49

Employment and Livelihoods

T

he objective of economic development
is to provide people with basic necessities,
and opportunities for meaningful employment.
Expanding productive employment is central for sustained
poverty reduction and for improvement in human
development, as labour is the main asset for the majority
of the poor. Labour absorption, in fact, depends more on
the pattern of growth, on whether it is labour intensive
or capital intensive. In India as well as in Andhra Pradesh,
in spite of the improvement in the growth (GDP) of the
economy, the absolute number of unemployed and under-
employed has increased and the quality of employment
has not improved. These factors have definitely had a
bearing on human development in the state. In this context
this chapter presents the situation in Andhra Pradesh with
respect to employment and livelihoods.
5.1 Employment Situation in AP
There are four major issues related to employment.
First is the work participation rate and rate of growth in
employment. The second is the quality of employment
in terms of real wages. The third, related to the second,
is diversification in terms of the structure of employment.
Last, an outline of policies are needed for improving quantity
and quality of employment. Labour market reform is also
an important issue for policy.
The recent NSS 61
st
round (2004-05) quinquennial
survey on employment and unemployment estimated that
around half the population in Andhra Pradesh is reportedly
working. In other words, out of an estimated population
of 80 million, 40 million are in the workforce. The work
C
H
A
P
T
E
R

V
Employment and Livelihoods
Structure of Employment and Changes in Rural Livelihoods
5
The work participation rate in the
state is one of the highest in India.
Low labor productivity and slow
shifts/diversification livelihoods
are tow major challenges the state
has to tackle. What is needed is the
skill development and expansion of
non-farm employment opportunities.
Andhra Pradesh Human Development Report 2007
48
Andhra Pradesh
Cultivators - 2001
Andhra Pradesh
Agricultural Labourers - 2001
Andhra Pradesh
Total Workers - 2001
Andhra Pradesh
Other Workers - 2001
Percent Cultivators to
total Population
>35
30-35
20-30
<20
0 50 100 150 Kms
Percent Agricultural Labourers to
total Workers
>50
40-50
30-40
<30
0 50 100 150 Kms
Percent Other Workers to
total Workers
>40
30-40
20-30
<20
0 50 100 150 Kms
Percent Workers to
total Population
>45
40-45
30-40
<30
0 50 100 150 Kms
47
The Economy of A.P
2 districts of North Coastal (Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam)
have recorded higher growth rates than the state average.
One can say that higher growth in Telangana could be
due to a lower base. However, if we study trends in the
growth of per capita income, out of the 9 districts which
had higher growth rates than the state average, only four
districts (Mahabubnagar, Nizamabad, Warangal and
Srikakulam) had a low base. It should be noted that the
quality of growth is also important. Some of the Telangana
districts may be showing higher growth rates but we are
not sure about the quality of growth.
(3) One of the reasons for the lower GSDP growth in
A.P. than all-India in the 1990s was due to lower levels
of infrastructure in A.P. The index of social and economic
infrastructure for Andhra Pradesh was slightly below the
All-India average in 1995, and was a little above the average
in 2000. It is true that there has been an improvement in
the infrastructure of the state over time. However, in order
to sustain the recent higher levels of growth in GSDP it is
necessary to improve infrastructure in the state. The index
of infrastructure at the district level shows that the majority
of districts which are below the state average fall in
Telanagana, Rayalaseema and North Coastal Andhra.
(4) The official poverty ratios, based on the Lakdawala
Committee methodology show very low levels of rural
poverty (11 per cent) and high levels of urban poverty
(28 per cent) for A.P. as compared to all-India (28 and 26
per cent respectively) in 2004-05. Thus the official estimate
of poverty ratio for urban areas in A.P. is more than double
the rural level. This is quite contrary to what one would
expect on the basis of the rural-urban differences in per
capita income and wages. However, alternative estimates
based on Angus Deatons methodology show that the
poverty ratios in A.P. were closer to the all-India pattern
i.e., 21 per cent for rural areas and 8 per cent for urban
areas. However, in both official and alternative estimates,
the rate of reduction was faster in the second period (1999-
2005) as compared to the first period (1993-94 to 1999-
00). Inequality in consumption represented by the Gini
coefficient seems to have increased significantly for both
rural and urban areas in the post-reform period the
rate of increase being much higher for urban as compared
to rural areas. If distribution had remained the same, poverty
would have been reduced by an additional one percentage
point in rural areas and 5.46 percentage points in urban
areas in A.P. in the post-reform period. The faster decline
in poverty during 1999-2005 in A.P. could be due to low
inflation and relatively lower food prices.
