STEREOTYPED EXPRESSIONS I N T H E

RAMAYANA

Stereotyped expressions form an important element in the language of the Rzrnsyana,

since about one third of all Bloka stanzas contain some stereotyped material. The psdalength phrases comprising a personal name and standard epithet are the most frequent
but have a definite narrative function. Standardisation is also common among the purely
formal phrases used before and after speeches. Among other groups of stereotyped phrases,
some are simply structural aids, while others are strongly emphatic. Another feature is
the repetition of a phrase within a short space of its first occurrence, while a similar, but
less common, device is parallelism of construction within a stanza; refrains occur infrequently. There is a considerable body of proverbial material, found especially in the northern recension. These features, shared in large measure with the Mahsbhsrata, illustrate
the richness of the epic tradition, but direct borrowings also occur.

IT IS VERY NOTICEABLE that a great many of the

epithets and stock phrases which occur in the
Riimfiyana just fill a pada or else leave room for a
word of two or three syllables; indeed, there may
be variants allowing all three possibilities, for
example idam vacanam abravtt, vacanam abravtt
and idam abravXt/vdkyam abravxt. This is of obvious practical importance in a poem with any
tradition of oral recitation behind it, since it
allows the poet or reciter to fill out a line without
effort, for it is quite probable that many additions
were made in the course of narration by reciters
with the help of formulae and by memory of other
passages. Thus formulae are to be found preponderantly in the second and fourth padas, the only
major exception being the formulae used after the
end of a speech. Formulaic phrases do not necessarily conform to exactly the same wording on
every occasion but the variations are all obviously linked-"variations on a theme." Another
not uncommon occurrence is for a phrase to be
repeated
a short space of its first appearance and then not to be found again; perhaps
this may be explained as economy of effort on the
part of the poet, who, having gone to the trouble
of thinking out the phrase or constructing the long
compound, is determined to make good use of it.'
Jan Gonda, in S t y l i s t i c R e p e t i t i o n i n the V e d a p. 4'2,
has expressed this point more generally: "in the ancient
literatures the same turns and locutions, the same de-

However, their use in the Rgmayana is clearly of

help in setting the mood of particular scenes and,
in the case of personal epithets, emphasising the
aspect of the per~on'scharacter relevant to the
occasion.
Although such forms of repetition are a feature
common to many, if not all, epic traditions, there
is a tendency towards greater frequency of stock
padas in the later parts of the Riimiiyana and
equally of the Mah6bh&rata.2 Probably this
exaggerated use of stock padas in the later parts
accounts, at least to some extent, for the steady
increase in the proportion of stereotyped padas
from the Ayodhya to the Kiglundha kiinda;
more than 1 in 30 padas in the hyodhyiikanda
(3.4 %) are stereotyped, about 1 in 21 p5idas in
the Aranyakanda (4.9 %) and over 1 in 16 in the
Kiskindhakanda (6.3%).3 The average proporscriptive and introductory formulae were often unalterably repeated, and this repetition apparently was much
appreciated. A successful phrase of wording released
posterity from the necessity to create a 'mould of fcrm'
themselves.,,
2 E, a..Hopkins3 statement on this feature in both
epics is: " ~ 0 t hhave many chapters ~ ~ h i cteem
h
~ i t h
verbal or whole psda-iterata, the later the more." See
The
Epic of India, p. 'O.
This study is based primarily on the Ayodhyil,
Aranya and Kigkindhs klndas, with supplementary
material d r a a n from the other books. All references in
numerals only refer to the Rsmsyana, unless context
clearly indicates otherwise, and, unless another edition

BROCKINGTON:
Stereotyped Expressions in the Rdmdyaga
tion over all three kBndas is about 1 in 22 or
4.5 %, which means that one in eleven lines or one
in five or six stanzas in fact contain a full piida
found in identical wording elsewhere. But if all
instances where the verbal similarity is less exact
and where the resemblance extends over less than
a p&da are included, then between 30 % and 40 %
of all gloka stanzas contain some stereotyped
material.
Within this trend to greater frequency in the
IGgkindhiikiinda, however, there are variations
between books with regard to different types of
stereotyped phrases. Refrains are commoner in
the AyodhyiikSinda than elsewhere, personal
epithets and miscellaneous stock piidas are most
frequent in the Aranyakiinda, and repeated padas
and p&da-length long compounds are commonest
in the KigkindhBkiinda. Instances of as many as
three stock pBdas in a single stanza are not uncommon, occurring for instance at 3.37.8, 43.19
and 46.19 within a space of ten sargas. Another
point that may be noted is the very large proportion of stereotyped phrases in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda which can be paralleled in the 14ahilbhiirata.
PERSONAL EPITHETS

Personal names are regularly qualified by an

adjective which occupies the remainder of the
p&da;such phrases show much the same tendency
to stylisation and also to word play as do the other
stereotyped phrases. Although particular epithets
tend to apply only to certain people, apart from
the obvious cases such as lakgmaw-nuja and
kaikay'iputra, this is by no means invariably true
and, for example, the various dharma- compounds
which are most frequently applied to Riima are
not exclusively used of him: in the first fifteen
sargas of the Ayodhyfikfinda, dharmdtman is
used thrice of RBma, once of Dagaratha and once
of Bharata, dharmajfia is used t\vice of RBma and
once of Dagaratha, and dhdrmika is used once
each of Riima and Dagaratha. However, the alis specified, all references t o the Rgmayana and Mahabhzrata are to the Critical Editions published a t Baroda
and Poona respectively. The sign [I.v.] is used to distinguish verses in longer metres from the Bloka passages.

211

most invariable use of rdghava to refer to RBma

is very striking, with the slight extension of the
use of the dual for RBma and Lakgmana; the term
is applied to Bharata at 2.63.5d, 65.23d and 73.4b
within the context of his being summoned from
RBjagrha to accept the throne. The degree of its
application to Riima is exemplified by the phrase
lakgmavo rdghavdnujah at 2.14.22b and 3.11.lb
(cf. lakgmanah sahardghavah at 5.61.24b).
One point that should be stressed about the use
of attributive epithets is that in general they are
relevant to the situation in which they occur and
the purely ornamental epithet is not common,
though this is not to say that they are vital to the
narrative. Their use is to point a contrast or
heighten an effect. A few examples will illustrate
this: the words which introduce the speech in
which Riima reaffirms his acceptance of banishment to Kaikeyi are rdmah paramadharmajrio
ma-taram vdkyam abravit at 2.34.29cd, when Lakgmana comforts Rama griefstricken at the loss of
Sit5 he is characterised as lakgmanah priyabdndhavah at 3.59.28b, and Bharata is bharatah pdrthivdtmajah at 2.64.1213 in the situation already mentioned. In consequence of this, a survey of the
epithets found in these pBda-length phrases serves
also to outline the character of each personality
as depicted in the Rfimiiyana.
DaSaratha is rdjd daiarathah far more frequently
than anything else, and indeed r@d alone is regularly used to refer to him even in contexts, such
as those where Guha appears, where the term
might have been ambiguous had it not become so
identified with Dagaratha; in particular we find
rdjd ddarathas tadd at 2.4.3b, 9.12b and 11.4b.
Another pSida-length phrase is urddham d d a ratham nrpam found four times in the Ayodhyilk Q ~ d a of
, ~ which a shorter form occurs in tada
ddaratham nrpam at 2.3.813 and rdmarp ddaratho
nrpah at 2.4.913. The following phrases referring
to Dagaratha also come near to being stereotyped:
gate ddarathe svargam 2.82.19c, svargam ddaratho
One of these occurrences is in fact in the nominative.
Hereafter no account will be taken of alternation between nominative, vocative and accusative or genitive,
dative, ablative and locative, and the case most commonly occurring will be quoted as the type example.

212

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 90.2 (1970)

gatah 2.86.24d and 104.6d, and cliuam claiaratho

gatah 2.97.21d.
Dasaratha's wives do not have any epithet consistently applied to them, apart from the brief
title devi. There is, however, one stereotyped
linkage of a p&da length: kausalyd ca sumitrd ca
found seven times in the AyodhyskBnda, also
kausalyarp ad sunzitrdm vd at 2.10.37a. The slave
blantharii is called manthard papadariinZ at 2.7.
9b, 9.4b and 8b; it is interesting to note that in an
oblique case this becomes kubjayd pdpadariinyd
a t 2.7.12~.
Riima is naturally distinguished by the greatest
variety of epithets and many of them stress his
virtue. The phrase dharmabhrtdt?~varah is exclusive to RBma and rdmo dharmabhrtdm uarah occurs
thrice each in the Ayodhya and Aranya kBndas
and at 4.38.1b7 as well as yuktam clharmabhrtdm
varam at 2.2.10b. The similar phrase rumah
iastrabhytdm uarah is found at 2.92.10d and
3.3.14d; Hopkins has an interesting comment on
the usage of this latter phrase in the 1\Iahiibhiirata:
"In 6.34(BG.10),31, Nilakantha (cf. R.2.99.13)
explains Ramall iastrabhrtdm aham as DBBarathi,
but in the 1Ibh. "the best (by implication) of
weapon-bearers" is BhBrga~a,"~
but there is at
least one exception to his statement in the RBmopakhyiina, where ramaqz Sastrabh~tdm varam is
used of RBma DBBarathi at XIbh.3.275.49b. The
commonest phrase applied only to RBma in the
AyodhyBkiinda is rdmah satyapardk~amah which
occurs six times, but it occurs only once in the
Aranya and Sundara kiindas and not at all in the
IGekindhCikBnda, although it occurs eight times
in the Bombay Yuddhakanda (cf. however rhmo
. . . satyapardkramah at 3.35.13ab and ram0 rlrdhapar6kramalz at 5.24.17b). The commonest piida
describing Riima in the hranyakanda is ram0
daiarathdtmaja[l occurring six times, but this is
not found in the Ayodhyiikiinda and occurs only
once in the KigltindhBkBnda, although it is found
fourteen times in the Bombay yuddhakiinda.
Another regular phrase is ra?nasy6klistakarma&r/
ranze?zhkligtakar~izaqa which occurs thrice in the
Allusions to the RrTma-St01.y

JAOS 50, pp. 85-103.

