Compossing an essay Document Transcript

1. Republic of Moldova Ministry of Education Ion Creang State

Pedagogical University Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literature English
Philology Department MASTERS DEGREE PAPERCOMPOSING AN
ESSAY Submitted by: Mocanu Elena Scientific adviser: Sagoian E., Ph.D.,
associate professor Chisinau 2012
2. CONTENTS:INTRODUCTION
. 3Chapter I.
THEORETICAL REVIEW OF THE PROCESS OFCOMPOSING AN
ESSAY ... 61.1 The
Writing Process ..
61.2 What is an Essay?
111.3 Prewriting
Techniques . 141.4
From Paragraph to Essay .
231.5 The Thesis Statement
.. 261.6 The
Introductory Paragraph .
281.7 Body Paragraphs
.. 311.8 The
Concluding Paragraph ..
331.9 Guidelines on Composing an Essay
351.10 Common Essay Problems
. 38Chapter II. ESSAY
WRITING PATTERNS ........ 422.1 Types of
Essays ... 422.1.1
Cause and Effect Essay ....
432.1.2 Classification Essay
.......... 462.1.3 Comparison
and Contrast Essay ... 482.1.4
Descriptive Essay..
502.1.5 Definition
Essay 522.1.6
Expository Essay ..
552.1.7 Narrative
Essay. 592.2
Coherence and Unity of Essays ...
622.2.1 Organizing Patterns
.. 65Chapter III.
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THE THEORETICALAPPROACH TO
THE PROCESS OF COMPOSING AN ESSAY ... 713.1 Description
of the course of the experimental work . 713.2 Results
of the experiment ..
93Conclusions
..
99Bibliography
..
103Appendix
.... 108 2
3. INTRODUCTION The masters degree paper is devoted to the topic
Composing an Essay.This investigation is from the field of methods of
teaching foreign languages. Writing is the expression of language in the
form of letters, symbols, orwords. The primary purpose of writing is
communication. People have used manytools for writing including paint,
pencils, pens, typewriters, and computers. Writing is known to be an
important component of the language as a systemand one of the four skills of
foreign language teaching that students must acquire.It is not a very easy
task to communicate in the written form in a foreign language.Maybe it is
for the same reason that large numbers of adult native speakers neverachieve
a high level of expressiveness in writing in their first language. It partlyhas
to do with the nature of writing itself. Harold Rosen explained it in this
way:The writer is a lonely figure cut off from the stimulus and corrective of
listeners.He must be a predictor of reactions and act on his predictions. He
writes with onehand tied behind his back, being robbed of gestures. He is
robbed too of the tone ofhis voice and the aid of clues the environment
provides. He is condemned tomonologue. There is no one to help to fill the
silences in his mouth or makeencouraging noises. As Rosen points out
writing is detached from the wide rangeof expressive possibilities in speech.
A writer is unable to explore all the devicesavailable to a speaker: gestures,
body movement, facial expressions, pitch and toneof voice, stress and
hesitations, he has to compensate for all of these disadvantages.Jeffrey A.
Carver says that Writing is a craft that requires both talent and
acquiredskills. You learn by doing, by making mistakes and then seeing
where you wentwrong. Practice, practice, practice writing. Learning to write
in a foreign languageis an uphill struggle for most students. Therefore
writing skills need to be taught.They are specific abilities which help writers
put their thoughts into words in ameaningful form and to mentally interact
with the message. Writing skills help thelearner gain independence,
comprehensibility, fluency and creativity in writing. Iflearners have
mastered these skills, they will be able to write so that notonly they can read
what they have written, but other speakers of that language can 3
4. read and understand it. The reason for which this theme has been chosen
is the necessity of knowingthe difficulties and problems we can have in
composing an essay. It is veryimportant and useful to know opinions of
different scholars on this theme and ofcourse the means, proceedings and
methods used by various scholars, in order toidentify, analyse and
understand easier and better the English writing. Taking intoaccount all
these things we will be able to teach and explain it to others in the
mostaccessible and easiest way including the most efficient methods and
techniques forthe best understanding. The aim of this diploma paper is to
present the most accessible andimportant information about composing an
essay and, of course, the best andworthiest opinions of various scholars from
various sources. The main objectives of the present diploma paper are the
following: 1. To analyse theoretical works of various methodologists about
composing an essay and to select the most useful ones. 2. To describe the
process of writing an essay. 3. To point out the difficulties students
encounter in the writing process. 4. To carry out an experiment in the school
concerned with the different types of essay writing activities. 5. To reveal
the most effective techniques that will improve the writing of essays. To
realize all the objectives of the paper, the following methods ofinvestigation
have been used: 1) Contrastive analysis 2) Generalization 3) Description 4)
Comparison 5) Experimental analysis The diploma paper consists of:
Introduction, three Chapters, Conclusions,Bibliography and Appendix. 4
5. In the Introduction the aim, the objectives of the paper and the methods
ofthe research are stated. Chapter I contains the theoretical data on
composing an essay and presentsa brief survey of the structure of an essay
selected from the consulted sources. Chapter II comprises the description of
types of essays relevant to the firstchapter. They can be used as a basis in a
teaching context or for individuallearning. Chapter III deals with the
description of the experiment and its results. Conclusions contain the results
of investigation on the topic. The Bibliography presents the list of sources
that deal with the problem ofcomposing an essay. The Appendix shows
several examples which are not presented in theresearch. This research is
quite useful and can have practical value for teaching andstudying English as
a foreign language. 5
6. Chapter I THEORETICAL REVIEW OF THE PROCESS
OFCOMPOSING AN ESSAY Writing is the final product of several
separate stages that are hugelychallenging to learn simultaneously. Among
these separable stages are note-taking,identifying a central idea, outlining,
drafting and editing. Both young and oldpeople can encounter the
discouraging writers block if they engage in more thanone or two of these
activities at once. It is difficult to start writing a report, forexample, without
a central idea and notes to support it. Teachers may not onlyconduct skilful
lessons but also stimulate all students to become better writers, andidentify
talented writers for special encouragement and lessons. To become
betterwriters, students may need to read good even greatliterature,
which can serveas a model for their own efforts. Hearing and reading about
the lives of great menand women writers and how they developed their
talents may stimulate them.Direct contacts with professional writers, such as
novelists and news reporters,may be inspirational. Inquiry and discovery
also inspire great writing. Havingtopics that a person cares deeply about, as
a consequence of personal interest andinvestigation, may prove decisive for
a fine writing and even lead to a life devotedto writing. [21, p 135] This
chapter begins by examining the writing process. It then looks at howwriting
is produced and the stages a piece of writing passes through before it
iscompleted. The later section of the chapter describes a number of
guidelines oncomposing an essay and students common problems while
writing. 1.1 The Writing Process Writing is a complex sociocognitive
process involving the construction ofrecorded messages on paper or on some
other material, and, more recently, on acomputer screen. The skills needed to
write range from making the appropriategraphic marks, through utilizing the
resources of the chosen language, toanticipating the reactions of the intended
readers. The first skill area involvesacquiring a writing system, which may
be alphabetic. The second skill arearequires selecting the appropriate
grammar and vocabulary to form acceptable 6
7. sentences and then arranging them in paragraphs. Third, writing involves
thinkingabout the purpose of the text to be composed and about its possible
effects on theintended readership. One important aspect of this last feature is
the choice of asuitable style. Because of these characteristics, writing is not
an innate naturalability like speaking but has to be acquired through years of
training or schooling. Mastering the art of writing involves learning a great
many things about thesystem and how to manipulate it. It entails learning to:
use writing implements,write legibly, spell correctly, use punctuation, satisfy
grammatical rules, takeaccount of an audience, construct and organize texts,
select from a range of styles.There is a great deal to know about writing in
order to be able to make the systemwork. However, there is more to writing
and becoming an effective writer thanknowing how to operate the system.
We need to know what the system is for. Writing has a number of uses and
has an important functional role in ourlives. The visible form of written
language means that it provides ideas andthoughts with a degree of
permanence and enables meaning to be conveyed toothers or recorded
without being constrained by distance or time. As a method
ofcommunication writing can be used to establish and maintain contact with
others,transmit information, express thoughts, feelings and reactions,
entertain andpersuade. As a personal or private activity it can be a powerful
tool for learningand remembering. It can be used to explore and refine ideas,
organize thoughts andrecord information. In school writing often has another
role. Children are asked touse writing to display what they know, and
writing is usually the medium throughwhich pupil learning is measured.
Through writing students do not just displaywhat they know; they can also
discover what they know and think. Writing is nota linear or step-by-step
procedure, but a messy adventure, one that you control butthat often
surprises you with your own insights as Raimes claims. [42, p. 145]
Recently, the teaching of writing has moved away from a concentration
onwritten product to an emphasis on the process of writing. Thus, writers
askthemselves: 7
8. How do I write this?How do I get started? In this approach, students are
trained to generate ideas for writing, think ofthe purpose and audience, and
write multiple drafts in order to present writtenproducts that communicate
their own ideas. Teachers who use this approach givestudents time to tray
ideas and feedback on the content of what they write in theirdrafts. As such,
writing becomes a process of discovery for the students as theydiscover new
ideas and new language forms to express them. Furthermore,learning to
write is seen as a developmental process that helps students to write
asprofessional authors do, choosing their own topics and genres, and writing
fromtheir own experiences or observations. A writing process approach
requires thatteachers give students greater responsibility for, and ownership
of, their ownlearning. Students make decisions about genre and choice of
topics, andcollaborate as they write. During the writing process, students
engage in pre-writing, planning, drafting, and post-writing activities.
However, as the writingprocess is recursive in nature, they do not
necessarily engage in these activities inthat order. Since writing is a
powerful tool for living and learning learners need to beshown how to do it.
[5, p.64] To become an adept and confident writer involveslearning how to
write and learning about writing. Fluent writers are at ease with thewriting
system and know when and how to use writing in their lives. Manystudents
mistakenly think that good writers simply sit down and write out a
perfectletter, paragraph, or essay from start to finish. In fact, writing is a
processconsisting of a number of steps: Thinking about possible subjects
Freely jotting down ideas on paper or computer1. Prewriting Narrowing the
subject, writing it as one sentence Deciding which ideas to include
Arranging ideas in a plan or an outline 8
9. 2. Writing Writing a first draft Rethinking, rearranging, and rewriting as
necessary3. Revising Writing one or more new drafts Proofreading for
grammar and spelling errors Not all writers perform all the steps in this
order, but most prewrite, write,revise, and proofread. Actually, writing can
be a messy process of thinking,writing, reading what has been written, and
rewriting. Sometimes steps overlap ormust be repeated. The important thing
is that writing the first draft is just one stagein the process. [53, p. 44] Before
they write, good writers spend time prewriting thinking about andplanning
for a paper. Here writers think, let their imaginations run free, jot downideas
or list ideas on the computer, decide which ideas to use, and come up with
aplan. Many beginning writers get into trouble by skipping the prewriting
phase.They dont realize that doing this early work saves time and
frustration later andusually creates a much better piece of writing than when
students just sit down towrite. Next comes writing the first draft. Writers
who have planned ahead are nowfree to concentrate on writing the best
possible draft. The focus now is onpresenting ideas, feelings, and
experiences as convincingly as possible, rather thanon correcting. The next
phase of the process and one that many writers rushthrough or omit
altogether is revising. Experienced writers do not accept the firstwords that
flow from their pens; they are like sculptors, shaping and reworkingrough
material into something meaningful. Writers do this by letting the first
draftsit for five minutes, an hour or a day. Then they read it again with a
fresh, criticaleye and rewrite adding, dropping, or rearranging ideas;
changing words toachieve more clarity and punch; and so on. Many writers
revise two or three timesuntil they get it right- until their writing says clearly
and effectively what they wantto say. Finally, the proofread for grammar and
spelling errors, so that their writingseems to say I am proud to put my name
on this work. 9
10. Early in the writing phase, a writer gives some thought to the
subject,audience, and purpose. A writer usually narrows the subject toward
some specificaspect that will intrigue and interest the readers. A good writer
also connects withhis or her audience and keeps readers in mind at all times,
as if in a face-to-facecommunication, that helps to know what information to
include and what to leaveout. Achieving this connection, however, often
proves challenging, because not allreaders have the same characteristics. To
consider audience, students mustconsider who they are writing for and
students must ask themselves, "Who is myintended audience?" Some
possible audiences are:1. Familiar, known audiences: self, friends, peers,
family, teachers;2. Extended, known audiences: community, student body,
local media;3. Extended, unknown audiences: wider range of media and
other publications. A good writer defines the purpose in writing, whether it
is to explain an ideaor provide information, to persuade readers to see things
other way or move themto action; that helps to write more effectively. To
consider purpose, students writeto express ideas, feelings, emotions, and
opinions, and they must ask themselves,"What is my purpose for writing this
piece?" Some purposes for students writingsare:1. to express personal
feelings or viewpoints2. to imagine "What if ...?"3. to narrate4. to entertain
and/or amuse5. to describe6. to inform or explain7. to persuade or
convince8. to request9. to inquire or question10. to explore and experiment
with ideas and formats11. to clarify thinking. 10
11. To consider point of view, students must determine from which point of
viewtheir ideas or information will be expressed, so they need to ask
themselves, "Whois telling this story/describing the events?" Some points of
view for studentsconsideration are:1. Physical point of view: where is the
narrator in relation to the action?2. Objective and subjective point of view:
what emotional involvement does thenarrator have in relation to the
situation?3. Personal point of view: who is the narrator of the story? (The
narrator may takea first person, third person, or an all-knowing omniscient
point of view.) To decide what information will be gathered and how it will
most effectivelybe gathered students who decide that they need to conduct
interviews or go on fieldtrips to gather information will need to brainstorm
and construct a list ofquestions. Students who require library research will
need to decide the types ofresources and references to consult. To consider
format, students will use audience and purpose to determineformat and
genre. They will have the opportunity to write in a variety of
narrative,descriptive, expository, and poetic formats. Their writings may
include formatsand genres such as: advertisement, advice column,
autobiography/biography,comic strip, letter of complaint/request/inquiry,
diary/journal, readers theater/roleplay/monologue, book review, report,
fable/fairy tale, greeting card, game rules,directions, interview, news story,
poem/song, essays, anecdote/personal experiencestory, sports column, short
story, etc. [44, p.88; 2, p.148] 1.2 What is an Essay? Words are collections
of sounds; sentences are collections of words;paragraphs are collections of
sentences; and essays are collections of paragraphs.But so are many other
forms of writing such as that found in novels, magazines,and newspapers. So
what are the essential differences between the essay and othertypes of
writing? The essay is, first and foremost, essentially true, a piece of non-
fiction. As 11
12. soon as authors begin making up characters, adding details that really
didnt occur,or fabricating a plot structure in order to make what they are
writing larger thanreal life, they are writing in a fictional mode. In other
words, essays may bedescriptive, use narration, propose solutions to
problems, elucidate the innerworkings of complicated creations of nature
and/or humanity, but one thing theyarent is fake or false or made up or
fabricated. Essays may be creative in the sensethat the authors have
creatively explained their points of view, but essays arentcreative. Secondly,
all essays have definable beginnings, middles, and endings, unlikesome
forms of writing such as newspaper stories. In addition, essays are
builtaround central ideas, normally referred to as theses. Basically, the thesis
is the gluewhich binds the essay together. It is the point of the essay. Its what
the essay isabout, what it intends to show, prove, or do: the controlling
purpose. Finally, essays consist of one, three, or more paragraphs. While a
twoparagraph essay may be possible to write, the requirement that essays
haveintroductions, bodies, and conclusions makes the use of a two-
paragraph formatrather awkward. And the one paragraph essay, consisting of
a topic sentence,supporting details, and a closing sentence, is too brief to be
considered a seriouseffort in terms of narrating, describing, explaining, or
arguing a point of view.Realistically, that leaves us with three paragraphs or
more. But length should neverbe a primary consideration when creating an
essay. More germane is the idea thatthe essay should be long enough to
completely discuss, argue, prove, or relate themain idea of the essay, the
thesis. The well-written essay has completeness and awholeness about it that
announces, "Theres nothing more to be said."[36, p.73-96] The primary job
of the essay, then, is to thoroughly discuss its main idea(s).In addition, three
or more paragraphs are normally required to adequately performthis
important function, even though under certain circumstances the one-
paragraph essay is acceptable. Essays can range from being five paragraphs
totwenty pages or more, covering any topic, whether its what you learned
from yourdog, or why societies become hierarchies. What all essays have in
common, 12
13. however, is that they must stay true to the roots of the word "essay"
which derivesfrom the French infinitive essayer, meaning "to try" or "to
attempt". An essay isessentially your attempt to explain your point of view,
and a skillfully writtenessay is clear, illuminating and informative. In order
to write a good essay, its important for students to know thestructure of
essay writings, the problems often met when writing, and how toimprove the
essay writing. The first important thing needed to be known is theformal
structure of writing an essay. The next important thing to know is
thatstudents have two big problems in writing an essay. One is language
problems,which are made by students shortage of vocabulary and the
translation of thoughtsfrom their first language to English, when the
meaning in the translation betweenthe languages is often lost. The other
problem is a cultural problem, since studentscome from a different country
and are not familiar with the English culture,customs, environment and
political society. [49, p. 5- 58] Writing essays successfully is not a special
ability that only some people areborn with and it is not an elite activity that
only some people are allowed to do. Itis a skill that can be learnt just like
any other skill. Writing essays successfully is aprocess that takes place over
time. What you do next week builds on what you didthis week or last week.