(5) Fiscal performance shows that the fiscal reforms
initially improved revenue generation. But, later the fiscal
situation deteriorated in A.P. as in other states in the post-
reform period. States own tax revenues, which had fallen
to around 5 per cent of GSDP in 1995-96, rose steadily
to about 8 per cent in 2000-01 nearly the level obtaining
in the early nineties. In general, the fiscal deficit and debt/
GDP ratios increased in several states in the post-reform
period. The fiscal performance of A.P. compares favourably
with other states. There seems to have been a turnaround
in the total revenue of the state in recent years. It increased
from 12 to 14 per cent of GSDP in the late 1990s to 16.4
and 18.0 per cent in 2006-07 and 2007-08 (RE) respectively.
The debt-GDP ratio increased from 24 per cent in late
1990s to 37 percent in 2005-06. In spite of this increase,
the rank of A.P. in debt-GDP ratio was only eighth (in
ascending order) among 29 states. In other words, 21
states in India have higher debt-GDP ratio than Andhra
Pradesh. There has been a slight improvement in fiscal
deficit and in revenue deficit which turned into surplus
in the state in recent years.
(6) Social sector expenditure as a percent of GSDP
in A.P was around 6 per cent and was around 35 per cent
in total expenditure in A.P. during the last four years (2002-
06). In both these cases, A.P. is the median state in India.
Expenditure on education and health has been lower in
Andhra Pradesh as compared to the all-state average.
To conclude, there seems to have been some
turnaround in economic growth of A.P. in recent years.
Similarly, fiscal performance in terms of revenue generation
and reduction in fiscal deficit, particularly revenue deficit,
has improved significantly in the last few years. However,
the focus should be on inclusive growth as there is still a
considerable degree of poverty, lower human development
and significant regional disparities in A.P. The state needs
to improve its physical infrastructure for sustaining growth
and increase in quantity and quality of social sector
expenditures.
Andhra Pradesh Human Development Report 2007
46
has been lower in Andhra Pradesh as compared to the
all-state average. For example, the expenditure on education
hovered between 10 to 13 per cent in A.P as compared
to the all-state average of 12 to 17 per cent during 2000-
07. Similarly, the expenditures are lower in A.P. than the
average for all states in the last two years (Dev, 2007).
It may however, be noted that the impact on outcomes
in the social sector depends on the level of expenditures
as well as on the effective and efficient utilization of these
expenditures.
Per capita real expenditure on the social sector has
increased over time except during the first half of the
(1) A.P. has also moved into a higher path of growth,
similar to all-India, during the last two and a half decades.
GSDP growth in the 1980s at 5% p.a. was nearly the same
as the GDP growth rate for the country. But whereas
there was a clear step-up in the 1990s in the growth rate
of GDP for the country to a little over 6 per cent, there
was no significant improvement in the growth rate of
GSDPin A.P. However, there has been a turnaround in
GSDPgrowth in A.P. in the last five years. The average
annual growth rate was 7.5 per cent during 2001-08 and
8.7 per cent during 2004-08. Per capita GSDP growth
was around 6 to 7 per cent per annum during this period.
Table 4.9: Per capita Expenditure (93-94 prices) on Social Sector in Southern States
State
Total Social Services Rural Development Total Social Sector
1990-1 1995-6 2000-1 2004-5 1990-1 1995-6 2000-1 2004-5 1990-1 1995-6 2000-1 2004-5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A P 440 547 705 754 97 67 111 121 537 614 816 874
Karnataka 469 563 781 777 76 56 56 66 545 619 836 843
Kerala 612 643 858 968 59 53 162 209 671 696 1020 1177
Tamilnadu 617 637 867 994 79 46 88 79 696 682 955 1072
Note : The data given in RBI Bulletins is deflated by taking WPI at 93-94 base year and using interpolated Census data of 1991 and 2001.
Source : RBI Bulletins
1990s. It increased from Rs. 318 in 1980-81 to Rs.528
in 1989-90 and was stagnant in the first half of the 1990s.
Thereafter per capita expenditure again began to increase
and crossed Rs. 1000 in 2006-07. The average for the
1980s and 90s respectively was Rs.447.4 and Rs.624.7.
This increase in per capita terms may be partially attributed
to the lower growth rate of population during 1991-2001.
In comparison to the other southern states, the
expenditure on social services as a percentage of GSDP
was lower for Andhra Pradesh in the 90s but the expenditure
on rural development was higher in the state. The same
situation prevails with respect to per capita expenditure
on social services and rural development (Table 4.9).