112

the .lIahdbhdrata

Ayodhyiikiinda, twice each in the Aranya and

IGskindhB kBndas, four times in the SundarakBnda
and thirteen times in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda;
it occurs in the accusative once only at 5.28.41a,
since the variant adopted in the accusative is
rdmanz akli~takdriqam found at 2.1.4b (ramam
cciO), 21.11d, 4.25.2b, 5.56.2613 (rdmam cd0) and
Bombay 6.102.2813.
Less common p8da-length phrases referring to
RBma consist of: ramah parapuram~ayah 2.2.9d
and thrice in the Bombay YuddhakBnds, rdmah
paranzaclharmajiio 2.34.29c, rdmah satyatmand?i/
uarah 2.101.1b, rhrnaqz jvalitatejasam 3.5.ld (cf.
rdmev&nzitate;lasd thrice in the Bombay Yuddhukfinda and raghauasyanzitaujasah, 5.48.16b), rdyhavasya nzahdtmanah 3.15.1b,thrice in the Ki~kindhakiinda, twice in the Sundarakiinda and nine
times in the Bombay YuddhakBnda, ranzasya uzdztdtnzanah twice in the Xranyakiinda, eight time>
in the Sundaraksnda and at Bombay 6.33.8b,
rdmasya mahciratkasga 3.27.30a [I.v.], rayhavo
clharnzavatsalah 3.29.1b, bhrdtaram diptatejasam
3.59.21d and 65.8d (at 3.4.lf this phrase refers to
Lak~mapa),ranzo rajiualocanah 1.18.17d, 19.2b,
3.59.27b and Bombay 6.4.92b (also AIbh.13.83.
31b) and ram0 raktantalocana!z 3.19.121, 3.24.31b
and Bombay 6.21.13b, rc~ghavah parav%)ahrj
4.23.8b, rdyhavam ca mahdbalam 4.37.2d, rdmanz
parabalarclanam 4.39.1d, and also rdmalz Satrunzbarhanah 1.4.22d, 3.27.18b, Bombay 6.1.19b and
103.23b. He is described as z1igudlizi;ndm kule pitah
once each in the Biila, Aranya and I(isBindh5
kiindas and this p5da is also once used of DaAaratha in the Biilakgnda.
PBda-length phrases linlcing Riima nith his
companions are: sabhdrya!l sahalak+nzanah which
is found four times in the Ayodhyiikiinda but onl)
once in the Aranyakiinda, where however the
adjective sahalakgmana is found thrice in another.
stock pada rcc^ghavah sahalakgrnanail (also iri
kakutsthah saizalak+~nagah3.7.17b and sitayd salr alakgmagalr 3.11.16b) and a similar phrase sdr?uja!r
saha fitayd i\ found thrice; ruyhauah sahalakgnzanah also occurs once in the Iii>kindhBk%n$a
and four time5 each in the Sundara and Bombay
Yuddha kiindas. Other similar pllrntet are: sas%tah
sahalakgmanah 2.40.16b (cf. sasttah sahasaumitrih

BROCKINGTON:
Stereotyped Expressions in the Ramayana
Bombay 6.125.23c), sabhdryam saha ca bhratrd
2.45.30c, sitayfi saha rdghavau 3.6.3d, sitayd saha
rdghavah 3.7.9d and 10.34d, rdghavah saha sitayd
3.7.2b and 10.26b, and rdmah saumitripd saha
once each in the BBla, Kivkindhs and Sundara
kBndas and thrice each in the Aranya and Bombay
Yuddha ksndas (cf. ramas tu sahasaumitrih
3.7.l a and raghavah sahasaumitrih 5.33.41~).The
dvandva rdmalak~mapauis of frequent occurrence,
especially in the p&da bhrdtarau rdmalakgmanau
once in the BBlakSnda, thrice in the Ayodhyiiksnda, twice each in the A r a ~ y a ,Kiskindhs and
Sundara E n d a s and fifteen times in the Bombay
Yuddhaksnda; but tav ubhau ramalakgmapau is
not uncommon, since it occurs once each in the
Ayodhys and Aranya ksndas (also ubhau tau
rdmalak~mapauat 3.7.19d), twice in the Sundaraksnda and four times in the Bombay Yuddhakgnda. The following collocations occur: vaidehim
laksma?am rhmam at 3.1.13a, rdmah sit0 ca
laksmanah at 3.4.22b, and vaidehi rdmalaksmanau
at 3.7.3b.
Mention of RBma's exile is regularly made in
one of three stock phrases: r d m d caranyam
diritah with its variants mayi cdranyam dirite and
so forth is thrice as frequent, with nine occurrences, as the other phrase nith ddrita (ramai ca
vanam diritatl 2.55.19b and 70.5d, and vijanam
vanam diritah 2.52.5d) no doubt for reasons of
euphony, just as vana occurs with pravrrsjita five
times, in rdmah pravrdjito vanam and the like.
Sits plays very little part in the action of the
AyodhyBkiinda and only three stock padas occurring once each are found, but in the subsequent
books, especially the Aranyaksnda, quite a number of stock pBdas are found. Very common are
the two pfidas built from family names: maithili
janakdtmajd once each in the Bala and AyodhyB
kandas, five times in the Aranyakgnda, twice each
in the IGskindhB and Sundara kBndas and thrice
in the Bombay Yuddhakgnda, and vaidehi janakatmajd once each in the AyodhyB and Bombay
Yuddha ksndas (also sitdm ca janakhtmajdnz at
3.11.14d). The other common pads is sita surasutopamd which occurs once each in the BBla,
AyodhyB, Ki~lundhB and Bombay Yuddha
k&ndas, twice in the Aranyakgnda and four times

213

in the SundarakBgda (cf. also sftdmarasutopamCi

at Bombay 6.5.2013). SitS's commonest name in
the Aranyakanda is Vaidehi, which figures prominently in the stock phrases; thus, for instance,
vaidehi ca mahabhagd occurs thrice there and
vaidehi tanumadhyamd twice, both of which seem
to be confined to the Aranyakgnda. But with the
second of these go the following phrases: sit6
madhye sumadhyama at 3.10.lb, tayor madhye
sumadhyamd at 3.15.13d, . . . sitd sumadh yamd at
3.35.19d, vaidehi . . . sumadhyamd at 3.41.33cd,
and s'itd sd tanumadhyamd at 5.32.2513, in which
the tendency toward both punning and alliteration is noticeable. Another common epithet of
Sit5 is ydasvini, which occurs in the following
psda-length phrases : vaidehi ca yabasvini 3.1.10d
and Bombay 6.125.39d, rdmapatnim yaiasvinim
3.44.10d, 4.42.15d, 5.11.52b and 55.34b, and
dharmapatni yaiasvini 3.48.5b (cf. dharmapatnim
ydasvinim used of Draupadi at Mbh.3.13.58d and
46.20d). Less frequent pBdas are: rajaputrim
aninditdm four times in the Sundarakznda,
rdmapatnim a?zindithm 5.56.53b and Bombay
6.113.45d, rdmapatni sumadhyamd 5.11.16b, vaidehi iubhalocand 3.40.27d, sit6 sarvdrigaiobhand
5.40.8b, and sit6 Baiinibhcinand Bombay 6.113.1413.
The follo\ving group of padas should also be noted:
sitdyd hriyamdndydh 3.50.24~and 352, hriyamdnd
tu vaidehi 3.50.36a and 52.la, and vaidehyam
hriyamdndyfim 3.52.9~.
Laksma~a'sname offers a natural opportunity
for word play of the type which is also found in
the RlahZbhBrata, for example bhimo bhimapardkramah at RIbh.1.2.184b et passim. Such p&das
are : laksmano laksmivardhanah 1.17.15d, 3.10.75d,
11.19d and Bombay 6.101.24d, 1ak;manah dubhalak;aaah twice each in the Ayodhyii and Aranya
kandas, once in the KiskindhiikBnda and six
times in the Bombay Yuddhakgnda, laksmanam
punya1ak;anarn 2.41.16d and Bombay 6.15.7b,
lakgmasd ca sulaksana?~ 5.33.67d, laksmano
laksmisampannah 1.17.17a and Bombay 6.41.10c,
and laksm%vcin"l laksmanah Bombay 6.90.69a.6
However, the largest group of epithets attached
"owever,
rdghavo
applies t o RBma.

lakgmivardhanah

at

3.14.28b

214

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 90.2 (1970)

to Lakgmana's name are those with maha- as the epithet: bharatah kekayfsutah occurs thrice in the
initial member, as is the case with Bharata and Ayodhyiikiinda, bharatah kaikayfsutah twice in
others, the explanation being that these names the Ayodhyiikiinda and once in the Bombay
occur frequently with the copula or in oblique Yuddhakiinda, bharatam kekay'iputram once in the
cases and that the various mahd- compounds Ayodhyiiksnda and bharatah kaikay'iputrah twice
supply the necessary four-syllable filler; piidas there. The other common p5da in the nominative
found are: lakgmand ca mahdbalah thrice each in is bharato bhrdtyvatsalah thrice in the Ayodhyiithe Ayodhyii and Kiskindhii Endas, twice in the kiinda and twice in the Sundarakiinda, and there
Sundarakiinda and four times in the Bombay also occurs bharato dharmavatsalah at 2.105.8d and
Yuddhaksnda (also lakgmanam vd mahdbalam 4.18.10b. The piida bharatah satyavikramah occurs
2.92.4b), lakgmand ca mahdrathah twice each in four times in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda only,
the Ayodhyii and Bombay Yuddha kiindas, thrice while bharatah pdrthivdtmajah is found only at
in the Aranyakiinda and once in the Sundara- 2.64.1213. By far the most frequent epithet for
E n d a , 1akgmal;ld ca mahdbdhuh once each in the Bharata in the Ayodhyiikiinda is mahdtman, with
Ayodhyii and Aranya kiindas (also hd lakgmana which however his name is linked only in oblique
mahdbdho 3.58.32a), lakgmanaS ca ma&ydah
cases, apart from two instances of the nominative
once each in the Aranya and Sundara kiindas, in longer verses at 2.64.24a and 67.15a, and
lakgma?;lai ca mahdtejcih once each in the Aranya bharatasya mahcitmanah occurs nine times in the
(tu for ca), Sundara and Bombay Yuddha kiindas; Ayodhyiikiinda and once in the Aranyakiinda;
laksmanmya mahdtnzanah thrice in the Ayodhyii- there is also found bharatd ca mahcibdhur a t
kiinda (also lakgmane vd mahdtmani 2.64.6d) and 2.32.8a, but no others of the mahd- compounds
once each in the Kigkindhii, Sundara and Bombay found with Lakgmana occur with Bharata. The
Yuddha kiindas, and lakgmanena mahaujasd following three piidas may also be noticed:
Bombay 6.37.35b. Another instance of liitiinupriisa bharakiydnuydyinah at 2.64.19d and bharatais found in saumitrir mitranandanah once each in sydnuydyinz at 2.77.18d and 105.20d.
the Ayodhyii, Kiqkindhii and Sundara kiindas
Riivana's name is again one of those found with
and twice in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda, also in punning epithets: rdvano lokardvagah occurs once
saumitrir mitravatsalah twice in the Bombay each in the Aranya and Sundara kiindas and six
Yuddhakiinda.
times in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda and rdvanah
Psda-length phrases other than those already hatrurdvaaah occurs once each in the Aranya and
mentioned are: lakgmanam d'iptatejasam 3.14.ld Bombay Yuddha kiindas and thrice in the
and 19.3d, lakgmavah parav'irahd 3.14.20b, Sundarakiinda (cf . dziganah hatrudziganah at
4.24.1213, 30.9d, 5.61.11d and five times in the 3.25.4b). But the commonest stock pfida with his
Bombay Yuddhakiinda,' lakgmano ndma viryavdn name is rdvano rdkgasddhipah which occurs once in
3.17.3d, 32.12d and 45.1613, lakgmanam satya- the Biilakiinda, six times in the Aranyakiinda,
vddinam 3.43.19d, lakgmana?r, purugargabh,am seven times in the Sundarakfinda and seventeen
3.60.1813, lakgmavasya ca dh'imatah 3.70.6d, times in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda, while the
4.39.1513 and 5.14.413, lakgmana?r, satyavikramam variant rdvaw rcikgaseivarah occurs twice in the
3.71.25d, lakgmavasya ca zYlrmya Bombay 6.25.7c, Sundarakiinda and eighteen times in the Bombay
lakgmanam ca mahdv'iryam Bombay 6.29.1c, and Yuddhakiinda. In the Biilakiinda rdvaw niima
lakgmane bhratyvatsale Bombay 6.84.113.
rdkgasah is found twice. He is also referred to as
Bharata is regularly given his metronymic as an ddagvivah pratdpavdn at 3.46.2d and 47. l b (cf.
rdkgasasendrah pratdpavdn 3.52.17b, 5.16.413 and
There also occur rlighavah paravirahli 4.25.8b and
Mbh.6.96.25b). His name is also combined with
5.62.40b, l a k s m a n a m paravirahli Bombay 6.101.46b and
Satrughnah paravirahli Bombay 6.127.5d; compare also the various adjectives applied to the riibasas on
pd&avah paravirahli Mbh.2.21.22b and 8.37.21b and a few occasions and so there occur: rdva?;lena durplimjavah paraviraghnah Mbh.2.28.12a.
citmam- 3.44.31b, rdvavo ghoradarianah 3.54.26b,