Like all writing, it involves developing self-awarenessabout what you are
doing and why, about what works and what does not. Writingessays at
university is not only a skill: it is also a practice. In a literal sense, thismeans
that you do it over and over again. A practice also means an accepted
andacceptable mode of behavior; and one accepted and acceptable mode of
behaviorconnects with other accepted and acceptable modes of behavior. So
writing essaysat university means that you are participating in larger ideas
about, for example,how to learn, how to express yourself, how to transmit
and receive knowledge. Theresa M. Lillis, an academic who specializes in
the study of writing atuniversity, found that a large part of student anxiety
was centred on academicwriting as students attempted to write within the
rules of the game withoutknowing what the rules were. This resource tries
to make transparent the stages of 13
14. the writing process and lists below some of the most common types of
prewritingtechniques. Prewriting activities help students to discover and
explore ideas abouta subject. Learners should become familiar with all of
these and figure out the onesthat work best for them. [40, p.112-144] 1.3
Prewriting Techniques Pre-writing, the first stage in the writing process
begins long before thewriter puts thoughts into writing. The experiences,
observations, and interactionsthat students have prior to entering the
classroom have an impact upon what theywill write and how they will write
it. Within the classroom, pre-writing promptsand activities can be integrated
into the writing process as scaffolds by teachers tohelp students generate
ideas for their writing and to practice the thinking skillsinherent in the
activity. To initiate thinking and generate possible writing topics, it is
important forstudents to explore ideas for writing topics using a variety of
prewriting strategies,such as the following: Freewriting: It is an excellent
method that many writers use to warm up and to generateideas. These are
guidelines: for five, ten, or fifteen minutes, write rapidly, withoutstopping,
about anything that comes into head, not worrying about grammar,
logic,complete sentences or grades. The point is to write so quickly that
ideas can flowwithout comments from inner critic, the inside voice. There
are two types offreewriting -- unfocused and focused. Unfocused freewriting
can help you clearyour mind so you are ready to concentrate on the task at
hand, and focusedfreewriting can help you come up with ideas on your
topic. Unfocused freewriting is very easy. You either sit down at the
keyboard orgrab a pencil and piece of paper and begin writing whatever
comes to mind. Dontstop to see if it makes sense; dont worry about
capitalization, punctuation,sentence structure or anything else. Just write
until you feel like youve clearedyour mind of excess baggage that can
prevent you from focusing on your writing 14
15. project. Focused freewriting is similar, but instead of writing about
anything, try tostay focused on the topic you are to write about. Write down
everything thatcomes to mind on the topic, without stopping to consider
whether an idea isworthwhile. Just keep writing. If you run out of things to
write about, write "I cantthink of anything" over and over until you do think
of something; soon your mindwill get so bored with the same phrase that it
will begin moving again. If you findyourself straying from the topic, dont
get frustrated; just try to refocus and keepgoing. Write and write and write
until you feel you have exhausted everypossibility. Then read your
freewriting and decide what points you want to includeand what points you
want to delete. Once you have decided on a topic for your essay, try doing a
free-writingexercise to generate ideas for fleshing out the paper. The goal of
freewriting is togenerate ideas and information from within yourself by
going around the part ofyour mind that doesnt want to write or cant think of
anything to write. You letwords themselves suggest other words. WHAT
you write is not important; that youKEEP writing is. There are two rules to
freewriting: DONT STOP and DONTJUDGE. Even if you run out of ideas,
write "I cant think of anything to say."DONT STOP, even if it means
repeating the same words until new words come.Dont go back to reread,
dont censor ideas that seem dumb or repetitious, andabove all, dont stop to
edit: grammar, punctuation, spelling, and the like areirrelevant at this stage.
Take pen/pencil to paper; you shouldnt lift your writingutensil off the page
until time is up! ALTERNATIVE: When you are ready to sit down and start
freewriting, sitdown at the computer and turn the monitor off. (Yes, turn the
monitor off). Asksomeone to keep the time or set a timer and write for 10
straight minutes. Dont liftyour fingers off the keyboard until that 10 minutes
is up. Turning the monitor offeffectively keeps you from editing during the
freewriting. This exercise can workeven if you havent nailed down a topic
yet. Just keep the assignment in mind and 15
16. let your fingers fly across the keyboard (or peck as the case may be). [28,
p.68-95] Brainstorming: Brainstorming is similar to freewriting in that you
write down everythingyou can think of without considering whether it is
valid, good or useable. Thedifference between freewriting and brainstorming
is that freewriting takes on aformat that looks something like a paragraph,
while brainstorming usually resultsin a list of words and phrases. When
brainstorming, it isnt necessary to keepwriting continuously; just jot down
ideas that seem related to your topic. Whenyou cant come up with anything
to add to the list, read it and determine what toinclude and what to delete.
Many writers prefer brainstorming because the resulting list is easy to
workwith in terms of separating ideas. In some cases, writers cross out or
delete theideas they reject and number the others in the order in which they
want to presentthem. With very little effort, they have an informal outline
that can guide them inorganizing their drafts. Another advantage to
brainstorming is that it can be done in groups. If youare collaborating on a
project, all the writers can meet and shout out ideas thatcome to mind
regarding the topic; but it is really not possible to free write as agroup. [18,
p.21-184] Clustering: Clustering is the preferred prewriting technique for
writers who are visuallyoriented because it allows them to generate and
organize ideas in a visual context.Because clustering, which is also called
mapping or mind mapping, is visual innature, it is difficult to explain in
words alone. It consists of using circles and linesto show connections
between your ideas. Clustering, or Mapping, is an invention strategy that can
be used to generateideas for an essay or to plan an essay. 16
17. Outlining: (Essay Outline Format) Outlines can vary from informal
notes jotted on post-its to formal typedoutlines arranged in a hierarchical
format. Usually, no one will see the outline butyou, so you should complete
it in whatever fashion works best for you. Somewriters need formal outlines
to help them organize their ideas, while other writersdo not. [34, p.44-86]
Using Outlines to Develop StructureWhile it is convenient to imagine two
separate stages of composition, in practicethe process is not so clearly
divided. Most writers have some idea of the finalshape they wish to give
their thoughts before they begin their work. Often the formis forced upon
them: they are writing in response to a clearly outlined
assignment.Sometimes structure develops unwillingly. If this is the case, you
might wish todraw up some form of outline before you proceed to writing a
rough draft. Severaltypes of outlines are popular. Topic OutlineTopic
outlines are undeniably easy to make, but they offer few other advantages.
Atopic outline is an organized list of the subjects with which an essay will
deal.Paragraph OutlineA variation on the sentence outline is the paragraph
outline, in which you attemptto compose the actual sentences with which
your successive paragraphs will begin.The advantage is clear: this technique
forces you to begin your paragraphs withstrong topic sentences rather than
vague introductions and transitions. Against thisreal gain is poised the
complexity of the task. You may well find that this exercisetakes so much
effort that it interferes with the actual writing of the paper. Asentence outline
is a very useful middle form, neither so easy as to be pointless norso
demanding as to steal time from the paper itself. [49, p.162; 24, p.54] 17
18. Cubing: Describe, Compare, Associate, Analyse, Apply, and Argue for
/ against.Select a topic and restrict it to workable size. The topic should be
one you knowabout from personal experience and/or one you have strong
opinions about. Writethe topic at the top of a clean sheet of paper (or blank
screen). Then, free write forthree to five minutes on each of the steps listed
below. Follow the order listed anddo not skip any steps. When you have
finished all of the free writes, read over whatyou have written and take the
topic test. DESCRIBE IT: Describe the topic in terms of size, shape, sound,
smell, feel, etc. COMPARE IT: What can you compare the topic to? What is
it different from? ASSOCIATE IT: What does the topic make you think of?
What does it connect with in your mind? What memories, feelings, times,
places, and people do you connect with the topic? ANALYZE IT: Break the
topic into sub-topics or parts. APPLY IT: What is the significance of the
topic? How can it be useful? Why/how does it matter? In other words,
answer the "So what?" question. ARGUE FOR OR AGAINST IT: Go ahead
and take a stand. Use any reasons you want to -- rational, silly, or anywhere
in between. Give as many reasons as you can for your position. TOPIC
TEST: o After cubing, am I still interested in the topic? o Do I have plenty to
say about the topic? o Will at least 100 readers be interested in what I have
to say? [8, p.144] 18
19. Journalist Questions The following questions are called "journalist"
questions and provide astarting point for exploring an event. These questions
are especially useful in theautobiographical essay or the reflection essay.
These questions should not beanswered in a necessarily direct way.
Obviously, telling what happened will bedirect, but exploring why an event
happened can become the focus for you paper.1) Who: Who is involved:
Who are the participants? Who is affected? Who are theprimary actors? Who
are the secondary actors?2) What: What is the topic? What is the
significance of the topic? What is the basicproblem? What are the issues?
What happened and what were the results?3) Where: Where does the activity
take place? Where does the problem or issuehave its source? At what place
is the cause or effect of the problem most visible?4) When: When is the
issue most apparent? (Past? present? future?) When did theissue or problem
develop? What historical forces helped shape the problem orissue and at
what point in time will the problem or issue culminate in a crisis?When is
action needed to address the issue or problem?5) Why: Why did the issue or
problem arise? Why is it (your topic) an issue orproblem at all? Why did the
issue or problem develop in the way that it did?6) How: How did it happen?
How is the issue or problem significant? How can itbe addressed? How does
it affect the participants? How can the issue or problembe resolved? [47,
p.57-65] Debating: Students may be assigned or may choose different
positions on an issue andargue those positions. Debating requires that they
think about their position, gatherevidence, and organize their argument--all
good ways to generate ideas and planfor writing a text. Later rereading of an
electronic discussion can help students think abouttheir ideas in new ways as
well as recall the ideas theyve expressed. This kind of 19
20. interaction always helps students think about the audience for their ideas
becausethey are writing for specific, real people whom they know. Activity:
With a group of other students, select a short literary text to read orreread.
Assign roles based on characters in the text to each participant. In
anelectronic environment, assume the role of your character to discuss an
issue orevent central to the text. After students have chosen the topic and
have done some prewritingactivities, they must decide what they will say
about it. Students develop an initialplan for the product they will compose.
As they do so, they must consider thepurpose, audience, point of view, and
format because these elements haveimplications for both the planning and
the drafting of the written product. To develop an initial plan for drafting,
students organize the informationthey have generated during pre-writing by
using such structures as outlines, storyframes, maps, diagrams, charts, and
concept webs. It is self-evident that a well-planned essay is going to be
better organizedthan one that was not planned out. Thinking carefully about
how you are going toargue your paper and preparing an outline can only add
to the quality of your finalproduct. Nevertheless, some people find it more
helpful than others to plan. Thosewho are good at coming up with ideas but
find writing difficult often benefit fromplanning. By contrast, those who
have trouble generating ideas but find writingeasy may benefit from starting
to write early. Putting pen to paper (or typing awayat the keyboard) may be
just what is needed to get the ideas to flow. You knowyoure planning too
little if the first draft of your essays is always a disorganizedmess, and you
have to spend a disproportionate amount of time creating reverseoutlines and
cutting and pasting material. You know youre planning too much ifyou
always find yourself writing your paper a day before its due after
spendingweeks doing research and devising elaborate plans.Be aware of the
implications of planning too little or too much. 20
21. Planning provides the following advantages: helps you to produce a
logical and orderly argument that your readers can follow helps you to
produce an economical paper by allowing you to spot repetition helps you to
produce a thorough paper by making it easier for you to notice whether you
have left anything out makes drafting the paper easier by allowing you to
concentrate on writing issues such as grammar, word choice, and clarityOver
planning poses the following risks: doesnt leave you enough time to write
and revise leads you to produce papers that try to cover too much ground at
the expense of analytic depth can result in a writing style that lacks
spontaneity and ease does not provide enough opportunity to discover new
ideas in the process of writing. [50, p.35-49] ORGANIZING THE
ESSAYThe classical system of argumentation based on that of ancient
Greek and Romanorators. The Introduction Gains readers attention
(question, story, quotation). Establishes your qualifications to write about
topic. Establishes common ground with readers. Demonstrates fairness.
States thesis. The Background (any necessary background information about
the topic). The Arguments Reasons in support of thesis
(logical/emotional/ethical). 21
22. Reasons presented in order of importance (most important first). The
Counterarguments Present alternative points of view. Notes reasons
for/against these points of view. Shows why your view is better. The
Conclusion Summarize the argument. Elaborate on implications of the thesis
(if we do this, then). State what you want readers to think or do. Make a
strong ethical or emotional appeal. [31, p.82-126]While drafting, the
emphasis is on content and meaning rather than on mechanicsand
conventions. This is the time for writers to get down their ideas and
thoughts,composing rough drafts based upon pre-writing and planning
activities andconsiderations. As they compose, writers begin to determine
what to include andexclude, and make initial decisions about how these
ideas will be organized.During the drafting stage of the writing process,
meaning begins to evolve. To produce a first, rough draft, students record
their ideas rapidly in order tocapture the essence of what they have to say.
They do not have to make anyattempt to revise or edit at this point. They
focus on talking to the reader and beginto develop a personal style as their
voices emerge. To write subsequent drafts, students often accomplish their
work by crossing out,adding, and rearranging ideas directly on the page. The
students redrafting doesnot necessarily require an entire rewrite at this time.
22
23. To reflect upon their own writing, students can conference with self,
peers andthe teacher. Through conferencing, students can get constructive
feedback andsupport that may help them to shape their writings. A set of
questions or achecklist can be used to assist writers and conference partners
as they strive to helpthe writer make meaning clear. [30, p.42-50] 1.4 From
Paragraph to Essay What is a paragraph? Paragraphs are the building blocks
of papers. Many students defineparagraphs in terms of length: a paragraph is
a group of at least five sentences, or aparagraph is half a page long, etc. In
reality, though, the unity and coherence ofideas among sentences is what
constitutes a paragraph. A paragraph is defined as"a group of sentences or a
single sentence that forms a unit" [31, p.112-116].Length and appearance do
not determine whether a section in a paper is aparagraph. For instance, in
some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, aparagraph can be just
one sentence long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence orgroup of
sentences that support one main idea. Before you can begin to determine
what the composition of a particularparagraph will be, you must first decide
on a working thesis for your paper. Whatis the most important idea that you
are trying to convey to your reader? Theinformation in each paragraph must
be related to that idea. In other words, yourparagraphs should remind your
reader that there is a recurrent relationship betweenyour thesis and the
information in each paragraph. A working thesis functions likea seed from
which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is anorganic
onea natural progression from a seed to a full-blown paper where thereare
direct, familial relationships between all of the ideas in the paper. The
decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with thegermination
of a seed of ideas; this "germination process" is better knownas
brainstorming. There are many techniques for brainstorming; whichever one
23
24. you choose, this stage of paragraph development cannot be skipped.