4.6 Conclusions
This chapter has examined the macro economic scene
in terms of economic growth, infrastructure, poverty and
fiscal management. The conclusions of the chapter are
the following.
Thus, A.P. has done relatively well in terms of economic
growth in recent years.
(2) Regional disparities across the state in economic
growth are significant although there are signs of
improvement. The trends in the growth of district domestic
product during 1993-94 to 2004-05 shows that 7 districts
of Telangana (Ranga Reddy, Nizamabad, Khammam,
Hyderabad, Mahabubnagar, Warangal and Medak) and
45
The Economy of A.P
during this decade. This could have been partly due to
the structural adjustment programme in the state. Since
2000-01, however, there was a sign of increase in this
ratio.
We examine here the trends in expenditure on the
social
18
sector, which includes rural development. Social
sector expenditure as a percentage of aggregate budget
expenditure explains whether the above-mentioned
challenges are really taken into account while expenditures
are budgeted or made. Social sector expenditures as a
per cent of GDP and total public expenditures were lower
in the 1990s as compared to the 1980s
19
. As a percent
of aggregate expenditure, the state spent between 35 to
50 per cent on the social sector during 1980-81 to 2006-
07.
Social sector expenditure as a per cent of GDP in A.P
ranged around 6 per cent during the last four years (2002-
06). Similarly, social sector expenditure as a per cent of
total expenditure was around 35 per cent in A.P. during
the same period. In both these cases, A.P. is the median
state in India. The expenditure on education and health
government expenditure declined, which in turn kept the
base for raising resources at a low level.
There has been some improvement in the fiscal deficit,
particularly the revenue deficit of the state in recent years.
Fiscal deficit as a percent of GSDP declined from 5.21
per cent in 2000-01 to 4.04 percent in 2004-05. Only
five states (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa, Bihar and
Haryana) had a lower fiscal deficit than A.P. in 2004-05.
The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management
Act
15
(FRBM) and the incentives by the Twelfth Finance
Commission have led to a reduction in revenue deficit
in many States. The revenue deficit which was around
2.5 per cent in 2000-01 declined to 1.2 per cent in 2004-
05 and turned to surplus of 1.04 per cent in 2006-07. It
indicates that the state of AP achieved the FRBM Act target
of nil revenue deficit much in advance.
The recent improvement in the fiscal scenario of AP
and the other states in India, is joint effort of both the
central and state government(s)
16
.
4.5 Social Sector Expenditure
Social sector expenditures directly influence human
development. Since its formation, different governments
in the state claimed that poverty eradication/alleviation
and social development generally were their main challenges
and that they were fully committed to address these issues.
The prime objective of most policies is to help the poor
and improve the social sector. Analysing government
budgets is a useful starting point for understanding the
genuineness of the claims of the government.
17
In Andhra
Pradesh, total public expenditure as a percentage of GSDP
seems to have increased in the 1980s while there was
no increase in the 1990s, and the share was in fact lower
17
Implementation processes are also absolutely crucial. Since government
agents are usually very important in implementation, the commitment of the
government can also be studied in the implementation processes. The present
chapter focuses, however, only on budgets and expenditures.
18
Social sector expenditure is defined as the total expenditure on Social
Services and Rural Development as given in Central and State budgets.
19
A.P. spent around 6 to 11 per cent of its GSDPon the social sector in the last
two decades. In 1980-81, the share in GSDP was 7.5 per cent and increased to
11 per cent in 1986-87; thereafter it started declining.
15
Fiscal targets set by FRBM Act were reduction of revenue deficit to nil by the
year 2009 and generate surplus thereafter; the fiscal deficit should not be more
than 3 per cent of GSDP; and the debt-GSDP ratio should not exceed 35
percent by 2010. The recent fiscal performance of AP seems to be within these
limits.
16
On the receipts front, introduction of VAT and higher fiscal transfers
recommended by the Twelfth Finance Commission (TFC) are two important
factors. When it comes to expenditure, enactment of FRBM Act and commitment
for fiscal correction process in reaching the set targets of revenue balance and
fiscal deficit as prescribed under FRBM rule, Debt Swap Scheme, TFCs Debt
Consolidation and Waiver Facility, New Pension Policy, and various measures
taken by RBI as the Governments debt manager.
Figure 4.8: Trend in the Share of Social Services
(incl. Rural Development) in the Total Budget Expenditure (Rev.
A/c) and Per Capita Expenditure in Total (PCTE) and in Social
Sector (PCSSE) in AP
1
9
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3000
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0
60.0
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P
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C
a
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a

(
R
s
.