BROCKINGTON:
Stereotyped Expressions i n the Rcimciyava
rclvanaq k8mami;pinam 5.28.21d, rcivavam pdpakarmcilqarp Bombay 6.2.8c, rciva?.%obhimavikramah
Bombay 6.59.5613, and rcivavo bhT,madarianah
Bombay 6.95.2d.
Just as RSivana does not appear till the Aranyakiinda, apart from a single occurrence of a stock
piida in the BBlakiinda, but is then frequently referred to in these stock piidas, so Hanumiin does
not appear till the Kiskindhiikfinda but from
then on has many regular epithets attached to
him. The most frequent is hanumdn marutdtmajah
which occurs four times in the Kiskindhiikiinda,
twenty-four times in the Sundarakiinda and
fourteen times in the Bombay Yuddhakfinda.
Other phrases are: hanamdn plavagargabhah
4.4.3b and 5.2.7d (also JIbh.3.149.17b), hanamcin
plavagottamah and hanamantam plavaqgamam
both twice in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda, hanamantam mahdkapim 5.42.6b, Bombay 6.59.12413
and 101.29b and hanGmdqS ca mahdkapih 5.59.1d,
hanGmantam mahcibalam four times in the Bombay
Yuddhakiinda, and hanamantaq ca vdnaram
5.62.36d and Bombay 6.93.36d. Sugriva also appears quite frequently from the Kiskindhiikiinda
onwards; the piidas found regularly are: sugrivah
plavagtdvarah four times in the Kigkindhiikiinda
and twice in the Bombay Yuddhakgnda, sugfivah
plavagddhipah once each in the Kiskindhii and
Sundara kiindas, sugfivo vcinarargabhah once each
in the Aranya and Sundara kiindas, thrice in the
Kiskindh&kiinda and twice in the Bombay
Yuddhakiinda, sugrivo vdnarebvarah thrice each in
the Kigkindhii and Bombay Yuddha kgndas and
once in the Sundarakiinda, sugrivo vdnarcidhipah
once each in the Aranya and Sundara kzndas and
thrice in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda, sugrivo
vipulagrivah once each in the Kiakindhii, Sundara
and Bombay Yuddha E n d a s (cf. sugrivah
sarphatagrivah at 4.13.3c), sugr'ivo vahinipatih once
in the Kiskindhiikiinda and twice in the Bombay
Yuddhakiinda, sugrxvo hemapingalah once in the
BElakiiqda and twice in the Kiskindhiikiinda,
sugrzvasya mahcitmanah six, four and five times
respectively in the Kigkindhs, Sundara and
Bombay Yuddha kiindas, sugrivd ca mahdbalah
once in the Kiskindhgkiiqda and twice in the
Bombay Yuddhakiinda, sugrivaS ca mahdtejcih

215

twice in the Bombay Yuddhaknda, and sugr%vd

ca h a d v a r a h once in the Sundarakiinda and twice
in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda.
The minor characters are most commonly
qualified in stock piidas by the various mahdcompounds but these are not used indiscriminately. The various sages are described as mahdtm a n , mahdtapas, mahdtejas or ma&muni, except
for ViBviimitra who in the BBlakBnda is also referred to as mahdbala four times and once each as
mahcimati, mahEyaSas and mahavlrya. A piida referring to sages generally is ~ 8 i w - qca mahdtmandm
found at 3.4.3513, 18.3b, 30.6b, Bombay 6.37.2913
and 90.75b. A highly specific instance is mah&bhdga applied twice to Bhagiratha in the Biilak i i ~ d abut not used otherwise. Mahd- compounds
used of kings are mahdtman, mahdbala and
mahatejas, whereas mahdratha is used only of
Laksmana (apart from one instance with Riima in
a longer verse).
Other stock padas used of minor characters are
as follows: $atrughna is regularly Satrughno
lalcgmancinujah in the Ayodhyiikgnda, where this
piida appears thrice, and occurs once in a punning
piida, Satrughnah Satrutdpanah at 2.72.15b. Sumantra appears twice in the AyodhyZkSinda as
sumantrarp mantrakovidam. There is another instance of liitiinupriisa in angadam kanakdnyadam
a t 4.18.46d, Bombay 6.41.75d and 66.28b;
Aligada is also referred to as angadd ca baleSvarah
at 5.61.18b and 62.3213. In the Kiakindhiikiinda
Viilin occurs thrice as v&linam hemam&linam and
twice as v f l i paramaroga~a$.Indrajit occurs four
times in the Bombay Yuddhaknda as indrajit
samitillzjayab. Guha appears as nigddadhipatir
guhah four times in the Ayodhyiikiinda and at
Bombay 6.125.6d (cf. also tat0 nigcidahipatir guho
. . 2.46.64cd and tvcZq nigddadhipo guhah
2.78.12b), while the alliterative guho gahanagocarah occurs twice in the Ayodhyiikiinda. Samudrah saritcim patih occurs a t 1.1.65b, 16.14d,
2.18.24d, 31.31d, 4.11.8d, Bombay 6.102.40d and
Mbh.9.49.15b. Alliteration is also seen in the first
piida of a grouping of names which has become
standardized: gajo gavdkgo gavayah Sarabho
gandham-danah / m a i n d d ca dvividd caiva at
4.25.32abc, 49.5~-6a, 64.2abc, of which the first

216

Jout+nalof the American Oriental Society, 90.2 (1970)

pgda occurs also at 4.40.3~and Bombay 6.27.46c,

the first and second at Bombay 6.30.26cd and
42.31ab, and the third at 4.40.4a. Janaka is referred to four times in the BRlakBnda as vaicleho
mithildhipah. Agastya appears as agastyo munisattamah tmice in the AranyakBnda and once in
the Bombay Uttaraknda and as agastyam
~ ~ i s a t t a m a nonce
z each in the BBla and KiskindhB
kgndas and tuice in the Bombay UttarakBnda.
The rgksasas are regularly referred to throughout the RBmByana in a few pgda-length stock
phrases: r8ksascih piiitciiandh once in the BBlakBnda, six times in the AranyakBnda and twice in
the Sundarakgnda, r3ksascih kcimaruzpinah (also in
oblique cases both singular and plural and in the
feminine) four times in the Aranya and Bombay
Puddha kgndas, tmice in the BBla and KiykindhB
kandas and thrice in the SundarakBqda (also at
AIbh.2.17.lb et passim; cf. raksas6m kicmarilp87]c2m at 5.40.8c), rakgascim bh;makarma?liim six
times in the AranyakBqda, once in the SundarakBnda and thrice in the Bombay Yuddhakanda
(also LIbh.3.12.4d), raksasa bhimauikramcih tn ice
each in the Aranya and Sundara kandas and eight
times in the Bombay YuddhakBnda (also raksobhir
bhirnavzkramait~ twice in the Sundarakgnda),
rdkgashh kriirakarmcinah once each in the Aranya,
Sundara and Yuddha kiintlas, and rakgaslr
vikytbnar~dh five times in the Sundarakgnda and
once in the Bombay YuddhakBncla.
Stock padas of this type are found less frequer~tlynit11 the vgnaras but do occur in fair
numbers: vbnar(1h kbmarupinah four times in the
IG&indh&kBnda and twice in the Bombay
Yuddhakanda, kapayah k&narGpi?~aht~l-iceeach
in the ICiskindhSi and Bombay Yuddha kBndas,
and harayall khmarapinah twice in the Bombay
Yuddhakgnda. Other groups are referred to in the
pgdas: br&hn~anbhvedaphragdh at 1.8.l5b, four
times in the hyodhyfikfin(ja and lIbh.3.3.2a,
munayah samiitavrakih a t 1.233.b, 4.13.17b and
IIbh.l3.6.4lb, and anye ca bahavah iGrd!~ at
3.34.312, Bombay 6.72.5a and hIbh.6.23.9a.
It is obvious from the above survey that, although some epithets have a restricted range,
many are freely adaptable and may be used in any
appropriate situation. Indeed, some epithets have

a very wide range: dtptatejas, besides being used

with R&ma and Laksmana as noted above, also
occurs in rdvana?p dZptatejasam 3.30.4b, muninci
diptatejasci 3.10.64b and kapZncim dZptatejasdm
4.34.22f for example. But a good many of them
are used pregnantly, for instance the -vatsala compounds with Bharata (with which may be compared kausalya putravatsald at 2.21.15d) and
above all the dharma compounds applied mainly
to RBma. Many of them can be paralleled from
the AlahBbhBrata, of which some instances have
been cited, although close study ~ o u l dno doubt
reveal some differences in use, despite the certain
existence of a large stock of these piida-filling
epithets in common; for instance, aklytakarman
(or -kcirin) is confined to RBma in the RBmEyana,
whereas in the IlahBbhBrata we find krsnam
akligtakbri~arnRlbh.2.22.55d, etc., partham aklistakcirinam LIbh.3.42.35b etc., pdrther@kligtakarmand JIbh. 2.64.1313, etc., and pcirthasydkligtakawna~ahAIbh.3.39.lb and 40.7b, though it is
interesting to note that in the illah&bh&rataalso
-karin occurs for the accusative and -karman for
other oblique cases.
ISTRODUCTIONS TO SPEECHES A S D