Buildingparagraphs can be like building a skyscraper: there must be a well-
plannedfoundation that supports what you are building. Any cracks,
inconsistencies, orother corruptions of the foundation can cause your whole
paper to crumble. What else should you keep in mind as you begin to create
paragraphs? Everyparagraph in a paper should be: Unifiedall of the
sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling idea
(often expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph). Clearly related to
the thesisthe sentences should all refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the
paper. Coherentthe sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and
should follow a definite plan for development. Well-developedEvery idea
discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported
through evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraphs
controlling idea. When you write about a topic in more detail, you can turn
paragraph into an essay. Similar to paragraph, an essay is composed of three
sections. These sections are the introductory paragraph, the supporting
paragraphs or the body, and the concluding paragraph. Paragraphs can be
easily expanded to essay lengths. Below is a diagram that shows how a
paragraph is expanded into an essay. The topic sentence of the paragraph
becomes the thesis statement of the essay, which comes at the end of the
introductory paragraph. The supporting sentences of the original paragraph
expand into three separate body paragraphs in the essay. In other words,
each major supporting sentence and its minor supports in model paragraph
become one 24
25. body paragraph in the corresponding essay. Finally, the concluding
sentence is made into a concluding paragraph. Title Introduction
Thesis Statement Body Topic Sentence
Major Support Minor Supports Major Support Minor
Supports . Concluding Sentence Topic Sentence Major
Support Minor Support Topic Sentence Minor Support
.. Major Support Major Support Minor Supports
Minor Support Major Support Minor Support Minor Supports Minor
Support Major Support Minor Supports Major Support
Minor Support Concluding Sentence Minor
Support Concluding Sentence Topic Sentence Major
Support Minor Supports Major Support Minor Supports
. Concluding Sentence ConclusionDiagram: Paragraph
to Essay Two other points about the expansion of a paragraph are important.
First 25
26. each body paragraph mirrors the construction of the original paragraph.
Just as theparagraphs had a topic sentence, supporting sentence, and a
concluding sentence,so does each body paragraph. Second, the body
paragraphs support the thesisstatement of the essay, just as the supporting
sentences in a paragraph support thetopic sentence. [1, p.37-59] 1.5 The
Thesis Statement A thesis statement notifies your reader of your original
idea regarding atopic. While your general argument may be something like
Slavery didnt causethe Civil War, your thesis statement gives your
original, specific idea about asubject. A thesis statement should be neither
obvious nor vague. A thesis mustbe controversial and arguable; it should be
possible for someone to come up witha reasonable argument contradicting
your own. The thesis statement introduces the main idea of the essay. It
states the main topic of the essay. It may list the subtopics of the main
topic. It may also mention the method of organization. It is the last
sentence of the introduction. Example of a good thesis statement:
Disagreement between the North andSouth over tariffs and states rights was
a more significant cause of the Civil Warthan were opposing views about
slavery. This thesis statement is strong. It makes a controversial claim
against whichpeople could argue and clearly identifies specific economic
and political factors. When you are asked to write an essay that creates an
argument, your readerwill probably expect a clear statement of your
position. Typically, this summarystatement comes in the first paragraph of
the essay, though there is no rigid ruleabout position. Here are some
characteristics of good thesis statements, withsamples of good and poor
ones. Note that the better examples substitute specific 26
27. argumentative points for sweeping general statements; they indicate a
theoreticalbasis and promise substantial support. A good thesis makes a
definite and limited assertion that needs to beexplained and supported by
further discussion, an intriguing one not trite andirrelevant. It shows the
emphasis and indicates the methodology of your argument,one that is worth
attention not ague and emotional. It shows awareness ofdifficulties and
disagreements, suitably complex. Some Myths about Thesis Statements -
Every paper requires one. Assignments that ask you to write
personalresponses or to explore a subject dont want you to seem to pre-judge
the issues.Essays of literary interpretation often want you to be aware of
many effects ratherthan seeming to box yourself into one view of the text. -
A thesis statement must come at the end of the first paragraph. This is
anatural position for a statement of focus, but its not the only one. Some
theses canbe stated in the opening sentences of an essay; others need a
paragraph or two ofintroduction; others cant be fully formulated until the
end. - A thesis statement must be one sentence in length, no matter how
manyclauses it contains. Clear writing is more important than rules like
these. Use twoor three sentences if you need them. A complex argument
may require a wholetightly-knit paragraph to make its initial statement of
position. - You cant start writing an essay until you have a perfect thesis
statement. Itmay be advisable to draft a hypothesis or tentative thesis
statement near the start ofa big project, but changing and refining a thesis is
a main task of thinking your waythrough your ideas as you write a paper.
And some essays projects need to explorethe question in depth without being
locked in before they can provide even atentative answer. - A thesis
statement must give three points of support. It should indicate thatthe essay
will explain and give evidence for its assertion, but points dont need tocome
in any specific number. 27
28. A thesis should include the following information: A. The term to be
defined. B. Sentence definition of the term. C. Reason(s) for giving a more
detailed definition D. The kinds of additional information that will be used
to extend the definition. [17, p.21-68] 1.6 The Introductory Paragraph The
introduction is the first paragraph of the essay. It begins the essay andhas
two parts: general statements and the thesis statement. General statements
give the reader background information about the topicof the essay. They
should be interesting enough to keep the readers attention. The following
strategies for capturing readers attention should be taken intoconsideration:
1. Find a startling statistic that illustrates the seriousness of the problem you
will address. 2. Quote an expert (but be sure to introduce him or her first). 3.
Mention a common misperception that your thesis will argue against. 4.
Give some background information necessary for understanding the essay. 5.
Use a brief narrative or anecdote that exemplifies your reason for choosing
the topic. In an assignment that encourages personal reflection, you may
draw on your own experiences; in a research essay, the narrative may
illustrate a common real-world scenario. 6. In a science paper, explain key
scientific concepts and refer to relevant literature. Lead up to your own
contribution or intervention. 7. In a more technical paper, define a term that
is possibly unfamiliar to your audience but is central to understanding the
essay.In fleshing out the introduction, avoid some common pitfalls: 28
29. 1. Dont provide dictionary definitions, especially of words your audience
already knows. 2. Dont repeat the assignment specifications using the
professors wording. 3. Dont give details and in-depth explanations that
really belong in your body paragraphs. You can usually postpone
background material to the body of the essay. [9, p.45-74] Useful Strategies
for Introductions 1. BACKGROUND: The background strategy is frequently
used. Thisstrategy may include historical or chronological information
pertinent to yourthesis. This material helps the reader to understand the
importance of your thesis. 2. DEFINITIONS: If your paper contains abstract
subjects (such as "love" or"courage") or a subject with a variety of
meanings, your opening can define howyou plan to use the term. Avoid
giving dictionary definitions. 3. QUESTION: A question or series of
questions makes the readercontemplate your subject immediately. Be
careful, however, not to rely on thisstrategy as a "quick fix." Your questions
must have substance, and they must bethoroughly answered in the text. 4.
QUOTATION: Choose a brief quotation that summarizes the points ofyour
paper. Be sure to discuss its significance immediately afterward to show
itsconnection to your thesis. 5. DIRECT ADDRESS: Use "you" or second
person only when writingdirectly to your audience or when the subject is
something about your audience.This is effective when giving instructions or
advice or when writing persuasively 6. ANECDOTE: A brief story can make
a point related to your thesis. Thisis a dramatic type of introduction. It is
often used with narratives or charactersketches. 7. DESCRIPTION: A brief,
vivid picture is an excellent way to set a scene.It places the reader in the
center of things and serves as a lead-in to the essay. 8. STATISTICS: State
some striking facts or statistics you have discovered 29
30. about your topic. This information may be startling evidence about your
topic thatwill hook the reader into exploring the essay. 9. STRAWMAN:
Challenge some generally held assumption about yourtopic by taking
exception to a usually held critical view. Readers enjoy thisapproach if you
are able to provide proof for your view. EXAMPLE: The picture-perfect
family includes a mother and father, who are forever in love, threewonderful
children, and perhaps a dog who can often be found on the living-roomcouch
even though it is not allowed in the living room. But many families todayare
less than picture-perfect, and mine is one of them. When my father walked
outeight years ago, he turned the picture into a puzzle, and took some of the
pieceswith him. Since that time, however, a combination of love,
understanding, andmutual commitment has helped us to put the other pieces
back together.Source: College Student 10. COMBINATION: Often
combining strategies can create an effectiveintroduction. For example, a
question and a definition or straw man with statisticscan be good
combinations. [46, p.135-156]Below are some helpful suggestions for
writing effective introductions.1. Your introduction should capture the
readers attention.2. Usually one fully developed paragraph is sufficient.3.
Introduce your subject in a general way; then come to the point, or vice
versa.4. The point is your thesis. The thesis is usually the last sentence of the
paragraph.(In persuasive writing, however, the writers position often is
expressedimmediately; the rest of the introduction follows.)5. Do not try to
be cute. You can be creative and original.6. If you write your introduction
first, be sure to revise it afterward.7. Make the tone consistent with the
essay.8. Create some kind of suspense that is resolved by the thesis
statement.9. Avoid "It is my opinion...," "I believe...," "I will discuss...," On
this paper I amgoing to...," Etc. 30
31. 10. Begin your essay with a sentence that grabs your readers
attention.11. Do not repeat your exact title in the introduction. However, do
allude to yourtitle somewhere in the paper to show the strong connection
between your ideas andthe title.12. Establish the need for discussion.
Answer the question, "Why should anyonebe interested in this?" 1.7 Body
Paragraphs Paragraph structures provide a map for writers ideas, guiding
readers throughhis reasoning. This simple set of principles should be kept in
mind while writing,and used as a checklist when revising. 1. Topic sentences
begin every paragraph. They should introduce new information that
confirms or complicates the thesis statement. The topic sentence nearly
always works best at the beginning of a paragraph so that the reader knows
what to expect. 2. Evidence and analysis. Within the paragraph, use specific
evidence to support the idea stated in your topic sentence. Use analysis
sentences to explain why this evidence supports your argument. The body of
a paragraph develops and demonstrates what topic sentences state. Here are
some common patterns: Explain more fully what you mean, giving
definitions or indicating distinctions. Offer details, examples, or relevant
quotations (with your comments). Follow through a logical sequence,
showing the connections among your ideas in a recognizable pattern such as
cause and effect or comparison and contrast. 3. Transitions within
paragraphs. The ideas in a body paragraph should come in a logical and
clear sequence that explains, complicates, or develops the idea put forth in
the paragraphs topic sentence. 31
32. o Transitional words (furthermore, in contrast, for example,
as a result) help your reader understand the way that you are developing
your main idea. 4. Transitions between paragraphs. Each paragraph should
explicitly relate to the preceding and following paragraph. o Phrases like
also important, in addition, or we should also note that are weak
because they dont explain the relationship between ideas in consecutive
paragraphs. Example of a body paragraph: Disagreements between the North
and South regarding cotton tariffs createda divisive political atmosphere that
was instrumental in states decisions to secedefrom the Union. Vice
President John Calhoun proposed that individual states hadthe right to
nullify specific acts of Congress in order to protect the welfare of thestates
against the federal government. When Calhoun proposed this doctrine
ofnullification, it became clear that the South worried that the North was
wieldingpower in order to damage the Souths economy. This worry
influenced theSouthern states to consider separation from the North. In
short, the economic issueof cotton export, separate from moral concerns
over slavery, marked the initialsplit between North and South. This body
paragraph is effective because it states an argument and then usesevidence
persuasively. A strong topic sentence is supported by a specific
incident,which is then explained. The paragraph does not simply retell the
eventssurrounding cotton exportation. Rather, it shows how economic
concern aboutcotton relates to the division between North and South. [54,
p.43-119] Choose Appropriate Paragraph Length A series of long
paragraphs can make prose dense and unpleasant to read.Check any
paragraph that is longer than a page to see if it would work better as twoor
more paragraphs. Break it at a logical place (e.g., where your focus shifts),
and 32
33. see whether you need to create new topic sentences to make the shift
clear. Also look for paragraphs only two or three sentences long. They
makeacademic writing seem disjointed or skimpy. Try combining a few
shortparagraphs into one, using a single topic sentence to hold them
together. 1.8 The Concluding Paragraph A concluding paragraph must be a
part of every essay. The length of theconcluding paragraph will vary with
the length of the paper or essay. It does threethings. It signals the end of
the essay. It summarizes the main points. It leaves the reader with the
writers final thoughts on the subject. To signal the end of an essay, some
concluding transition signals such as inconclusion, in summary, or to
summarize can be used. Then, either summarize themain points of the essay
or rewrite the thesis statement in different words. E.g. Thesis statement: In
fact, television may be a bad influence on childrenfor three main reasons.
Conclusion: In conclusion, if children watch too much television or watchthe
wrong programs, their personalities can be harmed. Furthermore, their
progressin school can be affected. A strong conclusion will provide a sense
of closure to the essay while againplacing your concepts in a somewhat
wider context. It will also, in some instances,add a stimulus to further
thought. Since no two essays are the same, no singleformula will
automatically generate an introduction and conclusion. But thefollowing
guidelines will be helpful to construct a suitable beginning and end foran
essay. An effective conclusion reminds the reader of the central point of
thethesis statement. 33
34. 1. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement
of your thesis. If you wish to summarizeand often you mustdo so in
fresh language. Remind the reader of how the evidence youve presented has
contributed to your thesis.2. The conclusion, like much of the rest of the
paper, involves critical thinking. Reflect upon the significance of what
youve written. Try to convey some closing thoughts about the larger
implications of your argument.3. Broaden your focus a bit at the end of the
essay. A good last sentence leaves your reader with something to think
about, a concept in some way illuminated by what youve written in the
paper.4. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a
conclusion. In some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be
appropriate. As with introductions, the length of the conclusion should
reflect the length of the essay. [59, p.76-92] The following strategies may
help you move beyond merely summarizing thekey points of your essay:1. If
your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible
consequences of not attending to the problem.2. Recommend a specific
course of action.3. Use an apt quotation or expert opinion to lend authority
to the conclusion you have reached.4. Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual
image to drive home the ultimate point of your paper.5. If your discipline
encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a
relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.6. Return to an
anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but
add further insight that derives from the body of your essay.7. In a science or
social science paper, mention worthwhile avenues for future research on
your topic. 34
35. Remember the following recommendations: Make the implications of
your thesis clear. Widen the significance of your introduction.
Recommend a specific course of action. Answer a question posed by the
introduction. Reflect on the experience that the essay record. Reaffirm
your thesis with a final telling example. [39, p.128-168]1.9 Guidelines on
Composing an Essay Essays can range from being five paragraphs to twenty
pages or more,covering any topic, whether its what you learned from your
dog, or why societiesbecome hierarchies. What all essays have in common,
however, is that they muststay true to the roots of the word "essay" which
derives from the Frenchinfinitive essayer, meaning "to try" or "to attempt".
An essay is essentially yourattempt to explain your point of view, and a
skillfully written essay is clear,illuminating and informative. Define the
context. If the essay is assigned, certain parameters will usuallybe defined
for you, such as the length of the essay, format of the title page, and
theintended audience (e.g. your teacher, an admissions committee, a
cheating website)and what length is appropriate. No matter what, if youre
given directions, followthem. A brilliant essay might still fail to get its point
across if it doesnt follow therules. Remember, the main point is what you
should concentrate on. Stick to thequestion key words throughout your
essay. If the question is given and it asks youto describe for example an
important character in a novel, you must always refrainfrom saying an
interesting or admirable character stick to the words of thequestion.
Choose a topic. Often this will be decided for you, but if not, try to choose
35
36. something youre interested in or, better yet, passionate about. It will
make theessay easier to write. On the other hand you could choose a stand
you disagreewith because it will allow you to see flaws in your argument
more easily. You canalso think of your thesis statement at this point, but it
shouldnt be set in stone sinceit may be elaborated or changed as you do your
research in the next step. A thesisstatement is what your essay is attempting
to explain and prove. Make sure yourthesis statement explains everything
you will talk about in the essay. It should alsobe no longer than 1 sentence.
