1.

1 PILE INSTALLATION

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION

There are uncertainties in the design of piles due to the inherent variability of the
ground conditions and the potential effects of the construction process on pile
performance. Test driving may be considered at the start of a driven piling
contract to assess the expected driving characteristics.

Adequate supervision must be provided to ensure the agreed construction
method is followed and enable an assessment of the actual ground conditions to
be carried out during construction. It is necessary to verify that the design
assumptions are reasonable.

Foundation construction is usually on the critical path and the costs and time
delay associated with investigating and rectifying defective piles could be
considerable. It is therefore essential that pile construction is closely supervised
by suitably qualified and experienced personnel who fully understand the
assumptions on which the design is based.
Detailed construction records must be kept as these can be used to identify
potential defects and diagnose problems in the works.

1.1.2 MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

1.1.2.1 Types of Pile Driving Machines



Drop Hammer
Single Acting Hammer
Double Acting Hammer
Hydraulic Drop Hammer
Diesel Hammer
Vibratory Hammer
Hydraulic Injection Pile
TYPES OF PILE DRIVING MACHINES
1.1.2.1.1 Drop Hammer


Figure 1: Drop Hammer
A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised a suitable
height in a guide and released to strike the pile head.
A simple form of hammer used in conjunction with light frame and test
piling where it may be uneconomical to bring a steam boiler or
compressor on to site to drive very limited number of piles.
There are two types of drop hammer which is single acting steam or
compressed air hammer and double acting pile hammer.

1.1.2.1.2 Single Acting Hammer


Figure 2: Single Acting Hammer
Activated by steam or air pressure
Hammer fall as the force of gravity
The energy produced is usually 10-2250 kN.m
35-60 operations per minute rate blow.
The advantages of consistent operating shock rate that is higher than the
drop.

1.1.2.1.3 Double Acting Hammer

The striking ram (piston) is driven by
compressed air or steam when rising and
falling.
The air or steam arrives under pressure in a
valve box containing a slide valve which
sends it alternately to each side of the piston,
while the opposite side is connected to the
exhaust ports.
When falling, the striking mass hits a flat anvil
fixed to the cylinder resting on top of the
sheet pile being driven. Then the pressure
lifts the piston and allows it to be forced down
again on to the anvil.
Overall weight the ram is much less than that
of the drop hammer.
The hammers a designed to operate at
maximum efficiency when used with standard
sizes of compressors normally available.
Figure 3: Double-acting
air hammer
It is not advisable to insert a driving cap between the hammer anvil and
the sheet pile being driven since this leads to an enormous loss of
efficiency.
Can also be equipped to operate under water and for the extraction of
piles.
1.1.2.1.4 Hydraulic Drop Hammer


Figure 4: Hydraulic Drop Hammer
A hydraulic drop hammer is a modern type of piling hammer used in
place of diesel and air hammers for driving steel pipe, precast concrete,
and timber piles.
Hydraulic drop hammers are more environmentally acceptable than the
older, less efficient hammers as they generate less noise and pollutants.
However, in many cases the dominant noise is caused by the impact of
the hammer on the pile, or the impacts between components of the
hammer, so that the resulting noise level can be very similar to diesel
hammers.

1.1.2.1.5 Diesel Hammer


Figure 5: Diesel Hammer

Rapid controlled explosions can be produced by the diesel hammer.
The explosions raise a ram which is used to drive the pile into the
ground.
Although the ram is smaller than the weight used in the drop hammer,
the increased frequency of the blows can make up for this inefficiency.
This type of hammer is most suitable for driving piles through non-
cohesive granular soils where the majority of the resistance is from end
bearing.

1.1.2.1.6 Vibratory Hammer


Figure 6: Vibratory Hammer
Vibratory methods can prove to be very effective in driving piles through
non cohesive granular soils.
The vibration of the pile excites the soil grains adjacent to the pile
making the soil almost free flowing thus significantly reducing friction
along the pile shaft.
The vibration can be produced by electrically (or hydraulically) powered
contra-rotating eccentric masses attached to the pile head usually acting
at a frequency of about 20-40 Hz.
If this frequency is increased to around 100 Hz it can set up a
longitudinal resonance in the pile and penetration rates can approach up
to 20 m/min in moderately dense granular soils.
However the large energy resulting from the vibrations can damage
equipment, noise and vibration propagation can also result in the
settlement of nearby buildings.