SILIILAR PHRASES

Formulaic expression is very marked in the

pBdas used to introduce or to conclude speeches;
for instance, it may be noted that out of 182 occurrences of abravit or abruvan in the AyodhyBkgnda no less than 89 are in one of the four
formulae iclam vacanam abrawit, vacanam abravzt,
vdkyam abrawit and idam abravTt. The phrase idam
vacanam abrazjTt occurs eleven, eight and six times
respectively in the AyodhyB, Aranya and KiskindhB KZndas (also AIbh.3.38.ld etc.), and vacanam
cedam abravit is found four times in the AyodhyBkgnda and once in the Aranyakanda (also
lIbh.1.174.3d); vacananz iclam abrav%t does not
occur, being metrically unacceptable for reasons
commented on below in dealing with the alternation between idam abravit and vcikya?n abrawit. The
shorter form of this, - vacanam abravxt, occurs
seventeen times in the ,4yodhyBkBnda and twice
in the Aranyakg~da,significantly ~ 6 t the
h speaker
or the person addressed normally filling out the

BROCKINGTON:
Stereotyped Expressions in the Rdmdyaqa

217

pgda (as in 12 out of the 17 occurrences in the

AyodhyBkSinda, for example rdmo vaca?mm abravit
2.4.6b, 16.10d, 103.22b and 104.15b and ramam
vacanam abravxt 2.21.24d and 98.3d). With these
may be compared the reversed order of abruvan
vacanam sarve at 3.10.13a and abrawid vacanam
viro at 3.11.19c, caused by their occurrence in the
first and third piidas instead of the second or
fourth.
The alternation bet\$-eenx x x idam abravit and
x x x vakyam abravit is mainly conditioned by
metre, since x x x idam abravit seems to be used
wherever it may be without contravening certain
well-defined conditions; x x x idam abravit occurs
for instance 33 times in the Ayodhyiikiinda and
14 times in the Aranyakiinda, being considerably
commoner than x x x vdkyam abravit which occurs
24 and 8 times respectively. Obviously, idam
abrav%tcannot stand after a simple vowel and the
other restriction is where the scansion of the first
r;
part of the pEda would otherwise be
Hopkins lists the possibilities for the first foot of
the second and fourth pZdas and of this form,
listed seventh, he says "The seventh form is
avoided because it is the jagati measure."* Hence,
in these circumstances, vdkyam abravlt must beused
instead, and in fact is employed almost exclusively in these condition^.^ In the Aranyakgnda
especially, a variant of this is found in the third
pads with different word-order: abrafit r
vakyam occurring there nine times,1 with which

may be contrasted on this point of word-order

vdkyam lakgmanam abravit at 3.10.44d and 23.2d.
But forms like rdmo laksmanam abrawit, where
subject and person addressed can be fitted into
the same pads, are also very common (for example, ram0 lakgma?jam abravZt occurs at 3.4.11b,
59.20b, 63.2d and lob).
There also occur adaptations of these formulae
to accommodate names of four syllables, for example bharadvdjo 'bmvid vdkyam 2.45.18c, bharadvcijo 'bmvid idam 48.34b and surariijo 'bmwid vacah
68.18d. Similarly the use of a longer verse necessitates such a re-casting, for example . . . bharato
'bravid vacah at 2.84.22b. Another variant is
caused by the introduction of punar, as in punar
evabravid idam 2.7.28d, punar evdbravld vacah
2.68.1d and 3.4.29d, and punar evdbravid vnkyam
2.79.11~.Traces of a tendency toward formulaic
expression with the present participle may be seen
in the two following series: iti tasyam bruvanayfim
3.18.17a and iti tasya bruvdnasya 3.21.13a and
66.9a, and iti bruvannm vaidehim 3.43.9b) iti
bruvdnam k a i k e y ~ m3.45.9a and iti bruv(znam tam
rdmam 3.71.93, (out of a total of 13 occurrences of
bruvdna in the Aranyakiinda).
Formulaic expression with the perfects uvdca
and pratyuvaca is not so \$*elldefined; this is perhaps connected with the greater mobility of the
perfect forms, 1-hich occur as often in the first and
third piidas as in the second and fourth, unlike
abrawit, 1-hich in formulae is entirely confined to
the second and fourth padas and preponderantly
* T h e Great E p i c of I n d i a , p. 239.
occurs there when standing alone. However, x x x x
I n the Ayodhyst and Aranya k q d a s , for instance, uvdca ha occurs four times in the Ayodhyiikiinda
only k a i k e y f m vdkyam abravit 2.16.45d, pitarau . . .
and tmice in the Aranyakiinda, uvdca r - vdkyam
58.40d, vasistham . . . 62.4b (where however v a s i ~ t h o
. . . occurs in d ) and 105.9d, and kabandho . . . 3.66.1d or uvdca 5 = - vacah occur five times in the Ayodhand 68.713 are not for metrical reasons. I n this section ygkiinda and twice in the Ara~yakEnda(compare
figures are given normally for the Ayodhyst and Aranya also athov6ca punar vdkyam 3.3.la and ity uvaca
kiindas alone, since they provide ample material for punar vdkyam 3.71.25c), uvdca vacanam x x occurs
analysing such frequently occurring pstdas. Details
four times and once respectively, and x x x x
about their occurrence in other books can be extracted
uvdcedam
six times and once respectively; in the
from G. H. Bhatt's Pdda Index of the RdmZyana (GaekAranyakiinda,
there also occur three instances of
wad's Oriental Series, 129 and 153), which is however
based on the Bombay text.
tam uvdca tatah - at 3.3.2a, 43.5a (tam uvaca
lo These occurrences include: abravtt parusam vdkyam
obviously padded piida) and
tatas tatra-an

---

four times (also four times in the Bombay Yuddhakstnda), abravtt priiiijalir vdkyam twice (also once, thrice
and four times respectively in the Bstla, Kiskindhl and
Bombay Yuddha k n d a s ) and abravzt pradritam vdkyam

once (also four times in the Kiskindhstkanda and once

each in the Bstla, Sundara and Bombay Yuddha klndas).

21s

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 90.2 (1970)

70.7a." But none of these can be said to be really

frequent in a form like uvdca which occurs in various persons 109 times in the Ayodhyiikiinda and
45 times in the Aranyakgnda. The situation with
pmtyuvcica, which occurs in all 29 and 12 times
respectively in the Ayodhyii and Aranya kii~das,
is very similar: x x x pratyuvdcedam occurs five
times in the Ayodhyiikiinda and t~vice in the
Aranyakiinda, x x x pratyuvaca ha occurs ten times
in the Ayodhyiikiinda but not a t all in the Aranyakiinda, and pratyuv8ca tatah - ' occurs thrice in
both the Ayodhyii and Aranya ktindas.
There are two well used types of stock phrase
with Brutvd used after a speech, both normally preceded by the genitive of the speaker and differing
only in the length of the word which they will
allow to precede them; x x x vaca?lam Srutvh occurs
twenty times in the Ayodhyiikiinda and eight
times in the Aranyakiinda, of which five and three
respectively are tasya/tasy&s/tegrim tad vacanam
irutva (also twelve, nine and seventeen times in
the Kiskindhii, Sundara and Bombay Yuddha
kgndas respectively and RIbh.2.39.9a et passim),
and x x x x vaca?! Srutva occurs fourteen and nine
times respectively.12 In the second of these the
speaker's name, instead of being in the genitive, is
quite often compounded with vacah, as in sa
rdvagavaca!! Srutva at 3.40.12a. The following are
some instances where these stereotyped phrases
might have been employed but the language or
more precigely the word order has been varied:
tac chrutvc vacana?p tasya 3.6.1Sa, tac chrutvd
lakgmano cdkya~p3.66.3a, vakyam etat tatat! Srutvci
3.19.5a) and etac chrutva vacas tasya 4.3.23a.
The past participle passive and gerund of
l/vac are extremely common, of course, but of too
slight emphasis to have any very pronounced
turns of phrase. But some may perhaps be seen in
evam uktas/ukt&/uktau tu x x x occurring 19 times

in the Ayodhygkli~daand 14 times in the Aranyakiinda, evam uktvd t u x x x seven times and thrice
respectively, ity evam ukta!~/uktdx x x once and
four times respectively, and ity evam uktvg x x x
once and thrice respectively. Also of interest, in
view of the type abravit ' - vakyam, are the
folloming : ity uktah parugam vdkyam 3.43.25a, ity
uktvd parugam vdkyam 3.54.23a, Bombay 6.17.la
and 26.4c, evam uktv6 Subitam va'kyam 3.49.28a)
and ity uktah prdritam vdkyam 4.18.la.
I n addition to the phrases incorporating some
part of &c
or
there are a fern* other
stock piidas used in connection with speeches.
The commonest is akhyatum upacakrame at
2.66.34b, 3.10.10d, 16.2d, 32.4d, 4.8.45d, 51.3d
(also hIbh.18.5.6d) and its variants vydhartum
upacakrame (2.66.39d and Bombay 6.115.ld (and
Mbh. 12.337.15d), pravaktum upacakrame 2.1 10.ld
(and hIbh.13.87.2d) and pragtum samupacakrame
thrice in the Ayodhygkiinda. A phrase which from
parallels in the A'Iahgbhiirata appears stereotyped
is sa bdgpakalaya vaca a t 2.76.9a and ;\Ibh.4.19.27a,
with which may be compared tatah sd bdgpakalaya
vacd . . . a t l l b h . 3.58.23ab and hargabdgpakalay6
vacd AIbh.3.190.41 (prose); similar also is bagpagadgadayd gird at 5.23.2d and Bombay 6.113.16d.

d&,

OTHER STEREOTYPED PHRASES

As well as the phrases used at the beginning and

end of speeches, there are certain other wellmarked groups of stereotyped phrases. These may
broadly be classified as: certain verbal formulae
which express emotion or emphasis; various adjectival or nominal phrases, usually standard descriptions and often containing some element of
hyperbole; stock expressions for the events in
battles, which simply carry further the natural
tendency to stereotype battle scenes; and phrases
of time, place and number, in which, since they are
more specific than most, standard phrasing is
almost inevitable.13
l1 A more general series is: uvdca vyaktayd vdcd 3.20.lc,
uva.cdvyaktay8 vcicci 4.48.11c, dbhasya vyaktayci vcicci 4.22.2c,
Excitement, if not exactly emotion, is implicit in

and munim avyaktayd vacd 2.58.9a.

