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The key takeaways are that textile testing is important for quality control, product evaluation, research and development, problem analysis and product comparison. The main types of textile testing are physical, chemical, colorfastness and optical tests.
The different types of textile testing are physical tests, chemical tests, tests to determine colorfastness properties and optical tests.
The different types of physical tests conducted on fabrics include durability tests, friction tests, appearance tests and functional tests. Durability tests include tensile strength/breaking strength, tearing strength and bursting strength tests.
FABRIC QUALITY ASSURANCE
SIGNIFICANCE OF TEXTILE TESTING
To determine the suitability of a fabric for a particular end use which is also the primary concern to both the buyers and sellers of textile products. The type of yarn used plays a signifcance role in determining the quality of the fabric. The quality of yarn is improvised by improving the various properties of yarn like yarn count, twist and GS etc depending on the end use. IMPORTANCE OF TESTING 1 !esearch and development to enable new and desirable textile products to be produced. 1 "roduct performance and evaluation to determine if the fabric is suitable for the intended end use. 1 #uality control to ensure that the fabric will be made properly and e$ciently. Thus claims and returns will be minimi%ed. 1 "roblem analysis to determine why a fabric or textile product is not performing as desired 1 "roduct comparison to determine which material would be the better value and to prevent wasteful buying. 1 "roper advertising to enable ads to be truthful and not misleading or false 1 &dherence to government regulations so that the textile product can be sold without violating any laws. TEXTILE TESTING DEFINITION: 't is used to determine whether or not a product complies with or performs in a specifed manner in relation to a standard or other requirement. Standard atmosp!r! (ecause of the important changes that occur in textile properties as the moisture contest changes, it is necessary to specify the atmospheric conditions in which any testing is carried out. Therefore a standard atmosphere has been agreed for testing purposes and is defned as a relative humidity of )*+ and a temperature of ,- - .. /or practical T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru purposes certain tolerances in these values are allowed so that the testing atmosphere is !4 )*+5 ,+, ,- 5 , - .. TYPES OF TEST MET"ODS P#s$%a& t!sts: These tests are mainly physical or mechanical in nature and includes breaking strength, abrasion resistance, 6 pilling propensity. C!m$%a& T!sts: .hemicals are used includes fber identifcation using the solubility method, detection of antibacterial activity of fabrics,6 determination of the presence of merceri%ation in cotton fabrics. T!sts to d!t!rm$n! %o&or'astn!ss prop!rt$!s: These tests are used to determine the resistance of fabrics to color change under various conditions, includes colorfastness to sunlight, washing,6 crocking. Opt$%a& T!sts: & microscope or another magnifying device is used, includes grading of wool fbers, fber identifcation of textile defects. FORMAT OF TEST MET"ODS Test name 67or 3umber 0esignation Scope 0efnition of terms &pparatus 6 aterials Test Specimens Test "rocedure 8valuation7.alculation of !esults !eport 3otes P"YSICAL TESTS T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru TYPES OF P"YSICAL TESTS 0urability test /riction test &ppearance test /unctional test DURABILITY TEST !8&S93S T9 .&!!: 9;T 0;!&('<'T: T8ST To check that the fabric conforms to specifcations To note the e=ects of changes in structural details. To note the a=ects of physical and chemical treatments, exposure to weather, launderings etc. To obtain some indication of probable performance in use To investigate causes of failure and customer complaints. To help in the design of a fabric for a specifc purpose. To study the interaction of fbers, yarns and fabric properties TYPES OF DURABILITY TESTS Tensile strength7 breaking strength Tearing strength (ursting strength TENSILE STRENGT" TESTING ( BREA)ING STRENGT" DEFINITION: T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Tensile strength is the resistance of a material sub>ect to tension by an external force. & testing machine used for tests where a pulling force is exerted on the specimen is called tensile testing machine. 8ach machine has ? basic elements of strength testing machine@ loading mechanism, clamping mechanism, recording mechanism. There are ? testing machines@ .onstant rate of traverse A.!TB .onstant rate of extension A.!8B .onstant rate of load A.!<B CRT T!st$n* Ma%$n!+ FABRIC BREA)ING STRENGT" The breaking strength of the material is the maximum force needed to resist rupture during the tensile strength. aximum tensile strength of a specimen is expressed as force per unit of cross sectional area required to produce rupture.. Akg7cm , or lbs7 inch , B (reaking test is one directional test and is suitable for woven fabrics. The breaking strength is to be evaluated in both warp and the flling directions. This test can be used to determine the e=ects of destructive forces on a woven fabric. This force includes such fnishes as embossing, napping6 resin treatments. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru The breaking strength test is performed on most woven, non woven and felted fabrics. 't is not recommended for knitted material since they elongate easily, with the specimen becoming distorted. This test can be performed with either wet or dry condition TEST MET"ODS FOR FABRIC BREA)ING STRENGT" Grab test !aveled strip test .ut strip test odifed grab test GRAB TEST This method is used to determine the e=ective strength of the fabric when in use, and not the strength of the yarns actually gripped between the clamps. This test has the advantage of fast specimen preparation. RA,ELED STRIP TEST This can be useful for comparing the e=ective strength of yarns in the material with their strength before being woven into the fabric. DETERMINING FABRIC BREA)ING STRENGT" - ELONGATION !eference@ &ST 0C)D, &pparatus 6 aterials C. Tensile testing machine ,. <oadEelongation charts for use with the tensile testing machine ?. /abric specimens F. !uler *. Scissors T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Sp!%$m!n Pr!parat$on "repare fve fabric specimens for warp tests 6 fve for flling tests for each method indicated below@ A+ Gra. T!st M!tod C. .ut specimens D inches G F inches, with the longer edge in the direction to be tested B+ Ra/!&!d Str$p T!st M!tod C. .ut specimens D inches G CH inches, with the longer length in the direction to be tested. ,. /or each specimen, unravel to exactly a CEinch width. T!st pro%!d0r! C. "roperly prepare the testing machine for the grab method. ,. "roperly position the specimen in the clamps 6 the chart in the holder. ?. 9perate the testing machine, obtaining a loadEelongation curve on the chart. F. 0etermine the fabric breaking strength 6 the elongation from the chart. *. !eplace the chart 6 the tested specimen. ). !epeat the procedure for the other specimens for the grab test method. I. "roperly prepare the testing machine for the raveled stripe test method using larger si%e >aws. D. !epeat the test procedure used for the grab test method. J. .alculate the average fabric breaking strengths 6 percent elongations for both methods. DATA AND RESULTS: /abric identifcationKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK Tensile testing achine typeKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK achine capacity Albs.BKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK BREA)ING STRENGT": T!st No+ GRAB L&!" 1&.s+2 MET"OD FILLING 1&.s+2 RA,ELED 3ARP 1&.s+2 MET"OD FILLING 1&.s+2 C , ? F T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru * TOTAL A,ERAGE "8!.83T 8<93G&T'93 M increase in specimen length GC-- ? Ain.B T!st No+ GRAB 3ARP 1&.s+2 MET"OD FILLING 1&.s+2 RA,ELED 3ARP 1&.s+2 MET"OD FILLING 1&.s+2 C , ? F * TOTAL A,ERAGE TEARING STRENGT" DEFINITION Tearing strength is the force needed to continue a tear in a fabric. 't is a unidirectional test like breaking strength testN it is performed in both the warp and weft directions. 't is only performed on woven fabric. 't is particularly important in industrial fabrics that are exposed to rough handling in use such as tents and sacks and also those where propagation of a tear would be catastrophic such as parachutes. 9utdoor clothing, overalls and uniforms are types of clothing where tearing strength is of importance. /abric having a plain weave and a high number of yarns per inch will tend to exhibit lower tearing strength since the yarn cannot move into bunches. Lhereas in twill and satin weave the yarn would shift and bunch together from the tearing force being exerted. !esin treatments such as crease resistance fnishes which cause the yarns to adhere to one another also have the same e=ect. The tensile properties of the constituent fbres have an inOuence on tearing resistance. TEST METHODS: T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru C. T93G;8 8T490 ,. "830;<; 8T490 DETERMINING FABRIC TEARING STRENGT" !eference@ &ST 0CF,F, 0,,)C, 0,,), Apparat0s - Mat!r$a&s C. /allingEpendulum type tester ,. /abric specimens F. 0ie cutter for cutting specimen for fallingEpendulum tester ). !uler I. Scissors E&m!ndor' T!ar Str!n*t T!st!r 1p!nd0&0m m!tod2 The 8lmendorf tear tester is a pendulum type ballistic tester which measures energy loss during tearing. The tearing force is related to the energy loss by the following equation @ 8nergy loss M tearing force G distance <oss in potential energy M work done C 'n the pendulum test, a small initiating cut is made in a rectangular specimen and the specimen is gripped in two clamps that are side by side. C 9ne of the clamp is stationary and anther is connected to falling pendulum. C Lhen pendulum is released, it swings and tears the specimen quickly C & pointer records the force required to tear the entire specimen from a graduated scale on the pendulum. D$*$ta& E&m!ndor' T!ar Str!n*t T!st!r The model 8<E)F--, meeting &ST standards is suitable for most fabrics including woven, layered blankets, napped pile, blanket, and air bag fabrics, and provided the fabric does not tear in the direction crosswise to the direction of the force application during the test C. "roperly position the specimen in the clamps 6 release the pendulum ,. 0etermine the fabric tear strength from the pointer scale ?. The pointer indicates the original potential energy of the pendulum consumed in tearing the specimen F. !epeat the procedure for the other specimens for the weft direction T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru *. .alculate the average fabric tearing strengths T!ar$n* str!n*t Capa%$t# o' t! ma%$n!4444444444444444444444 S+No+ 3arp5str!n*t *ms 3!'t5str!n*t *ms C , * Tota& A/!ra*! BURSTING STRENGT" TEST (ursting strength is the force needed to rupture a fabric by distending it with a force applied at right angle to the material. (ursting strength is an alternative method of measuring strength in which the material is stressed in all directions at the same time and is therefore more suitable for such materials. This is especially desirable for materials such as knits, laces and nonwovens. There are also fabrics which are simultaneousl stressed in all directions during service, such as !arachute fabrics, "lters, sacks and nets, where it ma be im!ortant to stress them in a realistic manner. # fabric is more likel to fail b bursting in service than it is to break b a straight tensile fracture as this is the t!e of stress that is !resent at the elbows and knees of clothing. This test has application in testing woven fabrics that are to be stressed equally in every direction when in use. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru T6o M!tods: 0iaphragm (ursting ethod (all (ursting ethod B0rst Str!n*t T!st!r &STE0,,C-, T&""'ETTF-?, P'SE<C-CD, "DCC,, "DC?7 The (urst Strength tester is used to test the bursting resistance of leather, synthetic leather and di=erent fbers. TEST MET"ODS DIAP"RAGM BURSTING MET"OD 'n this method hydraulic pressure is used to expand a Oexible rubber diaphragm which exerts pressure on specimen directly above it. 'ncreasing hydraulic Ouid pressure forces the rubber diaphragm to push on the specimen until the specimen bursts. DETERMINING FABRIC BURSTING STRENGT" R!'!r!n%!: ASTM D89:;< D89:9 Apparat0s - Mat!r$a&s C. 4ydraulic diaphragm bursting tester ,. Tensile testing machine with ball burst attachment ?. /abric specimens F. !uler *. Scissor Sp!%$m!n Pr!parat$on "repare fve fabric specimens for each method indicated below The specimens should be cut at least * inches G * inches. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru T!st Pro%!d0r!: D$apra*m B0rst$n* M!tod C. "repare the bursting tester. ,. "osition the specimen over the rubber diaphragm 6 close the clamp so the fabric is held securely. ?. Start the tester. Lhen the specimen bursts, stop the machine immediately. F. !ecord the gauge reading. This is the total bursting pressure. *. 9pen the clamp 6 release the specimen pressure on the diaphragm. !ecord the new gauge reading. This is the tare pressure. ). !emove the tested specimen 6 deOate the diaphragm. I. !epeat the procedure for the other specimens. D. .alculate the specimen bursting strength J. .alculate the average fabric bursting strength. Data and R!s0&ts: D$apra*m B0rst$n* M!tod Fa.r$% $d!nt$=%at$on4444444444444444444444444444444444444 Ma%$n! %apa%$t# 1ps$244444444444444444444444444444444444 TEST NO+ Tota& pr!ss0r! 1ps$2 Tar! pr!ss0r! 1ps$2 Sp!%$m!n B0rst$n* str!n*t 1ps$2 C , ? F * T9T&< &28!&G8 FRICTION TEST5 A.ras$on and P$&&$n* The friction test which includes abrasion and pilling are greatly a=ects serviceability performance of fabrics and garments. & garment is considered to be serviceable when it is ft for its particular end use. after being used for a certain length of time the garment ceases to be serviceable when it can no longer fll its intended purpose in the way that it did when it was new. the particular factors that reduce the service life of a garment are heavily dependent on its end use. for instance overalls worn to protect clothing at work would be required to withstand a good deal of hard usage during their lifetime but their appearance would not be considered important. 4owever, garments worn purely for their fashionable appearance are not required to be hard wearing but would be speedily discarded if their appearance changed noticeably. an exception T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru to this genealisation is found in the case of denim where a worn appearance is deliberately strived for. 'f asked, many people would equate the ability of a fabric to Qwear wellQ with its abrasion resistance, but QwearQ, that is the reduction in serviceable life, is a complex phenomenon and can be brought about by any of the following factors@ C. .hanges in fashion which mean that the garment is no longer worn whatever its physical state. ,. Shrinkage or other dimensional changes of such a magnitude that the garment will no longer ft. ?. .hanges in the surface appearance of the fabric which include@ the formation of shiny areas by rubbing, the formation of pills or surface fu%%, the pulling out of threads in the form of sangs. F. /ading of the colour of the garment through washing or exposure to light. the bleeding of the colour form one area to another. *. /ailure of the seams of the garment by breaking of the sewing thread or by seam slippage. ). Learing of the fabric into holes or wearing away of the surface fnish or pile to leave the fabric threadbare. wearing of the edges of cu=s, collars and other folded edges to give a frayed appearance. I. Tearing of the fabric through being snagged by a sharp ob>ect. These changes are brought about by the exposure of the garment to a number of physical and chemical agents during the course of its use. Some of these agents are as follows@ C. &brasion of the fabric by rubbing against parts of the body or external surfaces. ,. The cutting action of grit particles which may be ingrained in dirty fabrics and which may cause internal abrasion as the fabric is Oexed. ?. Tensile stresses and strains which occur as the garment is put on or taken o= and when the person wearing it is active. F. The laundering and cleaning processes which are necessary to retain the appearance of the garment. *. &ttack by biological agents such as bacteria, fungi and insects. This is a particular problem for natural materials. ). 0egradation of the fabric by contact with chemicals which can include normal household items such as bleach, detergents, antiE perspirants and perfumes. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru I. <ights, in particular ultraEviolet light, can cause degradation of polymers leading to a reduction in strength as well as causing fading of colours. D. .ontact of the garment with sharp ob>ects leading to the formation of tears. The above causes of wear are often acting at the same time. for instance, chemical or bacterial attack may so weaken a fabric that it can then easily fail through abrasion or tearing. <aundering of a fabric taken together with the abrasion that it encounters during use may lead to much earlier formation of pills or failure through abrasion than would by predicted from any pilling or abrasion tests undertaken on the new material. &brasion is the wearing a way of a section of material by the rubbing against another surface. Tests for abrasion resistance is very complex because of the many variables that inOuence fabric wear. /abrics with smooth surface tend to resist the e=ects of abrasion to greater degree than fabrics with rough, non smooth surface. aterials made with novelty yarns usually possess lower abrasion resistance. The resistance to abrasion of a material is greatly a=ected by the conditions of the test like specimen tension, type of abradent, amount of pressure between abradent and specimen. 2arious criteria can be used to determine the end point of the test The specimen could be tested until the appearance of the frst sign of wearN or when there is a yarn breakN or with the complete destruction of the fabric in the test area T! sp!%$m!n !/a&0at$on %an .! s0.>!%t$/! or o.>!%t$/! & s0.>!%t$/! evaluation is based on visual examination of the change in specimen color, luster, or surface appearance. &n o.>!%t$/! evaluation, by testing the specimen for a change in breaking strength, air permeability, or light transmission. Fa%tors a?!%t$n* a.ras$on r!s$stan%! The evidence concerning the various factors that inOuence the abrasion resistance of fabrics is contradictory. This is because the experiments have been carried out under widely di=erent conditions in particular using di=erent modes of abrasion. Therefore the results are not comparable and often opposing results have been reported. The factors that have been found to a=ect abrasion include the following. F$.r! T#p! T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru 't is thought that the ability of a fbre to withstand repeated distortion is the key to its abrasion resistance. Therefore high elongation, elastic recovery and work of rupture are considered to be more important factors for a good degree of abrasion resistance in a fbre than is a high strength. 3ylon is generally considered to have the best abrasion resistance. "olyester and polypropylene are also considered to have good abrasion resistance. (lending either nylon or polyester with wool and cotton is found to increase their abrasion resistance at the expense of other properties. &crylic and modacrylic have a lower resistance than these fbres while wool, cotton and high wet modulus viscose have a moderate abrasion resistance. 2iscose and acetates are found to have the lowest degree of resistance to abrasion. 4owever, synthetic fbres are produced in many di=erent version so that the abrasion resistance of a particular variant may not conform to the general ranking of fbres. F$.r! prop!rt$!s 9ne of the results of abrasion is the gradual removal of fbres from the yarns. Therefore factors that a=ect the cohesion of yarns will inOuence their abrasion resistance. <onger fbres incorporated into a fabric confer better abrasion resistance than short fbres because they are harder to remove from the yarn. /or the same reason flament yarns are more abrasion resistant than staple yarns made from the same fbre. 'ncreasing fbre diameter ru to a limit improves abrasion resistance. &bove the limit the increasing strains encountered in bending counteract any further advantage and also a decrease in the number of fbres in the cross 1 section lowers the fbre cohesion. Yarn t6$st There has been found to be an optimum amount of twist in a yarn to give the best abrasion resistance. &t lowEtwist factors fbres can easily be removed from the yarn so that it is gradually reduced in diameter. &t highE twist levels the fbres are held more tightly but the yarn is sti=er so it is unable to Oatten or distort that enables the yarn to resist abrasion. &brasion resistance is also reported to increase with increasing linear density at constant fabric mass per unit area. Fa.r$% str0%t0r! The crimp of the yarns in the fabric a=ects whether the warp or the weft is abraded the most. /abrics with the crimp evenly distributed between warp and weft give hate best wear because the damage is spread evenly between them. 'f one set of yarns is predominantly on the surface then this set will wear mostN this e=ect can be used to protect the loadEbearing yarns preferentially. 9ne set of yarns can also be protected by using Ooats T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru in the other set such as in a sateen or twill weave. The relative mobility of the Ooats helps to absorb the stress. There is an optimum value for fabric sett for best abrasion resistance. The more threads per centimeter there are in a fabric, the less force each individual thread has to take. 4owever, as the threads become >ammed together they are then unable to deOect under load and thus absorb the distortion. Important 'a%tors to .! %ons$d!r!d 'or a.ras$on r!s$stan%! t!st$n*: .onditioning of the specimen .hoice of testing instrument .hoice of abrasion motion 0irection of abrasion .hoice of abradent (acking the specimen .leanliness of the specimen and the instrument "ressure between abradent and specimen. TEST MET"ODS !9T&!: "<&T/9! 09;(<8E48&0 8T490 /<8G'3G &30 &(!&S'93 8T490 '3/<&T80 0'&"4!&G 8T490 9S.'<<&T9!: .:<'308! 8T490 ROTARY PLATFORM DOUBLE "EAD TESTER &s the rotary platform rotates the attached specimen rubs against the , stationary abrading wheels. The abraded area forms the wear track TABER ABRASER 1ROTATORY PLATFORM DOUBLE "EADS TESTER2 "!9"8!T:@ &brasion T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Test wear and durability of ceramics, plastics, textiles, Oooring, paper, metals and coated surfaces. Single and dual sample table models. DETERMINING FABRIC RESISTANCE TO ABRASION !eference@ &ST 0?DDF,0?DD*,0?DD) Apparat0s - Mat!r$a&s C. !otary platform, doubleEhead tester ,. /abric specimen ?. !uler F. Scissors Sp!%$m!n Pr!parat$on "repare fve fabric specimens for each method indicated below. A+ Rotar# P&at'orm< Do0.&!5"!ad M!tod C. .ut specimen ) inches G ) inches. /old specimen twice to form a ?E inch square ,. .ut the folded corner to form a hole in the center of the specimen, R Einch in diameter. ?. ;nfold the specimen. T!st Pro%!d0r!: Rotar# p&at'orm< do0.&! !ad m!tod C. "repare the abrasion tester ,. "osition the specimen around the blade ?. &brade the specimen until the chosen end point is reached F. !ecord the number of cycles *. !epeat the procedure for the remaining specimens 0ata and results@ rotary platform double head method /abric identifcationKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK .hosen end pointKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK T!st No+ No+ o' %#%&!s@ Sp!%$m!n app!aran%! C , ? F T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru * Tota& A/!ra*! DIAGRAM OF INFLATED DIAP"RAGM ABRASION TESTER <ow air pressure on the rubber diaphragm keeps the specimen slightly stretched. The table moves back and forth while the specimen slowly rotates, causing it to rub against the abradent D$a*ram o' an os%$&&ator# %#&$nd!r a.ras$on t!st!r+ The wire screen abradant oscillates against the fabric specimen T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru MARTINDALE ABRASION TEST This apparatus is designed to give a controlled amount of abrasion between fabric surfaces at comparatively low pressures in continuously changing directions. The results of this test should not be used indiscriminately, particularly not for comparing fabrics of widely di=erent fbre composition or construction. 'n the test circular specimens are abraded under known pressure on an apparatus, which gives a motion that is the resultant of two simple harmonic motions at right angles to one another. The fabric under test is abraded against a standard fabric. !esistance to abrasion is estimated by visual appearance or by loss in mass of the specimen. M!tod /our specimens each ?Dmm in diameter are cut using the appropriate cutter. They are then mounted in the specimen holders with a circle of standard foam behind the fabric being tested. 