)
S
h
a
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e

(
%
)
PCTE
PCSSE
Share of SS
Andhra Pradesh Human Development Report 2007
44
percentage of SDP, fifth for fiscal deficit as percentage of
SDP and seventh in interest burden, so that only five to
six states had performed better than A.P. in terms of the
main fiscal indicators. The latest data from RBI for 29
states shows that the rank of A.P. in debt-GDP ratio was
eighth. In other words, 21 states in India have a higher
debt-GDP ratio than Andhra Pradesh. The debt-GSDP ratio
for AP was 22.5 per cent in 1999-2000, it increased to
31.90 per cent (highest ever for the state) in 2004-05
and thereafter it declined to 26.91 per cent in 2007-08
14
.
As compared to the past fiscal performance by A.P.,
there has been a significant deterioration in the 1990s.
The gap between the revenue receipts and total expenditure
of the state has been increasing. A.P. was, in fact, one of
the pioneering states to initiate fiscal reforms earnestly,
along with the reforms package, during 1995-96. Before
the reforms were introduced the financial position of the
state was under stress. The fiscal deficit had led to higher
debt financing, which resulted in the burden of interest
payments which amounted to about 15 per cent of
government revenue. Several initiatives were undertaken
as part of the reform package. The earlier policy of
prohibition on liquor was reviewed to safeguard excise
revenue and the rice subsidy scheme and power tariffs,
which put a tremendous stress on the states fiscal position,
were moderated. This good beginning, although inadequate,
appears to have been reversed. The reforms process slowed
down after a few years and the state was once again under
financial stress. A rise in all three deficits - revenue, fiscal,
and primary - and the stock of outstanding debt touching
the level of about 30 per cent of the GSDP indicates the
situation of deterioration (Sarma, 2003). But the situation
has improved in the recent past.
Andhra Pradesh was once characterized as a state
of surplus budgets in India. During the 1960s and 1970s
the state used to mobilize about 60 to 70 percent of its
revenue from its own resources (both tax and non-tax)
and the remainder used to come from the shared taxes
and grants of the central government. The total revenue
that the state could mobilize used to meet all its revenue
expenditure and sometimes even exceeded it, which resulted
in a surplus budget. The revenue surpluses were spent
on developmental activities through capital expenditure
particularly on irrigation and power projects.
The sound fiscal situation on revenue account
continued till 1982-83. Thereafter, during the 1980s and
1990s, especially since the inception of economic reforms
followed by fiscal consolidation, the state began to have
revenue deficits. Capital receipts mobilized through
borrowing, meant for developmental activities, were used
14
GOAP (2008) Socio-Economic Survey 2007-08, Planning Department,
Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.
to fill the gap in the revenue account. All the revenue
receipts of the state could meet about 80 to 90 per cent
of the total expenditure during 1980s and 1990s. The
increase in the revenue account gap could be attributed
to the decline in revenue receipts due to a reduction in
excise tax collection owing to prohibition and a decline
in land (tax) revenue. On the other hand, there was a
great increase in expenditure owing to populist welfare
policies of the government and the burden of increased
wages and salaries over the years. In particular, the
expenditure on distribution of rice at Rs. 2 per kilo through
the public distribution system (PDS) and subsidies on
irrigation and electricity increased the burden on the state
government.
The increasing revenue deficit compelled the state
to divert resources meant for capital expenditure and
resources mobilized through borrowings to cover the deficit.
The borrowings of the state were spent to fill the revenue
deficit and to repay loans. A massive burden of interest
payments in turn accentuated the revenue deficit. About
20 per cent of the public debt raised was spent on repayment
of loans during the early 1990s. This increased to 60
percent in the late 1990s and rose further to 70 per cent
in the last few years. As a result, the productivity of
Debt Tax FD
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
P
e
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a
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7
Figure 4.7: Tax Revenue, Fiscal Deficit (FD) and Public Debt as a
percentage of GSDP in AP
43
The Economy of A.P
for food in Andhra Pradesh was higher than its general
index.
outstanding stock of debt (p.34). Most states had high
levels of fiscal deficits, interest payments and a high ratio
of public debt to GDP(Dev and Ravi, 2003). However,
there seems to have been a turnaround in fiscal management
in recent years.