1.1.2.1.7 Hydraulic Jack- In Pile


Figure 7: Hydraulic Jack-In Pile
Noise- and vibration-free, no mud slurry, no excavated material to be
disposed.
Sound quality compared to bored piles, as piles are pre-cast and
installed by jacking in.
No hard driving, no uncertainty of in-situ underground concrete casting.
Much faster than construction of bored piles.
Capacity of each pile installed is verified by a jack-in force up to two
times design loads (DL) or higher.
Obstructions in the dump material as mentioned above are not a
concern.
When a pile is jacked under a force of 2DL or higher, the obstacles will
be pushed aside or dragged all the way down to bearing stratum or
bedrock (In the latter case, the decaying of the material might be a
concern.).

1.1.2.2 Pile Driving Equipment


Figure 8: Driving Pile Equipment
1.1.2.2.1 Leads

Leads are generally a box shaped frame used to align the pile and hammer
during driving and must be long enough to accommodate the length of the pile
segments, the hammer, and other equipment as required for the project.
Types of leads include swinging, fixed, or semi-fixed leads depending upon
the connection between the leads and the crane. Swinging leads tend to be
the most popular and are generally suspended from the crane boom by a
cable and are required by the Standard Specifications to be toed into the
ground to assist with alignment of the pile during driving.

1.1.2.2.2 Hammers

Hammers are used to advance the piling into the ground to the nominal
required bearing indicated in the plans.


Figure 9: Hammer Components Illustration
1.1.2.2.3 Hammer Components

The figure below illustrates the various hammer components that are typically
used at the top of the pile.

A drive head, also referred to as a helmet or cap, is provided to protect the top
of the pile and assist in holding the pile in line with the hammer. The Standard
Specifications require that the drive cap be made from cast or structural steel
and that it also serve as a pilot for metal shell piles uniformly distributing the
hammer energy across the metal shell cross section.

Cushions are sometimes used above and below the drive head to protect the
hammer and the pile and dampen the intensity of the hammer blow. Cushions
used above the drive head are referred to as hammer cushions while cushions
used below the drive head are referred to as pile cushions.
Timber and concrete piles are required by the Standard Specifications to be
protected with a pile cushion.

Hammer cushions may be made from a variety of materials including wire
rope, polymer, aluminum, or steel. Pile cushions have traditionally been made
from plywood. Cushions wear and require replacement periodically throughout
the pile driving process. Pile cushions should be replaced when the reduction
in thickness is greater than 40% or they begin to burn. Hammer cushions
should be replaced after each 50 hours of operation, when there is a reduction
in thickness in excess of 25% or the manufacturers limitations.

1.2 LOAD TESTS ON PILE

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Pile load tests carried out on randomly selected actual piles to check the pile
design capacities. Three types of tests have been recommended which are Static
Load Test or Maintained Load Test (MLT), Constant Rate of Penetration (CRP)
and Pile Dynamic Analyzer (PDA)

Pile load test are usually carried out that one or some of the following reasons
are fulfilled:

To obtain back-figured soil data that will enable other piles to be
designed.
To confirm pile lengths and hence contract costs before the client is
committed to overall job costs.
To counter-check results from geotechnical and pile driving formulae.
To determine the load-settlement behavior of a pile especially in the
region of the anticipated working load that the data can be used in
prediction of group settlement.
To verify structural soundness of the pile.

1.2.1.1 Constant Rate of Penetration (CRP)

The equipment used is the same as that used in the maintained load test.

1.2.1.1.1 Function

The pile is made to penetrate the soil at a constant speed. This is
achieved by increasing the applied force. The force applied to the head
of the pile to maintain this constant rate of penetration varies and is
measured continuously. As a result of the pile movement, the soil is
stressed progressively until it fails in shear. When this occurs, the
ultimate bearing capacity of the pile is reached.

1.2.1.1.2 Method of Loading

a. Before the test is begun, the hydraulic jack and the load cell are
inserted between the pile head and the reaction system.
b. The jack is then operated to cause the pile to penetrate the soil at a
uniform speed.
c. Readings of time, penetrate rate and jacking force are made at
convenient intervals. A penetration rate of about 0.75 mm/min. is a
suitable choice for friction piles in clay, while a penetration rate of
about 1.5 mm/min. is a suitable choice for end bearing piles in sand
or gravel. However, the actual rate may vary depending on the
pumping equipment available.