You can brainstorm a few different thesis statementsand use them to guide
your research. Gather your information. Whether its personal observations or
scientificfacts, youll need evidence to back up your thesis statement. Take
detailed notes,keeping track of which facts come from which sources. As
youre researching yourtopic, dont ignore facts and claims that seem to
disprove your thesis statement. Agood essayist includes the contrary
evidence and shows why such evidence is notvalid. Plan your essay. This is
the time to solidify your thesis statement. Lookover all of your research and
notes: Can you observe any patterns or observations?Try making a mind
map to organize your thoughts. Maybe you started out wantingto show how
youd give back to the community, but now you see a better pointwould be
that youre a good role model for others like yourself. Let the evidencespeak
for itself. If you dont have enough information to demonstrate anything,
youmay need to do more research or modify your thesis statement (or even
your topic).If you have enough material to sustain a thesis statement,
however make an outlineto organize your research with headings and sub-
headings. Write the body of your essay first. Identify three or more points
thatsupport and/or explain your thesis statement. Each point should be
supported byspecific evidence, examples or arguments. In shorter essays,
such as a five-paragraph essay, each point should be supported by a single
paragraph; but inlonger essays, an entire page or more might be required to
demonstrate a singlepoint. Use your outline as a guide, presenting the
information in full sentences that 36
37. flow logically from one to the next. After you write out all of your
points, arrangethe points themselves so that they flow logically from one to
the next. Conclude your essay. Summarize your points and suggest ways in
whichyour conclusion can be thought of in a larger sense. What are the
implications ofyour thesis statement being true? Whats the next step? What
questions remainunanswered? This is not the place to introduce any new
information that supportsyour thesis--you should only be "repackaging what
you already discussed, using abroader perspective. Write the introduction.
Now that youve written the body and theconclusion, youre in the best
position to tell the reader what theyre getting into.Explain your thesis
statement, and how youre going to affirm it, without being toospecific. Do
not use obvious expressions such as, "This essay is about..." or "Thetopic of
this essay is..." or "I will now show that... One approach is to begin witha
general statement, then follow it with a question or problem, then with
yourthesis statement, and a brief overview of your points Read through your
essay. For now, dont worry about typos or grammaticalerrors; underline
them so you can go back and fix them later. Go from start tofinish seeing
how your essay flows. Does each sentence lead smoothly to the next?Does
each paragraph flow logically to the next? Each statement should
beconnected or related somehow to the one before it, not thrown randomly
together. Revise, revise, and revise! Writing the paper the first time is not
the mostimportant part of writing an essayrevision is! Sometimes the
paper you write isnot the essay you originally planned. It is difficult to
accomplish all that one setsout to in a paper, and sometimes you may find
that your ideas about your subjecthave changed as youve been writing. Make
sure youre happy with the way yourpaper presents its points. Dont like it?
Re-arrange it (thats one of the great thingsabout writing with a word
processor; its easy to do things like this). Once yourehappy with the body,
make sure the conclusion and introduction (in that order) stillmatch it AND
match the way you see your topic now. If not, rewrite them to fit theessay
you did write (not the one you started out to write) and the way you see your
37
38. topic now. Proofread. Now check for spelling and/or grammatical errors.
If using a word processors spell checker, remember that it only checks to see
if a word is misspelled. For example, if you meant to use the word "write"
and instead used "writ" the spell checker will pass it without noticing, since
writ is an actual word.o Vary your language with the help of a thesaurus.
Consult a dictionary to make sure that youre using the synonym adversely.o
Avoid using colloquial (informal) writing. Do not use contractions or
abbreviations, such as dont, cant, wont, shouldnt, couldve, or havent. Use
formal English: do not, cannot, will not, should not, could have, have not.
Your essay should have a serious tone, even if written in a light or lyrical
style.o Use English punctuation correctly. Consult a style book if you are
unsure how to properly use quotation marks, colons, semi-colons,
apostrophes, or commas. Avoid using exclamation points to emphasize your
statements. [6, p.156-170] 1.10 Common Essay Problems Essay writing
may seem to be trivial task that doesnt require a lot of expertise and may be
performed by anyone who has at least basic understanding of principles
along which the English language works. This assumption, however, ends
when one encounters an actual necessity of writing an essay the task turns
out to be much more difficult, than it seemed to be. Thats why it is a good
idea to know what the common mistakes students make when writing them.
1. Unstructured: Many essays are not structured, which makes them difficult
for the markers to read. Without structure, reading an essay is like a
discovery journey: your marker will never be sure what is around the corner.
This might sound appealing, but youre not writing a thriller. Your 38
39. marker will have difficulty to see whether and how what you write is
relevant to the question set. Following the advice in this paper, you can
avoid this problem by outlining at the beginning how youre going to answer
the question (delimit). Your reader will know what is coming up. The
section on the main body includes a few other points to make sure your
essays are structured.2. Rambling: The problem of rambling is often just a
symptom of the above problem: lack of structure. By thinking in a structured
way, tendencies to ramble are reduced. Following a reasonable form of
preparation will also help. Once you know what youre going to say, and in
what order youre going to say it, its much easier to stay on track.3. Not
relevant: Unfortunately many essays that are written are as such great
essays, but include substantive sections that are not relevant. The problem
may be that not enough time is spent planning the essay. It may also be the
case that the irrelevant bits merely appear to be irrelevant. The trick in the
latter case is to link the paragraphs using suitable phrases, and actively
demonstrate how the illustrations are relevant, for instance.4. Unconnected:
For the same reasons as in the above point, essays may be or appear
unconnected. A good plan can be the first line of defence: making sure that
you yourself know how the different bits link. The next thing to do, again, is
using phrases that connect different paragraphs and sections. Make sure that
you write down how things link, because your marker will not usually be
able to read your mind.5. Unclear: An essay can be well put together, and
the reader still be left unclear about what exactly is being said. The problem
is in most cases the lack of delimitation and definition. This means that the
essay does not state what is and is not written about and also that key terms
are not defined. Much unclarity can stem from misunderstandings, the reader
understanding terms in a different way from what you intended them to
mean. What is 39
40. clear to you may not be so for the marker. Making sure its down on
paper, this problem can be prevented.6. Difficult: Essays that are difficult to
read often suffer from one of the following symptoms: lack of illustrations,
lack of conceptual clarity, or lack of guidance. Illustrations are not a nice to
have, but an essential part of most essays. Think about the examples when
you plan the essay. Conceptual clarity can be remedied by providing
definitions, as outlined in the previous point. The lack of guidance means
that your readers will feel lost, not knowing where the essay will go next.
Providing a clear introduction that delimits the scope of the answer is
sometimes all that is needed. Within the main body, linking sections and
paragraphs helps further.7. There is no thesis. A cardinal sin in essay-
writing, you should make sure you have a main point. Otherwise, all the
work you do the rest of the way wont matter. The thesis is too general or too
narrow. Cover too much area and youll have a hard time supplying sufficient
arguments for your thesis; cover too little and you wont fill enough space for
discussion. Find a middle ground that coincides with your word count
requirements.8. Poor organization and no sense of direction. If theres no
innate reason for one paragraph to follow another, then your essay is
suffering from this problem. There are few, or inadequate transitions. There
are too many generalizations and too little support for them. The
introduction or conclusion is weak, or one simply repeats the other. To fix it,
rearrange your ideas so that they develop into the conclusion you intend to
make.9. There is a lack of adequate transitions. Its not uncommon to jump
from one idea to another throughout the body of an essay. Thats provided
that you supply adequate transitions to handle them. If you dont, theres a
good chance the reader wont be able to follow how your writing builds
up.10. There are too many generalizations without valid accompanying
support. Any time you claim something that isnt a fact make sure you
support it with valid reason and evidence. 40
41. 11. The introduction or conclusion isnt strong enough. Always put extra
work in your introductions and conclusions. Theyre the first and last things a
reader will see, so make sure they leave the right impressions. 12.
Presentation. The essay is poorly set out, with inadequate space for the
instructors comments. There are frequent typos or misspelled words. The
most common problem, probably, is students failing to answer thequestion.
By paying attention to the process and content words, the first part of
theproblem is already resolved. Writing in a planned and structured way,
theremainder is addressed, too. The amount of difficulties learners encounter
while accomplishing writingtasks can be reduced by following the outlined
approach to essay writing. Anumber of process writing activities and useful
tips will be described in thefollowing subchapters. By following the
approach of essay writing outlined in thispaper, you can avoid a whole range
of very common essay problems. [44, p.6-23; 58, p.2-60] 41
42. Chapter II ESSAY WRITING PATTERNS Writing is like a journey:
one starts with a blank sheet of paper and whatappears on it in the end of the
trip depends only on the person himself. One shouldgo through every stage
of essay writing process described to write the essay that: is focused; is
logical; is clear; is well-structured; is deeply-argumentative; grabs the
readers interest from the first lines; does not pad; provides illustrative
evidence; gives credits to sources. A student has many options when
choosing an essay pattern. Generally studentsdont have a choice about the
type of essay to write about, since this may havebeen determined by the
assignment. If they do have a choice, however, they canfind a type that will
best fit their personality. They might want to choose to write apersuasive
argument; or perhaps they are gifted with great descriptive
capabilities,instead. They could write a narrative of something interesting
that took place, orperhaps a descriptive essay of an object. Whatever they
decide to do, they will findthe assignment much more enjoyable and
readable. Successful writers know that they produce the best material when
they put alittle bit of heart and soul into their writing. So students can
improve their gradesand writing if they personalize just a bit! [51, p.42] 2.1
Types of Essays Writing is the expression of language in the form of letters,
symbols, orwords. The primary purpose of writing is communication. People
have used manytools for writing including paint, pencils, pens, typewriters,
and computers. Thewriting can be formed on the wall of a cave, a piece of
paper, or a computer screen. 42
43. Books are considered a form of art through which men have
literallyimmortalized themselves, as Julian Huxley points out By speech
first, but farmore by writing, man has been able to put something of himself
beyond death. Intradition and in books an integral part of the individual
persists, for it can influencethe minds and actions of other people in different
places and at different times: arow of black marks on a page can move a man
to tears, though the bones of himthat wrote it are long ago crumbled to dust.
Since the time people could record their creations on paper there have
beenmany kinds of writings from which one can freely choose, such as:
expository,exploratory, narrative, descriptive, critical, imaginative,
deductive, persuasive andso forth. Each type has a different purpose. The
choice to make is down to thewriter depending on his topic, audience and
purpose, whether it is to inform, todescribe, to persuade, to entertain and so
on. No matter the pattern a studentchooses, one thing he should not forget to
fill the paper with the breathings of hisheart as W. Wordsworth suggests.
According to A. Polotnik you write tocommunicate to the hearts and minds
of others whats burning inside you. Askillful writer is someone who can
dive in and explore his soul bringing out of itsdepths genuine pearls to
astonish and please his readers. Presented below are just a few out of the
most common types of essays thatcan guide a learner of a foreign language
to safely navigate through the roughocean of nowadays writings. [37, p.24-
30] 2.1.1 Cause and Effect Essay Cause and effect essays are concerned
with why things happen (causes) andwhat happens as a result (effects).
Cause and effect is a common method oforganizing and discussing ideas.
The following are several steps worth considering when writing a cause
andeffect essay. 43
44. 1. Distinguish between cause and effect. To determine causes, ask, "Why
did this happen?" To identify effects, ask, "What happened because of this?"
The following is an example of one cause producing one effect: Cause You
are out of gas. Effect Your car wont start. Sometimes, many causes
contribute to a single effect or many effects mayresult from a single cause.
The following are examples:Causes liked business in high school salaries in
the field are high have an aunt who is an accountant am good with
numbersEffect choose to major in accounting Cause reduce work hours
Effects less income employer is irritated more time to study more time for
family and friends However, most situations are more complicated. The
following is an example of a chain reaction: Thinking about friendforgot
to buy gascar wouldnt startmissed math examfailed math course.2.
Develop your thesis statement. State clearly whether you are discussing
causes, effects, or both. Introduce your main idea, using the terms "cause"
and/or "effect."3. Find and organize supporting details. Back up your thesis
with relevant and sufficient details that are organized. You can organize
details in the following ways: 44
45. Chronological. Details are arranged in the order in which the events
occurred. Order of importance. Details are arranged from least to most
important or vice versa. Categorical. Details are arranged by dividing the
topic into parts or categories.4. Use appropriate transitions. To blend details
smoothly in cause and effect essays, use the transitional words and phrases
listed below.For causes because, due to, on cause is, another is, since, for,
first, second, yet another factor, is caused by, results fromFor Effects
consequently, as a result, thus, resulted in, one result is, another is, therefore,
so, another outcome, one important effect When writing your essay, keep the
following suggestions in mind: Remember your purpose. Decide if you are
writing to inform or persuade. Focus on immediate and direct causes (or
effects.) Limit yourself to causes that are close in time and related, as
opposed to remote and indirect causes, which occur later and are related
indirectly. Strengthen your essay by using supporting evidence. Define
terms, offer facts and statistics, or provide examples, anecdotes, or personal
observations that support your ideas. Qualify or limit your statements about
cause and effect. Unless there is clear evidence that one event is related to
another, qualify your statements with phrases such as "It appears that the
cause was" or "It seems likely" or "The evidence may indicate" or
"Available evidence suggests." To evaluate the effectiveness of a cause and
effect essay, ask the following questions: What are the causes? What are the
effects? Which should be emphasized? Are there single or multiple causes?
Single or multiple effects? Is a chain reaction involved? Choosing the essay
topic for cause and effect essay type is not difficult; here 45
46. are some sample essay topics: Effects of Pollution The Changes in the
Ocean The Civil Rights Movement and the Effects Causes and Effects of the
Popularity of Fast Food Restaurants Internet Influence on kids Popularity of
Sports in US Make sure you choose the essay topic that is really important
for you. Choosing the correct essay topic makes your cause and effect essay
more interesting and successful. [16, p. 168-175] 2.1.2 Classification Essay
In a classification essay, a writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories
according to a single basis of division. Three Steps to Effective
Classification:1. Sort things into useful categories.2. Make sure all the
categories follow a single organizing principle.3. Give examples that fit into
each category. ~ Finding Categories This is a key step in writing a
classification essay. To classify, or sort, things in a logical way, find the
categories to put them into. For example, say you need to sort the stack of
papers on your desk. Before you would put them in random piles, you would
decide what useful categories might be: papers that can be thrown away;
papers that need immediate action; papers to read; papers to pass on to other
coworkers; or papers to file. 46
47. ~ Thesis Statement of a Classification Essay The thesis statement usually
includes the topic and how it is classified.Sometimes the categories are
named. (topic)... (how classified)... (category) (category) (category) Ex:
Tourists in Hawaii can enjoy three water sports: snorkeling, surfing,and
sailing. ~ How to Write an Effective Classification Essay1. Determine the
categories. Be thorough; dont leave out a critical category. For example, if
you say water sports of Hawaii include snorkeling and sailing, but leave out
surfing, your essay would be incomplete because surfing is Hawaiis most
famous water sport. On the other hand, dont include too many categories,
which will blur your classification. For example, if your topic is sports
shoes, and your organizing principle is activity, you wouldnt include high
heels with running and bowling shoes.2. Classify by a single principle. Once
you have categories, make sure that they fit into the same organizing
principle. The organizing principle is how you sort the groups. Do not allow
a different principle to pop up unexpectedly. For example, if your unifying
principle is "tourist-oriented" water sports, dont use another unifying
principle, such as "native water sports," which would have different
categories: pearl diving, outrigger, or canoe racing.3. Support equally each
category with examples. In general, you should write the same quantity, i.e.,
give the same number of examples, for each category. The most important
category, usually reserved for last, might require more elaboration. Common
Classification Transitions The first kind/type/group/category, the second
kind, the third kind, can be divided, can be classified, can be categorized.
Remember: In a classification essay, the writer organizes, or sorts, things 47
48. into categories. There are three steps to remember when writing an
effectiveclassification essay: organize things into useful categories, use a
single organizingprinciple, and give examples of things that fit into each
category. Below are some sample classification essay topics: Classification
of historical events in US Countries classification (territory, popularity, etc)
Sport Cars Classification Most Popular TV Shows in America Classification
of Physiological Diseases You can choose essay topic for your classification
essay you are familiarwith. [14, p.122-128] 2.1.3 Comparison and Contrast
Essay To write a comparison or contrast essay that is easy to follow, first
decidewhat the similarities or differences are by writing lists on scrap paper.
