone, packets of fettuccine)
A variety of items were used as weight to test on the fettuccine bridge such as car keys,
phone and packets of Fettuccine Bridge.

2. 500ml water bottle

This was used as a weight to the fettuccine bridge.

3. Bucket
A big bucket was used to put all the 500ml bottles together to make the weight as one to
test on the bridge.

4. Lanyard
A lanyard was used to replace the S-hook in order to connect the weights and the bridge
together.

5. Plastic bag
Plastic bag was used to put the weights together

6. Tweezers
It was used to carefully stick the fettuccines on each other as we used a very strong glue and
we had to carefully place them in the correct position.

7. S- hook
In order to connect the fettuccine bridge and weight together as well as making sure it was
focusing on one point, a S-hook was used.

8. Three second super glue

We have chosen this glue to use for our final bridge as we already tested a few other glues.
This is due to its efficiency and speed of sticking the fettuccines together.

9. UHU glue
UHU glue was tested to stick the fettuccines together. However, we have came to a
conclusion that it is not suitable as it is not strong enough to hold them together for a long
period of time.

10. Pen Knife

A paper pen knife was used to cut the fettuccine. We used various sizes of pen knife with
different strength to cut the fettuccine.

11. Metal ruler

Metal ruler was not only used to mark the points of fettuccine that needs to be cut but also
occasionally used to cut the fettuccine itself.

12. Digital SLR camera

A camera was used to document the information and record it for further use.

5.1.1 Testing of Glues

We have used two glues to test on the fettuccine bridge which are three second super glue and UHU
glue. We have identified which one gives the best result to hold the fettuccines together in a sense
of stability and effiency.

Types of Glue
Three second super glue

UHU glue

Description
Highest efficiency
Fastest solidify time duration

Low effiency
Slower solidify time duration

Figure 1: Types of glues and description

In conclusion, we have chosen the three second super glue as it is the most efficient glue to
use. It also has the fastest solidify time duration.

5.2 Material
5.2.1 Properties of the chosen material
The only material used in this project is fettuccine as it is the only material that is required in the
brief. Hence, there were some analysis and research done on the fettuccine before making the final
model.

Figure 2: Fettuccine used for bridge

Properties of Fettuccine

Thickness of 1mm
Small yield point due to the brittleness
Ultimate tensile strength ~2000psi
Stiffness (Young's modulus) E~ 10,000,000 psi, (E=stress/strain)

We have tested the fettuccine strength by bending and breaking the both ends. In conclusion we
have identified that handling it vertically is stronger than when it is horizontal. We have tested its
strength of bending by taking a video which screenshots are as shown below.

5.2.2 Quality Control

Quality Control or QC for short, is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors
involved in production. In this case, it is used to measure the perfect straight fettuccine that
could be used in making the bridge and eliminate the twisted and bended fettuccine which will
cause imperfection to the bridge if used.

Figure 3: Straight Fettuccine

Figure 4: Twisted Fettuccine

6.0 Experimenting Progress

6.1 Experimenting on different trusses
6.1.1 Different types of trusses
-

Pratt truss
A truss having vertical members between the upper and lower members and diagonal
members sloping toward the centre.

Howe truss
Vertical members and diagonals that slope up towards the centre. In contrast to the
Pratt truss, the diagonal web members are in compression and the vertical web
members are in tension.

Warren truss
The Warren Truss uses equilateral triangles to spread out the loads on the bridge. It is a
combination of Pratt truss and Howe truss. Interestingly, as a load moves across the
bridge sometimes the forces for a member switch from compression to tension.

K- truss
A truss having in each panel two diagonals running from the ends ofone post to the cent
er of the adjacent post, the arrangement being
symmetrical about the centre of the truss.

6.1.2 Load Analysis

(i)

Pratt Truss

Diagram 1.1.1 (i)

The interior diagonal members are in tension while the vertical members are in
compression when loaded. Fettuccine is good in tension but weak in compression,
therefore the compression members have to be strengthen.