4.4.1 Revenues of the State Government
In the mid-1980s, the states (A.P.) own tax revenue
as a per cent of GSDP was more than 9 per cent. This
declined to about 5.2 per cent in 1995-96. Due to fiscal
reforms, the ratio increased to 7 to 8 per cent during the
period 1997-98 to 2004-05. In the last two years, there
seems to be a turnaround in the ratio of own tax revenue
to GSDP. It was 8.9 and 10.1 per cent of GSDPrespectively
in the years 2006-07 and 2007-08 (RE). The states own
revenue (tax and non-tax) has increased from about 9
per cent in the 1990s to about 11.3 and 12.3 per cent of
GSDP in the last two years. Similarly, the total revenue
(own revenue and central transfers) which was 12 to 14
per cent of GSDP during 1995-96 to 2004-05 increased
to 16.4 and 18.0 per cent of GSDP respectively in the
years 2006-07 and 2007-08 (RE). Thus, there has been a
turnaround in the tax, non-tax and total revenues of
A.P. in the last two years. There are several reasons for
this improvement. Tax revenues increased because of the
introduction of VAT and better tax collection led by higher
economic growth. Further, central transfers to the state
government have also increased in recent years.
4.4.2 Public Debt and Fiscal Deficit
Both these problems increased significantly for Andhra
Pradesh as in other states in the latter half of the 1990s.
In the 1990s, A.P. was ranked sixth on public debt as a
The rate of growth of the general price index for
Andhra Pradesh declined from about 7.6 per cent in the
1970s to 6.8 percent in the 1980s (Table 4.8). The price
rise during the 1970s could be due to the impact of external
shocks like the oil crisis on prices of consumer goods
and the decline in inflation in the following decade was
the result of better efforts at crisis management and the
lower growth of prices in food items. Specific to Andhra
Pradesh, the supply of rice at Rs. 2 per kg introduced in
1983 seems to have had a significant impact as the growth
of the price index for food items is a little lower than the
general index for the state and for all-India. The 1990s
witnessed the highest rate of growth ever recorded in
CPIAL, especially for food items. Subsequently, during
2001-06, a steep decline was observed. The growth rate
of the general index for Andhra Pradesh was lower than
the all-India average in all the decades.
4.4 Fiscal Performance
The fiscal situation of central and several state
governments in India has deteriorated, especially since
fiscal reforms were initiated in 1991. Andhra Pradesh is
not an exception to this. The RBI Report on Currency
and Finance 2000/01 has cautioned about the deteriorating
performance. It says the low and declining buoyancies
in both the tax and non-tax receipts, constraints on internal
resource mobilization due to losses incurred by state PSUs,
electricity boards and decelerating resource transfers from
the Centre have resulted in the rising fiscal deficits of
State Governments, with an accompanying surge in the
Table 4.8 : Growth of CPIAL
Period
AP India
General Food General Food
1 2 3 4 5
1971/80 7.6 8.0 8.5 8.5
1981/90 6.8 6.6 7.3 7.3
1991/01 9.5 9.8 9.3 9.3
2001/06 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.5
Note : 1. CPIAL Consumer Price Index for Agricultural
Labourers; 2. in 1960-61 Prices
Source : Computed using RBI data
Figure 4.6: Revenue and Capital Expenditures as
Percentage of Revenue Receipts of AP
1
9
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Rev.Expr Rev & Cap.Expr.
P
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n
t
Andhra Pradesh Human Development Report 2007
42
of poverty in both rural and urban areas across NSS regions
in the state while the level was highest in Rayalaseema I
(comprising Anantapur and Kurnool districts) during NSS
55
th
round (1999-2000). There was a significant difference
in poverty between two sub-regions of Rayalaseema.
4.3.1 Inequality
Inequality in consumption represented by the Gini
coefficient seems to have increased significantly for both
rural and urban areas in the post-reform period, and the
rate of increase was much higher for urban as compared
to rural areas. This is true for both A.P. and all-India.
The adverse impact of the increase in inequality is
reflected in the decomposition exercise undertaken for
the post-reform period. We examined the poverty scenario
by decomposing changes in levels of poverty due to growth
and distribution
11
. It is seen that growth was an important
factor contributing to the reduction in poverty in the post-
reform period. However, adverse distribution (higher Gini
coefficient) seems to have halted the reduction in poverty.
If distribution had remained unchanged, the poverty ratio
would have fallen by an additional one percentage point
in rural areas and 5.46 percentage points in urban areas
in A.P. in the post-reform period (Table 4.7).
urban poverty
12
. Almost all the urban population and
more than 50 percent of rural population are net purchasers
of food. The increase in terms of trade may not help to
increase agricultural growth. Increase in agricultural prices
would increase wages only after a time lag. There is a
need to protect the poor from an increase in the relative
price of food during the reform period.