Which aremore significant, the similarities or the differences? Plan to
discuss the lesssignificant first, followed by the more significant. It is much
easier to discussONLY the similarities or ONLY the differences, but you
can also do both. Then for organizing your essay, choose one of the plans
described belowwhichever best fits your list. Finally, and this is important,
what main point (thesis)might you make in the essay about the two
people/things being compared? Do notbegin writing until you have a point
that the similarities or differences you want touse help to prove. Your point
should help shape the rest of what you say: Forexample, if you see that one
of your similarities or differences is unrelated to thepoint, throw it out and
think of one that is related. Or revise your point. Be surethis main point is
clearly and prominently expressed somewhere in the essay. Plan A: Use Plan
A if you have many small similarities and/or differences.After your
introduction, say everything you want to say about the first work or 48
49. character, and then go on in the second half of the essay to say
everything about the second work or character, comparing or contrasting
each item in the second with the same item in the first. In this format, all the
comparing or contrasting, except for the statement of your main point, which
you may want to put in the beginning, goes on in the SECOND HALF of the
piece. Plan B: Use Plan B if you have only a few, larger similarities or
differences. After your introduction, in the next paragraph discuss one
similarity or difference in BOTH works or characters, and then move on in
the next paragraph to the second similarity or difference in both, then the
third, and so forth, until youre done. If you are doing both similarities and
differences, juggle them on scrap paper so that in each part you put the less
important first ("X and Y are both alike in their social positions . . ."),
followed by the more important ("but X is much more aware of the dangers
of his position than is Y"). In this format, the comparing or contrasting goes
on in EACH of the middle parts. The following outline may be helpful;
however, do not be limited by it.1. Introduction with thesis2. 1st similarity:
a) 1st work b) 2nd work3. 2nd similarity: a) 1st work b) 2nd work4. 1st
difference: a) 1st work b) 2nd work5. 2nd difference: a) 1st work b) 2nd
work See the following topic suggestions for your comparison essay. For
example: Stages of My Life Two Places I have Visited My Two Best
Friends Two Political Candidates Bulimia and Anorexia 49
50. Microsoft or Apple Living on Campus and Living Off Campus The Two
Girls I Like This should give you an idea and inspiration. Remember, best
essays arewritten on the topics that really interest their writers. Common
Contrast Transitions: although, whereas, but, however,conversely, on the
other hand, in contrast, while, yet, unlike. Common Comparison Transitions:
in the same way, and, also, in addition,as well as, both, neither, each of, just
as so, similarly, like, too, the same. [26, p.2-46] 2.1.4 Descriptive Essay
It is used to create a vivid image of a person, place, or thing. It draws on all
ofthe senses, not merely the visual. Its purpose is to enable the reader to
share thewriters sensory experience of the subject. Descriptive writing
portrays people, places, things, moments and theories withenough vivid
detail to help the reader create a mental picture of what is beingwritten
about. Things to Consider as You Write Your Descriptive Essay Think of
an instance that you want to describe. Why is this particular instance
important? What were you doing? What other things were happening
around you? Is there anything specific that stands out in your mind?
Where were objects located in relation to where you were? How did the
surroundings remind you of other places you have been? 50
51. What sights, smells, sounds, and tastes were in the air? Did the
sights, smells, sounds, and tastes remind you of anything? What were you
feeling at that time? Has there been an instance in which you have felt this
way before? What do you want the reader to feel after reading the paper?
What types of words and images can convey this feeling? Can you
think of another situation that was similar to the one you are writing about?
How can it help explain what you are writing about? Is there enough
detail in your essay to create a mental image for the reader? Conventions of
Descriptive Essays Illustrated by Sample Paragraphs Appealing-to-the-
Senses Description: Let the reader see, smell, hear, taste, and feel what you
write in your essay. The thick, burnt scent of roasted coffee tickled the tip of
my nose justseconds before the old, faithful alarm blared a distorted top-
forty through its tinytop speaker. Wiping away the grit of last nights sleep,
the starch white sunlightblinded me momentarily as I slung my arm like an
elephant trunk along the top ofthe alarm, searching for the snooze button.
While stretching hands and feet to thefour posts of my bed, my eyes opened
after several watery blinks. I crawled out ofthe comforter, edging awkwardly
like a butterfly from a cocoon, swinging my legsover the side of the bed.
The dusty pebbles on the chilled, wood floor sent ripplesspiraling from my
ankles to the nape of my neck when my feet hit the floor.Grabbing the
apricot, terri-cloth robe, recently bathed in fabric softener andOctober wind,
I knotted it tightly at my waist like a prestigious coat of armor andheaded
downstairs to battle the morning. 51
52. Spatial-Order Description: Show the reader where things are located
from your perspective. Billy Rays Pawn Shop and Lawn Mower Repair
looked like a burial groundfor country auction rejects. The blazing, red,
diesel fuel tanks beamed in front ofthe station, looking like cheap lipstick
against the pallid, wrinkled texture of theparking lot sand. The yard, not
much larger than the end zone at General G. PattonHigh School on the north
end of town, was framed with a rusted metallic hedge oflawn mowers,
banana seat bicycles, and corroded oil drums. It wasnt a calicoframe of
rusted parts, but rather an orchestra of unwanted machinery that Billy
Rayhad arranged into sections. The yellow-tanked mowers rested silently at
the right ofthe diesel fuel. Once red, now faded orange, mowers stood at
attention to the left.The oil barrels, jaded and pierced with holes, bellared
like chimes when the windwas right. The bikes rested sporadically
throughout the lot. In the middle of it allwas the office, a faded, steel roof
supported by cheap two-by-fours and zebrapaneling. Billy Ray was at home,
usually, five blocks east of town on KennelRoad. Common Descriptive
Transitions: next to, near, close, far, up, down,between, above, below, on
top, beneath, toward, away, left, right, center,front, back, middle. [41, pp.72-
124] 2.1.5 Definition Essay A definition essay is writing that explains what
a term means. Some termshave definite, concrete meanings, such as glass,
book, or tree. Terms such ashonesty, honor, or love are abstract and depend
more on a persons point of view. Three Steps to Effective Definition1. Tell
readers what term is being defined.2. Present clear and basic information. 52
53. 3. Use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand.
Choosing a Definition Choosing a definition is a key step in writing a
definition essay. You need tounderstand the term before you can define it for
others. Read the dictionary, butdont just copy the definition. Explain the
term briefly in your own words. Also, itsimportant to limit your term before
you start defining it. For example, you couldwrite forever on the term
"love." To limit it, you would write about either"romantic love," "platonic
love," or "first love." Thesis Statement of a Definition Essay The thesis
statement usually identifies the term being defined and provides abrief, basic
definition. (term) (basic definition) Ex: Assertiveness is standing up for your
rights. How to Write an Effective Definition1. Create a definition. There are
several ways to define a term. Here are a few options. Define by function.
Explain what something does or how something works. Define by structure.
Tell how something is organized or put together. Define by analysis.
Compare the term to other members of its class and then illustrate the
differences. These differences are special characteristics that make the term
stand out. For example, compare a Siberian husky to other dogs, such as lap
dogs, mutts, or sporting dogs. (term) (precise definition) Ex: A Siberian
husky is a dog reputed for its ability to tolerate cold, its distinctive features,
and its keen strength and stamina. 53
54. Define by what the term does not mean. This distinction can sometimes
clarify a definition and help a reader to better understand it.2. Use
understandable facts, examples, or anecdotes. Select facts, examples, or
anecdotes to fully explain your definition. Ask yourself, "Which examples
will best help readers understand the term? What examples would most
appeal to my readers? Will a brief story reveal the terms meaning?" Do not
use any examples that will not support the definition. Remember: A
definition essay is writing that explains what a term means.When writing a
definition essay, remember to tell readers what term is beingdefined, to
present a clear and basic definition, and to use facts, examples, oranecdotes
that readers will understand Here are the examples of popular definition
essay topics: Kindness Sense of Humor Love Charisma Team Player
Optimism Beauty Respect Ambitions Whatever essay topic you choose, you
should be interested in the subject andfamiliar with it. It would be great if
you had your personal experience in the matteryou are going to define. [55,
p.75-126] 54
55. 2.1.6 Expository Essay It can take a variety of forms. It may tell how to
make or do something,report on an experience, or explore an idea.
Expository writing conveysinformation to the reader in such a way as to
bring about understanding, whether itis of a process or procedure, or of the
writers ideas about a concept. The purpose of this type of writing is to
inform, clarify, explain, define, orinstruct by giving information, explaining
why or how, clarifying a process, ordefining a concept. Well-written
exposition has a clear, central presentation ofideas, examples or definitions
that enhance the focus developed through a carefullycrafted readers
understanding. These facts, examples, and definitions are objectiveand not
dependent on emotion, although the writing may be lively, engaging,
andreflective of the writers underlying commitment to the topic.What to
consider when writing an expository essay: What process are you trying to
explain? Why is it important? Who or what does the process affect?
Are there different ways of doing the process? If so, what are they? Who
are the readers? What knowledge do they need to understand this process?
What skills/equipment are needed for this? How long does the process
take? Is the outcome always the same? How many steps are there in the
process? Why is each step important? What difficulties are involved in
each step? How can they be overcome? Do any cautions need to be given?
55
56. Does the process have definitions that need to be clarified? Are
there other processes that are similar and could help illustrate the process
that you are writing about? If needed, tell what should not be done or why
something should be done. Expository papers are often written in the
second person (you), but some teachers prefer that you avoid this. Check
with your teacher. Your responses to these questions and statements should
enable you to writean effective expository essay. Suggested transition words
to lead readers through your essay Expository essays are generally organized
according to time: that is, theybegin with the first step in the process and
proceed in time until the last step in theprocess. Its natural, then, that
transition words indicate that one step has beencompleted and a new one
will begin. Some common transitional words used inthese essays are listed
below. TIME Transition After a few hours, Immediately following,
Afterwards, Initially, At last In the end, At the same time, In the future,
Before In the meantime, Before this, In the meanwhile, Last, Last but not
least, Currently, Lastly, During Later, 56
57. Eventually, Meanwhile, Finally, Next, Soon after, First, Second, Third,
Previously, etc. First of all, Simultaneously, Formerly Subsequently,
Immediately before, Then, [38, p.120-230] The purpose of an expository
essay is to present, completely and fairly, other peoples views or to report
about an event or a situation. Expository writing, or exposition, presents a
subject in detail, apart from criticism, argument, or development; i.e., the
writer elucidates a subject by analyzing it. Such writing is discourse
designed to convey information or explain what is difficult to understand.
Exposition usually proceeds by the orderly analysis of parts and the use of
familiar illustrations or analogies. Such an analysis requires:1. reading with
understanding the ideas developed in an article by clearly stating anothers
thesis, outlining the facts used by the author to support that thesis, and the
"values" underlying the ideas2. putting what is read into a larger context by
relating anothers article or book to other work in the field3. clearly and
effectively communicating this information to a defined audience. In other
words, you must write clearly and fully enough for your readers to know
how you have arrived at your analyses and conclusions. They should never
have to guess what you mean; give your readers everything they need to
know to follow your reasoning 57
58. This practice is not "just for students." Accurate analysis is a
fundamentalprofessional activity in almost all careers. Like any other
fundamental skill, it mustbe constantly practiced in order to maintain and
improve it. Other goals, such aslearning "time management" and note-
taking, are also developed by this activity.Do not be afraid to revise your
essay! In fact, you will probably want to change itat least once; this is called
"thinking through a problem" or "learning."The revisions will consist of the
following:1. finding the precise words to express your thoughts2. correcting
typographical, spelling, and grammatical errors3. making sure that your
paragraphs are "tight" and sequenced properly4. making sure that the
transition ("segue") from one major topic to another makes senseExpository
essays also have a distinct format.The thesis statement must be defined and
narrow enough to be supported withinthe essay. Each supporting paragraph
must have a distinct controlling topic and all other sentences must factually
relate directly to it. The transition words or phrases are important as they
help the reader follow along and reinforce the logic. Finally, the conclusion
paragraph should originally restate the thesis and the main supporting ideas.
Finish with the statement that reinforces your position in a meaningful and
memorable way. Never introduce new material in the conclusion.Here are
some popular essay topic examples for expository essay type:~ Explain How
Fashion Changes in 1920 Influenced Fashion Trends Today;~ Explain Major
Ecological Changes;~ What is Love?~ Explain the Consequences of
Nationalism. 58
59. Choosing the essay topic you are familiar with will help you to write a
successfulexpository essay. [24, p.58-72] 2.1.7 Narrative EssayIt tells a
story, has character, setting, and action. The characters, the setting, andthe
problem of the narrative are usually introduced in the beginning. The
problemreaches its high point in the middle. The ending resolves the
problem. The purpose of this type of writing is to recount a personal or
fictionalexperience or to tell a story based on a real or imagined event. In
well-writtennarration, a writer uses insight, creativity, drama, suspense,
humor, or fantasy tocreate a central theme or impression. The details all
work together to develop anidentifiable story line that is easy to follow and
paraphrase. The narrative approach, more than any other, offers writers a
chance to thinkand write about themselves. We all have experiences lodged
in our memorieswhich are worthy of sharing with readers. Yet sometimes
they are so fused withother memories that a lot of the time spent in writing
narrative is in the prewritingstage. In this stage, writers first need to select an
incident worthy of writing aboutand, second, to find relevance in that
incident. To do this, writers might askthemselves what about the incident
provided new insights or awareness. Finally,writers must dredge up details
which will make the incident real for readers. Principles of Writing
Narrative Essays Once an incident is chosen, the writer should keep three
principles in mind. Remember to involve readers in the story. It is much
more interesting to actually recreate an incident for readers than to simply
tell about it. 59
60. Find a generalization which the story supports. This is the only way
the writers personal experience will take on meaning for readers. This
generalization does not have to encompass humanity as a whole; it can
concern the writer, men, women, or children of various ages and
backgrounds. Remember that although the main component of a narrative
is the story, details must be carefully selected to support, explain, and
enhance the story. Conventions of Narrative Essays In writing your narrative
essay, keep the following conventions in mind. Narratives are generally
written in the first person that is, using "I." However, third person ("he,"
"she," or "it") can also be used. Narratives rely on concrete, sensory
details to convey their point. These details should create a unified, forceful
effect, a dominant impression. Narratives, as stories, should include these
story conventions: a plot, including setting and characters; a climax; and an
ending. As a mode of expository writing, the narrative approach, more than
anyother, offers writers a chance to think and write about themselves. We all
haveexperiences lodged in our memories, which are worthy of sharing with
readers. Yetsometimes they are so fused with other memories that a lot of
the time spent inwriting narrative is in the prewriting stage. When you write
a narrative essay, you are telling a story. Narrative essaysare told from a
defined point of view, often the authors, so there is feeling as wellas specific
and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in theelements
and sequence of the story. The verbs are vivid and precise. The
narrativeessay makes a point and that point is often defined in the opening
sentence, but can 60
61. also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph. Since a
narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of astory.
When the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all
theconventions of storytelling: plot, character, setting, climax, and ending. It
isusually filled with details that are carefully selected to explain, support,
orembellish the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer
isattempting to make. To summarize, the narrative essay is told from a
particular point of view makes and supports a point is filled with precise
detail uses vivid verbs and modifiers uses conflict and sequence as does any
story may use dialogue The purpose of a narrative report is to describe
something. Many studentswrite narrative reports thinking that these are
college essays or papers. While theinformation in these reports is basic to
other forms of writing, narrative reportslack the "higher order thinking" that
essays requires. Thus narrative reports do not,as a rule, yield high grades for
many college courses. A basic example of anarrative report is a "book
report" that outlines a book; it includes the characters,their actions, possibly
the plot, and, perhaps, some scenes. That is, it is adescription of "what
happens in the book." But this leaves out an awful lot. What is left out is
what the book or article is about -- the underlyingconcepts, assumptions,
arguments, or point of view that the book or articleexpresses. A narrative
report leaves aside a discussion that puts the events of thetext into the
context of what the text is about. Is the text about love? Life in the fastlane?
Society? Wealth and power? Poverty? In other words, narrative reports
oftenoverlook the authors purpose or point of view expressed through the
book or 61
62. article. Once an incident is chosen, the writer should keep three
principles in mind.1. Remember to involve readers in the story. It is much
more interesting to actually recreate an incident for readers than to simply
tell about it.2. Find a generalization, which the story supports. This is the
only way the writers personal experience will take on meaning for readers.
This generalization does not have to encompass humanity as a whole; it can
concern the writer, men, women, or children of various ages and
backgrounds.3. Remember that although the main component of a narrative
is the story, details must be carefully selected to support, explain, and
enhance the story. Here are some popular essay topic examples for your
narrative essay type: First Day at College The Moment of Success A
Memorable Journey The Biggest Misunderstanding The Difficult Decision
The Trip of Your Dreams The Day You Decided to Change Your Life The
essay topic you choose should be interesting and important to you,because
the best essays are written on the topics that really matter to the writer. [15,
p.64-102] 2.2 Coherence and Unity of Essays The most convincing ideas in
the world expressed in the most beautifulsentences, will move no one unless
those ideas are properly connected. Unlessreaders can move easily from one
thought to another, they will surely findsomething else to read or turn on the
television. 62
63. Good writing flows, from sentence to sentence and paragraph to
paragraph.Every composition should have coherence. Coherence is product
of many differentfactors, which combine to make every paragraph, every
sentence, and every phrasecontribute to the meaning of the whole piece.