't is important that the mounting of the sample is carried out with the specimens placed Oat against the mounting block. The test specimen holders are mounted on the machine with the fabric under test next to the abradant. & spindle is inserted through the top plate and the correct weight Ausually of a si%e to give a pressure of C,k"a but a lower pressure of Jk"a may be used if specifedB is placed on top of this. /igure shows the sample mounted in a holder. The standard abradant should be replaced at the start of each test and after *-,--- cycles if the test is continued beyond this number. Lhile the abradant is being replaced it is held Oat by a weight as the retaining ring is tightened. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru (ehind the abradant is a standard backing felt which is replaced at longer intervals. Ass!ssm!nt The specimen is examined at suitable intervals without removing it from its holder to see whether two threads are broken. See table for the time lapse between examinations. 'f the likely failure point is known the frst inspection can be made at )-+ of that value. The abrading is continued until two threads are broken. &ll four specimens should be >udged individually. Table@ 'nspection intervals for artindale abrasion test 8stimated number of cycles 'ntervals for inspection ;p to *,--- 8very C,--- (etween *,--- and ,-,--- 8very ,,--- (etween ,-,--- and F-,--- 8very *,--- &bove F-,--- 8very C-,--- The individual values of cycles to breakdown of all four specimens are reported and also the average of these. A/!ra*! rat! o' &oss $n mass This is an alternative method of assessing abrasion resistance which requires eight specimens for the test. Two of these are abraded to the endpoint as described aboe and then the other pairs are abraded to the intermediate stages of ,*+, *-+ and I*+ of the end point. the samples are weighed to the nearest Cmg before and after abrasion so that a graph can be plotted of weight loss against the numbers of rubs. /rom the slope of this graph, if it is a straight line, the average loss in mass measured in mg7C--- rubs can be determined. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru FABRIC RESISTENCE TO PILLING "illing is the formation of clusters or balls of tangled fbers on the surface of a material occurring from surface rubbing. These pills are attached to the surface of fabric by one or more fbers. The resistance to pilling by a particular fabric will vary with the conditions of actual use as well as the way in which the individual wears the garment. The pills are more noticeable when the degree of color contrast with the fabric is great. $int !ills are usually more noticeable than regular !ills. The development of pills is accompanied by surface changes, like change of color, development of fu%%, or reduction of cover. ;sually the pilling specimens are rated by comparing them to actual samples or photographs showing a range of pilling e=ects. P$&&$n* rat$n*s ar! as 'o&&o6s: .lass *@ no pilling .lass F@ slight pilling .lass ?@ noticeable pilling .lass ,@ considerable pilling .lass C@ severe pilling T8ST 8T490@ !&309 T;(<8 "'<<'3G 8T490 (!;S4 &30 /&(!'. T9 /&(!'. 8T490 The #.E?,* "illing Tester is designed to test the pilling Ahair ballB characteristic of fabric and knit fabric cloths. Simulating the condition of when weaving materials are worn, it will have the appearance of lint. !olling the specimen around a rubber tube and turning in a winding box for a period of time, it is then compared to a standard picture to determine its grade. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Test results are usually determined after comparing with standard pictures, the average of four tests per specimen A.ras$on %0m P$&&$n* T!st!r: To check the abrasion as well as pilling resistance of the fabric. !&309 T;(<'3G "'<<'3G A<'38 0'&G!&B The propeller device rotates at a high speed, causing the specimen to rub against the cork liner. (oth regular pills and lint pills can result. DETERMINING FABRIC RESISTANCE TO PILLING !eference@ &ST 0?*CC,0?*C, Apparat0s - Mat!r$a&s C. !andom tumbling pilling tester ,. /abric rating standard photographs ?. 2iewing apparatus for fabric evaluation F. /abric specimens *. !uler ). Scissors Sp!%$m!n Pr!parat$on "repare six specimens for the random tumble pilling method. a. Random T0m.&! p$&&$n* M!tod C. .ut specimen FE ?7C) inchesGFE?7C) inches, at approx F* deg angle to the warp or flling yarns. ,. Seal the edges of the specimens with an adhesive 6 let dry. T!st Pro%!d0r!: Random T0m.&! p$&&$n* M!tod C. "repare the random tumbling pilling tester ,. "lace ? specimens in one of the chambers ?. !un the tester for ?- minutes. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru F. !emove excess lint fbers by lightly vacuuming the samples with the soft brush attachment. *. 8valuate the specimen for both resistance to pilling 6 surface appearance Data and r!s0&ts: Random t0m.&$n* p$&&$n* m!tod Fa.r$% $d!nt$=%at$on44444444444444444444444444444444444444 T!st no+ Rat$n* to n!ar!st a&' /a& Sp!%$m!n app!aran%! C , ? Tota& A/!ra*! T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Yarn D$stort$on :arn distortion is a condition in which the symmetrical fabric surface appearance is changed by the sliding or shifting of yarns following the application of rubbing action or force. 9ne of the basic reasons for yarn shifting is that the mumber of yarns per inch in the fabric is low. thus, the yarns can move from side to side. & good example is the ease with which yarns can shift in cheeseEcloth because the yarns are woven so far apart. ¬her factor contributing to yarn distortion is the type of yarn. /ilament yarns are soother and more even than spun yarns, so flament yarns slip more than spun yarns. 3ylon yarns shift more than wool yarns because the nylon fber has a smooth, rodElike shape, whereas wool has a rough, irregular surface. The weave also should be considered. "lain weave, which has many interlacings, holds the yarns in place better than stinn wearve, which has a minimum of interlacings. the leno weave is especially suited to reduce yarn distortion in openEstructure farics such as marquisette. AThe leno weave holds the weft yarns in pace, but the warp yarns can still shift.B The fnish a=ects yarn movements, too. !esin fnishes applied to cotton fabric bind the yarns so that they tend not to slip. Gla%ed fnishes act the same way. the felting of wool fabrics causes the fbers and yarns to come together so that there is no yarn distortion. the merceri%ed fnish of combed cotton yarns tends to increase yarn shifting as the yarns become smoother and more even. /abrics in which yarn distortion is a problem may also experience a problem with yarns slipping in the seam area. &s a result, an area of distortion may be crated ad>acent to the seam. Someties, the seam may actually open without any yarns breaking and with the sewing thread still intact. (ecause seam slippage is virtually impossible to repair, fabrics that slip under stress should be avoided for apparel and upholstery purposes. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Sna**$n* & snag is a loop of fbre Aor yarnB that is pulled from a fabric when it is in contact with a rough ob>ect. Snags detract from the appearance of the fabric but do not reduce any of its other properties. /abrics made from bulked continuous flament yarns are particularly susceptible to the formation of snags although woven fabrics with long Ooats can also su=er from this problem. The mace snagging test is a comparative test for the snagging propensity of knitted fabrics of textured polyester yarn originally developed by '.' to test .rimplene yarns. 'n the test a metal ball ftted with spikes only catch loops of thread that are lying in a particular orientation so that it is important to test both directions of a fabric. /our specimens each one measuring ,-? mm G ??- mm are testedN tow with their long direction aligned with the length of the fabric and two with their long direction aligned with the fabric width. & seam is marked on the back of the fabric C) mm from the shorter edge. The fabric samples are then folded face to face and sewn along the seam to from a tube. the tube is turned inside out so that the face of the fabric is on the outside. 't is then slid over the cylinder of the machine and secured at each end with a rubber ring. & mace is placed on each of the four fabric samples so that the chain holding it passes around the guide rod as. The machine is then set to run for )-- revolutions AC- mmB. Lhen the test is complete the surface appearance of the specimen is compared with a set of photographic standards and given a rating from * Ano snaggingB to C Asevere snaggingB. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru FABRIC RESISTANCE TO 3RIN)LING Lrinkle may be described as a fold in the fabric. + Greater the resilience of fbers fewer and less sharp the wrinkles will be + "arameters such as !ercent relative humidit, tem!erature, time under !ressure, amount of !ressure and recover time must be controlled in the test. C 3r$nA&! r!s$stan%! t! 'a.r$% $s d!t!rm$n!d .# /ar$o0s 'a%tors: & resilient fber content , such as polyester or wool 4ighly twisted yarns <ow yarns per inch Thick, lofty construction /inishes such as .!/A.rease !etention F$n$s2 fnish for cotton fabrics & weave with few interlacing, such as FGF basket weave. TEST MET"ODS T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Two types of tests recommended determining wrinkle resistance of fabrics@ !ecovery angle method &ppearance method R!%o/!r# an*&! m!tod: ;ses a small specimen which is folded under pressure N and angle of the fold is then measured by wrinkle recovery tester. App!aran%! M!tod: 'n this a larger specimen is wrinkled using the &&T.. wrinkle tester. The specimen is hung for ,FE hour period, after which it is evaluated for wrinkle appearance. The specimens are rated by comparing them to &T.. three dimensional wrinkle recovery replicas. TEST MET"ODS Two types of tests recommended to determine wrinkle resistance of fabrics@ !ecovery angle method &ppearance method R!%o/!r# an*&! m!tod: ;ses a small specimen which is folded under pressure N and angle of the fold is then measured by wrinkle recovery tester. App!aran%! M!tod: 'n this a larger specimen is wrinkled using the &&T.. wrinkle tester. The specimen is hung for ,FE hour period, after which it is evaluated for wrinkle appearance. The specimens are rated by comparing them to &T.. three dimensional wrinkle recovery replicas. T! rat$n*s ar! r!port!d as 'o&&o6s: L!* E no wrinkling L!F 1 slight wrinkling L!? E noticeable wrinkling L!, 1 considerable wrinkling L!C 1 severe wrinkling 3RIN)LE RECO,ERY TESTER DIAGRAM T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru 3umbers and indicating marks appear on a fxed circular scale. The specimen holder is attached to the transparent movable plate which contains the vernier scale. 2ernier indicates a J- degree angle of recovery for the specimen. 3RIN)LE RECO,ERY TESTER: on right the fabric specimen in its holder is being creased under weight. & timer is also there. The test is performed in S&T position. Apparat0s and mat!r$a&s: Lrinkle recovery tester and accessories. /abric specimens !uler Scissors Sp!%$m!n pr!parat$onB .ondition the specimen before testing. !ecovery angle method@ .ut C, specimens, free from wrinkles, C* mm x CF mm, ) specimens with their long dimension parallel to the warp yarns and ) parallel to flling yarns ark the face of each specimen. TEST PROCEDURE: T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru ;sing twee%ers properly place one of the warp specimens in the metal specimen holder. "ut the holder in the plastic press. &pply *-- gm weight to the plastic press for * minutes. !emove the weight and properly place the holder in the wrinkle recovery tester for * minutes. !ead the angle of the specimen fold from the scale on the wrinkle recovery tester. !epeat the procedure until ? warp specimens folded face to face and ? folded back to back are being tested. !epeat the procedure for the ) flling specimens. Data and r!s0&ts: Fa.r$% Lrinkle recovery test fabric $d!nt$=%at$on44444444444444444444444444444444444 T!st no+ Fa%! to 'a%! 