Some policies in the post-reform period have had
an adverse impact on poverty reduction. Several policies
such as measures to improve agricultural growth, macro
pro-poor policies, development of the industrial sector
and the rural non-farm sector, planned urban growth,
rise in the effectiveness of anti-poverty programmes,
reduction in personal, social and regional disparities,
acceleration in human development and physical
infrastructure, gender development, decentralization and
improvement in governance are needed for reduction in
both rural and urban poverty and decline in inequality.
Inclusive growth also requires appropriate policies to
improve the conditions of socially disadvantaged sections
like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
4.3.2 Inflation
Inflation is one of the important factors that adversely
affect the poor. The average annual inflation rate in rural
areas was around 8.0 per cent during 1983-94 and 8.3
per cent during period 1993-00. But, it drastically declined
to 2.2 per cent between 2000 and 2005. Similar trends
can be seen for urban areas. The faster decline in poverty
during 1999-2005 in A.P. as well all-India could be due
to low inflation and relatively low food prices.
The purchasing power of individuals, even with rising
incomes, is constrained by inflation. The consumer price
index for agricultural labour (CPIAL) and Industrial Workers
(CPIIW) reveals the burden of inflation
13
in rural and urban
areas, particularly on the poor. Both general and food
indices (CPIAL) for Andhra Pradesh were lower than the
all-India average throughout the period and the index
12
See Tendulkar et al (1996), Sen (1996), Ravallion (1998). Also see Radhakrishna
and Ray (2005) for policies needed for poverty alleviation.
13
Inflation at the macro level can be captured with implicit deflators from
National Accounts Statistics. The implicit deflator, however, does not reveal
the rate of inflation for consumers.
11
See Ravi and Dev (2007) for methodology.
Table 4.7: Gini Ratio of Consumption Expenditure
Andhra Pradesh All - India
Year
Rural Urban Rural Urban
1 2 3 4 5
1983 29.66 33.25 30.79 34.06
1993-94 28.93 32.31 28.55 34.31
2004-05 29.40 37.43 30.45 37.51
Source : Dev and Ravi (2007)
The literature on determinants of poverty shows that
factors like agricultural growth represented by per capita
agricultural GDP, land and labour productivities, land
distribution, non-agricultural GDP growth, relative food
prices, inflation rate, food stocks, fiscal deficit, development
expenditure, rural non-farm employment, infrastructure,
human development, gender equity, decentralization etc.
explained the temporal and spatial variations in rural and
41
The Economy of A.P
There is a controversy regarding the poverty ratios of Andhra
Pradesh. The official estimates for rural poverty have been much
lower than alternative estimates made by independent researchers.
The alternative estimates
10
show that the poverty ratios in A.P. were
closer to the all-India pattern i.e. 26 per cent for rural areas and 12
per cent for urban areas (see Deaton and Tarozzi, 2000; Deaton,
2001; Deaton and Dreze, 2002). The very low level of official
rural poverty ratios in A.P. was due to the base year poverty line in
1973-74 which was the lowest among all the major states in India.
This in turn was due to the low level of Consumer Price Index for
Agricultural Labour (CPIAL) for A.P. The estimates by Deaton and
Dreze, on the other hand, are based on a more realistic poverty
line arrived at on the basis of consumer prices computed from the
National Sample Survey data. Their study shows that the rural
poverty line for A.P is more or less similar to all-India. Notwithstanding
these differences regarding the levels of poverty, both the official
estimates and those from Deaton and Dreze show a significant
decline in the incidence of poverty in A.P. between the eighties
and the nineties in line with all-India trends. The alternative estimates
based on Deatons method shows that rural poverty was 20.8
percent while urban poverty was 8 percent in A.P in the year 2004-
Box 4.2: Alternative Poverty Estimates for Andhra Pradesh
Table 4.5A: Alternative Estimates of Poverty Ratio
Andhra Pradesh All-India
Year
Rural Urban Rural Urban
1987-88 35.0 23.4 39.0 22.5
1993-94 29.2 17.8 33.0 17.8
1999-00 26.2 10.8 26.3 12.0
2004-05 20.9 8.4 23.1 10.2
Note : Poverty lines for the year 2004-05 are estimated by updating
the poverty lines of Deaton and Dreze (2002) for the
year 1999-00. CPIAL and CPIIW for the year 2004-05
are used for updating the poverty lines of 1999-00.
Source : Deaton and Dreze (2002) for the period 1987-88 to
1999-00; Poverty ratios for 2004-05 are estimated by
Dev and Ravi (2007).