Coherence in writing is much moredifficult to sustain than coherent speech
simply because writers have no nonverbalclues to inform them if their
message is clear or not. Therefore, writers mustmake their patterns of
coherence much more explicit and much more carefullyplanned. Coherence
itself is the product of two factors paragraph unity andsentence cohesion.
Literally, the word coherence means "to stick together."Coherence in
writing means that all the ideas in a paragraph flow smoothly fromone
sentence to the next sentence. With coherence, the reader has an easy
timeunderstanding the ideas that a writer wishes to express. [33, pp.24-38]
An awareness of coherence in all texts is a very important skill for studentsto
develop. Students must never assume that their readers know what they
know. Infact, its a good idea to assume not only that readers need all the
information thatwriters have and need to know how you arrived at the point
you are at, but alsothat they are not quite as quick as you are. You might be
able to leap from one sideof the stream to the other; believe that your readers
need some stepping stones andbe sure to place them in readily accessible
and visible spots. Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraphs
coherence may alsobe related to its length. If you have written a very long
paragraph, one that fills adouble-spaced typed page, for example, you should
check it carefully to see if itshould start a new paragraph where the original
paragraph wanders from itscontrolling idea. On the other hand, if a
paragraph is very short (only one or twosentences), perhaps its controlling
idea may need to be developed more thoroughly,or combined it with another
paragraph. There are a number of other techniques that can be used to
establishcoherence in paragraphs, which are described below. 63
64. ~ Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which
youdefine or identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you
refer to it.This consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together
and help yourreader understand your definition or description. ~ Create
parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructingtwo or more
phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and usethe
same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures you make your
sentencesclearer and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a
series of consecutivesentences helps your reader see the connections
between ideas. In the paragraphabove about scientists and the sense of sight,
several sentences in the body of theparagraph have been constructed in a
parallel way. The parallel structures (whichhave been emphasized) help the
reader see that the paragraph is organized as a setof examples of a general
statement. This technique is the oldest and mostoverlooked, but probably the
most elegant method of creating cohesion. ~ Use synonyms and antonyms. If
direct repetition is too obvious, use asynonym of the word you wish to
repeat; this strategy is called elegant variation.Using the opposite word,
an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion since inlanguage antonyms
actually share more elements of meaning than you mightimagine. ~ Be
consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency inpoint of
view, verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect ofcoherence. If
you shift from the more personal "you" to the impersonal one, frompast
to present tense, or from a man to they, for example, you make
yourparagraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse your
reader andmake your argument more difficult to follow. ~ Enumeration. Use
overt markers of sequence to highlight the connectionbetween ideas. This
system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that areotherwise
completely unconnected, (b) it looks formal and distinctive, and (c) it 64
65. promotes a repetition method of sentence cohesion. ~ Use transition
words or phrases between sentences and betweenparagraphs. Transitional
expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas,so they help readers
follow your train of thought or see connections that they mightotherwise
miss or misunderstand. [60] 2.2.1 Organizing Patterns There are many
elements that must come together to create an excellentessay. The topic
should be clear and interesting. The authors voice should comethrough, but
not overwhelm, the piece. And there should be no errors in
grammar,spelling, punctuation, or capitalization. Another element that is
sometimesoverlooked when editing an essay, but is just as important as the
previous elementsmentioned, is organization. An organized essay is clear,
focused, logical andeffective. A paragraph coheres holds together when
the sentences are arrangedin a clear, logical order and when the sentences
are related like links in a chain.There are several possible orders, depending
on the subject and the writerspurpose. ~ Spatial order. In this pattern, items
are arranged according to theirphysical position or relationships. In
describing a shelf or desk, one might describeitems on the left first, and then
move gradually toward the right. Describing aroom, you might start with
what you see as you enter the door, then what you seeas you step to the
middle of the room, and finally the far side. In explaining somepolitical or
social problem, one might discuss first the concerns of the East Coast,then
those of the Midwest, then those of the West Coast. Describing a person,
youmight start at the feet and move up to the head, or just the other way
around. Thispattern might use such transitions as just to the right, a little
further on, to thesouth of Memphis, a few feet behind, in New Mexico,
turning left on the pathway,and so on. Spatial order is pretty common in
description, but can also apply to 65
66. examples, to some comparisons, some classifications [the southern
species of thisbird . . . ; rhinos in Southeast Asia . . .], some narrations
[meanwhile, out on theprairie], and other forms of exposition as well. E.g.
The central part of (San Francisco) lies on a series of hills. TheEmbarcadero,
a crescent-shaped boulevard, borders the edge of peninsula; from it,Market
Street, the principal thoroughfare, runs diagonally to the southwest,bisecting
the city. North of Market Street is the main commercial sections of thecity
and to the south are the older sections and industrial areas. Attractions in
thedowntown section include the Transamerica Pyramid Building,
Chinatown, thetheater district along Geary Street, Coif Memorial Tower on
Telegraph Hill, andFishermans Wharf. ~ Chronological order. In
chronological order or time order, items, events,or even ideas are arranged in
the order in which they occur. This pattern is markedby such transitions as
next, then, the following morning, a few hours later, stilllater, that
Wednesday, by noon, when she was seventeen, before the sun rose,
thatApril, and so on. Chronological order can suit different rhetorical modes
orpatterns of exposition. It naturally fits in narration, because when we tell a
story,we usually follow the order in which events occur. Chronological order
applies toprocess in the same way, because when we describe or explain
how somethinghappens or works, we usually follow the order in which the
events occur. Butchronological order may also apply to example,
description, or parts of any otherpattern of exposition. E.g. Columbus began
a fourth voyage in May 1502. After a three-weekcrossing, he anchored off
Santo Domingo, where a hurricane damaged his fleet.Columbus completed
repairs on his vessels and sailed to Honduras. He thencruised along the coast
of Central America for nearly six months in search of theelusive westward
passage across the continent. In January 1503 he landed inPanama and
established a settlement there. When his ships foundered near Jamaica 66
67. in June 1503, Columbus sent to Espanola for help. Nearly a year passed
before thestranded party was rescued. After returning to Spain, Columbus
never sailed again. ~ Climactic Order (Order of Importance) A third
common principle oforganization is climactic order or order of importance.
In this pattern, items arearranged from least important to most important.
Typical transitions wouldinclude more important, most difficult, still harder,
by far the most expensive, evenmore damaging, worse yet, and so on. This is
a flexible principle of organization,and may guide the organization of all or
part of example, comparison & contrast,cause & effect, and description. A
variation of climactic order is called psychological order. This pattern
ororganization grows from our learning that readers or listeners usually give
mostattention to what comes at the beginning and the end, and least attention
to what isin the middle. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most
important and put it atthe beginning or the end; next you choose what is
second most important and put itat the end or the beginning (whichever
remains); the less important or powerfulitems are then arranged in the
middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3,4, 5, with 5 being most
important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3,1, 2, 5. Still other
principles of organization based on emphasis include General-to-specific
order, Specific-to general order, Most-familiar-to-least-familiar, Simplest-to-
most-complex, Order of frequency, Order of familiarity, And so on. ~
General to specific e.g. Hollywood has always been a magnet for talent.In
the early years, stars truck hopefuls flocked there from all over the United 67
68. States. With the coming of the sound in the late 1920s, there was a
demand foractors who could speak, playwrights and journalists to write
dialogue, and a newbreed of theater-trained directors. Europeans began
arriving in the early 1920s; therise of Hitler turned that trickle into a flood. ~
Specific to general e.g. He lives in a cramped house in the suburbs
andspends too long each day on packed trains commuting to and from work.
He stateslate at the office, and feels he must go out drinking with his
colleagues to winpromotion. He is not entitled too much holiday, and takes
even less. The life of thesarariman, Japans devoted company employee,
leaves little time for leisure or thefamily. But it has its benefits: a secure job,
a comfortable retirement, perhaps evena cushy sinecure at one of his
companys suppliers. At least, that was the dealwhen he joined the company
20 years ago. Nowadays, sarariman is increasinglylikely to find himself out
on the streets. ~ Topical Order. A fourth broad principle of organization is
called topicalorder and this is sort of a catchall pattern. It refers to
organization that emergesfrom the topic itself. For example, a description of
a computer might naturallyinvolve the separate components of the central
processing unit, the monitor, andthe keyboard, while a discussion of a
computer purchase might discuss needs,products, vendors, and service. A
discussion of a business might explore product,customer, and location, and
so on. Topical order, then, simply means an order thatarises from the nature
of the topic itself. Transitions in this pattern will be a littlevaguethings
like another factor, the second component, in addition, and so on. Imposing
order on information makes the information easier to talk about,easier to
understand, and easier to remember. A clear, recognizable pattern (on
thelevel of the single paragraph, and also on the level of the whole essay
body), willguide the writer in selecting details and choosing transitions, and
also will guidethe reader in discovering relationships that connect things,
that make things seem 68
69. more coherent.Principle of Associated Patterns ofOrganization
Development or Rhetorical Sample Transitions ModesChronological
narration, process, examples next; later; the followingorder and illustrations,
cause & Tuesday; afterwards; by effect noon; when she had finally digested
the giant burrito; as soon as; in 1998Spatial order description, examples &
just to the right; a little illustrations further on; to the south of Memphis; a
few feet behind; directly on the bridge of his nose and a centimeter above his
gaping, hairy nostrils; turning left on the pathwayClimactic order examples
& illustrations, more importantly; best of all; description, comparison & still
worse; a more effective contrast, analogy approach; even more expensive;
even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful;
occasionally, frequently, regularlyTopical order classification & division,
the first element; another key comparison & contrast, part; a third common
analogy, definition, examples principle of organization; & illustrations Brent
also objected to Stellas breath [19, p.45-81] Unity is also a very important
characteristic of good paragraph or essaywriting. Paragraph unity means that
one paragraph is about ONLY ONE maintopic. That is, all the sentences --
the topic, supporting sentences, the detailsentences, and (sometimes) the
concluding sentence -- are all telling the reader 69
70. about ONE main topic. If your paragraph contains a sentence or some
sentencesthat are NOT related to the main topic, then we say that the
paragraph "lacksunity," or that the sentence is "off-topic." [62, 63] To
achieve essay unity, a writer must ensure two things only. First, the
essaymust have a single generalization that serves as the focus of attention,
that is, athesis statement. Secondly, a writer must control the content of
every otherparagraph in the essays body such that (a) it contains more
specific informationthan the thesis statement and (b) it maintains the same
focus of attention as thethesis statement.Effective Writing: is focused on the
topic and does not contain extraneous or loosely related information; has an
organizational pattern that enables the reader to follow the flow of ideas
because it contains a beginning, middle, and end and uses transitional
devices; contains supporting ideas that are developed through the use of
details, examples, vivid language, and mature word choice; and Follows the
conventions of standard written English (i.e., punctuation, capitalization, and
spelling) and has variation in sentence structure. [23, p.172] 70
71. Chapter III. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THE
THEORETICALAPPROACH TO THE PROCESS OF COMPOSING AN
ESSAY The material used during the investigation was selected from the
diverseEnglish Language Teaching and English as a Foreign Language sites,
as well asfrom the books: Evergreen with Readings, a Guide to Writing by
Fawcett S. andSandberg A., Teaching Writing Skills by Byrne D. and
Strategies for Success inWriting by J. Coutlas. The books contain writing
sections covering different typesof writing essays. The aim of this section is
not to provide a fully exhaustivetreatment of the process of composing an
essay but rather to present sampleguidance for classroom writing workshop.
Firstly, students use the particular pre-writing strategies that help initiate
thinking and generate possible ideas for thecontent of the students written
work. Then they practice writing committing theirideas to paper while
engaging in peer or teacher-student discussions, reading ortimed writing
about the topic. Alongside pre-writing material every lesson containsa
checklist revision of the written work. 3.1. Description of the Course of the
Experimental Work The pedagogical practice was carried out at the State
Pedagogical UniversityIon Creanga where the 3th year students were
taught. Thus, the experiment whichis necessary for the Masters Paper had
been carried out in two groups of the 3thyear students, group 307 consisting
of 14 students (first group) and group 308including 12 students (second
group). Group 1 was considered a control one, itwas taught in a traditional
way in which students are given the assignments alongwith some
instructions. Group 2 (an experimental group) was taught with the useof
some strategies on creating workshop in the classroom. For instance, during
theprocess of fulfilling the assignment students were involved in different
modernactivities which help to understand the writing process better, such as
writinginstruction, brainstorming, freewriting, engaging in peer or teacher-
studentdiscussions, reading about and researching the topic; free writing or
timed free 71
72. writing about the topic, listing and categorizing information; reflecting
uponpersonal experience, etc. Before we started the experiment the students`
writing abilities had beenexamined. Learners were distributed a
questionnaire whose purpose was to revealdifficulties students encounter
while performing writing assignments. The sampleof the questionnaire is
presented below: Pre-writing Questionnaire Put the numbers from 4 to 1 to
show your agreement or disagreement withthe given statements following
this pattern: 1 Completely disagree; 2 Partially disagree; 3 Partially
agree; 4 Completely agree. 1. It is difficult to start an essay. 2. It is
difficult to write a strong, clear thesis statement. 3. I am unsure about the use
of transitions. 4. I cant organize my ideas into clear, fluent and coherent
paragraphs. 5. It is difficult to write the introduction and the conclusion. 6. I
feel unsure about the relevance and originality of the essay. 7. I am not
motivated to write. The results obtained with the help of the questionnaire
are shown in the tablebelow: Number of points Percentage of students
Problem area Group 1 Group 2 Group1 Group 2 (of 56 (of 48 possible)
possible) 1. Starting an essays 46 36 24% 20% 2. Writing clear thesis 48 38
26% 22% statement 72
73. 3. Use of right transitions 28 26 14% 11% 4. Organizing coherent 48 38
26% 22% paragraphs 5. Writing introduction and 44 33 22% 18,5%
conclusion 6. Relevance and originality 27 26 13.5% 11% of the essay 7.
Low motivation to write 25 24 11.5% 9% As it turned out a big number of
students (26% and 22%) find it difficult towrite clear thesis statements. The
other problem illuminated by the learners isdifficulties organizing coherent
paragraphs within the essay (26% and 22%). The3rd problem for students is
starting an essay (24% and 20%). And the last largewriting problem is the
difficulty to write introductions and conclusions (22% and18.5%). The use
of right transitions, as also the relevance and originality of theessay, as also
low motivation to write are the other writing problems students faceto, but
the amount of such cases is significantly smaller. In this way the problems
that learners have in relation to various features ofthe writing process were
highlighted and taken into consideration in the process ofinvestigation. The
purpose of the experiment was to identify the types of writing
activitiesstudents are more successful at and to prove the necessity of
creating writingworkshop in the classroom, i.e. talking explicitly about the
stages of the writingprocess, applying them into practice and using peer-
evaluation at the stage ofrevising. The control group (Group N1) was taught
according to the core curricula ofthe university. In the experimental group
(Group N2) the writing activity was viewed as anindependent part of the
lesson including all the stages, i.e. pre-writing, explanation, 73
74. and control. At some point during most writing classes, in a 5-10 minute
mini-lesson (length depends upon the procedure, concept, skill, or
convention to betaught), the teacher provides students with information
necessary for their writing.Mini-lessons about language usage and
conventions such as spelling, sentencestructure, and punctuation are
necessary; however, they should emerge from thestudents writing or the
curriculum objectives, rather than being arbitrarilydetermined by the teacher.