1% I t may perhaps be remarked that in the Aranyakiinda these two phrases, though less frequent absolutely, are more frequent relatively to the occurrence of
i r u t v a , which is found 93 times in the Ayodhyiikiinda
and 39 times in the Aranyakgnda.

l3 I n this classification and in the details which follow,

no reference is made to stereotyped similes or other
figures of speech, since these are better discussed in the
context of a survey of the alanpkaras.

220

Joz~rttalof the American Oriental Soczety, 90.2 (1970)

Another symmetrical and in fact chiastic pada

is Subham vd yarli vd papam at 4.29.39a, AIbh.5.
34.4a and 17.3.29a, together with the variant
Subhat? ud yadi vZBubham at 2.57.4b. The forest
is briefly characterised in 1 r viciclha cl~umdh
five times in the hyodhy5kiinda and once each in
the Aranya, Rigliindhii, Sundara and Bombay
Yuddha kiindas or 1 !vividhdn vrkshn at 3.71.
22c and Bombay 6.59.75~and 74.53e, and in
sarvakamaphalair vrlcsai?~ a t 3.46.12c, 54.30a,
4.32.5c, I%, 40.32~and Bombay 6.27.36c, which
is amplified in 4.32.5d and 15d by pugpitair
upaAobhit6nl.
Among the stock padas connected with battle,
1 ' clevdsure gucldhe thrice each in the Ayodhyii
and Bombay 1-uddha kgndas (and at lIbh.6.95.
2023 and 7.117.8~;cf. clevdsure ca sarngrdme at
2.99.4a and devdsuresu yuddhesu at Bombay 6.62.
20c) is a specific reference to a past event, integral to the story, and this is the reason for its
repetition. All others, however, are general in
their application. TKO,as is natural in such a context, show marked hyperbole or boastfulness;
these are ~~aydrni,'nesy~rni
yamasddariam at 3.21.
4d, 5.56.1OXd, thrice in the Bombay Yuddhakanda, and 3Ibh.2.68.lSd, 3.40.10d, 32d (also
nefds??zi ya?nasdclanam SIbh.2.68.34d, yarn% ydmi
y a m a k ~ u y a m 2.53.22d, 54.3d and Bombay 6.71.
54d, garnayisye ya?naksayam AIbh.3.1.5.12d; there
are many minor variants) and senclrair api
surcisurail~3.38.7d, 53.19d, four times in the Bombay Yuddhak%n~$a
and lIbh.6.93.35d (cf. saruair
api surdsurai!l Bombay 6.23.3%f, 41.57d and
hIbh.2.18.'3b, sendran api surdn sarvcims 4.12.8a
and apt senclraih surasuraih 4.13.19d).1"ther
standard formulae describe the start of conflict,
weapons and their employment, and the fall of
warriors: abhgaclhavat susa?pkrudclhah thrice in
the Aranyakgnda and at Bombay G.81.23~(cf.
abliyadhavat susaqkrudclha?n 1.34.6a, abhyadhatlata sa?pkruddha{l 4.47.17c, Bombay 6.67.144c,
92.42~and AIbh.1.141.17~,and arwadhcivata sam1 6 A t 3 43.13d T 1 has sendrazr apL sr~rdsurazhfor the
reading in the text seBvarazh sdmarazr apt and other mss.
have vv.11. s h o ~ i n gsimilarity t o these phrases; similarly, for k r r ~ d d h a i rapz sr~rdsr~ralha t 2.1.24~D6 reads
sarvazr apz sr~rdsurazh.

kruddl~oMbh. 1.2.184c), tatah sutumulam yuddham

4.12.17a and Mbh.3.271.21a (cf. tayoh sutumulam
yuclclham lIbh.3.18.11a and bhavet sutumulam
yuddham lIbh.3.46.11a, tes8m sglumgJa!~Sabdah
3.23.21c, and babhava tumulah Sabcla[l Bombay
6.58.17~and 11bh. 6.82.22~);iardh kdficanabh4sandh thrice in the Aranyakiinda (cf. Saraih
kanakabhasanaih Bombay 6.71.40b and PIIbh.6.
6O.lld), sasarja niiitdn bdndn 3.24.15~and Bombay 6.88.17c, sasarja ?~iSitdn"Saran thrice in the
Bombay Yuddhakiinda, mumoca nzSitan b d r ~ d ? ~
and mu?noca niiitam Saram each once there,
vivydclha nihitaih Saraih 5.42.6d, Bombay 6.70.32d,
lIbh.6.43.74d, 74f etc. (the shorter forms 1 1
niiifaih Saraih and ! niSitair banaih occur
frequently, while similar in type is ! sdyakazh Sitaih at 3.25.13b and 26.9d, also finishing
the piida) ; papdta dhara?~%tale
thrice each in the
Ayodhyii and hranya kiindas, Albh.l.16l.ld and
9.26.44b (also patito dharavitale 3.63.16d, l~ipetur
dharav<tale 4.52.18d and four times in the Bombay YuddhakSinda, pat it an^ dharan%fale SIbh.7.
3.44 etc.; similarly, ?zi;napata mah?tale Bombay
6.67.23f and AIbh.3.39.l5b, etc.) and papata
sahasa bhiimau 2.66.15~and thrice in the Bombay
Yuddhak6nda.17 The last t ~ phrases
o
are used
mainly in battle scenes but are found occasionally in other contexts. Commonest of all is !
ra~am~rclhani-called by Hopkins "the wellbeloved space-filler"18--six times in the Aranyakiinda, eleven times in the Bombay Yuddhakgnda, and lIbh.6.99.12d et passim.
Phrases of time may conveniently be divided
into those concerned m-itl1 the passage of one day
or night and those indicating longer or vaguer
periods. Two phrases in the first group in fact
indicate the passage of time indirectly by mentioning the performance of morning or evening
rites, namely krtvd pauruahnikam karma at 3.16.2~
(with slight variants, h.ytapaurvahnzkakriyaz~1.30.
2b, krtvd paurudhnzk'im kriydm 1.34.3b. k ~ t v d
paurvdh~likakriydm ;\Ibh.3.164.2b, krtva pauruah[~ika{lIcriyah l l b h . 3.'380.10d, and krfasarvdh[~i-

' '

l7 Interestingly, for papdta sahasd vdli a t 4.17.lc, a

variant reading is papata sahasa b h a m a u .
l8 Parallel Features in the TWO S a n s k r i t E p i c s . A . J .
Phil. 19, pp. 138-51.

221

BROCKINGTOX:
Stereotyped Expressions in the Rdmdyaqa

kakriydli -\Ibh.S.l.l3b) and updsya tu Bivdm

sa?pdhyii?n at 2.41.11~and 4 3 . 2 ~(sa for tu), similar to anvhsya p&cimh?p samdh y67?2 at 3.6.21~
and updsya paScinah??z sanzdhyd?n at 3.10.67a,
which, however, because they are in the prior
pada of the line, shon- a different word order from
sa??zdhydm anvhsya p d c i m 8 m at 2.44.24b and
47.lb. Others in the first group are: rajanf chbhyavartata thrice in the AyodhyBkanda (also Barvarf
sdtyavartata 2.45.23d = 80.23d and sa rdtrir
vyatyavartata 2.85.75d; this set of phrases seems
to be restricted to the AyodhyBkZnda); prabhdfhydm tu Barvaryhnz t n k e each in the BBla and
Ayodhyg kh~rdas and ?tIbh.3.2.la, tasydm rdfryhm vyatft8y6m 2.111.17a, 3.10.69a, 4.63.12a
and Mbh.3.283.la, atha ratryanz vyatitdydm
1.57.9a, 73.la, 2.50.la and 59.la, and
tato rdtryd?n vyatftdydm 1.6S.la;19 tatah prabhafasamaye 2.71.4a and 73.la and tata!~shyahnasamaye 2.51.4a (cf, tatah prabhhte vimale thrice in
the BBlaltBnda and Jlbh.S.l.9a and 14.63.17~);
and la?nbamdne divakare 1.30.l8b, 2.4S.8b and
3.10.5b. The length of Rama's exile is frequently
expressed as nava varsdni pa6ca ca, at 2.9.23b,
16.24d, 34.31b and 3.45.13b, as well as caturdda
h i var,shni, at 2.23.22a) 35.11a, 46.47a, 69a and
105.10~.;\lore general phrases are etasminn antare - r- 1.14.16a, 2.90.2a, 3.25.11a, 29.33a, 4.12.
21a, 3S.8a, fifteen times in the Bombay YuddhaIi&nda, nineteen times in the Bombay Uttarakiinda, and Mbh.7.16.7a et passim, with its
equivalent in the BBlakBnda etasmzrzr~eva kdle tu
(five times there, also twice in the Bombay
UttarakBnda), and atha dfrghasya Icdlasya 1.37.
19a, 4.9.17a, Bombay 7.59.10a, 99.14a and
Mbh.3.68.la (cf. adya dfrghasya kalasya 5.1.167a,
sa tultato dfrghena kdlena hIbh.9.1.45a) 47a and
35.10a) and tatah khlena mahatd thrice in the
l9 There is also a stock of variants on these phrases in
the AyodhyHkLnda and the MahLbhLrata (e.g. v y a t i tdydna tu i a r v a r y d m 2 61.la, prabhdh?iydn r a j a n y a m tu
2 48 32a, r a j a n y d m suprabhdtdydrn 2.98.2a; vyatZtdyQm
ra,janydnz Iu hibhQ.T.la, vyug<rlydm cazva Barvarydm
hfbh 15.16.27c, and vyusitdycim r a j a n y d m t u Mbh.15.17.
l a ) , but in the Aranyakgnda, for instance, the nearest
approach t o the first phrase i s . . prabhatfiyhm Bartiarydm . . . a t 3.15 2ab, the second phrase occurs once
and no variants are found.