05. These numbers are closer to those of all-India. In both official
and alternative estimates, the rate of reduction was faster in the
second period (1999-2005) as compared to our first period (1993-
94 to 1999-00).
in 2004-05 was very small. It indicates that urban areas
contribute about half of the total poor in Andhra Pradesh.
Using NSS consumption data, the Sachar Committee
Report (GOI, 2006) provides poverty ratios across socio-
religious categories (Figure 4.5). In their estimates for A.P
one can see the differential levels of poverty for different
groups. The SCs/STs together are the most poor, with a
poverty ratio of 16 percent in rural areas and 41 percent
in urban areas, while among Muslims the poverty ratios
stood at 7 percent in rural and 35 percent in urban areas.
The poverty level among OBCs was closer to the general
average in rural areas. It is interesting to note that the
incidence of poverty for Muslims was much higher than
for Hindus in urban areas.
The available estimates at the regional level within
the state indicate that the poverty ratios vary across regions
and that there are also rural-urban differences within each
region (Table 4.6). Telangana had the lowest incidence Figure 4.5 : Poverty Ratios by Religion and Caste in
AP, 2004-05
P
o
v
e
r
t
y

R
a
t
i
o
Rural Urban
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
All SCs/STs OBCs General Muslims Other
Hindus Non - Hindus
Source : Sachar Committee report (GOI, 2006)
10
Deaton (2000, 2001) estimates unit prices for different states for the years
1987-88, 1993-94 and 1999-00 using the NSS data.
Note : 1. NSSO Regions.
Source : Lanjouw (2003)
Table 4.6: Region Level Estimates of Poverty:
Official and Adjusted
Region
1993-94 1999-2000
Rural Urban Rural Urban
1 2 3 4 5
Coastal 31.2 19.1 24.3 16.2
Telangana 25.9 12.1 20.6 9.7
Rayalaseema I 38.6 20.0 33.1 27.3
Rayalaseema II 21.9 25.2 22.3 12.4
Andhra Pradesh 29.2 17.8 23.6 13.6
Andhra Pradesh Human Development Report 2007
40
are heavily concentrated (16 bank branches and 12617
telephones per lakh population) in Hyderabad which in
fact is entirely urbanized. The variation across other districts
in terms of bank branches is not very high (from 5 to 8).
Road infrastructure ranges from 497 to 973 km per thousand
square km (of geographical area) across districts in the
state. Hyderabad (973) followed by Srikakulam, West
Godavari, Krishna and Rangareddy (793) have the highest
road density.
The composite index representing the selected
infrastructure facilities across districts in the state is in
relation to the state average. The index indicates the status
of an individual district in comparison with the state average.
If the index value of any district is above 1 it shows better
infrastructure than the state average and vice versa. For
instance, Hyderabad (10.2) would be the best performing
district in terms of infrastructure and Mahabubnagar (0.73)
would be the most backward. The index values in general
indicate that most of the districts performing below the
state average are located in Telangana, Rayalaseema (see
Figure 4.4).
4.3 Poverty and Inequality
Poverty is multi-dimensional including income and
non-income poverty and indicates not only levels of income
and consumption, but also health and education, vulnerability
and risk, and marginalisation and exclusion of the poor
from the mainstream
8
. Although Andhra Pradesh is lagging
behind on many other dimensions of poverty, its performance
in terms of income poverty
9
based on consumption
expenditure shows that there has been a remarkable
reduction in the level of poverty, particularly rural poverty,
from 48.4 per cent in 1973-74 to 11 percent in 2004-05.
The rural poverty level in the state was less than half of
that of all-India.
The paradoxical situation specific to Andhra Pradesh
is that the poverty level is higher in urban areas than in
rural areas. The rate of decline in urban poverty was slower
in the state up to 1993-94 but the pace of decline
subsequently increased, especially between 1993-94 and
2004-05. While rural poverty declined significantly from
about 27 percent in 1983 to 11 percent in 2004-05, urban
poverty declined from 37 percent to 28 percent during
the same period which was still high and higher than the
all-India figure (Figure 4.5). The difference in absolute
number of urban (6.1 million) and rural poor (6.4 million)
Figure 4.4 : Infrastructure Index, 2004
AP
Hyderabad
West Godavari
Nellore
East Godavari
Chittoor
Warangal
Krishna
Guntur
Vizianagaram
Nizamabad
Kadapa
Visakapatnam
Srikakulam
Karimnagar
Prakasam
Khammam
Nalgonda
Rangareddy
Medak
Kurnool
Anantapur
Adilabad
Mahabubnagar
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Index
8
There has been much debate about how exactly poverty should be defined.