It is important to allow time for students to practiceconcepts introduced in
mini-lessons within the context of their own writing. The procedure was the
following: The first type of writing examined during the experiment was
descriptivewriting. The control group (or Group 1) was taught according to
the core curriculaof the university. The writing topic discussed was Ideal
Holiday. Students wereasked to write an essay on the topic. In the
experimental group this writing activitywas viewed as an independent part
of the lesson including all the stages. Theprocedure was the following: 1st
stage Pre-writing activities (instruction, explanation) As the course-book
does not contain any description of writing procedures,teacher prepares
some additional information for explanation about the writingprocess. The
teacher posts the major stages of a writing process (pre-writing,planning,
drafting, and post-writing) and briefs information about each so thatstudents
can determine where they are at any time in the process. Then the teacherhas
students record them in their notebooks for reference as they write. Activity
1 Brainstorming The teacher suggests the word holiday and records it on
the board. Studentsare left to focus on it for about one minute and list all
their thoughts, ideas andassociations that the word generates. Students then
try to make a definition of the 74
75. phrase perfect holiday using their previous ideas. Activity 2 Listing
ideas Students are given the following assignment to build up a useful
vocabularyfor latter reference: Think of at least 5 adjectives to describe the
perfect holiday. Activity 3 Engaging in peer or teacher-student discussion
Describing aplace There are 2 ways of performing this activity, (1) the
teacher asks some of thestudents to answer the questions below; (2) the
teacher asks students to work inpairs and interview their partners. The points
for discussion are the following: Where did you spend your last holiday?
Why did you decide to go there? Did you look at a travel brochure before
you chose your holiday? Did it give an accurate picture of your holiday
choice? Why/why not? Where there any places of interest/historic towns
nearby? Why were they particularly famous? What did you do in the
evenings? Activity 4 Listing ideas Students are required to make two lists
of activities that people choose to doon a holiday when (1) They are short of
money and (2) when money is not a problem. To help learners generate
ideas teacher can suggest the following phrases to begin with: -in the
summer people tend to . -but in the winter months .. -not everyone
enjoys so 75
76. In recent years people have started to Activity 5 Reading about the
topic Students are given to read a short passage from a tourist brochure
aboutStratford-upon-Avon. Students will have to:- identify the introduction,
the body and the conclusion, as well as the differentaspects of Stratford dealt
in every paragraph.- give each paragraph a topic heading; suggest other topic
that could be included inthe description. No visitor to Britain should go
home without spending some time in Stratford-upon-Avon. Situated in the
heart of England, it is a town rich both in history and in culture. Stratford is
a busy market town with a population of twenty-three thousand, and
contains many streets and buildings unchanged since medieval times. It is
surrounded by some of the prettiest countryside in England, and is ideal base
for those wishing to visit such places of interest as Warwick Castle, or the
beautiful modern cathedral in Coventry. Without doubt, Stratford is best
known as the town where the playwright William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
was born and died. Here you can visit his birthplace, and other buildings
associated with his family. These houses are all splendid examples of Tudor
architecture, and there are many other fine, historic buildings well worth
visiting in the town. Visitors to Stratford will find no lack of evening
entertainment. There are restaurants to suit all tastes, and in the evening the
royal Shakespeare theatre offers an exciting and varied repertoire, giving
you the chance to see some of the best actors in the country, on stage. There
are also poetry readings, music recitals and many other entertainments
available. Chose a holiday in Stratford and you will never forget the
experience! Book now to avoid disappointment! 76
77. After all, the teacher passes to the second stage what is writing practice
itself. [10, p.72-96] 2nd stage - Writing practice At this point in the process,
the emphasis is on content and meaning ratherthan on mechanics and
conventions. This is the time for students to get down theirideas and
thoughts, composing rough drafts based upon pre-writing and
planningactivities and considerations. As they compose, writers begin to
determine what toinclude and exclude, and make initial decisions about how
these ideas will beorganized. During the drafting stage of the writing
process, meaning begins toevolve. Activity 1 - Timed writing about the topic
last holiday. Students are giventhe following questions to guide them in
their writing timed for 10 min. Look at the list below. Tick the topics that
you think it is necessary toinclude (because they give essential information).
Put a star next to the topicsthat you think would be interesting to someone
who is thinking of visiting thisplace. What is it called? Where is it? How do
you get there? Are there any interesting facts about this place (e.g. size,
population, history)? Is it famous or popular? Why or why not? When did
you go there? What time of the year is it best to visit? What is the weather
usually like? What can people do there? Why did you go there? Is there
anything to do in the evening? 77
78. Are there interesting places/excursions to visit nearby? What kind of
scenery or buildings do you find there? What are the people like? Are there
any interesting places to eat or drink? Are there any interesting traditions or
festivals? How did you feel about your visit? What advice would you give to
someone who is going to visit the place? Students record their ideas in order
to capture the essence of what they haveto say. They do not have to make
any attempt to revise or edit at this point. Theyfocus on producing a first,
rough draft developing their personal style as their voiceemerges. Activity 2
Planning Students are asked to make a description of a town or city which
they havevisited recently. The assignment is as follows: Write a description
of a town/holiday resort in your country. It is to beincluded in a tourist
brochure. Use the plan below as a guide. Learners are presented the structure
of a composition.Layout Paragraph 1 General introduction: introduce the
place, why should visitors come to your town/resort? Where is it situated?
Paragraph 2 A general description of the town. Population? Surrounding
attractions? Appearance? 78
79. Paragraph 3 Focus on an aspect in more details: Why is the town
particularly worth visiting? Is it famous for its buildings/ landscape/ people?
Paragraph 4 Focus on another aspect in more details: What can visitors do in
the evening? What sort of restaurants/ clubs/ entertainments can they find?
Paragraph 5 Conclusion: write a few lines encouraging tourists to come to
visit your town /resort.Linking 1. For opening a paragraph: admittedly,
assuredly, certainly, granted, no doubt, nobody denies, obviously, of course,
to be sure, true, undoubtedly, unquestionably, generally speaking, in general,
at this level, in this situation. 2. To continue an idea: and, too, also,
furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way, again, another,
similarly, a similar, first, second, third, the same, to begin with, next, finally,
likewise, by the same token, in like manner, in similar fashion 3.
Conclusion/ to signal a final point: after all, at last, finally, in brief, in
closing, in conclusion, on the whole, to conclude, to summarize. 3rd stage
Revision The post writing stage or revision of the final draft for content and
clarity ofmeaning is the time for learners to reorganize and sequence
relevant ideas, add ordelete details. Revisions can take place to words,
sentences, paragraphs, or the 79
80. whole piece (e.g., the writer may decide that the ideas would have more
impact aspoetry instead of prose). At this stage in the process students will
edit the draft formechanical and conventional concerns; they will proofread
for accuracy andcorrectness in spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
grammar, and usage. A set of questions or a checklist can be used to assist
students as they striveto make the writing clear, to support them to shape
their writing, as well as aidthem in reflecting upon their own writing. The
use of self or peer-editing checklistsproves a useful tool in the process of
writing. Peer evaluation is valuable and helpsstudents to become more
responsible, reflective, competent and insightful, buildingcritique skills. In
this way evaluation can be used to provide constructive criticismand
suggestions to improve weak areas and amplify strengths. Receiving the
assignment students are told to write their first draft using theinformation
from the previous exercises. After writing their drafts they exchangethem
with their desk mates. The partners are given the checklist below for
peerevaluation in the classroom environment. Checklist of Essay1. Did you
include an introduction, a body, and a conclusion?2. Did you write a good
topic sentence for each paragraph?3. Did you include details that support
each topic sentence?4. Did you avoid repeating the same words over and
over again?5. Did you use descriptive nouns, adjectives, verbs, and
adverbs?6. Does your thesis statement clearly communicate the topic and
focus of theessay?7. Does your essay have a logical organization pattern?8.
Is the tone of the essay suitable for its audience? Is an appropriate
toneconsistent throughout?9. Do the paragraphs cover separate but related
main ideas?10. Are the connections among the paragraphs clear?11. Does
your introduction lead into the thesis statement and the rest of the 80
81. essay?12. Does your conclusion provide a sense of completion?13. Have
you cut any material that goes off the topic?14. Is the length of each
paragraph in proportion to the whole essay and thelength of the other
paragraphs? (Remember that an introduction and conclusion areusually
shorter than any of the body paragraphs in an essay.)15. Does the title reflect
the content of the essay, directly or indirectly?16. Is your reasoning sound?
Finally students revise their drafts and write the final variant of the essay.
The second kind of writing analyzed during the experiment was
narrativewriting. Students from both groups were provided with guidance on
writing anarrative. They were given the structure of a narrative including the
beginning, themiddle and the ending. Then learners were asked to tell a story
about somethingthat actually happened to them or someone they know
following the narrativescheme they have studied. Students from the
experimental group were proposed the followingactivities. 1st stage - Pre-
writing activities (instruction, explanation) Activity 1 - Brainstorming The
teacher suggests the word Adrenalin and records it on the board.Students
should think about the times when they felt scared, angry, frightened
orexcited for about one minute and list all their thoughts, ideas and
associations thatthe word generates. 81
82. Activity 2 - Listing ideas Students are told to make two lists of adjectives
used to describeexperiences that are: 1 really good; 2 extremely bad.
Activity 3 - Engaging in peer or teacher-student discussionStudents were
involved in a discussion to explore their past experiences. Have you ever
caught a snake? Have you ever been to the top of a mountain? Have you
ever crossed a desert? Have you ever appeared on a TV programme? Have
you ever been asked to make a speech? Have you ever met a famous person?
Have you ever driven a Ferrari? Have you ever ridden a horse on the beach?
Have you ever been in a dangerous situation? Have you ever broken a bone?
Have you ever been really frightened? Have you ever had a sports injury?
Have you ever thought you were going to die? Have you ever taken part in
dangerous sports? Activity 4 - Engaging in peer or teacher-student
discussion The teacher asks students to work in pairs and gives the
followinginstructions: -Think back to a moment when you felt the rush of
adrenalin. You are goingto tell your partner about it. Think about what you
will say. Where were you? At home? In the car? At a sports event? In town?
Did it happen recently? How old were you? Who were you with? What were
you doing? 82
83. What happened? How did you feel? What were the consequences?
Would you like to have the same experience? - Tell your partner the story.
Give as much detail as possible. Then the teacher presents a sample of a
story that is told in five stages, and asksstudents to make use of the example.
a. Introduction (have I ever told you about the time I was attacked by a
lion?) b. Background (I was on holiday with Jan ; we were travelling
round Africa on my Harley ) c. Problem (suddenly, I heard a sound in the
jungle ; the next moment I saw ..; so there we were, up the tree ; we
were begging to feel rather nervous ) d. Resolution (then I had an idea ;
in the end I managed to get the bike started ; I drove off a hundred miles
an hour ; I didnt stop till I got to Nairobi ) e. Comment (I often wonder
what happened to Jan ) Time Linkers: suddenly, all of a sudden,
immediately, in the end, finally,eventually, at last, as soon as, when, while,
just before, just after, following, after,afterwards, at the same time, currently,
earlier, in the meantime, later, meanwhile,previously, simultaneously,
subsequently, then, until now. The teacher moves on to the next stage of the
writing process.2nd stage - Writing practice Susan Isaacs, a famous
American novelist and screenwriter, provides asimple framework for
beginners in writing: Keep in mind that the person to writefor is yourself.
Tell the story that you most desperately want to read. 83
84. To ensure students acquire good writing skills the teacher adds some
moreexercises on this piece of writing, having typed them and distributed to
thestudents. Here are some examples: Activity 1 Reading Read the story
below and rewrite it, choosing an appropriate narrative tensefor the verbs in
brackets. Where necessary, change the words in italics, usingpronouns or
alternative vocabulary items, to make the story read better. At the end of his
act, the Argentinean magician, Professor Nimo, (ask) a male member of the
audience who (sit) near the front to come up on stage. Professor Nimo
handed the member of the audience a gun and asked the member of the
audience to shoot Professor Nimo in the face. The member of the audience
(fire) the gun and Professor Nimo then (pull) the bullet from between his
teeth. The member of the audience was so impressed that he took another
gun. While Professor Nimo (prepare) to leave the stage, he said to Professor
Nimo, Catch this and shot Professor Nimo. Professor Nimo was killed
instantly. Even during the subsequent trial, the member of the audience
could still not understand why Professor Nimo (fail) to catch his bullet. One
more additional exercise it is possible to do in the classroom. It is a
slashsentence exercise. It is as follows: Activity 2 - Timed writing Use the
prompts below to build up a narrative about a hotel fire. Last year / I / spend
/ summer holidays / popular resort / Mediterraneancoast. Hotel / be / modern
/ comfortable / weather perfect. I / have marvelous /holiday until / fire! It /
be / Saturday evening / everybody/ relax/ in / lounge / or / discotheque /tired
/ after / long day / beach. The disco / be / ground floor / this Saturday night /
it/ be crowded with people / dance / drink. Disk jockey / play / old Beatles
hits / 84
85. from / 60s / and / people / sing along / and / generally / have / good time.
Then /suddenly / we / smell / smoke! First / only / few people / notice / fire.
Then / as clouds / black smoke / begin/ fill / room / everybody / start / shout/
scream/ panic. People race /exits. One firedoor / be / locked/ people/ turn
back/ frantically / join / crowds / other exits.Everyone / begin/ cough/ choke.
Then / just as / we / think / never / escape / help / arrive. Firemen / fight
/way / into / room / soon / everyone / safely/ out of / building. Luckily /
nobody/seriously / hurt. Holiday company / offer us / rooms / another hotel /
nearby / but/holiday / be / spoilt / and I / fly / home / next day. I / not be /
inside / disco / sincethen. It / be / most frightening / experience / my life! [7,
p.122-148] Activity 3 Drafting Students are asked to write an essay about
their past personal experience.The assignment is as follows: Write an essay
about a personal anecdote which ends with the followingsentence Its hard
to believe that anyone could have been so stupid. Use the planbelow as a
guide. Layout Paragraph 1 Introduce the anecdote Set the scene give
information about: what you were doing, who you were with, what had
happened earlier. Paragraph 2 Beginning of the narrative Describe what
happened to you- what thongs started to go wrong. Paragraph 3
Development of the narrative Write about what happened next what else
went wrong. 85
86. Paragraph 4 Development of the narrative Add more things that
happened to you. Paragraph 5 Conclusion Write how the story finished and
how you and everyone else felt at the end. Receiving the assignment and the
instructions, students are told to write theirfirst draft using the information
from the previous exercises. After writing theirdrafts they exchange them
with their desk mates. 3rd stage Revision The following checklist was
suggested for peer evaluation in the classroomenvironment. Checklist of
Essay Does the essay have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion? Does
the title reflect the content of the essay, directly or indirectly? Is the main
idea developed and supported with examples, evidence? Are all the details in
the essay relevant to the main idea? Are transition devices used to link
sentences and paragraphs together? Did you avoid repeating the same words
over and over again? Are tenses used correctly? Does your narration have a
logical organization pattern? Do the paragraphs cover separate but related
main ideas? Are the connections among the paragraphs clear? Is the
vocabulary appropriate for the topic? Do paragraphs contain a combination
of simple and complex sentences? 86
87. Are there any errors in grammar? Are there any errors in spelling and
punctuation? Is the story interesting to the audience? The third type of
writing examined during the experiment was discursivewriting. Students
were supposed to write an essay on the topic Computers havebrought
more disadvantages to our lives. The work in the control group (Group1)
was carried out according to the core curricula. In the experimental group
thiswriting activity was viewed as an independent part of the lesson
including all thestages. The procedure was the following: 1st stage - Pre-
writing activities (instruction, explanation) Activity1 - Brainstorming The
teacher suggests the word Inventions and records it on the board.Students
should think about the products that have been invented over the last
fivehundred years for about one minute and list all their thoughts, ideas
andassociations that the word generates. Students then try to make a
definition of theword invention using their previous ideas. Activity2 -
Listing ideas Students are required to make three lists of inventions
according to thefollowing criteria: 1 the most/least important for society; 2
the most/leastimportant for you personally; 3- the most/least likely to be
changed or replaced byfuture technology that will make our lives easier.
Activity3 - Engaging in peer or teacher-student discussion The teacher asks
students to work in pairs and interview their partners. Thepoints for
discussion are the following: 87
88. How long have you spent on the internet in the last week? What do you
use your computer for? Have you bought any new gadgets recently? How
important do you think computers are? Have you ever chatted with strangers
on the internet? Are there any new gadgets on the market that you want? Do
you see yourself as a computer geek? Do you know any good websites?
Which would you take to a desert island for company a computer or
ahuman? How long have you been using computers? Is there anything that
irritates you about computers or electronic technology? Activity 4 -
Engaging in peer or teacher-student discussion Students were divided in
three groups. Each group had to write at least 3advantages and
disadvantages of the following cases: - Surfing the internet versus going to
the library - Playing computer games versus playing sports - Watching
television versus reading a book 2nd stage - Writing practice Activity1 -
Timed writing Students working in pairs had to write an argument about the
advantages anddisadvantages of mobile phones for 15 min. The teacher
gives the followinginstructions. -make two lists: 1- arguments in favor of
mobile phones, 2- argumentsagainst mobile phones. -choose the three most
important points in favor of mobile phones and thethree most important
points against mobile phones. 88
89. -think what happens as a consequence of the points you have made.E.g.