3arp t!st F$&&$n* t!st Ba%A to .a%A 3rap t!st F$&&$n* t!st C , ? Tota& A/!ra*! St$?n!ss T!st C 'n cantilever bending test, a strip of fabric AC inch x D inchB is extended over a hori%ontal platform. C The platform moves to extend the fabric strip over the edge until it bends down to touch a baseline placed at a specifed angle. C The length of fabric required to reach this base line Atermed the overhang length, 9B is a measure of sti=ness. C The longer the length is, the sti=er the fabric. C The face and back of each end of the strip are measured for a total of four values for each specimen. C (y evaluation of bending length and presented a relationship between sti=ness and fabric weight that is called Oexural rigidity T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru C /abric Oexural rigidity AGB can then be calculated from the mean value of 9 for each specimen using the following formulas and the fabric weight ALB in mg7cm , C . M 9 7, Lhere c is the bending length in cm C G M L G c ? A units of G are mg 7 cm B Drap! T!st + This is usually done on an instrument called 0rape meter, it is to determine a direct ob>ective measurement of fabric drape. & fabric circle is draped over a pedestal while a light source beneath the specimen forms a shadow of the draped image The image is then reOected on a top panel by a mirror & piece of paper is placed on a panelN the shadow on the paper is tracedN and paper image is cut and weighted. + The weight of the paper corresponding to the draped image is divided by the weight of the paper corresponding to an undraped T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru image is the drap! %o!C%$!nt 1 DC2< usually expressed as percent. Fa.r$%s 6$t $* DC a/! &o6 drap!a.$&$t# C The number of folds or nodes, formed is also indication of drapeability C 0rapeable fabrics display more nodes in the circular draped confguration AIR PERMEABILITY TEST The air permeability of a fabric is a measure of how well it allows the passage of air through it. The ease or otherwise of passage of air is of importance for a number of fabric end uses such as industrial flters, tents, sailcloths, parachutes, raincoat materials, shirtings, downproof fabric and airbags. &ir permeability is defned as the volume of air in milliliters which is passed in one second through C--s mm , of the fabric at a pressure di=erence of C--mm head of water. The airOow through a given area of fabric is measured at a constant pressure drop across the fabric of C-mm head of water. The specimen is T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru clamped over the air inlet of the apparatus with the use of rubber gaskets and air is sucked through it by means of a pump as shown in fgure. The air value is ad>usted to give a pressure drop across the fabric of C-mm head of water and the air Oow is then measured using a Oowmeter. /ive specimens are used each with a test area of *-Dmm , A,*.Fmm diameterB and and the mean air Oow in ml per second is calculated from the fve results. /rom this the air permeability can be calculated in ml per C-- mm , per second. FUNCTIONAL TEST5 FABRIC DIMENSIONAL C"ANGE f 0imensional change is the increase or decrease in the length or width of a fabric called growth and shrinkage respectively. f 'ncrease in dimension s called growth while decrease is called shrinkage f .hange is usually expressed in percentage. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru f /abric shrink or grow for various reasons. <ike exposure to heat, water or dryEcleaning solvent causes some material to change its dimensionality. f Some fabrics when dried under tension tend to return to their original si%e. f T! .!st 6a# o' t!st$n* 'or sr$nAa*! is to place marks on the fabric or garment at specifed distances apart before cleaning. f The distance between the marks is then measured after cleaning and compared to the original distances marked before cleaning. f (ecause di=erent types of fabrics are laundered by the consumer in di=erent ways, it is necessary to have available to test a variety of washing, drying and restoration methods from which to choose. ALTERNATI,E CONDITIONS FOR DIMENSIONAL C"ANGE TEST achine Lashing 0rying !estoration Lash achine method ethod Temperature Setting .old normal <ine dry 4and iron <ukewarm AC-* /B delicate 0rip dry Tension presser Larm AC,- /B permanent Screen ArackB Unit shrinkage 4ot ACF- /B press dry gauge 2ery hot AC)- /B Tumble dry /latEbed press dry Ca&%0&at$on o' p!r%!nta*! o' sr$nAa*! 1or *ro6t2 D Sr$nAa*! 1or *ro6t2 E Or$*$na& &!n*t F N!6 &!n*t X 7@@ Or$*$na& &!n*t T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru O 'f 3ew length V 9riginal length then calculated percentage is growth O 'f 3ew length W 9riginal length then calculated percentage is shrinkage S"RIN)AGE MAR)ER AND SPECIMEN DETERMINING FABRIC DIMENSIONAL C"ANGE AFTER LAUNDERING Apparat0s and mat!r$a&s : C. &utomatic home washing machine and detergent ,. &utomatic home dryer ?. C- inch shrinkage markers F. !estoration apparatus *. /abric specimens ). !uler I. Scissors Specimen preparation ;sing pinking shears to prevent unraveling, cut ? specimens each measuring C) inches G C) inches. 'ndicate the lengthwise direction with indelible ink. .ondition the specimen before testing. ark the specimen with ink as indicated below. The marks are C- inches apart and on grain.
. M .enter measurement < M <eft measurement T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru ! M !ight measurement TEST PROCEDURE "lace the specimen in the washing machine. &dd additional fabrics to make a FEpound dry load. Set the machine for the normal cycle. &dd J-g of detergent and start the machine. !emove the fabric from washer immediately after completion of fnal cycle. Separate the tangled pieces. "lace the entire load in the tumble dryer. !emove the specimen from the dryer and examine them. 'f there are excessive wrinkles, remove them gently using hand iron. /or each specimen, measure the distances between the indelible shrinkage marks. .alculate the average percentage of shrinkage for both the length and width to the nearest -.*+ . Data and r!s0&ts: Fa.r$% $d!nt$=%at$on4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru 3as$n* ma%$n! : MaA! and mod!&4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 3as %#%&! 1s!tt$n*24444444444444444444444444444444444444444 3as t$m!44444444444444444 3as T!mp!rat0r!4444444444444444 Dr#!r : MaA! and mod!&444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 Dr#!r s!tt$n*44444444444444444 Dr#!r t$m!44444444444444444444 Pr!ss$n* m!tod 1$' 0s!d24444444444444444444444444444444444 D$stan%! .!t6!!n sr$nAa*! marAs .!'or! %&!an$n*KKKKKKKKKKKKKK FABRIC FLAMMABILITY5TEST /lammability refers burning behavior, specifcally to ease of ignition and continued burning after ignition /abrics can be placed in di=erent categories with regard to Oammability. Flammable fabrics will be completely consumed when exposed to fre. 'n order to for such fabrics to be nonOammable it has to undergo some chemical treatment and then called fame retardant fabric. %f the fabric is develo!ed from in&ammable "bres like kevlar ' (ome) is called fame proof fabrics GH5D!*r!! An*&! T!st f The specimen, mounted in a holder,is positioned in a metal cabinet at a F* degree angle, and ignited with a butane gas Oame for one second. f The ignition Oame is removed and the time for the specimen to burn its entire length AC*- mmB is recorded. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru T!st no+ MarA!r &o%at$on D$stan%! .!t6!!n &!n*t Sr$nAa*! marAs 6$dt C .enter <eft !ight , .enter <eft !ight ? .enter <eft !ight Tota& A/!ra*! f & cotton stop cord at the top of the specimen signals the Oame time when it burns through. f The stop cord is attached to a weight that drops onto a stop watch to measure of burning time. FLAMMABILITY TESTER The specimen is in a holder tilted at F* degree angle. The thread across the top of a specimen when burnt will cause a timer to stop. Apparat0s and mat!r$a&s C. /lammability tester with accessories ,. (rushing device ?. 0rying oven F. 0esiccators *. /abric specimens ). /orceps I. !uler D. Scissors Sp!%$m!n pr!parat$on f .ut * specimens , inches G ) inches. The longer direction is the faster burning direction, determined by a preliminary trial. f "lace specimens in holders. f /or raised surface fabrics use the brushing device to raise the pile or nap. f "lace the specimen in drying oven for ?- minutes at ,,C degree /. f !emove the specimens with forceps and place in a desiccators for at least C* minutes to allow them to cool. T!st pro%!d0r! "repare the Oammability tester. !emove a specimen from the desiccators and place in the Oammability tester so that the Oame will spread rapidly. The test must be performed within F* seconds of the time the specimen is removed. (ring the tip of Oame to the specimen and impinge the Oame on the fabric surface for C second. !emove the Oame. !ecord the burning time and the visual results. !epeat steps CEF for the other specimens. Data and r!s0&ts T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru fabric identifcationKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK fabric type Aplain or raised surfaceBKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK direction of test Alength or widthBKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK T!st no+ Or$*$na& Cond$t$on A't!r Dr# %&!an$n* %od! t$m! T!st no+ %od! t$m! C , ? F * Total Total &verage &verage COLOUR FASTNESS - S"ADE MATC"ING COLOR FASTNESS "roperty of a pigment or dye to retain its original hue, especially without fading, running, or changing when wetted, washed, cleanedN or stored under normal conditions when exposed to light, heat, or other inOuences. Fa%tors A?!%t$n* Co&or Fastn!ss /iber Type .lass of 0ye ;sed 0yeing or "rinting "rocess used Types of /inishing Treatments ;sed &ction 9f <aundering 0etergents Q0a&$t$!s O' T! Co&or E/a&0ator A sp!%$a& $nd$/$d0a& n!!d!d 6o: + Unows why color change + 's skilled in colorfastness tests and knows their limitations. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru + "ossesses a knowledge of dyes and pigments. + 4as the ability to evaluate and report color changes. T#p!s O' Co&or'astn!ss Ad/!rs!&# a?!%t!d .#: Lashing <ight .rocking &brasion Gases in &tmosphere /rosting "erspiration 4eat Co&or 'astn!ss $s 0s0a&&# ass!ss!d s!parat!&# 6$t r!sp!%t to : C. .hanges in the color of the specimen being tested , that is color change ,. Staining of undyed material which is in contact with the specimen during the test, that is due to bleeding of color GRAY SCALE 'n order to give a more ob>ective result a numerical assessment of each of these e=ects is made by comparing the changes with two sets of standard grey scales , one for color change and the other for staining &rrangement of &chromatic gray chips in a scale from light to dark. 3ine pairs of nonEglossy neutral grey colored chips, which illustrate the perceived color di=erences. give a corresponding fastness rating of *, FE*, F, ?EF, ?, ,E?, ,, CE,, and CB X* has two identical greys, and X C grey scale shows the greatest contrast, and X ,,? and F have intermediate contrasts Us$n* a Gra# S%a&!I ;ses a class *EFE?E,EC rating system. .lass * best, .lass C worst. 4alf !ating, such as ?EF also used. *E8xcellent, FEgood, ?Efair, ,Epoor, CE very poor. Specimens of a given hue are matched against these gray chips. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru They equate di=erences in lightness with di=erences in color. Gr!# s%a&!s 'or sta$n$n* & di=erent set of grey scales is used for measuring staining /astness rating is shown by two identical white chips Athat is no stainingB and rating C shows a white and dark chips. The other numbers shows geometrical steps of contrast between white and a series of greys. &piece of untreated, unstained, undyed cloth is compared with the treated sample that has been in contact with the test specimen during the staining test and a numerical assessment of staining given. Grade of *@ no change in color, no staining Grade of C@ substantially di=erent. 4eavily stained M!todo&o*# O' T!st$n* 3ormally a multiEfbre strip of ) fbre components used for staining test@ A%!tat!< Cotton< A%r#&$%< Po&#am$d!< Po&#!st!r and 3oo&+ ;sually only one specimen of fabric used. 'f material dyed or printed uniformly throughout the fabric, then specimen chosen should be representative of entire lot. /or multi 1colored printed fabric, each color should be tested in order to evaluate every color. L$m$tat$ons o' Gr!# S%a&! 0isagreement when bright colors are used. C"ROMATIC TRANSFERENCE SCALE 's used to evaluate fabrics resistance to crocking. .onsists of six sets of color chips. 8ach set is graduated from light to dark with di=erent rating. L$*t$n* Us!d For E/a&0at$on Lhen visually evaluating or comparing, standardi%ed light source should be used. .9<9! &T.4'3G (99T4 frequently used for color checking. COLOR MATC"ING BOOT" .ontains F di=erent standardi%ed lights@ + 0aylight T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru + 'ncandescent <ight + .ool Lhite /luorescent <ight + ;ltraviolet <ight 8ach used to view specimens by pushing a switch. 