B~lakrtg~ja).
Perhaps with this group are to be
linked certain expressions for speed of travel:
Bfghram Bfghrajavair hayaih at 2.62.6b, datah
B~ghrajavair hayaih at 2.16.3613, 39b, ragghavah
B~ghragairhayaih at 2.43.10b, gacchantu tzlaritair
hayaih at 2.62.3b, and Alghram prajaz.itair d v a i h
at hIbh.7.73.10a.
Certain place names readily form the nucleus
of stock padas. Of this type are: ayodhyam punar
agatam thrice in the Ayodhyiikanda, Bombay
6.127.55d and 7.102.13d, k i s k i n d h ~ mvalipdlithm
four times in the Ki~kindhdkZndaand Bombay
6.123.23d (alternatively, kiskinclhaql vzlinah purim at 4.12.14b and 14.5d), and larikdm rdvanaphlitam at 5.1.36d and 2.14b or purfm rdvanapdlitiim at 1.1.5Sb) 5.3.2d and five times in the
Bombay Yuddhakiinda. Locations in the forest
are rather perfunctorily indicated in padas
such as ranzan5ye vanoddeie at 2.50.9c,
3.4.30~ and 10.40a (cf. sthalaprhye vanoddege
3.10.37a, sa h i ranzyo vanodcleBah 3.10.41a and
12.17c, etc.) and aBokava?zikhmadhye at 3.54.27a
and five times in the SundarakBnda; other padas
referring to forest or mountain are: vane vanyena
,ifvatah 2.33.213, 57.10b, 3.60.12b, Albh.12.13.10b
and 14.13.7b, vandny upavandni ca 3.33.22b,
5.2.Sb and four times in the Bombay Yuddhakznda, and giriprasravapdni ca 3.7.15b, 58.34b
and 4.48.13d (cf. nac?Zprasraval;ldni ca 5.33.45b,
55b and Bombay 6.4.71b) and nadyah prasravan d n i ca llIbh.3.43.25b; similar also are gireh
prasravanasyeva 3.29.21c, gireh prasravano yathd
Bombay 6.58.55d, girih prasravanair ica Bombay
6.67.89d and >Ibh.3.263.4f, girzh prasravapam
girau
yathd Bombay 6.67.121f, bh~gz/prasrava~e
1.37.5d, i m a m prasravanam girim 3.60.14b, and
tasmin prasravane girau 4.26.5d). A certain degree
of stereotyping is seen in r r claksinam digam
at 1.13.36d, 56.13b, 3.65.4b, 5.1.Sd and 25.21d
and dali+inhnz diiam dsthaya at 1.59.21~and 3.10.
39c, also in r1cliio daSa at 1.21.7b, 2.9S.65d,
3.40.%b, 4.29.24b and Bombay 6.75.3Sd (also
1 at 3.6S.6d
Mbh.7.19.53d) and cliio daSa
and 5.56.34b.
I n addition to the ten directions just mentioned,
the seven seas find occasional mention in varying
but usually alliterative wording and the three

'

'

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 90.2 (1970)

222

worlds are quite often referred to, particularly in

the piidas trayd?.?dm api lokdndm, at l.lS.lOc,
48.16c, 2.76.15c, 3.2S.3c, 22c and 53.25a, arid
trigu lokesu viSrutahlvikhydtah thrice each in the
Biila and Aranya kiindas, with minor variants in
addition. A common expression of frequency is
the alliterative BataBo 'tha sahasrdah at 2.51.7b,
3.24.l5d, 20f, five times in the Bombay Yuddhakiinda, and AIbh.1.1.179b et passim (at least
thirty-two times in the first ten books), with
which may be contrasted sahasrena Satena ca
a t 4.33.2413, 28d and 31d. Other fairly standard
piidas incorporating numerals are Batayojanam
icyatah at 3.33.28b, 4.39.49b and Albh.2.10.lb,
ddayqjanam dyatah a t 5.1.144b, 145b and further piidas built on this pattern incorporating
other numerals in the Slokas following, rdksasds
te caturdda at 3.18.21b' 19.llb, 16b and 20.7b,
with which may be compared s a h a s r d ~ icaturdda
a t 1.52.17d and 3.21.22b and caturdda sahasrhni
at 3.21.8a, and caturbhih saha vdnaraih at 3.68.
12d, 69.32b and 71.7d, with the similar caturbhih
saha rdkgasaih at Bombay 6.16.17d and 17.7b.
REPEATS,

PARALLELISM AND REFRAINS

I t is noteworthy how- often a phrase is repeated within a short space of its first occurrence,
and not infrequently a whole line is repeated
almost ~vithoutalteration. Part of this is due to
the naive repetition of the exact original wording
when a message is relayed or a situation occurring
in the main narrative is recounted to another
character. Jan Gonda20 has analysed the factors
leading to this type of repetition and given examples from the older language; it is also of course
very much a feature of the epic language. I n
the AyodhyB, Aranya and KiskindhB kiindas
such repetition involves approximately 110, 140
and 130 padas, and additionally in the AyodhyiikBnda the Ibviiku genealogy at sarga 102 parallels that at 1.69.17-30 and 1274*.
I t will suffice here to give examples of the different types of such repetition. Kaikeyi's question
to Bharata at 2.66.5ab adya te katicid rdtryd
cyutasydryakaveBmanah and his reply a t 8ab adya
20

Stylistic Repetition i n the V e d a , especially pp. 38-42.

me saptam% r&triS cyutasyh~yakavebmana(i exemplify very well the echoing in an answer of the
wording of the question. A slightly more extended example occurs in Riima's questions
about the signs of conflict and in particular
apavidclhd ca bhagnd ca kasya shmgrdmiko
rathah at 3.60.32cd, reiterated in Laksmana'r
admission na tu jhndmi kasyhyam bhagnah
sd?pgr&miko rathah at 3.61.6ab and finally clarified by ayarn asya rune r&ma bhagnah sdmgrcimzko
rathah at 3.63.17cd, when Jatiiyu narrates hii:
fight with Riivana. Two stanzas introducing jolful speeches, one by Sugriva to Lak~manaand
the other by Laksmana to Sugriva, differ only in
the interchange of cases necessary: sa laksmanarn
bhZmabala??z sarvavdnarasattamah / abrauit p r d r l tam vdkyam suyr%vahsamprahargayan // at 4.33.4
and sa laksmano bhImabalam sarvavdnarasattam u m / abrafit prdritam vdkyam sugrxvam salrlprahargayan // at 4.37.3a-d. In the next verse,
4.35.5, Sugriva begins his expression of gratitude
to Laksmana with the words pranqtd 5riB ca
kirtig ca kapirdjyam ca Bdivatam / rdmaprasclrldt
saumitre punah prciptam idam mayd //, ~irhicl~
hr
then repeats to Riima himself at 4.37.25, merely
adapting the third piida to tvatprasdddt mahabhho.
The most extensive repetition of several stanzas
between sargas in the Ayodhyiikiinda is 45.2-15
= 80.3-16 and 45.17-23 = 80.17-23, with minor
variants only; these passages consist of a conversation between Lakgmana and Guha arid
Guha's narration to Bharata of what was said.
Similarity of situation can also lead to identity
of wording, as in the line prabhagnadhanvd viratho
hataSvo hatascirathih used of Khara a t 3.27.29ab
and, with sa for pra-, of Riivana at 3.49.13ab.
Mention twice within a short compass of some
locality or scene is often couched in identical
terms, as in sa tu rleko duranveso guhdqahanavdn
mahan a t 4.47.5ef and, with hi for tu, at 4.49.4ab.
But occasionally such repetition seema to be
due rather to textual corruption than to an
original primitive or popular style. To take as an
example the first instance noted in the AyodhyBkiinda, where ICaikeyi makes a request of Mantharii, 2.9.3-4 read idam tv iddnxm s a m p d y a
kenopdyena manthare / bharatah prdpnuydd rdj-

BROCKINGTON:
Stereotyped Expressions in the RdmGyana

223

yam na tu ramah kathamcana // evam uktd tayd leading up to the same statement in a different
devyd manthard pdpadariinz / rdmdrtham upahims- form at 7c dtmdnam nhtivartes tvam.
There seem to be only two places in the Arananti kaikeyim idam abravit // and after Manthars's reply these two stanzas are repeated in yakanda where the last padas of successive stanvirtually identical wording at 7-8; however, the zas are identical. These instances are: aham
manuscripts of the Northern recension have a rdmam anuvratd at 3.45.29-31 (and 891*) and
different beginning to the sarga, including verses kgipram rdmdya iamsadhvam sftam harati rdvanah
3-4, and it seems probable that the Southern at 3.47.29-31 (and 933*). Further instances of
recension at some point elaborated its beginning refrains are found at 5.10.19-22, Bombay 6.3.
out of the verses following.
24-8, 28.33-7 and 94.13, 15-18. Thus, so far as the
Parallelism within the stanza may in one sense figures go, refrains are commoner in the Ayodhbe regarded as the extreme form of the repeated yzkdnda than elsewhere, but the difficulty of
phrases discussed above, but unlike them its drawing a definite line between this and other
function is emphatic. Examples of extensive sorts of repetition is illustrated by the repetition
parallelism within the stanza are found in the of pratijfidm anupdayan at 2.16.28d and 34d,
Ayodhy&k&nda at 42.16, 46.41-2, 52.9, 56.12 which seems to contain this tendency in embryo
and 17. In the Aranyakgnda, the most extensive despite being repeated once only at some remove.
instance of parallelism of construction occurs Further, several of the sargas containing refrains
at the end of sarga 45, where icchasi preceded by are of less than certain authenticity and the phean infinitive is found a t the end of most lines nomenon would be even less common if the inin stanzas 34-9 and yad antaram . . . tad antaram stances at 2.25, 2.61, 2.85 and 3.45 were disoccurs repeatedly in stanzas 40-5. But this final regarded.
portion of sarga 45 has been much elaborated
PROVERBS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS
later and also contains the refrain noted below.
There are several passages in the AyodhyaProverbs seem to have been a feature of the
kanda where a recurrent refrain is found or an northern recension more than of the southern,
identical opening employed. 2.25.6-14 show the and consequently many are to be found in *pasfollowing padas at the end of the stanzas: 6 d . . . sages. The proverbs occurring in the RgmByana
duhkham ato vanam, 7d tasmdd duhkhataram are quite often also found in the A!tah&bharata,
vanam, 9d tat0 duhkhataram vanam, 10d and l l d but some are found only in other works, such as
ato duhkhatara???, vanam, 12d . . . duhkham ato Rlanu, the Hitopadesa and the Paiicatantra.
vanam, 13d tena duhkhataram vanam, and 14d Hopkins noticed one of the most revealing points
bahudoyataram vanam (and the *passages furnish about citations of proverbial matter in his statefurther examples); 2.36.2-5 show each stanza ment on the position in the Mahabharata: "referending with kva nu gacchati; at 2.38.11-15 each ences to Manu's laws in the early books are selstanza opens with kadci; in sarga 61 every stanza dom verifiable in our present code, while references
from 8 to 21 begins narcijake j a n ~ p a d e in
;~~
sarga in the didactic epic more often than not corre69 stanzas 14-23, 25 and 27-8 end yasyaryo spond to passages of the extant text."" None of
'numate gatah and stanzas 24 and 26 end yat the parallels with Manu in the R%m&yanaz2
is
pdpam tat pdpam pratipadyatdm; in sarga 85 in fact ascribed to Manu in the text in the way
stanzas 40-42 have an identical third p&dathat Hopkins describes for the later Mahabhadgur vimiatisdhas~d~-and the fourth pada is rata, the one exception that Hopkins cites, but
similar; in sarga 92 stanzas 4-7 (also 2125*) considers late, occurring in the Critical Edition
end nu me santir bhavyyati; finally, sarga 103
shows ndtivarteh satdm gatim at the end of 4-6,
22 The Great Epic of India, p. 19. Many of the instances
21

See further below.

listed in this and the next section were first noted by

Hopkins in Appendix A of this work.