(ii)

Howe Truss

Diagram 1.1.1 (ii)

The interior diagonal members are in compression while the vertical members are in
tension when loaded. Fettuccine is good in tension but weak in compression, therefore
the compression members have to be strengthen.
(iii)

Warren Truss

Diagram 1.1.1 (iii)

The equilateral triangles minimize the forces to only compression and tension.
Interestingly, as a load moves across the bridge sometimes the forces for a member
switch from compression to tension. Fettuccine is good in tension but weak in
compression, therefore the compression members have to be strengthen.

(iv)

K Truss

Diagram 1.1.1 (iv)

The idea of the K truss is to break up the vertical members into smaller sections. This is
because the vertical members are in compression. The shorter a member is, the more in
can resist buckling from compression. However, the K-truss requires more members
than the rest of the truss.

6.2 Testing of Beams

The middle beams were tested, of which Beam 1 and Beam 2. The reason is to
find out which could hold more load.

Conclusion:
Beam 1 and Beam 2 broke at the same weight. However, beam 2 showed more elasticity
from the compression struts in the beams. It held the weights longer than beam 1 did
before breaking.

6.3 Design Features of each truss

6.4 Full scale Model Testing (750mm clear span)

6.4.1 Design Development of Bridges

6.4.2 Load testing of Full scale bridges (G,H,J)

6.4.3 Load Analysis & Improvision

6. 5 Efficiency Calculations
After obtaining the weights from the full scale models (Model H, J & K), the efficiency for both the
models were recorded and calculated.

Model H
Efficiency

= (load)/weight of bridge
= 2.5/0.19
= 32.89%

Model J
Efficiency

= (load)/weight of bridge
= 1.5/0.19
= 11.84%

Model K
Efficiency

= (load)/weight of bridge
= 5/0.187
= 133.69%

Based on the efficiency, we decided to improvise the reinforcements of Model K but sticking
to the same design of it for our final design. Many minor adjustments were made from model H to J
and finally to K to achieve the highest efficiency we could.

6.6 Conclusion
From the efficiency of the full scale bridges tested, the simple Pratt truss with good
workmanship, with the right ratio, height and proper reinforcements would be able to withstand
heavy weights.
The joints should be properly connected with appropriate adhesive, which in conclusion is the 3
second glue. Besides that, the selection of A grade fettuccine to do our bridge would be vital in
making a high performance and straight bridge. Each member has to be carefully selected before
being stuck down with the adhesive glue.
The weaker part of the bridge, especially the compression members are reinforced in order to
achieve a higher efficiency. The utmost important factor for the efficiency of the bridge is the
workmanship, to ensure every member is cut and paste perfectly and perpendicular to one another.

7.0 Final Model Testing

7.1 Truss Design
The final truss design we chose was relatively similar to the previous test bridges truss due to
the high efficiency we obtained from that test. Although the previous bridge was 10g overweight, we
decided to use it and amended the number of fettuccine trusses in the final design. After
determining the final results of the previous test bridge, improvisation to the final design was made
through a series of analysis.

7.1.1 Amendments and Modifications to Bridge Design

Our main concern was regarding the weight of the bridge as the brief requirement gave
200g whereas our previous bridge was about 210 g. Based on one of our earliest experiment of
prioritizing the members, we understand that the vertical members require more reinforcement
compared to the diagonal bracing members. This is because fettuccine is weaker when compressed.
The layers of the diagonal bracings under tension were reduced from 2 to 1 layer.

Figure 7(a): The removal of a layer of fettuccine on tensile members.

Besides that, the dimensions of the bridge have been slightly modified. Firstly being the
length which was reduced from 850mm to 820mm. This is to ensure a lower risk of the bridge failing
due to the upward force of the table at the edge. The upward force may lift the edges of the
fettuccine bridge and overthrow the equilibrium of the bridge. Furthermore, the spacing between
vertical members was fixed so that they are similarly 75mm apart, leaving just 35mm rested on the
tabletop.