0aylight used when evaluating colorfastness as color appears closer to way usually seen. COLORFASTNESS TO 3AS"ING &bility of the fabric to with stand the e=ect of laundering. <aunderEoEmeter is used to evaluate color fastness to washing with the help of grey scales. The washing of fabric results in the removal of dye, therefore staining can occur, in order to determine the staining, a white multiE fber strip is attached to the specimen being tested for ./ to washing. The staining e=ect on each fber in the multiEfber test fabric should be rated by using the grey scale for evaluating staining. Cond$t$on 'or pr!parat$on o' COLORFASTNESS TO 3AS"ING TEST <iquor T!mp C T$m! 1m$n2 !eproduces action of .-C -.*+ soap F- ?- 4and washing .-, -.*+ soap -.,+ soda ash *- F* !epeated 4and washing T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru .-? -.*+ soap -.,+ soda ash )- ?- edium cellulosic wash Severe wool wash .-F -.*+ soap -.,+ soda ash J* ?- Severe cellulosic wash .-* -.*+ soap -.,+ soda ash J* ,F- 2ery Severe cellulosic wash .-) F g7l detergent 5 perborate various various 0omestic laundering T! La0ndrom!t!r Specimen placed in a metal cylinder containing water, detergent, steel balls, and chlorine. !otating action of these cylinders produces the same e=ect as textile products being laundered. TEST PROCEDURE S"8.'83 "!8"8!&T'93@ .ut the specimen , x ) inches, stapled with the multi fber fabric. "!9.80;!8@ "lace the sample in the container along with the steel balls and detergent !un the machine for F* minute &fter taking the specimen rinse it with water and soak it in acetic solution and rinse it again with water. !emove the excess solution 0ry the specimen and test fabric together using an hand iron !emove the test fabric and compare it with the gray scale to fnd the fastness. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru COLORFASTNESS TO LIG"T This refers to the ability of the fabric to withstand the sun light. The resistance of the sunlight depends on@ the intensity of the light 'nherent properties of the fabric. Season <itude 0istance from the equator. LeatherEoEmeter and /adeEoEmeter most widely used instruments. (oth this instruments use di=erent light source and the temperature and humidity are controlled with in the machine Specimens placed around the light source, and remain there until the end of test. Then evaluated as to changes in color resulting from radiation LeatherEoEmeter is a newer and more versatile machine T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru 't enables specimen to be sprayed with water during the test, if desired. 't also is able to alternate light and dark periods if continuous light exposure is not desired. These conditions are used in the LeatherEoEmeter to test fabric for such end uses as outdoor furniture, tents or rainwear. (oth machines have either a carbonEarc lamp or a xenonEarc lamp as the light source. The degree of fastness required depends on end use. &s an example, a coat material should have more color fastness than a colored dress shirt. Similarly clothes not intended to worn outside should also have certain color fastness to enable drying in sunlight. 3EAT"ER5O5METER 3ewer, versatile. 't enables the specimen to be sprayed with water if needed. 't also manipulates the light and dark period if continuous exposure is not needed. These make it most suitable for testing fabrics for end uses like outdoor furniture, tenting or rainwear. Us$n* 3!at!r M!t!r Two testing methods are used@ Time method Standard fading method TIME MET"OD The specimen is exposed to light for a particular amount of time. &fter the termination of time the specimen is taken out and evaluated. Specimen is not exposed to the same amount of light each time the test is performed. T!st Pro%!d0r! F standard Fad$n* M!tod Sp!%$m!n Pr!parat$on .ut the specimen ,.*T x DT with the longer dimension in lengthwise. T!st Pro%!d0r! T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru ount the specimen in the cardboard holder and remove the perforated strips so that half of the specimen area will be uncovered. 'nsert the cardboard holder into the metal holder and place in to the machine. 8xpose the specimen for ,- hours. &t the end of the desired exposure time period, remove the specimen and allow it to relax in the dark at room temperature for atleast , hours in order to regain moisture from the air. ;sing the grey scale for evaluating colour change, determine the colour fastness rating for the test fabric. COLOR FASTNESS TO CROC)ING + The rubbing o= of colors is called as crocking. /abrics with large amount of surface dyes like dark color cotton fabric tend to have poor colorfastness to crocking, pigment dyed or printed fabrics also face the same problem. Some time in order to increase the depth of the colors the surface dyes are not washed o= which also results in crocking. Cro%A M!t!r The crock meter is used to fnd the color fastness to crocking. This instrument has a fnger covered by a white cotton fabric which would rub against the specimen. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru This test should be performed both as wet and dry test. The wet test is an severe test since moisture helps in removal of dyes Sp!%$m!n Pr!parat$on .ut two specimens on the bias, DTxDT and place the test specimen on the crock meter so it will be rubbed in the bias direction. T!st Pro%!d0r! ount a dry, white crock test cloth over the fnger section of the crock meter so that it will be rubbed in the bias direction. <ower the covered fnger, causing the crock test cloth to slide over the coloured specimen for C- complete cycles. !emove the specimen and the white crock test cloth. "erform a wet crocking test by the same procedure. !ate the crock test cloths using the colour transference chart. COLOR FASTNESS TO PERSPIRATION+ "erspiration can cause a fabric to change color as well as resulting in staining of ad>acent material. The test is attempted to stimulate the actual condition. The specimen is heated for ) hours at ?DY.. & multifbre test fabric is placed against the specimen, the test is carried out and later evaluated for bleeding or color migration. &fter the test is completed, the specimen is evaluated using the gray scale and the average rating is reported. TEST PROCEDURE SPECIMEN PREPERATION: T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru .ut the specimen of , RT x , RT .ut the multifber fabric to , x , inch PROCEDURE: 'mmerse the test sample and the specimen in the acid solution for C* min. Lith draw the fabric and remove any excess liquor "lace the specimen in the perspiration tester <oad the tester with C- pounds of pressure. "lace the loaded tester in an oven and heat it to C--Zf for ) hours !emove the tester from oven and allow the fabric to dry at room temperature. !emove specimen and test cloth and .ompare with gray scale. COLOR FASTNESS TO FROSTING /rosting is the change of color caused by a locali%ed, Oat abrasive action. /abrics that have poor dye penetration possess poor colorfastness to frosting. /abrics that are cross dyed also possess poor color fastness Adue to di=erences in the abrasion resistanceB. TESTING EQUIPMENT InJat!d D$apra*m A.ras$on T!st!r 3$t Frost$n* Atta%m!nt T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru The specimen is held in such a way that only small portion is exposed A, inchB to rubbing force. Two abradants are used here. Em!r# M!tod more severe test ;sed for garments that are exposed to severe abrasion resistance for a long period of time. &lso used for fabrics that have low dye penetration. TESTING EQUIPMENT S%r!!n 3$r! M!tod !esults in mild abrasive action. & fne wire screen is used and the specimen is placed over a hard sponge material. This is used for cross dyed and blended fabrics. 'n crocking test the rubbing cloth is evaluated and in this the specimen is evaluated D$?!r!n%! .!t6!!n Cro%A$n* T!st and Frost$n* T!st .rocking evaluates the appearance of the specimen /rosting only evaluates the rubbing cloth, not the specimen. INFLATED DIAP"RAGM ABRASION TESTER The specimen is placed between the abradant and the foam. The table moves to and fro while the specimen is slowly rotated causing it to rub against the abradant. SCREEN 3IRE MET"OD "lace the screen and the specimen in the tester. The specimen is mounted over the foam rubber cushion. &pply a ,.* pound load on the head. Start the tester and allow it to operate for C,-- continuous cycle. Stop the machine and remove the specimen. /rom this continue as previous method and fnd the color fastness. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru TESTING STANDARDS - MET"ODS /or test results to correlate between laboratories it is essential that each test conducted is to a standard test method. Test methods used in di=erent countries have unique identifcation numbers but are usually variations on the same basic protocol. the most commonly used test standards are@ &ST and &&T.. for ;S& T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru &merican society for testing and materials &merican association of textile chemist and colorist (S for ;nited Uingdom .&3 for .anada DIN 0eutsches 'nstitute for 3ormung @ Germany P'S for Papan APapan industrial standardB &S for &ustralia ('S 1 (ureau of 'ndian standard 'S9 83E'S9 &&T.. 6 &ST are the preferred standards for the 3orth &merican continent while 'S9 is used for the rest of the world. 'ndividual countries have derived their own standard methodology but are usually based on either the 'S9, &&T..7&ST or (S test methods. !ecently, with the 8uropean ;nion being formed, a consolidation of all standard methods used in 8urope is begin done. 'n most cases, common standards are being evolved which are designated as 83 or 83 'S9. 't is expected that all 8uropean countries adopt these new designated test methods over a period of time. ASTM FABRIC PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION C"ART Param!t!rs M!nKs and .o#s S0$t M!nKs - .o#s Pa>amas (reaking strength, lbs F- ,* :arn slippage, lbs ,* C* T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Tear strength, lbs ,.* C* (ursting strength, lbs EE EE 0imensional change @ after * <aunderings ?+ ?+ @ after ? dry cleanigs ,+ EE .olorfastness@ shade change, original fabric .lass F .lass F Shade change after C laundering .lass F .lass F <aundering@ shade change .lass F .lass F @staining .lass ? .lass ? 0ry cleaning@ shade change .lass F EE .rocking@ dry .lass F .lass F @wet .lass ? .lass ? "erspiration @ shade change .lass F .lass F @ staining .lass ? .lass ? Later repellency@ original fabric EE EE @ after * launderings EE EE /abric appearance 0" ?.* 0" ? ASTM FABRIC PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION C"ART Param!t!rs 3om!n and *$r&s Dr!ss %oat 3om!n - *$r&s 3at!r r!p!&&!nt ra$n%oat (reaking strength, lbs ?- Z F- T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru :arn slippage, lbs ,- ZZ ,* Tear strength, lbs ? ? (ursting strength, lbs EE EE 0imensional change@ after * launderings EE ?+ @ after ? dry cleanings EE ,+ .olorfastness@ shade change, original fabric .lass F .lass F Shade change after C laundering .lass F .lass F <aundering@ shade change EE .lass F @staining EE .lass ? 0ry cleaning@ shade change .lass F .lass F .rocking@ dry .lass F .lass F @ wet .lass ? .lass ? "erspiration@ shade change .lass F .lass F @ staining .lass ? .lass ? Later repellency@ original fabric EE J-7D- @ after * launderings EE I- /abric appearance EE 0" ?.* ASTM FABRIC PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION C"ART Param!t!rs Upo&st!r# Drap!r# (reaking strength, lbs *- ,- :arn slippage, lbs ,* EE T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Tear strength, lbs ) C.* (ursting strength, lbs EE EE 0imensional change@ after * launderings EE ?+ @ after ? dry cleanings EE ?+ .olorfastness@ shade change, original fabric .lass F .lass F Shade change after Claundering .lass F .lass F <aundering@ shade change EE .lass F @ staining EE .lass ? 0ry cleaning@ shade change .lass F .lass F .rocking@ dry .lass ? .lass F @ wet EE .lass ? "erspiration @ shade change EE EE @ staining EE EE Later repellency@ original fabric EE EE @after * launderings EE EE /abric appearance EE 0" ?.* ASTM FABRIC PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION C"ART "arameters )NITS M!nKs - .o#s s&a%As (reaking strength, lbs EE T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru :arn slippage, lbs EE Tear strength, lbs EE (ursting strength, lbs *- 0imensional change@ after * launderings ?+ @ after ? dry cleanings ,+ .olorfastness@ shade change, original fabric .lass F Shade change after C laundering .lass F <aundering@ shade change .lass F @ staining .lass ? 0ry cleaning@ shade change .lass F .rocking@ dry .lass F @ wet .lass ? "erspiration @ shade change .lass F @ staining .lass ? Later repellency@ original fabric EE @ after * launderings EE /abric appearance 0" ?.* Not! : Z not napped ZZ solid shad ZZZ after C wash, *+ Shrinkage, ,+ gain T#p$%a& T!Lt$&! Sp!