In popular understanding, poverty is identified with low income which prevents
a family from obtaining and enjoying the basic necessities of life, including a
minimum of food, clothing, shelter and water. This concept is defined as
income poverty. For a comprehensive picture of poverty other deprivations in
relation to health, education, sanitation and insurance against mishaps, must
be taken into account. (Chellaiah and Sudarshan, 1999), p.xiii.
9
The National Sample Survey (NSS) data on consumer expenditure is generally
used for estimating poverty in India. NSS has both annual surveys and quinquennial
surveys. We concentrate on the estimates based on the latter as they provide
reliable estimates at the state level. The estimates based on expert group
method and approved by the Planning Commission are presented.
Table 4.5: Poverty Ratios - Official Methodology
Year
Andhra Pradesh All-India
Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1983 27.31 37.49 29.75 45.76 42.27 44.93
1993-94 16.64 37.63 22.30 37.26 32.56 36.02
2004-05 11.2 28.0 15.5 28.3 25.70 -
Source : Planning Commission, New Delhi
39
The Economy of A.P
that is, around 21 post offices and 4121 telephone
connection per lakh population. The number of scheduled
commercial bank branches in the state was 5415 at the
end of the year 2005, that is about 7 bank braches per
lakh population or 14 thousand persons per bank branch.
The aggregate deposits in these commercial banks
amounted to Rs. 98600 crores, or Rs. 1420 per capita.
Total bank credit advanced was Rs. 74771 crores, or Rs.
11428 per capita. The state ranks fourteenth among the
Indian states in terms of both the population per bank
and per capita deposit whereas in terms of per capita
credit it stands seventh.
As a result, the installed capacity of the power sector
increased from 213 MW to 11105 MW between 1959
and 2005. The total number of consumers has grown
from 2.7 to 165.48 lakhs and the energy handled per
annum rose from 686 MU to 51123 MU during the same
period. The annual revenue increased from Rs.5.50 crores
to Rs. 10170 crores. Of the total installed capacity about
27 per cent is from thermal and 32 per cent from hydel
units. Power generation during 2004-05 was 51122.82
MKWH. The state had the highest gross generation, next
to Maharashtra and Goa. Of the total power generated
in the state about 40 per cent was from thermal units
and another 10 per cent from the hydel units. The rest
was the contribution of others that include the central
sector projects and purchases from other states and the
private sector. Though the power sector of the state emerged
as the one of the best performers in India, power generation
in the state was insufficient to meet the demand. Per capita
consumption of electricity has increased over the period
to 574 KWh during 2004-05. The state is among the top
ten states in terms of per capita consumption of electricity.
Andhra Pradesh is one of the states in which almost
all the villages are electrified. This has to be read with
the caution that this does not ensure either that each hamlet
in every village is electrified or that each household in
every village/hamlet has electricity. The figures show that
about 94 per cent of the habitats/hamlets in the state were
electrified and 69 per cent of the rural households had
electricity connection in 2005.
Agriculture, particularly irrigation, in Andhra Pradesh,
is the single largest consumer of electricity; per capita
consumption of electricity (utility) was highest in this sector.
The number of agricultural services in the state increased
from about four thousand in the late 1950s to three lakhs
by the end of the Fifth Plan and to 24 crores by the end
of 2005. Andhra Pradesh was the second highest among
the Indian states in terms of number of agricultural services.
The number of pump sets energized through electricity
in Andhra Pradesh was around 23 lakhs (as on 31
st
March
2005), which is the second highest after Maharashtra.
The power shortage is considered to be one of the
contributing factors in the agrarian crisis in the state.
In Andhra Pradesh, there were 16190 post offices
and 32.64 lakh telephone connections as on March 2005,
Despite improvements in infrastructure in the state,
the Infrastructure index
7
presented in the report of the
Tenth and Eleventh Finance Commission for major Indian
states shows that though the index value for Andhra Pradesh
for 1995 was almost close to all-India (i.e. 100) it was
only ranked at 10 among the fifteen major states. In 2000,
the index value and rank of the state had improved
marginally to 103 and 9 respectively. Punjab, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Haryana and Gujarat had much higher levels of
infrastructure than Andhra Pradesh in the year 2000.
There are wide disparities in terms of infrastructure
facilities across the districts in the state. With respect to
irrigation, the percentage of gross irrigated area varied
from as low as 13 per cent in Adilabad to 87 per cent in
West Godavari in 2001. Across all the districts in the
state almost all the villages are electrified, though as noted
above, this does not mean that all households have electric
connections. Bank branches and telephone connections
7
The index for each state is estimated in relation to all-India