820mm

80mm

750mm
Figure 7(b): Dimensions of the final truss bridge.

Another change we applied was the center beams which are the points that the load will be
latched on to. In our previous bridge, we used beam 1, a sandwiched 3-layer I beam. After the
experiment to test the strength of the I-beam versus beam 2, a fettuccine simulation of a RC beam,
the second choice was applied into the final design.

Figure 7(c): Section of beam 1 and beam 2

Figure 7(d): Beam type 1 & 2

7.1.2 Fettuccine Bridge Construction

The construction steps can be divided into 4 main steps. It is important to follow a proper
sequence so that the main frame is straight and stable, followed by other components.

First, the elevations for the final model are cad and printed out as a guideline. Based on the length of
the 1:1 cad drawing, the strongest and longest 4 chords were made. Similar to previous tests, we
used the concept of running bond so that no one part of the member is weaker due to more than
one joint.

Figure 7(e): Top and bottom chords as main frame.

Second, the vertical members were attached using 3-second glue, using the printed drawing as
guideline to ensure they are straight. They are attached on the inside of the top and bottom chords
so that force of the load can be directly transferred across them.

Figure 7(f): Adding vertical members.

Next, the diagonal bracing members were attached. We trimmed the edges carefully in order for it
to sit on top of the vertical members but within the 4 chords.

Figure 7(g): Adding diagonal members.

When the two side faces of the bridge were completed, we erected it and made sure that the
vertical members are perpendicular to the tabletop using a MDF board and set squares. The two
faces were stabilized by taping it to the drawing and the table. 50mm horizontal members were
placed between the two faces to act as the connecting member of the two faces. The base is lined
using plastic sheets to prevent the bridge from sticking to the table.

Figure 7(h): Joining the two faces.

Finally, when the bridge is able to stand upright, we cross-braced the open ends to ensure the bridge
retain its shape. In the center, beam 2 is applied where 2 of it sits perpendicular to the bridges
frame a on each side of the middle vertical member. They sit on top of the horizontal beam so the
force of the load can move downwards onto the horizontal frames.

Figure 7(i): Diagonal bracing.

Figure 7(j): Beam 2 located in center.

7.1.3 Joints
Joints are important in the way that they have to fit well with one another so that the
transfer of loads can be even. Most of our joints were treated by trimming the stacked layers
properly so they are flat and able to attach perpendicularly to the top and bottom chords.

The chords are created through many joints of 240mm fettuccines. We based the joint concept on
running bonds, so that no one point of the member is weaker due to the presence of more than 1
joint. This is done by separating the 240mm fettuccine into 3 equal parts, the two marks being the
points of jointing, where no 2 joints will be present at the same length of the member.

Figure 7(k): Running bond concept of jointing.

The basic joint is to glue two flat surfaces together. This is used for the vertical or horizontal
members that we glue in between the 4 chords. Putting them in between allows a better load
transfer and also to prevent the bridge from collapsing inwards.

Figure 7(l): Flattened edges are glued together.

The diagonal members were properly trimmed so that not only can their edges stick cleanly to the
horizontal members; they still have space to attach to the vertical members. We believe that this
method of jointing can help brace not only the vertical members and the horizontal members, but
also to maintain the horizontal and vertical members in perpendicular to one another.

Figure 7(m): Trimming diagonal edges to fit.

7.2 Load analysis

Based on the online software that helps us to analyze structure of bridges, we were able to
identify the compressive and tensile members in our design. From there, we are able to reinforce
the selected members that have a higher risk to be subjected to more forces.

Load

Figure 7(n): Identification of compressive and tensile members using online software.
Fettuccine is stronger under tension and weaker under compression. Based on the experiments we
conducted where most of our bridges fail as the compressed vertical members begin to bend and
break whereas the tensile members remain intact for a longer period until the breakage of the
vertical members overthrow the equilibrium of the forces. This prioritizes the vertical members for
reinforcement; hence the final 3 layers of fettuccine used per vertical member.