%$=%at$ons 'or 3o/!n B&o0s!s and S$rts T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Sr+ T!st D!s%r$pt$on M$n$m0m P!r'orman%! Sp!%$=%at$ons C Tensile Strength AGrabB C* kgf @ Larp 6 Left , Tear Strength School wear @ I--g @ Larp 6 Left 9thers @ *-- g@ Larp 6 Left ? Seam Slippage D kgf at S9 ) mm @ Larp 6 Left F Seam Strength C- kgf Larp 6 Left * &brasion !esistance C-,--- rubs ) "illing !esistance Afor blends onlyB Shirts 6 School wear @ ?EF @ CD,--- rubs (louses @ ?EF @ CC,--- rubs I 0imensional Stability 1 achine wash, /lat 0ry 5 ?.-+ <ength 6 Lidth ZZ D &ppearance of garment after laundering Shade .hange @ F, 3o adverse change in appearance J /ibre .omposition 5 ? + of Stated .omposition C- .olourfastness to <ight Shade .hange @ F CC .olourfastness to Lashing Shade .hange @ F, Staining @ ?EF .ross Staining @ FE* Z C, .olourfastness to Later Shade .hange @F , Staining @ ?EF .ross Staining @ FE*Z C? .olourfastness to !ubbing 0ry @ F Let @ ? Not!s : ZZ @ /or viscose fabrics, a maximum shrinkage of *.-+ may be accepted Z @ /or contrasting colours used in the same garment only. 0imensional Stability and .olourfastness to Lashing are to be tested at the temperature specifed in the care label only. T#p$%a& T!Lt$&! Sp!%$=%at$ons 'or Str!t% Garm!nts %onta$n$n* %onta$n$n* E&astan! T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru 1In%&0d$n* S6$m6!ar< B!a%6!ar - L!otards2 Sr+ T!st D!s%r$pt$on M$n$m0m P!r'orman%! Sp!%$=%at$ons C Stretch 7 !ecovery !esidual 8xtension@ *.- + max. after ?- minutes of recovery in length or width as applicable. , 0imensional Stability 1 achine wash, /lat 0ry E *.- + <ength 6 Lidth, max. 5 ?.- + <ength 6 Lidth, max. ? &ppearance of garment after laundering Shade .hange@ F, 3o adverse change in appearance F /ibre .omposition 5 ? + of Stated .omposition * .olourfastness to <ight Swimwear 6 (eachwear@ * 9thers @ F ) .olourfatness to Lashing Shade .hange @ F, Staining @ ?EF .ross Staining @ FE* Z I .olourfatness to Later Shade .hange @ F, Staining @ ?EF .ross Staining @ FE* Z D .olourfatness to !ubbing 0ry @ F Let @ ? J .olourfastness to .hlorinated Later Shade .hange @ F C- .olourfastness to Sea Later for (eachwear and Swimwear only. Shade .hange @ F Staining @ ?EF Not!s: Z @ /or contrasting colours used in the same garment only. 0imensional Stability and .olourfastness to Lashing are to be tested at the temperature specifed in the care label only. Som! ELamp&!s o' Sp!%$a& R!M0$r!m!nts 'or D$?!r!nt End Us!s O' Fa.r$%s ( Garm!nts T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru It!m Sp!%$a& R!M0$r!m!nts Garments for &ustralia 'mproved <ight /astness Swimwear7 (eachwear .hlorinated water 7 Sea water /astness Surgical Gowns 7 &pparel &nti (acterial properties Loolen erchandise oth "roofng /ire /ighters &pparel /lame "roofng 0efence Textiles Atents 7 .anvas etc.B !ot "roofng Soil 7 Stain resistant materials Soil release treatments 9il 'ndustry applications 9il repellency fnishes .urtain materials 'mproved <ight /astness 'ndustrial ;niforms Strength, 9il 7 Soil !epellency Sportswear &brasion 6 Seam Strength .hildrenQs wear .olourfastness to Saliva 3ightwear /lammability !ainwear Later repellency, (reathability Garments for &rctic conditions &bility to withstand extreme cold Fa.r$% Insp!%t$on T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru The inspection of fabric, madeEup and garments has two primary functionsN frst to classify the products according to the di=erent qualities based on the demands of market and customer and second to provide the information about the quality being produced. 3ormally the three operations such as inspection, mending or repairing of mendable defects and grading are performed in one operation at a time. Grad$n* o' D!'!%ts: The textile products such as fabric, madeEups and garments during the manufacture may have yarn defects, fabric defects and fabrication defects due to the various reasons. The defects depending on the magnitude, frequency of occurrence, position, importance, e=ect on the purpose, consequences in the further process, etc., shall be classifed and graded under various systems. 0uring the inspection, the occurrences of various defects need to be examined and graded based on their magnitude and dimension as per the required system. There are , di=erent types of systems are widely used for grading the defect of fabrics G Po$nt Grad$n* S#st!m: The F point grading system, also called the &merican &pparel anufacturers &ssociation A&&&B point 1 grading system for determining fabric quality, is widely used by producers of apparel fabrics Po$nt A&&o%at$on 'or G Po$nt S#st!m L!n*t o' d!'!%t $n 'a.r$%< !$t!r &!n*t or 6$dt Po$nts a&&ott!d ;p to ? inch C 9ver ? inch, up to ) inch , 9ver ) inch, up to J inch ? 9ver J inch F 4oles and openings A<arge dimensionB C inch or less , T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru 9ver C inch F C. 3o linear yard of fabric shall be assigned more than F penalty points, no matter how bad or frequent the defects are. ,. & continuous defect running over JT shall be assigned F points for each yard. 7@ Po$nt Grad$n* S#st!m: /abric is considered Sfrst quality if the number of defect points is less than the number of yards of fabric inspected. 'n the case of fabrics wider than *- inch., the fabric is considered frst quality if the total defects points do not exceed the number of yards of fabric inspected by C-+ . Po$nt A&&o%at$on 'or 7@ Po$nt S#st!m <ength of defect "oints allotted 3arp d!'!%ts ;p to C inch C C to * inch ? * to C- inch * C- to ?) inch C- 3!'t d!'!%ts ;p to C inch C C to * inch ? * inch to half 1 width * <arge than half E width C- C. 3o linear yard of fabric shall be assigned more than C- penalty points, no matter how bad or frequent the defects are. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Ca&%0&at$on: & fabric roll C,- yd long and FD inch width contains the following defects. .an we accept this fabric roll as per F point system[ 0efect <ength 7 3o of 0efect is like - to ? inch 1 , defect, ? to ) inch 1 * defect, ) to J inch 1 C defect, ore than J inch 1 C defect Ans6!r: - to ? inch 1 , defect A ,xC M , pointsB ? to ) inch 1 * defect A *x, M C- pointsB ) to J inch 1 C defect A Cx? M ? pointsB ore than J inch 1 C defect A CxF M F pointsB Total "oints M CJ points Form0&a: "oints7 C-- yd\ M ATotal "oints x ?)--B 7 A /abric width x /abric <ength in inchB "oints7 C-- yd\ M A CJ x ?)--B 7 AFD x C,-B M CC.J defect points 7 C-- yd\ A3ormally products containing up to F- points per C-- yd\ are acceptableB. So we can a%%!pt this fabric roll as per F point grading system. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru CARE LABELING F D!/!&op$n* and E/a&0at$n* Car! La.!&s .are labels are required by the .are <abel !egulation on most textile apparel products and are included on many textile furnishing products. any companies, such as carpet and furniture manufacturers, include care labels, tags, or instructions with their products even though such information is not required. These companies provide this service because consumers have become so accustomed to seeing this information for many products, that they have begun to expect it on all textile products. Car! Instr0%t$on o' Cat!*or# The various textile items which we handle or wear normally have a fairly long useful life provided care is taken by not exposing them to adverse conditions. Le shall frst see the general weaknesses and the conditions which are harmful to most of the textile materials. 'n general, all textile materials are adversely a=ected by sunlight, dampness, high temperature, perspiration, and wear and tear. Le shall brieOy see how and why textile materials are adversly a=ected by these inOuences. a) S0n &$*t: 8xposure of textile materials to sunlight sets up chemical changes which always reduce the strength and durability of the fbres. /urther, in many cases the colour of the textiles fade to a large extent also. b) Dampn!ss : (acteria, mildew and other microEorganisms which attack the textile materials remain inactive so long as the materials are su$ciently dry. in damp conditions these organisms become active and cause deterioration of textile items. 4ence, textile items should not be stored in damp conditions. c) "$* T!mp!rat0r!: 8xposing to high temperature may result in damage to textile items either form decomposition of the fbre substance or due to actuation of harmful substance present in the fabric. /or example, presence of a weak acid like vinegar on cotton textiles may not a=ect the fabric at ordinary temperature. 4owever, if the fabric is ironed at very high temperature, this acid will weaken the fabric considerably. d) P!rsp$rat$on: This can be harmful to most of the textile materials, because it can be both acidic and alkaline. ost textile materials are adversely a=ected either by acid or alkali. /or example, cellulosic fbres like cotton, linen, viscose and cuprammonium rayons are esily deteriorated by acids while protein fbres like wool and silk are adversely a=ected by alkalis. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru e) 3!ar and T!ar: The abrasion, rubbing and Oexing to which the textile materials ae sub>ected to, have the e=ect of breaking the fbres or displacing them in the yarn so that the textile materials are weakened and eventually they are torn. Sp!%$=% C&!an$n*< Dr#$n* and Stora*! R!M0$r!m!nts o' T!Lt$&!s Mad! o' ,ar$o0s F$.r!s: aB .ottons@ 't can be washed in hot water with strong detergent and can be pressed with hot iron. &s cotton textiles wrinkle easily, they should be treated with starch prior to ironing. They should be stored in dry condition only and not in damp condition, to avoid mildew attack. b) 3oo&s: Lool should be washed in luke warm water with a mild neutral sop or mild synthetic detergent. 't should be dried slowly away from heat. Lool should be preferably ironed on wrong side with a steam iron or damp cloth. 0ry cleaning is preferred to washing. Lool fabrics are to be protected against moths and carpet beetles. c) S$&As: Silk should be washed only if labeled as QwashableQ. 9therwise it should be dry cleaned. Lashing is done by hand with lukewarm water with mild soap or neutral detergent. 'roning is done while damp on the wrong side of fabric. Silks stained by perspiration should be cleaned at once, since perspiration weakens the fabric. .hlorine bleach is to be avoided. 8xposure to sun light is also to be avoided. Silk fabrics are to be protected against moths and carpet beetles. d) Ra#ons: if the product is labeled washable, it should be washed by using mild luke warm soap or detergent solution. The fabric is squee%ed gently and rinsed in luke warm water. The article shoukd neither be wrung nor twisted. 'roning should be done at moderate temperature. e) N#&on+ A%r#&$% and Po&#!st!r: These fabrics can be machine washed, tumble dried at low temperature. /abric softener may be added at fnal rinse. 'roning can be done at moderately low temperatue. /requent machine wash may lead to pilling of polyester fabrics. Lhite nylin fabrics tend to become yellow or grey. .hlorine bleach should not be used in such cases. Car! o' 3o/!n< )n$tt!d and F!&t!d Fa.r$%s: .are of fabric also depends upon its construction. Loven, knitted and felted fabrics need di=erent treatments. /abrics, frmly woven in a simple weave, is usually easily laundered unless fbre or fnish prevents T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru it. Satin weave fabric should not be washed or dried with anything that might catch on the long Ooat yarn. Unitted fabric usually resists wrinkling but the loop on the long Ooat yarn. Unitted fabric usually resists wrinkling but the loop formation can be distorted in cleaning unless proper care is given.. Unitted fabrics may preferably be hand washed and should not be hung on the hanger to dry as the weight of damp cloth may result in permanent elongation of loop structure. ost of the lace garments do better if dry cleaned or hand washed, since the intricate design structure may be damaged by agitation during machine washing. Lhile washing corduroy or velveteen garments, they should be separated from other items of clothing to avoid lint accumulation. 3onEwoven fabrics such as felts are not strongly constructed and may be permanently damaged if improperly cleaned. True felts are made of wool fbres, which shrink when washed and should be dry cleaned only. Those held by adhesive substance may disintegrate if cleaning treatement dissolves the adhesive and hence the label instruction of cleaning must be followed strictly. (efore making actual purchase of textile product, the consumer should consider the kind of care the product will require. 'f an article does not have a right kind of cleaning or care, it may lose its usefulness long before the owner has received satisfactory monetary value.