224

Jourrial o j the American Oriental Society, 90.2 (1970)

at 4.397* 1.2 iriiyate manunci gttau Slokau curitryavatsalau read b y t h e Southern recension before
t h e proverbial saying at 4.18.30, quote below.
T h e commonest proverbial phrase is sa h i
dharmah sunatanah at 2.16.52d1 21.10d and
27.30d1 and ega dharmah satidtaizah at 1.24.16b1
3.3.24b1 5.1.100b1 3Ibh.1.113.13d, 3.13.6d, 30.50b1
152.9b1 281.20d e t passim.
yuror apy avaliptasya kdryakuryam ajcinatah /
utpatham pratipannasya Edrya???bhavati Sdsanam //
a t 2.454* 11.3-4 is found also at l 1 b h . l App. I.
.81 11.109-110 (nydyyam for kciryan~ i n d ) ,
5.178.24 (c = utpathapratipatinasya), 12.57.7 (d
= paritydgo vidhzyate) and 138.48 (dando for
kdryam i n d ) .
2.26.19cd1 vigam agnim jala~?z vdham asthasye
nzytyuk&ra?ldt, is v e r y similar t o 1Ibh.3.53.4cd1
visam agnim jalam rajjum dsthdsye tava kdrancit,
while t h e same general idea also occurs a t 3.43.
33-4 and lIbh.2.43.27.
2.610*, spriann iva gajo hanti jzqhra7i1z iva
bhujamyamah / smayann iva nrpo hanti n ~ d n a y a m iva clurjanah //, is virtually identical,
apart f r o m api for iva, t o Paficatantra 3.80 (hasann i n c ) and Hitopadeia 3.14 ( c d : pcilayann apz
bhGp&la(t prahasann . . .).
2.34.25, ndtantA oadyate viva ?idcakro vartate
rathah / napatih sukham edheta yd syad api
iatfitmajci, is identical i n sense t o Vikramacarita
SR.30.12, which has however slightly different
wording i n c d : napatik sukham upnoti n6rt
bandhuiatair api. T h e next verse, 2.34.26, reads
mitam daddti hi pita mitam ~ncitan~ita??zsutalz /
amitasya h i datciram bhartdram ka )?a pzijayet //,
x-llich is found also, with only minor variants, at
lIbh.12.144.6, Paficatantra 3.156, Vikramacarita
SR.30.9 and AIatsyapurFina 210.18; b o t h branches
o f t h e northern recension also insert i t into t h e
KiskindhHkBnda, at 4 App.I.ll 11.48-9 and App.1.
12 11.67-8.
2.95.31cd1 yaclanna[l purugo bhavati tadanncis
tasya devatah, is similar t o 31bh.13.65.59cd1
yadanno hi naro rajams tadanncis tasya devatdh.
sarve kgay&nt& nicaydh patandntdh samucchraydh / sumyoga viprayoydt~tci marancintam ca jIvit a m at 2.98.16 is another m u c h favoured saying,
found also at 3Ibh.11.2.3, 12.27.29, 317.20 and
14.44.18, Gobhilasmrti 3.43, Kathasaritsagara

51.2%-27b, and Divyavadiinn (ed. Comell) p.

27; i t recurs i n t h e Uttarakan(1n at Bomba?
7.52.11.
2.98.25, yatlid bdstha??z ca bdg(ha??z ca saf,zey/it d q mah8rnave / sametya ca vyapeyhth??l kala,n
asdclya kamcana, is clearly based o n yatha lids<ham ca kdgtham ca sameyatam mahodarlhau
sametya ca vyapeydtdm tadvarl bhdtasatrzdgamah at
J l b h . 12.28.36 (vyaj&yCitdm i n c ) and 168.15,
and HitopadeSa 4.72.
I~O
T h e spurious etymology i n I ) U ? I L I I ~ I ~naralicid
yasmcit pitara??~trdyate sutah / tasm6t putra ~ t z
proktah pitpit yat pdti v6 sutah at 2.99.12 occurs
i n identical viording at 3Ibh.l.68.38 and ;\lanu
9.138, apart f r o m svayam eva svayambhuvd as t h e
fourth p6da i n b o t h , and m a y b e compared wit11
yac ca putrah pu,zndma 7rarakam anekaiatataram
tasmdt trdtttz putras tat putrasya p?rtratva??i a t
Gopatha Br.1.1.2. T h e first and last p6das o f t h e
n e s t verce, 2.99.13, egtavyci bahavah putrd!~. . /
. . . apz kaiciicl yaycim vrajef, are similar t o estavya
bahavah putra yady eko 'pz gaydm vrajet at 3Ibh.3.
82.85ab and 13.88.14ab.
2.101.9, k&nzavyttas tv ayaqi lokah; k?.tstiah
samupavartate / yaclvrttdh santz rajdtlas tadvrttd!,
santi hz p,,ajdh, and B o m b a y 7.43.19cd, yatha 111
kurute rfijd prajas tam anuvartate [sic], m a y be
compared with ;\lanu 8.175, k&makrodhau tu
samyamya yo 'rthdn dharmega paiyatz / pral8s
hile
tam anuvartante samudram iva sinclhavah , ~i
t h e final pada o f t h e next verse, satye loliah
pratigthitah at 2.101.10d, is close t o satye sarvam
pratigthitam at AIahanar6yana Cp.22.1.
2.109.23, t~agarasthovanastho vd pap0 vd qadi
vaiubhah / ydsunl str&?ldm priyo bhartd tasam
lokd mahoday(ih, is identical t o Hitopadeia 3.28,
apart f r o m vd Sucih for vdiubhah i n b.
aivcsmedhasahas~amca satyam ca tulayii rlhrtant
a t 2 App.I.18 1.15 occurs also at 1Ibh.1.69.22ab1
12.156.26ab and 13.23.14ab ( c f . 318rk. Pur. 8.4'2
and Hit. 4.129).
A passage at 2 App.I.29 11.1-5, identifjing a
king w i t h various gods, is closely modelled 011
M a n u 9.303a-305b, as Hopkins pointed out.23
sulabhah puru.:d riijan satatam priyavSicliitah 1
2 3 Proverbs a n d T a l e s C o m m o n to the T w o S a n s k r z l
E p i c s . A. J . Phil. 20, pp. 22-39.

BROCKINGTON:
Stereotyped Expressions in the Rdmdyaqa
apriyasya ca pafhyasya ca vaktd Broth ca durlabhal~
occurs at 3.35.2 and Bombay 6.61.21, as \+-ell as
Mbh. 5.37.14 (tu for ca in c), Paficatantra 2.171,
Siirrigadharapaddhati 1360, SubhBsitBvali 2838
and sukasaptati 199.
3.38.12, pafica mzpdni rdjdno dhdrayanty amitaujayah / agner indrasya somasya yamasya varuvasya ca, is identical to NBradasmyti 17.26. The
first line is repeated at 4.404* 1.1 and similar
phrasing occurs also at AIbh.12.68.41ab and
137.99 and Alanu 7.4 and 7, while the theme is
expanded in XIanu 9.303a-305b and Rfim.2
App.I.29 11.1-5, mentioned above.
rdjamtilo h i dharmaB ca j a y d ca jayatdm vara
at 3.39.10ab is similar to rdjamzilo mahdr6ja
dharmo Eolcasya Eaksyate at Mbh.12.68.8ab.
Seeing golden trees as a sign of approaching
death is referred to in 3.45.33ab, 51.17cd, 64.11cd
and 4.824* 11.3-6, and also in SIbh.6.94.12,
mumzi~gurh i nara?~sarvcin vrkscin p d y a t i kdficandn / tathd tvam api gdndhdre viparitdni p d y a s i
the second line of which is similar to 3.51.15cd,
mrtyukdle yathd martyo viparitdni sevate, and also
to so 'pacinani p d y a t i at Mbh.2.72.8d and 5.34.
78d.
The lokapravdda (so called in 1.1) dipanirv a ~ a g a n d h a w ca suhrdv6kyam arundhatim / n u
jighrati mum27rsur yo n u Bynoti n u p d y a t i at
3.1017* 11.34 appears in the HitopadeBa according to H ~ p k i n s ;cf.
~ ~BKU 4.4.2 ekibhavati n u
pdyatity dhuh / ekibhavati n u jighratity dhuh /
ekibhavati n a rasayatity d h u l ~/ ekibhavati n a
vadatity &huh / ekibhavati n a Brsotity d l ~ u h/ .. . .
kdlo h i duratikramah occurs at 3.64.21d, 3
App.I.10 1.5 (vd for h i ) , 5.14.3d, and SIbh.3.
148.8d, 9.63.8d and 2 App.I.30 1.33.
4.18.30, rhjabhir d h r t a d a & s t u krtvci pdpdni
mdnavdh / nirmaldh svargam dydnti santah sukrtino yathd, is identical to Manu 8.318, apart
from krta- for dhyta- in a, wl~hile4.398*, which
the southern recension has as the next verse, is
closely similar in wording to Manu 8.316.
4.29.40cd, tan mrtan a p i kravy&da?z krtaghndn
nopabhuiijate, is similar to Mbh.12.166.23cd,
kravyddd api rdjendra krtaghnam nopabhuiijate.
4.33.12, brahmaghne ca surdpe ca core bhag-