The test usually proceeds very rapidly and requires the services of several
observers to take simultaneous readings.

For a predominantly end bearing pile, the ultimate bearing capacity in
most cases is taken as the force at which the penetration is equal to 10
percent of the base diameter of the pile. However, two factors that should
be borne in mind are:

i. for a very long pile, the elastic shortening of the pile during the test
may reach 10 percent of the base diameter: and

ii. for a large pile, there may be difficulty in loading the pile to a
settlement as great as 10 percent of its base diameter.

Figure In the cases of where compression tests are being carried out, the
following methods are usually employed to apply the load or downward
force on the pile:


Figure 10: CRP Test
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Suits all pile types Reaction piles/kentledge and
frame required.
Manual and automated
systems available.
Kentledge tests are relatively
expensive.
Limited to cohesive soils.
May over predict ultimate load.
1.2.1.2 Maintained Increment Load Test (MLT)


Figure 11: MLT Test
The performance of the test pile shall be deemed to have satisfied the
requirement of the specification, if the settlement /deflection of the pile head at
various stage of loading in Maintained Load test complies with the specification
requirement given below:

1) When residual settlement after removal of test load shall not exceed
6.50mm.

2) When total settlement under working load shall not exceed 12.50mm or 10
% of the pile diameter, whichever is lower value.

3) When total settlement under twice working load shall not exceed 38.0mm or
10% of pile diameter, whichever is lower value.

1.2.1.2.1 Scope

The test is applied by means of a jack,
which obtains its reaction from a
property stacked kentledge comprising
precast concrete blocks. The total
weight of the kentledge shall be
greater than the required test load and shall
be placed on a platform supported well clear
of the test pile.


1.2.1.2.2 Construction Procedure

1.2.1.2.2.1 Pile Preparation after Completion of Driving

After the test pile has been driven to set, it will be left for 5 days
before placing of the static load. During this time, the pile head
will be trimmed or the surrounding ground level reduced to allow
the pile head to project. The pile head will be thoroughly cleaned
and capped with non-shrink grout to ensure a firm bearing
surface perpendicular to the pile axis.

1.2.1.2.2.2 Installation of Jack, Load Frame and Kentledge

The hydraulic jack is placed onto the pile head with a steel
packer plate between the jack and the pile head. The ram of the
jack should be adjusted until it is projecting. The settlement
monitoring frame is next mounted to the pile head- this frame will
be made of steel channels tied together around the pile head
with two tie rods and bolts as detailed in Sketch SLT 1 below. 4
reaction legs (steel tube) are driven into the ground adjacent to
the ends of the channels and a concrete plug placed around
each leg for additional stability. These legs will have small steel
plates welded horizontally to the top once installed. The
settlement gauges will be fitted to the ends of the channels and
the gauge measurement arm will rest against the individual leg.
Settlement gauges will only be installed after the load frame and
kentledge have been placed, as described below.

The load frame can now be installed
directly over the jack with the jacking
beam set higher than the ram. The
load frame will be supported on the
outside by two lines of concrete
blocks as detailed in Sketch SLT 1
below. The kentledge blocks are now
loaded individually onto the frame
using a crane this should be done to
ensure that the load is evenly
distributed at all-time i.e. the entire
frame is laoded with the first layer of
concrete blocks before the second
layer is started, the second layer is
finished before the third layer is
started, etc. This will ensure that the kentledge load is stable at
all times and will allow safe access for all personnel. This loading
procedure will continue until the entire kentledge has been
installed.

Once completed, the kentledge should be left for a settling period
of 24 hours. The 4 settlement gauges are next installed at each
end of the channels with their measurement arms projecting
vertically downwards.



This measuring arm shall rest against a plate of glass resting on
top of the steel leg. Any gap between the jack ram and the
bearing plate at the base of the jacking beam should first be
closed with a steel packing plate this will ensure that there is
still sufficient stroke in the ram to load the pile to the full test load.
The jack ram is now extended to the point where the load gauge
starts to rise each settlement gauge is zeroed, the reading
recorded and the static load test can be commenced.


Figure 12: Incremental Loading and the Monitoring of Displacement

The pile is now loaded according to the incremental sustained
load test method as defined by the Designer.

A datum should be established on a permanent object or other
well founded structure which shall not be disturbed by the test
loading or other operation on the site.

The entire test area must be sheltered from direct sunlight, wind,
rain and be sufficiently lighted during the night to facilitate taking
readings.