T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru E%o La.!&$n*: 8nvironmental protection and ecoEfriendliness play an increasing part in consumer awareness today. 8coElabels is based on written requirements and ob>ective parameters or properties. The labels give consumers a legal assurance that the goods purchased contain no toxic substances or that they do not exceed specifc limits, T#p!s o' E%o La.!&s: C. 3ational <abel ,. "rivate <abel Nat$ona& La.!&: C. 39!0'. SL&3 A3orway, Sweden, /inland, 'celandB 1 a life cycle analysis protocol ,. SL0'S4 3&T;!8 .93S8!2&T'93 S9.'8T: 1 0oes not analy%e fnal product but require detailed descriptions of fbre production and textile manufacture. ?. SU&< 9!G&3'. 1 onitors the whole production process of products manufactured only from organically produced natural fbres. F. ST'.4T'3G '<'8;U8;! 1 a protocol for fabrics designed to be used in clothing, and or ready to wear clothing, which monitors each step in the production chain and analy%e the fnished product. Pr$/at! La.!&s: 8.9T8G E (ased on auditing and analy%e of product and process. 98U9ET8G 1 .arries out tests on the fnished product. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru GuT 1 8ssentially a life 1 cycle analy%e protocol for carpets. OE)O5TEX SC"EME The various standards set out in the ecoElabeling system, the most important human ecological standard is the 9ekoETex standard C-- of the S'nternational &ssociation of !esearch and Testing in the feld of Textile 8cologyT 'n CJD*, the &ustrian Textile !esearch 'nstitute A9T/B published guidelines on the testing of textiles for toxic substances. 'n CJJ, the 9T/ 4ohenstein !esearch 'nstitute set up 9ekoETex. 9ekoETex, then drew up general conditions for awarding the S .93/'083.8 '3 T8GT'<8ST. <abel for textiles that met the requirments of 9ekoETex Standard C--. 'n CJJF the competing German .S.T. label was integrated into 9ekoETex organi%ation. The 9ekoETex &ssociation members currently comprise test institutes from C, 8uropean .ountries. 8ach of these national institutes has exclusive rights to award the 9ekoETex label A.ertifcateB and to perform related tests and inspection. Lhereas 9ekoETex Standard C-- describes the general conditions of compliance to the scheme, there are productEspecifc special standards as given below. C-- 1 General conditions C-C 1 Textile fabrics for clothing, with the exception of baby clothing C-, 1 &ccessories for clothing, with the exception of baby clothing C-? 1 .lothing, with the exception of baby clothing C-F 1 Textile fabrics for baby clothing C-* 1 &ccessories for baby clothing C-) 1 (aby clothing C-I 1 Textile Ooor coverings C-D 1 Textile wall coverings C-J 1 Textile furnishing fabrics and curtains CC- 1 ;pholstery fabrics CCC 1 (lankets, .ushions and their fllings CC, 1 (ed clothing and bedding CC? 1 attresses CCF 1 4ousehold textiles T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru CC* 1 Spun fbres A:arns, "lyEyarnsB and initial products A<oose stock, staple fbresB used for manufacturing of textile fbres in industry and trade. CC) 1 <eather and leather clothing, without baby clothing. ,-- 1 Testing procedures C!rt$=%at$on G0$d!&$n!s: 9ekoETex Standard C--. .ertifcation involves the following steps. & written application to bear the 9ekoETex label is placed with certifcation agency or an 9ekoETex institute for an article or group of articles. The 9ekoETex test institute must be provided with a representative sample of the material too be labeled. The applicant must show that a quality assurance system is in place Ae.g@ 0'37'S9 J--CB to ensure that articles in current production correspond to the submitted sampled with regard to all 9ekoETex criteria. This involves random sampling, either by the applicant or a subE contractor. T! app&$%ant m0st $n%&0d! d!ta$&!d $n'ormat$on a.o0t : C. The type and composition of the substrate. ,. Substrate incorporations Apigments, delustering agents etc.B ?. /ibre and thread preparation F. "reETreatments *. 0yeing and printing processes ). 0yes and auxiliaries used I. .hemical and mechanical equipment D. 3onEtextile material Abuttons, %ips, etc..B Prod0%t C&ass: T! O!Ao5T!L Cata&o*0! prod0%t %&ass!s $n a%%ordan%! 6$t t!$r $nt!nd!d 0s!+ .lass ' (&(: "!90;.TS 1 "roducts for babies and small children Aup to the age of ,B including accessories and preEproducts. .lass '' "!90;.TS 4&2'3G SU'3 .93T&.T 1 &rticles worn close to the skin such as blouses, shirt and under wear. .lass ''' "!90;.TS 4&2'3G 39 SU'3 .93T&.T 1 &rticles with at most very little skin contact such as coat, dress, articles with linings. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru .lass '2 /;!3'S4'3G 1 &rticles, preEproducts and accessories for decorative purpose such as tableware, furniture coverings, curtains textile Oooring, mattresses. T#p$%a& E%o5Param!t!r R!M0$r!m!nts 'or T!Lt$&!s ( Garm!nts Sr+ It!m P!rm$tt!d &$m$ts ( 0sa*! C "resence of (anned &mines (elow ?- ppm , "resence of "entachlorophenol A"."B (aby wear @ -.-* mg7kg 9thers @ -.* mg7kg ? "resence of "olychlorinated (iphenyls A".(QsB 3ot traceable F "resence of /ormaldehyde 'tems not in direct contact @ ?-- mg7kg 'tems in direct contact with skin @ I* mg7kg (aby wear @ ,- mg7kg * p4 2alue of &queous 8xtract (etween F.- and I.* ) !esidual "esticides Z AtotalB -.* mg7kg Ababy wearB T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru C.- mg7kg AothersB I "resence of 4eavy etals &s detailed separately. ZZ D .hloroorganic .arriers 3ot detected J /lame !etardants 3ot to be used C- 9dour 3o unnatural odour CC "hthalates in "2. 3ot detected C, T(T, 0(T, (T 3ot detected C? .hlorine (leaching 3ot to be used Z7ZZ 'ndividual limits of 4eavy metals and "esticides are prescribed by buyers. N!6 r!M0$r!m!nts $n E%o T!st$n* &s the understanding on harmful e=ects of chemicals grows, new requirements in ecological parameters are added. .hanges and updates in the specifcations are done based on this, mainly in the private 8co <abels. Some of the new requirements that have been introduced are given below@ Or*anot$n %ompo0nds: Tributyltin was found to be present on a soccer >ersey being sold in Germany a year and a half ago. T(T was used as an antibacterial, to suppress body odour which results from bacterial growth in perspiration. T(T is known to be a mutagen, causing genetic mutation in sea snails. This led to many retailers and popular 8coElabels requiring T(T, 0(T AdibutyltinB and (T AmonobutyltinB to be absent from their merchandise. Bann!d Am$n!s: &part form the ,- banned amines listed in the German !egulation A.ommodities &ctB, four more amines are required to be below limits@ oEanisidine pEamino a%oben%ene ,.FQ xylidine ,.)Q xylidine A&&!r*!n$% D#!s: "roposed 88. regulation now also lists D disperse dyes which are to be banned. These dyes are known allergens. 3ickel in accessories @ & new test method, 83 DCC 7 C,FI, was made applicable to all metallic accessories used in garments, such as %ips, T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru rivets, buttons, embellishments etc. in Pune ,--- by regulation in Germany. This test method simulates , years of actual use of the article. Pta&at!s $n P,C: 8mbellishments of "2. are expected not to contain phthalates. Total Quality Management TQM refers to activities that involve everyone in organisation in an integrated effort to improve performance at every level. The goal of TQM is to maintain the organisations competitiveness in the world markets TQM PERSPECTIVES ARE A customer focus An emphasis on quality Team work ndividual empowerment Training and education nvolvement of all employees T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru !ommitment by management !ontinuous process improvement QUALITY IS .the QUALIFIER! "oing it right first time and all the time. This boosts !ustomer satisfaction immensely and increases efficiency of the #usiness operations. !learing the bar $i.e. %pecification or %tandard stipulated) &'cellence that is better than a minimum standard. Quality an !u"tome# e$%e!tation" Quality is also defined as excellencein the product or service that fulfills or exceeds the expectations of the customer. There are 9 dimensions of quality that may be found in products that produce customer( satisfaction. Though quality is an abstract perception)it has a quantitative measure( Q* $+ , & ) ) where Q*quality) +* performance$as measured by the Mfgr.)) and & * e'pectations$ of the customer). The & 'imen"ion" o( Quality +erformance- +rimary product !haracteristics .eatures- %econdary characteristics) added features !onformance- Meeting specification or industry standards) /eliability- !onsistency of performance over time) average time for the unit to fail "urability- 0seful life) %ervice- /esolution of problems and complaints /esponse( of "ealer, Mfgr. to !ustomer- 1uman to human interface Aesthetics 2 of product- e'terior finish /eputation( of Mfgr.,"ealer- +ast performance and other intangibles) such as being ranked first TQM #e)ui#e" "i$ *a"i! Con!e%t"+ 3. Management commitment to TQM principles and methods 4 long term Quality plans for the 5rganisation 6. .ocus on customers 2 internal 4 e'ternal 7. Quality at all levels of the work force. 8. !ontinuous improvement of the production,business process. 9. Treating suppliers as partners :. &stablish performance measures for the processes. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru E((e!t" o( %oo# Quality ;ow customer satisfaction ;ow productivity) sales 4 profit ;ow morale of workforce More re(work) material 4labour costs 1igh inspection costs "elay in shipping 1igh repair costs 1igher inventory costs <reater waste of material ,ene(it" o( Quality 1igher customer satisfaction /eliable products,services #etter efficiency of operations More productivity 4 profit #etter morale of work force ;ess wastage costs ;ess nspection costs mproved process More market share %pread of happiness 4 prosperity #etter quality of life for all. TQM im%lementation #egins with %r. Managers and !&5=s Timing of the implementation process .ormation of Quality council 0nion leaders must be involved with TQM plans implementation &veryone in the organisation needs to be trained in quality awareness and problem solving Quality council decides Q+ pro>ects. -e. / 0l Cultu#e Quality Elements Previous state TQM Definition Product Oriented Customer- Oriented T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Priorities Second to Service and Cost First among equals of Service and cost Decision Short-term ong Term Em!hasis Detection Prevention Errors O!erations System "es!onsi#ility Quality Control Everyone Pro#lem Solving Manager Teams Procurement Price ife-cycle costs$ !artnershi! Manager%s "ole Plan$ assign$ control and enforce Delegate$ coach$ facilitate and mentor St#ategi! Quality 1oal" an 0*2e!ti3e" <oals must be focused <oals must be concrete <oals must be based on statistical evidence <oals must have a plan or method with resources <oals must have a time(frame <oals must be challenging yet achievable 4hat i" !u"tome# "ati"(a!tion5 s it due to +roduct quality? s it due to pricing? s it due to good customer service ? s it due to company reputation? s it something more? 6ai7en T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Uai%en is a Papanese word. 't means continuous im!rovement !rocess of creating more value and less nonEvalue adding waste. Uai%en is not >ust a philosophy of the workplace, it means continually im!roving in ever facet of life, including business, industry, commerce, government, and diplomacy, among others. 't involves incremental improvement involving everone. The improvements are usually accomplished at little or no e)!ense without so!histicated techni*ues or e)!ensive e*ui!ments. 