Point in favor: you can use mobiles anywhere. Consequence: people use
mobile phones in inappropriate places (restaurants,cinemas). Point against:
people tend to have their mobile phones on all the time. Consequence: the
phones can cause a disturbance when they ring. -start your written argument
with the opening line like this for example:people often focus on the
negative aspects of mobile phones and forget about thepositives, of which
there are many. Use the plan and linking words to connect the points.
Paragraph 1: Introduction of the topic Paragraph 2: Points in favor Paragraph
3: Points against Paragraph 4: Conclusion/ your opinion Listing arguments:
firstly, secondly, finally, lastly, one of the advantages/disadvantagesof is
that , the main advantage is , another point in favor of/ against
is,also, moreover, too, even so, however, despite, although, ,as a result,
yet,consequently, nevertheless, because of this, on the other hand, in my
opinion, onbalance. Activity2 - Planning Students are asked to write an
essay on the topic children and computergames. The assignment is as
follows: You are going to write about whether computer games are a danger
tosociety or a harmless pastime for children. Use the plan below as a guide.
Layout Paragraph 1 General introduction: introduce the topic; give some
background in your country or personal. 89
90. Paragraph 2 A list of arguments for: choose two or three main points;
give examples and facts where possible. Paragraph 3 A list of arguments
against: choose two or three main points; support you argument with
examples. Paragraph 4 Conclusion: write a few lines expressing your
personal opinion about the topic. [12, p.509-519] 3rd stage Revision The
following checklist was suggested for self-evaluation at home or
peerevaluation in the classroom environment. Checklist of Essay Does the
essay have a main idea? Is the main idea developed and supported with
examples, evidence? Are all the details in the essay relevant to the main
idea? Is the main idea of the essay clearly started in a thesis statement?
Does each paragraph contain only one main idea? Does each paragraph
contain a topic sentence that clearly states the main idea? Is the main idea
of each paragraph developed in an organized way? Are transition devices
used to link sentences and paragraphs together? Does the conclusion
summarize the main points made in the essay? 90
91. Is the material taken from other sources correctly cited and used
without plagiarism? Is the vocabulary appropriate for the topic? Do
paragraphs contain a combination of simple and complex sentences? Are
there any errors in grammar? Are there any errors in spelling and
punctuation? Having written their essays students present their versions to
the class. Learnerslisten and comment on the writing product. So, all the 3
stages in writing study (pre-writing, practice writing drafts
andrevising/editing) take place during the experiment carried out in the 3rd
year ofuniversity while having the pedagogical practice. Thus the writing
activities fulfilled in both groups differ in the followingaspects: 1) Each
writing activity in the experimental group started with a clear-cut pre-
writing stage. 2) Learners from the experimental group had a clear purpose
of writing assignment and a perspective of audience. 3) During the stage of
writing practice there was used the technique of peer- evaluation. Students
of the experimental group had the ability to read each others writings and
express their opinions by suggesting some revisions and reconstructions. At
the post-experimental stage students were proposed to fill the
samequestionnaire they had filled at the pre-experimental stage for the
purpose to noticethe results of the use of modern techniques and activities
for improving languagestudy, namely, on writing study. 91
92. The results obtained in both groups are presented below: Number of
points Percentage of students Problem area Group 1 Group 2 Group1
Group 2 (of 56 (of 48 possible) possible) 1. Starting an essays 42 26 24%
16% 2. Writing clear thesis 44 22 26% 18% statement 3. Use of right
transitions 22 15 14% 8.5% 4. Organizing coherent 45 20 26% 16.5%
paragraphs 5. Writing introduction and 40 23 22% 13,5% conclusion 6.
Relevance and originality 23 18 13.5% 8.8% of the essay 7. Low motivation
to write 22 17 11.5% 8.7% Moreover, learners from the experimental group
(Group 2) were asked toshare their opinions on writing assignments they had
performed. They were given afeedback questionnaire on their grammar
activities. Students Feedback Questionnaire Make a check mark to show
your agreement or disagreement with thefollowing statements. 92
93. Statements Agree Disagree 1. Techniques which were used did not
help me to 2 10 practice my writing abilities. 2. The purpose of writing tasks
was clear for me. 10 2 3. I found nothing different from previous writing 2
10 exercises I had done. 4. Work at each stage was set up clearly. 9 3 5. Pre-
writing activities improved my writings 11 1 6. The way the tasks were
designed was interesting. 11 1 7. I participated better during class, group,
pair work. 10 2 8 Some of the tasks were confusing. 2 15 9. Similar tasks
should be designed during the school 14 3 year. 3.2 Results of the
Experiment After having analyzed written assignments fulfilled by the
students andhaving compared learners` questionnaires completed before and
after theexperiment, there were distinguished significant changes on
students` perception ofwriting tasks and the results achieved by the learners
in Group 2, i.e. experimentalgroup. Considering two diagrams reflecting the
difficulties encountered by thestudents during the writing process, it is easy
to notice that the amount ofdifficulties that learners have in relation to
various features of writing process hasdecreased. 93
94. Before the experiment40353025201510 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7After the
experiment3025201510 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 94
95. The given diagrams illustrate results of the questionnaires filled by
thelearners of Group 2 before and after the experiment. The horizontal ax
shows theordinal number of the problem area and the vertical ax shows the
amount of pointsobtained by this problem area. The total number of points
gained by each of theeight statements of the questionnaire reveals the degree
of difficulty ofcounterparts of writing process. The larger number of points
acquired the greaterdegree of difficulties students encounter. Let us compare
the two diagrams. The quantity of difficulties that studentshave with writing
clear thesis statements has significantly lessened (from 38 to 22points).
These results were achieved due to the modern presentation and
practicingwriting techniques used during the experiment. Such activities as
writinginstruction, brainstorming, engaging in peer or teacher-student
discussions,reading about and researching the topic; timed free writing about
the topic, listingand categorizing information; reflecting upon personal
experience, and someother helped to improve the students` writing
competence and skills. As a result the amount of difficulties encountered by
the learners, whileorganizing coherent paragraphs, has decreased from 38 to
20 points. The techniquethat enabled students to get started and organize
their ideas in a proper way was thecontextualizing of assignments, i.e.
students were given the structure of writingessay and suggested an audience.
It specifies the content of the assignment andhelps learners to write more
effectively. The process of writing practice and revising as well as pre-
writing activitieshelped students to lessen the problem of writing
introductions and conclusions(from 33 to 23 points), difficulties starting an
essay from 36 to26. Difficultieswith the use of right transitions were also
significantly lessened, namely from 26to 15. And, finally the problem with
originality of the essay was solved, too. Theamount of points before the
experiment (26) significantly decreased (18), too.Though more time is spent
on pre-writing activities and writing practice the wholeamount of time used
for fulfilling the assignments is practically equal in bothexperimental and
control groups. Students of the experimental group do not waste 95
96. much time on generating their ideas and compiling exercises as they do
it workingtogether at the first stage. On considering students feedback
questionnaires it was evident that moststudents were satisfied with the
writing assignments they had fulfilled. Thus, 13students of 14 agreed that
the purpose of writing tasks was clear for them. 12students of 14 agree that
work at each stage was set up clearly, as also theyrecognized that they
participated better during class, group and pair work and alsoagreed that
similar tasks should be designed during the school year. The results obtained
after analyzing pre-experimental and post-experimentalquestionnaires of the
control Group 1 showed that the amount of difficultiesstudents encounter
while fulfilling writing assignments has remained practicallyunchanged. The
following charts illustrate this fact. Before the experiment 60 50 40 30 20 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 96
97. After the experiment 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It is
obvious that the amount of difficulties represented by the vertical ax
practically hasn`t been changed after the experiment. In general students
from the experimental group were more successful atfulfilling all the
assignments. After having checked the written assignments fulfilled by the
students ofboth groups, there was made the analysis of mistakes made by the
learners. Theresults of the analysis and the difference in percentage between
two groups areshown in the table below. Kinds of difficulties Number of
mistakes Percentage Group 1 Group 2 differenceThesis Statement 47 22
25%Introduction 44 23 23%Logical coherence 45 20 27%Conclusion 40 21
20% 97
98. The data from the table illustrate the fact that learners of the
experimentalgroup have done approximately 25% of mistakes less than the
learners of thecontrol group. This proves the fact that students cannot write
successfully in aforeign language without models, and these models must be
accessible to them inthe sense that they can be imitated. That is why
presenting writing activities, peerevaluation and clear staging of the writing
study (practice) is of great use foracquiring good writing skills. Models and
activities used during pre-writing stageshelp students acquire the knowledge
of useful vocabulary and grammar structures,as well as draw students
attention to such things as the importance of paragraphingand the use of
connectors that are necessary to perform certain writing tasks.
Peerevaluation gives learners the opportunity to revise their written draft and
to getaware of the mistakes done that should be avoided in future. The
results obtainedprove that students with this kind of preparation can be
successfully trained to dealwith any writing task appropriate to their level of
English. 98
99. CONCLUSIONS The present research project was an attempt to
examine the process ofcomposing an essay, to reveal difficulties students
encounter while writing anessay and to highlight the patterns of the most
common types of essays that caneliminate these difficulties. After the
investigation we have come to the followingconclusions: 1. The process of
composing an essay is a manifold process consisting of note- taking,
outlining, drafting and editing. Successful methods of composing an essay
are almost invariable. Students should start to write early, trying to jot down
what seems readiest to be written, even if theyre not sure whether or how it
will fit in. Despite writing so freely, they keep the essays overall purpose
and organization in mind, amending them as drafting proceeds. They revise
extensively, attending to the whole essay and draft and redraft rearranging
the sequence of its larger parts, adding and deleting sections to take account
of what they discover in the course of composition. Lastly, they proofread
the final copy. 2. Pre-writing activities are essential for writing an
impressive essay. They help to generate ideas for the content of the students
written work; they help students to consider two essentials the purpose of
the writer and the audience; they also help with planning drafting and editing
process of writing; they help to roughly standardize students written work
which in its turn is useful for testing purposes when students work has to be
ranked. It is more apparent that composing an essay can be supported
effectively by using such activities as: freewriting or timed free writing
about the topic, brainstorming, clustering, outlining, debating, reading about
and researching the topic, listing and categorizing information, reflecting
upon personal experience etc. The ability to write brilliantly is an art, which
requires the use of innovative and creative ideas to improve its effectiveness,
thus students must not hesitate to use such resources. These resources are 99
100. irreplaceable and can assist learners in writing a higher level of essays.
By using them students express themselves more effectively and clearer
consequently using all the reserves of their minds. Writing essays
successfully is not a special ability that only some people are born with and
it is not an elite activity that only some people are allowed to do. It is a skill
that can be learnt just like any other skill which depends on practice. Essay
writing is a craft that requires both talent and acquired skills, students learn
by doing, by making mistakes and then seeing where they went wrong.
Teachers must use a lot of training exercises to help students to master essay
writing skills. They should provide the motivation to learn English,
encourage learners to write essays and use individual approach to teaching
when necessary. Besides, all learners must be trained to write excellent
essays, having a clear idea of the essays writing process; its purpose,
audience, point of view and format.3. Organizing an essay into a clear,
logical piece is a vital step toward effective writing. Brilliant ideas may be
misunderstood or ineffective if the reader cant follow the writers train of
thought. An accomplished academic essay should have definable
beginnings, middles, and endings, unlike some forms of writing such as
newspaper stories. In addition essays should be built around a central idea,
referred to as thesis - the glue which binds the essay together and the point
of the essay, what it intends to show, prove, or do.4. We have such a
conclusion that students need to be acquainted with the most common types
of essays: description, classification, narration, cause and effect, persuasion,
argumentation; learn how they should be organized, and find out about their
similarities and differences which will help them develop logical skills.
Essay writing skills, no matter what career path 100
101. students choose, develop their communication and interpersonal skills
vital tools for any job in modern world.5. Writing an essay is not simply a
matter of getting the required number of words down on paper. One must do
all he can to make his essay interesting and catchy, not lacking such features
as: logic, unity, coherence, development, balance and proportion. The text of
an essay needs to forge a coherent unity from the many diverse elements of
language and thought that go to make it. It is in many of the details of the
text that the purpose is realized. An essay is not merely a vehicle for ideas,
but is itself (whatever the discipline) a piece of literature. A special attention
should be given to transitionsthat is, writers should check their piece of
writing to be sure that a reader will be able to follow the sequences of ideas
within sentences, from sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to
paragraph. Transitional tags run the gamut from the most simple to more
complex signals that should be used to connect ideas, to emphasize, to
compare, to add, to contrast, to summarize, to sequence etc. Transitions are
supplemental and supportive, meant to help students in composing an essay
and better their formal writing. Two other important considerations of an
essay are diction (exactness and aptness of words) and economy (the fewest
words without loss of clear expression and full thought).6. By following the
suggestions in this paper, students will become more proficient at organizing
and outlining as well as at creating introductions and conclusions. The
teacher should try to organize writing workshop in the classroom, where
each student will be an active participant during all stages of the writing
process. Pre-writing activities, peer evaluation and clear structure of the
writing work is of great use for acquiring good writing skills. Thus helping
to avoid difficulties that students encounter while fulfilling an essay writing
assignment. 101
102. 7. It should be said that peer evaluation is an important part of the
writing experience because students develop an awareness of the fact that a
writer is producing something to be read by someone else. At the same time
through analyzing and commenting on another students work, learners
develop the ability to view their own writing from a critical point of view.
Learners should be involved in the process of writing, i.e. in (1) the
acquisition of information about writing item (its subject, purpose, and
audience), (2) drill and transformation to form writing habits, and (3) the
making use of the habits acquired. This reach material can be used for
deepening ones knowledge in composingin English as a second language.
The paper aimed to share some writing strategieswhich can help teachers as
well as students to reflect on different aspects of theirapproach to writing,
and to support their professional development helping to meetthe ever-
growing demands of nowadays world. This research will help teachersand
students to use widely a range of different writing activities, especially
thosewhich are not fully presented in the textbooks. A set of elaborated
suggestions ofthis work can be used by the teachers who are interested in
improving studentsmastery of the language. 102
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108. Appendix 1 Suggestions about WritingBe InspiredWriting requires
inspiration. Articles that lack passion probably will not be read.Would you
like to read something that brings you down? Of course not, nobodydoes,
people want to feel inspired. The passion that you put into your
writingshines through.Be OriginalTheres nothing bad about being you. Say
what you think and feel. Does it reallymatter what other people think? Youll
never be original if you allow yourself to beruled by the good and bad
opinion of others. The greatest writers have realizedthis, they view their
writing as an expression of themselves and arent afraid ofletting it show and
neither should you. Have confidence, generating it, if needed,by your own
will.Sit Down To WriteThe path to mastery lies in practice. If you want to
become a better writer, sit downand start writing, you will get better. Theres
no better explanation to this than theone give by William Zinsser in one of
the greatest books about writing "OnWriting Well" he says: "You learn to
write by writing. It is a truism worn thin byrepetition, but it is still true, and
it cant be repeated often enough. The only way tolean to write is to force
yourself to produce a certain number of words on a regularbasis." [66] 108
109. Appendix 2 Great Rules of Writing Do not put statements in the
negative form. And dont start sentences with a conjunction. If you reread
your work, you will find on rereading that a great deal of repetition can be
avoided by rereading and editing. Never use a long word when a diminutive
one will do. Unqualified superlatives are the worst of all. De-accession
euphemisms. If ant word is improper at the end of a sentence, a linking verb
is. Avoid trendy locutions that sound flaky. Last, but not least, avoid clichs
like the plague. William Safire The ablest writer is only a gardener first,
and then a cook: his tasks are,carefully to select and cultivate his strongest
and most nutritive thoughts; and thenwhen they ripe, to dress them,
wholesomely, and yet so that they may have arelish. ~ Augustus William
Hare and Julius Charles Hare, Guesses atTruth, by Two Brothers, 1827
There is no royal path to good writing; and such paths as do exist do
notlead through neat critical gardens, various as they are, but through the
jungles ofself, the world, and of craft. ~ Jessamyn West, Saturday Review,
21 September1957 109