The monitoring of the displacement will be done by applying the
jack load up to the specified load, immediately recording the
settlement reading, re-recording the settlement (where
appropriate) at specified time interval after reaching load and
also immediately prior to any change in load. The same
procedure would be followed for the next load state.

Once the test has been completed, the jack ram will be
withdrawn and the load frame with kentledge will be removed.

Maintained load test results shall be recorded for further analysis
by consultant.


Figure 13: Assessment of Settlement Figures
Before the removal of the kentledge and load frame, the
settlements will be analyzed according to design requirement.
Should the measured settlement figures be within the limits, the
pile will be considered as having passed the maintained load
test.

1.2.1.3 Pile Dynamic Analyzer (PDA) or Dynamic Load Test (DLT)

1.2.1.3.1 Purpose

A quick method to evaluate the bearing capacity of piles for
loads similar to the design load.
It can be used for pre-fabricated piles, cast-in-place concrete
piles, steel piles and wooden piles.
PDA is considerably faster than static test and at a fraction of the
cost.

1.2.1.3.2 Conducting a PDA/DLT

Adequate time should be allowed for soil stabilization before testing. To
prepare for a PDA, sensors are connected to the pile near the pile
head. These sensors have combined function; to measure strain and
acceleration.

On concrete piles, the sensors are connected to the pile with anchor
bolts. On steel piles, the sensors are bolted to the pile using threaded
holes or welded mounting blocks. Special sensors for underwater use
are also available. All sensors are may be recovered after testing. Once
the sensors have been connected to the PDA monitoring system, this
system can be to use to direct the test controls.

To apply a load, an impact ram or a heavy block (drop hammer) is
dropped onto specially prepared pile head. The generated compression
wave travels down the pile and reflects from the pile toe upward. This
reflected wave contains information about the shaft friction, toe
resistances and pile defects. The measured signals are processed and
automatically stored by the PDA monitoring system. The data can be
retrieved easily for further review, graphical presentation or reporting.

PDA is most suitable for driven piles. For cast-in-place piles, it may be
impossible to generate the required loads, or the stresses can become
too high; thus damaging the pile. In such cases, Statnamic Load
Testing is more appropriate.


1.2.1.3.3 PDA/DLT Equipment

The PDA/ DLT is operates under a Windows environment and consist
of a monitoring system with a hard disk, signal conditioning, combined
sensors for strain and acceleration and cables. The PDA/DLT software
for monitoring and reporting includes many features to further facilitate
signal processing and interpretation. The PDA/DLT monitoring system
has been designed for the harsh construction site environment.


Figure 14: PDA Monitoring System Sensor
1.2.1.3.4 Information Obtained From PDA/DLT

To assess the static performance of a foundation pile with DLT,
dynamic pile resistance and the relationship between static and
dynamic performance must be determined. If adequate load testing has
been conducted on similar piles, it is possible to obtain satisfactory
result without a comparative static test. In this case, the following
procedure is normally used.

During each impact loading, the following information is collected:
compression and tension stress in the pile, transferred energy, driving
resistance, bending moment, maximum acceleration, pile structural
integrity and the extent and location of any damage.


The signals and other information can be presented immediately on the
screen. A selection of the available graphs, all presented as a function
of time scaled in engineering units, include:
Measured signal
Transferred energy
Acceleration, force, velocity, and displacement at the sensor
location
Force and velocity x impedance
Download travelling waves
Upward travelling waves
Driving resistance
Estimate of static resistance

1.2.1.3.5 Advantages of PDA/DLT System

Transducers
PDA/DLT
System
Signal Conditioning
PDA/DLT
Software
Environment
PDA/DLT
Compact, reliable,
water resistant,
combined
strain/acceleration
transducers,
cables (on reel)
and connectors
Designed and built for
maximum reliability
and durability under
harsh site condition.
Programmed
under Windows
environment and
designed for use
by geo-technical
engineer
Mounting jig to
increase
transducer life to
and for protection
Full digital signal
processing

Easy installation
of software
Junction box for
easy mounting
and storage of
transducer
cables.
Number of files with
digitized signals only
limited by hard disk
capacity
Higher sample
rate allowing
higher quality
signal processing
Lightweight and and
small for easy handling
Reporting
software
available
Battery and AC
powered

Automatic Signal
Conditioning

Test box to test system
functions