'f focuses on simplifcation by breaking down com!le) !rocesses into their sub+!rocess and then improving them. Uai%en can be regarded as culture that encourages suggestions by operators who continually try to incrementally improve their >ob or process. Uai%en helps to achieve process more e,cient, e-ective, under control and ada!table. Uai%en training has focused on both philosophical and cultural concepts and is based on the belief that the develo!ment of an individual.s skill bene"ts both the com!an and that individual, and that people constantly aim for selfEimprovement The 6ai7en im%#o3ement" (o!u" on the u"e o(+ Value-added and non-value added work activities Muda, seven classes of wastage- over production) delay) transportation) processing) inventory) wasted motion and defective parts +rinciples of motion study and use of cell technology +rinciples of materials handling and use of onepiece flow "ocumentation of standard operating procedures 0se of 5 Visual Management !o"a-yo"e to prevent or detect errors #eam dynamics which includes problem solving) communication skills and conflict resolution Flo. !ha#t o( 6ai7en P#o!eu#e T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Si$ Sigma T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru %igma $@) is <reek symbol) used for statistical measurement of dispersion called standard deviation. %maller the value of sigma) less variability in the process. %i' sigma simply means a measure of quality that strives for near perfection. A AdefectB is any mistake that results in customer dissatisfaction. %i' sigma is a disciplined) data(driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects. To achieve si' sigma) the process must not produce more than 7.8 defects per million opportunities. %i' %igma statistically ensures that CC.CCCDE of all products produced in a process are of acceptable quality. Si$ Sigma %i' %igmamethodology provides the techniques and tools to improve the capability and reduce the defects in any process. t was started in Motorola) in its manufacturing division) where millions of parts are made using the same process repeatedly. &ventually %i' %igma evolved and applied to other non manufacturing processes. Today you can apply %i' %igma to many fields such as %ervices) Medical and nsurance +rocedures) !all !enters. 1oal o( Si$ Sigma To reduce Fariation and maintains consistent quality To reduce "efects To improve yield To enhance customer satisfaction To improve the bottomline i.e. improvement in profits 6ey Element" o( Si$ Sigma !ustomer %atisfaction "efining +rocesses and defining Metrics and Measures for +rocesses 0sing and understanding "ata and %ystems %etting <oals for mprovement Team #uilding and nvolving &mployees nvolving all employees is very important to %i' %igma. The company must involve all employees. !ompany must provide opportunities and incentives for employees to focus their talents and ability to satisfy customers. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru "efining /oles- This is important to si' sigma. All team members should have a well defined role with measurable ob>ectives. Si$ Sigma Methoology %i' %igma methodology improves any e'isting business process by constantly reviewing and re-tuning the process. To achieve this) %i' %igma usesa methodology known as $M%&' $"efine opportunities) Measure performance) AnalyGe opportunity) mprove performance) !ontrol performance). T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru 0efne 0etermine benchmarks, Set (ase line, 0etermine .ustomer !equirement, Get customer commitment, ap "rocess /low easur e 0evelop defect measurement, 0evelop data collection process, .ollect data, .reate forms, .ompile and display data &naly% e 2erify data, 0raw conclusion from data, test conclusions, 0etermine improvement opportunities, 0etermine root causes, , ap causes to e=ect 'mprov e .reate improvement ideas, .reate models, 8xperiment, Set Goals, .reate problem statement and solution statement, 'mplement improvement ethod .ontro l onitor improvement process, measure improvements statistically, &ssess e=ectiveness, ake needed ad>ustment. 0PP0RTU-ITIES F0R ERR0R AT VARI0US SI1MA Number of defects per million opportunities for error Associated sigma level &&$'() *+) ,,$-.) *+. &$,() /+) ($*.) /+. ,** .+) *, .+. *+/ &+) T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Lo!ation o( 89"igma :u"t in Time ;:IT< This concept was developed by Hapanese in 3C9Is. HT program is directed towards ensuring that the right quantities are purchased or produced at right and that there is no waste. t is a holistic) quality based approach to requirement planning and control which uses information systems) quality tools and techniques ) capacity scheduling) continuous improvement and employee involvement to meet demand instantly $HT) with perfect quality and no waste. t is not only the inventory and scrap. Any thing that does not add value i.e. increases usefulness or reduces cost) can be said as waste. The o*2e!ti3e o( :IT i" to #eu!e the in3ento#y to 7e#o le3el. AIM o( :IT To produce or operate to meet the requirements of the customer e'actly without waste immediately on demand. The HT concept identify operational problems by tracking the following- Material Movements-( material stops) diverts) turns backwards) T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru Material accumulation-( buffer for problems) e'cessive varriability +rocess .le'ibility-( an absolute necessity for fle'ible operation and design Falue 2added efforts-( when much of what has done does not add value and the customer will not pay for it. Tool" to !a##y out :IT .lowcharting +rocess %tudy and analysis +reventive maintenance +lant lay out method %tandardiGed design %tatistical +rocess !ontrol Falue analysis and value engineering #atch or lot siGe reduction .le'ible work force Jan(ban card with material visibility Mistake proofing +ull scheduling %et up time reduction =>>? in"%e!tion+ 'i"a3antage 3IIE inspection is not cost effective and sometimes 3IIE inspection may not assure the risk of inclusion of defective materials. This is due to the reduction in effectiveness of the personnel doing inspection due to monotonous nature of >ob and fatigue. 0se of automated systems of inspection has reduced such task to be done by human being. n case) the use of automated system of inspection is not possible) we have to rely on human efforts. .or this) %tatistical sampling provides more economical approach compared to 3IIE inspection. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru IS0 &>>> The international 5rganiGation for %tandardiGation $%5) was found in 3C8: in <eneva) %witGerland. ts mandate is to promote the development of international standards to facilitate the e'change of goods and services worldwide. The %5 technical developed a series of international standards for quality systems) first published in 3CKD. Most of the countries have adopted the %5 CIII series as their national standards. These standard seek to ensure that a company has in place the necessary organiGation) commitment and systems to consistently meet the defined quality and performance standard. #y design) the series can be tailored to fit any organiGation=s needs whether it is large or small. t can be applied manufacturing as well as services sectors. n very simplified terms) the standards require an organiGation to say what it is doing to ensure quality then do what it says and finally document or prove that it has done what it said. IS0 &>>> "e#ie"+ %5 CIII-( Quality Management and Quality Assurance %tandards(<uidelines) fundamentals 4 Focabulary discusses fundamental concepts related to QM% and provide terminology used in other standards %5 CII3- Quality Management %ystems( Model for Quality Assurance in design , "evelopment) +roduction) nstallation and servicing %5 CII6- Quality Management %ystems( Model for quality assurance in +roduction and nstallation %5 CII7- Quality Management %ystems( Model for quality Assurance in .inal nspection and Test %5 CII8- Quality Management %ystems( Model and guidelines for +erformance mprovement. ,ene(it" o( IS0 Regi"t#ation !ustomers want %5 certified vendor or supplier to ensure quality compliance of the supplies. nternal quality - reduction in scrap) rework nonconformities +roduction reliability- reduction number of breakdown per month) percent down time per shift T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru &'ternal quality- reduction in customer complaint and return Time performance- improved on time delivery) throughput time !ost of poor quality- &'ternal nonconformities) scarp) rework are reduced. A%%!pta.&! Q0a&$t# L!/!& Ma>ority of sampling is based on desired achievement of predetermined acceptable quality level $AQ;). AQ; is a statistically measure of the consistency or quality predictor of manufactured goods. The AQ; is the ma'imum percent defective can be considered as process average for the sampling purpose. t is designated value of percent defective that the consumer will accept. The AQ; may be defined in the contract or established internally. A certain proportion of defective will always occur in any manufacturing process) however) if the percentages doesn=t e'ceed a certain limit) it is often more economical to allow the defective to go through rather than to screen entire lot. This limit is called Acceptable Quality level. n other words) the ma'imum percent defective or ma'imum number of defects per 3II units which can be considered satisfactorily as a process average is termed as Acceptable Quality level. %ampling procedures are adopted under practical and economic considerations to accept or re>ect a lot on the basis of the sample drawn at random from the lot. 1ence it is necessary that a scientifically designed sampling plan is used to provide adequate confidence and protection to the manufacturer and the customer very economically. Fo#mation o( lot" .ormation of lots will have to be planed with respect to the following- a) Type of lot$%tationary lot or moving lot) b) %iGe of the lot. c) 1omogeneity of the lot. d) Accessibility of item in the lot. a) %tationary and moving lot n a stationary lot items are presented simultaneously) all the sample items may be obtained at one time in a moving lot) as the lot moves past the point of inspection) one or a few items are selected at a time. n many situations stationary lots offer advantages over moving lots. *< Si7e o( lot T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru The general rule in the formation of lots is to make the lot siGe as large as possible provided that a reasonable degree of homogeneity is maintained. #ut siGe of lot will have to be limited on account of the following factors- i) The formation of larger lots may result in the inclusion of items differing more widely in quality. ii) The production or supply of material may be such that the accumulation of large lots will be over a long period. iii) "ue to shortage of space and handling problems. iv) The economic consequences of re>ection of larger lots because of the cost of scrapping) the cost of detailed inspection or the cost of reworking them. n forming a lot) therefore) compromise is to be made in respect of its siGe. !< @omogeneity o( lot" As the efficiency of sampling depends on the degree of homogeneity of the lot) efforts should be made not to have a mi'ed lot as far as possible and to confine the lot to materials or products originating from essentially similar condition. < A!!e""i*ility o( item in the lot t is also important from the point of view of convenience of inspection that the lot is easily identifiable and should have easy access to all parts of the lot to select representative sample. 'ete#mination o( "am%le "i7e t is not possible to have a single rule for determination of the siGe of the sample. The number of items to be in the sample is dependent on the e'tent of error due to sampling that can be tolerated which in turn depends to a large e'tent on the degree of homogeneity of the lot. The siGe of the lot also comes into picture more from practical consideration than any statistical reasoning. .or economical inspection of goods) a sampling plan was designed by American military department known as AAmerican Military standardB. This standard has undergone many revisions from M;(%T"(3I9A to M;(%T"(3I9&. Today this sampling is very much in use. The acceptability of a lot submitted for inspection shall be determined with the sampling plan associated with the specified value of AQ;. '#a.ing o( Sam%le Ascertain the lot siGe /efer the sample siGe code letters table .orm the column indicating lot,batch siGe) identify the class to which the population belongs. dentify the letter $alphabet) from- A<eneral nspection ;evel( B corresponding to population class. <eneral nspection level 2 shall be normally used unless otherwise instructed. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru /efer to table titled %ingle sample plan Lormal nspection using the identified letter $alphabet) of A<eneral nspection ;evel 2 B. 0se the decided value of AQ; for acceptance and re>ection. T0 1 /abric #uality &ssurance 1 Study aterial "rof. 2. Sivalingam, 3'/T, (engaluru