225

naorate tathd / niskrtir oihitd sadbhih krtaghne

ndsti niskrfih, is identical to 31bh.12.166.24 (rc7jan
for sadbhih in c) and Paficatantra 3.157.
5.14.26, bhartd ndma param ndryd bhzigavam
bhiisandd api / es6 h i rahitd tena Sobhandrhd n a
Sobhate, is virtually identical to AIbh.3.65.18
(bhziganair vind in b, vi- for h i in c, Bobhandpi
in d).
5.40.9cd, ahir eoa aheh pdddn vijdndti na samBayah, is fairly similar to r\Ibh.12.196.13ab, ahir
eva hy aheh pdddn palyafiti nidarSan~m.~5
5.49.16, n u h i dharmaoit-udclhegu bahuapdyesu
karmasu / mdlaghiitisu sajjante buddhimanto bhaoadoidha!~,is almost identical to Xlbh.3.2.16 and
240.3.
Of Bombay 6.81.28, n u hantavydh striyai ceti
yad bravisi plavamgama / pfdakaram amitrd?zd?p
yac ca kartavyam eva tat, the first line is identical
to r\Ibh.7.975* and the second line to SIbh.7.118.
48cd.
PARALLELS WITH THE M A ~ B ~ R A T A

I n addition to the common stock shared between the two epics in the fields of proverbs, similes, long compounds and the various types of
stereotyped phrase, there are a certain number of
parallels between the RBmByana and the MahBbhiirata which can only be explained as the result
of direct borrowing from one to the other. Some
of these borrowings are quite extensive, and in
particular the RBmopBkhyBna (Mbh.3.258-276).
Sukthankar, in his paper on the subject,Z6 has
identified virtually all the identical passages occurring in the RBmopEkhyBna and the RBmiiyana
and ably discussed them, clearly demonstrating
the dependence of the RSimopBkhyBna on the
Riimiiyana. Accordingly further mention of borrowing between the Rfimiiyana and the Rfimopiikhyiina will be excluded in the ensuing discussion,
although it may be noted in passing that a considerable number of these passages are removed
from the Critical Edition of the Riimiiyana as
secondary.
See J. P h . Vogel: Indian Serpent-lore, p. 13.
V. S. Sukthankar: The =ma Episode (%mop&khygna) and the %m&yana, A Volume of Studies i n Zndology presented to Prof. P. V . Kane, pp. 472-87.
26

as

226

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 90.2 (1970)

2.30.10ab, adya nanam ddarathah sattvam

dviSya bhdgate, seems to be recalled in adya nunam
prthd devi satyam dviiya bhdsate at Mbh.6 App.1.
41 11.20-21, the more interestingly as the substitute passages of the northern recension, 785*
and 786*, emend the slight irregularity of dviiya.
Sarga 61 of the Ayodhyiikiinda, on the evils
of a kingless state, shows a large measure of
agreement with Mbh.12.67-8, which discuss the
evils resulting if a king does not protect his
people. Additionally, 2.61.22 and 23, ye hi
sambhinnamaryddd niistikdi chinnasamSaydh / te
'pi bhiivSiya kalpante rdjadadanipfditdhl/ aho
tama ivedam sydn nu prajiidyeta kimcana / rdjd
cen na bhavel loke m3hajan sddhvasddhunZ //, are
identical to Mbh.12.15.33 and 32, except for
vedanindakdh and da&enopaniptditdh in b and
d of 33. Both Jacobi and Hopkins discuss this
feature, holding that in this instance the Mahabhiirata probably borrowed from the RiimByana
rather than vice versa.n
But the story of Surabhi at 2.68 is undoubtedly
borrowed from the MahiibGrata for the sake of
the tale, though in fact the only really close parallel in language is between 2.1764* 11.2-3 and
Mbh.3.10.5, indicating the source of the corruption as the southern recension.
At 2.84.10cd etad dcakgva me sarvam na hi me
Sudhyate manah is very similar to etad dcakgva
me Sfghram nu hi me Sudhyate manah Mbh.3.
138.5cd1with the second part of which may also
be compared na hi me 6udhyate bhdvah at Mbh.
3.57.16e; perhaps, therefore, this is a stereotyped
phrase either common to the two epics or more
probably borrowed here by the Rftdyana.
On the kaccit sarga at 2.94, paralleled in Mbh.
2.5, Hopkins' trenchant comments are: "In both
epics the chapter is of course a late intrusion"
and "The section was apparently inserted into
the great epic after it had found a place in the
R&n-&ywa, to judge by the uniformity of the
former texts and dissimilarity of the latter."%

The phrase pdpim pdpau vinigpigya at 2 App.1.

14 1.2 is also found at Mbh. 7.51.19a, from
which it has probably been taken. This passage
is read by the southern recension.
Both 3.10.70 and Mbh.3.198.12 have as their
first pBda the hypermetric abhivddaye tvd bhagavan, although the northern manuscripts of the
RBmSiyana attempt to regularise the metre.
The account of creation at 3.13.17-33 is largely
parallel to Mbh.1.60.54-67; but an earlier stanza
in this sarga, 3.13.7, is virtually identical to Mbh.
12.321.34-kardamah prathamas tegdrp vikfitas
tadanantaram / Segd ca sadraya-5 caiva bahuput r d ca vlryavdn-differing only in having vikrtas
in b, for which there are many variant readings.
At 3.58.17 doka Sokdpanuda Sokopahatacetasam /
tvanndm-nam kuru kgipram priydsarpdarianena
mdm is reminiscent of Damayanti's words at
Mbh.3.61.99ab, viSokdm kuru rndm kgipram
doka priyadarSana, and 102c, satyandmd bhavdSoka. This is confirmed by the parallelism between vykgm-cchddya cdtm-nam kim mdm nu
pratibhdgase at 3.58.23cd and dvdya gulmair
dtmdnam kim maw na pratibhcipme at Mbh.3.60.
8cd.
The phrase prahdrair jarjarikrtah at 4.12.22b is
found in the plural at Mbh.7.69.60b and is also
similar to prahdrair jarjaracchavih at Mbh.8.40.
30b.
paiica paiicanakhd bhakgyd brahmakgatrma
rdghava at 4.17.34ab is almost identical to paiica
paiicanakhd bhakgyd brahmakgatrasya vai dvija at
Mbh.12.139.66ab. The first pads is cited by
Pataiijali at 1.1 thus: "paiica paiicanakh&
bhakgydh" ity ukte gamyata etad ato anye 'bhakgyd
iti, on which the Tattvaloka commentary has:
"paiica paficanakhd bhakgyci brahmakgatrma
rdghava / SaSakah Sallakii godhd kh&gZ k.iimzo 'tha
paficamah //" iti smrter a d a m aha, giving the
version of the northern recension for the second
line. The general purport is also found in Manu
5.18 Svdvidhaq Salyaka?p godhdm khegaktirmdddms tathd / bhakgydn paiicanakhqv dhur
2' See H. Jacobi: Das Rdnuiyapa, p. 71, andE. W. Hopant&rd.llzS caikatodatah.
kins: The Original Rarmiyaga, J.A.O.S. 46, p. 202-19.
There is a general similarity between ydnti
28 Parallel Features i n the Two Sanskrit Epics. A. J .
rdjargayaS cdtra mygaydm dharmakoviddh at 4.
Phil. 19, pp. 138-51.

BROCKINGTON:
Stereotyped Expressions in the R d m c i y a w
18.36ab and ato rdjargayah sarve mrgaydm ydnti
bhdrata at Mbh.13.117.19ab.
pQ&urevdtapatre?;la dhriyamdvena miirdhani
seems to be found only a t 4.37.12ab in the
FGmiiyaqa, presumably borrowed from the
MahSibhSirata where it is a stock pSida, occurring
for example at 3.42.14ab, 44.17a (first pSida only),
4.59.3ab, 5.179.13cd, 13.14.91ab, 14.63.3ab, 74.7ab
and 15.30.8ab.
5.13.19, mandaprcakhydyamdnena riipeva ruciraprubham / pinaddham dhtZmajdlena i i k h d m iva
vibhdvasoh, is virtually identical to Mbh.3.65.7
(%pe?j.dpratimena t a m in b, prabhdm for bikhdm
in d).
Sukthankar remarks in the critical notes to
Mbh.3.65: "The soliloquy of Sudeva comprising
stanzas 7-25 is written in close imitation of the
soliloquy of Hanumat in the Sundarakiinda (adhy.
18, 19, 21) of the Ramdyana, and agrees pith it
in part verbatim."
5.28.6-7, yathd tasydprameyasya sarvasattvadaydvatd / sam&bvdsayitu?p bhdrydm patidarbanakdrikgivim // aham dbvasaydmy enam pprvacandranibhdnaruim / adys@duhkhly, duhkhasya na
h y antam adhigacchatim //, are identical, apart
from minor variants, to Mbh.3.65.24-5.
Bombay 6.88.6413, laghu citram ca sugthu ca,
differs only in word order from citraw laghu ca
sugthu ca at Mbh.7.120.71b and 163.5d1 but this
is perhaps merely a stereotyped phrase.
A number of less exact correspondences could
be found, for example prthis sasyamdlinf at
3.15.5b and prthivi phalamdlini a t Mbh.6.3.18b,
but they do not provide such clear proof of borrowings between the epics as do the instances
cited above.

227

Thus stereotyped expressions of all kinds are

common and form a significant proportion of the
total bulk of the RlimSiyana, for some degree of
repetition of material found elsewhere in the work
or in the MahSibhSirata occurs in about one third
of all Bloka stanzas. Personal epithets are the most
frequent but, despite their stereotyped nature, are
quite frequently used pregnantly in accordance
with the dramatic necessities of the narrative.
This is one of the respects in which the author
shows a controlled and skilful use of established
conventions. For obvious reasons, the stereotyped introductions to speeches are not shared to
any great extent with the MahiibhSirata but the
phrases following a speech do also occur with considerable frequency there; both types are basically
simple and unobtrusive. The same can be said of
some of the other stereotyped phrases, whose usefulness also lies in helping to build a framework
for the narrative, but others are integral to the
structure and it is the hyperbolic or emotive element in their expression which has led to their
standardisation. Another feature is that a phrase
is often repeated within a short space of its first
occurrence, while refrains are found in a limited
number of cases. A similar, but less common,
phenomenon is parallelism of construction within
a stanza but this device is used with restraint in
the original RSimSiyaga. The parallels with the
MahSibhSirata and the considerable body of proverbial material demonstrate the extent of the
corpus of traditional material available to the
author. However, it is clear from the style, and
indeed the subject matter as well, that the
RiimSiyana is the work of a conscious artist who
nevertheless worked within the limits, and in the
spirit, of a living epic tradition.