The tension members, apart from the chords, which are the diagonal bracing members, were left as
single layer fettuccines. With lesser needs to be reinforced, we chose to reduce the layers for the
diagonal bracing members to prevent the weight of the bridge from exceeding the quota.

The 4 main chords and the 2 connecting beams in the center were properly reinforced. The 4 chords
are important as they keep the other members in place as well as to spread the load horizontally to
the tables. Since they endure both compressive and tensile forces, we used I beams to construct
them, this makes them hard and sturdy. It also provides a flat surface for easier gluing of other
members onto it.

The most crucial component will be the 2 beams in the center of the bridge. These are the points
where the load will latch on to, making it a must for these beams to endure the load and not be the
first to break. From the test conducted to identify the strongest beam, we concluded that beam 2; a
fettuccine simulation of an RC beam is stronger than an I beam. They were attached to the top of
the bottom chords, allowing load to be transferred from the beams onto the bottom chords. They
will also brace the bottom chords so they do not cave inwards at the center.

Figure 7(o): Details of the center of the bridge.

Figure 7(p): Completed final truss bridge.

Truss Analysis Calculations

Assumptions:

All members are perfectly straight

All loads are applied at the joints
All joints are pinned and frictionless
Each member has no weight

Formula for perfect truss:

2J = M + 3

7.3 Truss Bridge Testing

Our final bridge came up to a weight of 194 g. The test was carried out by masking taping the edge of
the bridge between two chair desks with a clear span of 750mm. The load is a pail, attached via a
lanyard tied around the two center beams. The pail is slowly filled with water, being the method of
increasing the load.

Figure 7(q): Setting up for testing

Figure 7(r): First breaking point on bridge.

Figure 7(s): Collapsing of bridge.

During the bridge testing of our final fettuccine truss bridge, one of the bottom chords broke at
4.2kg of load, followed by the jointing of a lower horizontal member. The pull of the force continued
and one of the top chords broke near the center of the bridge, followed by another point on both
the top chords to snap, breaking the bridge into 2. Judging by the first breaking point, we believe it
was a joint malfunction within the running bond stacked chord. It is most likely caused by the
jointing of 2 edges that were not flat enough to click together.
3

7.4 Efficiency
The formula use to determine the efficiency of the bridge is the square of maximum load applied
divided by the weight of the bridge. A higher efficiency is obtained if the load carried is high and the
weight of the bridge remains low. The final outcome from our test is recorded and input into the
formula to obtain the efficiency of our bridge.

Efficiency = (Maximum load) / Weight of bridge

= 4.2 / 0.194
= 90.93%

By the end of the bridge testing, the result we obtained is statically average, which was good
compared to our first few attempts. The failure of the bridge is a result of human error and we
believe that the efficiency could have been higher had all the jointing been more precise

As a conclusion to our final bridge testing, we find that it is important to ensure proper
craftsmanship so that load transmission can occur smoothly and evenly.

8.0 Conclusion
Upon the completion of this project, we are proud to say we have a deeper
understanding on this topic of structural Analysis and we are able to identify tension and
compression forces along with calculating the force acting on each member in particular.
According to the efficiency equation, a high efficient bridge is defined as a bridge that
can withstand high load with minimal weight. We have experimented numerous times just
to get the best design of the bridge, which is to carry as many load as it can and also the
numbers of fettuccine used should be lessen.
Throughout the project, we have learned to identify important design elements and
features (height, reinforcements, distance between members etc.) that could affect the
structural integrity of the bridge to achieve a high efficiency. After analysing the load
distribution in the bridge we did, we have strengthened the weaker part of the bridges.
Besides that, we also came to realise that the crucial and determining factor in the
efficiency of the bridge is the workmanship of the bridge. Any slight unevenness could
transfer the load differently, causing the low efficiency of the bridge. In every model we did,
we tried to keep our workmanship uniform by delegating certain task only to certain people
to carry out. Proper way of adhesive and consistency of jointing the members are important
to ensure the connections are strong.
In conclusion, this project taught us how to think critically and apply our knowledge to
our individual design when it comes to building construction details. This creates a high
efficiency structure with minimal materials, which in return benefits the context and the
users.

9.0 References
Carr. J. (2002) Historical Details about the Old North Park Street Bridge. Tallahasse
Community College. Retrieved from
http://faculty.tcc.fl.edu/scma/carrj/Bridges/history.html on 5th October 2014.
Garrett. B. (2008) Pratt truss Analysis. Retrieved from
http://www.garrettsbridges.com/design/k-truss-analysis/ on 1st October
Kenneth. M. (2005) Fundamentals of Structural Analysis. McGraw Hill publishers, New
York.
Taberrer. P. (2013) Local History: North Park Bridge. Creston Neighbourhood Associate
News Bureau. Retrieved from http://therapidian.org/local-history-north-park-bridge on
5th October 2014.

10.0 Appendix
10.1 Photos during the process

(Left) How we bundle up the

fettuccines to pick the best for the
final bridge.

(Bottom) The process of gluing the

fettuccines onto the bridge.

(Top) A few of us
measuring the length of
the middle support
structure.

(Middle) The broken bridge

after the testing of the final
bridge

(Bottom) A group photo

after a night of not
sleeping!

10.2 Case study Calculations

Case 1 Ye Min Aung

1006A79600

As for those four given cases above, an analysis was completed under consideration of
weight of Fettuccine Bridge, amount of exerted force, arrangement of members and
calculation. Each case was being discussed as the following:

Case One:
Firstly, there are two diagonal members that are under compression, members AB and CF
while member DE is zero force members. Other than that, all diagonal members left are under
tension. Hence members that are under compression need to be strengthened with
consideration of Fettuccines properties.
Case Two:
All the diagonal members are under tension, hence the load is considered well distributed.
The vertical members are all in compression which is good in transferring the forces to the
bottom chord. Yet the top and bottom chords of the truss are all under compression which
make the truss to be easily crushed. Hence reinforcement in the top and bottom chords is
necessary to enhance the strength of the truss design.
Case Three:
Horizontal members under compression are AB, HG and GF, while diagonal members under
compression are JB, BG and CF. Most of the vertical members are under compression except
for AJ. The remaining members are all under tension. The placement of trusses in this design
causes many trusses to undergo compressive force. This can be overcome by reinforcing the
vertical and diagonal members.
Case Four:
Horizontal members AB and BC are under compression. Diagonal members of DF and CG are
under compression. The remaining of horizontal are all under tension. As for horizontal
member AJ and diagonal BJ are zero. This design has alot of compression members that
enhance the trusses. Thus, placing reinforcement in horizontal and vertical members can
prevent from buckling.

Case Five:
Members AJ, ED and DF hold little or no internal forces, thus they are redundant and should
be removed if possible for higher overall bridge efficiency. A wider gap between two vertical
members imposes a higher internal force within its diagonal and horizontal bracing. Most
horizontal members are under compression. The bridge can be strengthened by closing the
distance between vertical members and increasing their height at the cost of stability.
Case Six:
All the diagonal members are under compression while all the horizontal members are under
tension. The vertical members CG and DF are under tension while only BH is under
compression. Member AB is the highest tension member and member HC is the highest
compression member. Member AB can be reinforced to ensure the minimum breakage of the
member, ensuring a high efficiency of the bridge.
Conclusion:
The bridge truss with the least compression members would be able to withstand more
weight. In case 6, it is the bridge with the lowest number of compression members. With this
in mind, we assume case 6 has the highest efficiency among the rest.