I N D E X

1. INTRODUCTION
2. CRYPTOGRAPHY-PURPOSE
3. TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHMS

3.1 PRIVATE KEY ALGORITHM

3.2 PUBLIC KEY ALGORITHM
3.3 HASH FUNCTIONS
4. WHY THREE ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES
!. CLASSICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY-DRAWBACKS
". NEW TRENDS IN CRYPTOGRAPHY
".1 ELLIPTIC CURVE CRYPTOGRAPHY
".2QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY
#. CONCLUSION

BIBILIOGRAPHY
ABSTRACT
Many organizations are working hard to secure themselves from the
growing threats of message hacking through various trends in cryptography.Yet the
headlines are dominated with the latest news of message passing disaster more
frequently than any time before.This document intends to review this problem and
propose several possible solutions.The cryptographic industry has been responding
to these threats with ever-quicker responses to the rapid onslaught of malicious
techniques,while corporations establish strict cryptographic techniques.
lacing an organizations cryptographic techniques at the desktop level is like
closing all the doors in a house!..while leaving windows and other entry points
open.The present document discusses various cryptographic techniques of all times such
as the three basic algorithms namely private key algorithm,,public key algorithm and the
hash functions.The need for having three encryption techniques has also been
encrypted ." detailed discussion has been done on the classical cryptography and the
drawbacks of the classical cryptography to ensure the need for going to new trends in
cryptography like quantum cryptography,elliptic curve cryptography.These new
techniques that has emerged out of various e#ploitations in the field of cryptography rises
a fair amount of hope that we can over come the problems we are facing in a headhoc
way.These proven technologies can meet the needs of the most demanding of
environments while their respective focus on manageability has automated many tasks
and simplified administrative functions through easy-to-use interfaces developed through
years of customer feedback.."nd at the end of the document we can conclude that soon
we can save secrecy involved in message passing from the dangerous clutches of
message hackers.
1.INTRODUCTION
The $nternet or the global $nternet is the internationally connected network of computer
networks with addresses that are administrated by $"%" &$nternet address and %aming
"uthority'. $t grew dramatically because anyone can connect to it and any one connected
to it can connect others to it as well. (ach site that connected to it, can become an $nternet
)ervice provider to other sites *oes increased security provide comfort to paranoid
people+ ,r does security provide some very basic protections that we are naive to believe
that we don-t need+ *uring this time when the $nternet provides essential communication
between tens of millions of people and is being increasingly used as a tool for commerce,
security becomes a tremendously important issue to deal with.
There are many aspects to security and many applications, ranging from secure
commerce and payments to private communications and protecting passwords. ,ne
essential aspect for secure communications is that of cryptography.This paper has two
ma.or purposes. The first is to define some of
the terms and concepts behind basic cryptographic methods, and to offer a way to
compare the myriad cryptographic schemes in use today. The second is to provide some
real e#amples of cryptography and new trends in use today.
$ would like to say at the outset that this paper is very focused on terms, concepts,
and schemes in current use and is not a treatise of the whole field.
2.THE PURPOSE OF CRYPTOGRAPHY
/ryptography is the science of writing in secret code and is an ancient art0 the
first documented use of cryptography is writing dates back to circa 1233 4./. when an
(gyptian scribe used non-standard hieroglyphs in an inscription. )ome e#perts argue that
cryptography appeared spontaneously sometime after writing was invented, with
applications ranging from diplomatic missives to war-time battle plans. $t is no surprise,
then, that new forms of cryptography came soon after the widespread development of
computer communications. $n data and telecommunications, cryptography is necessary
when communicating over any untrusted medium, which includes .ust about any
network, particularly the $nternet.
5ithin the conte#t of any application-to-application communication, there are some
specific security requirements, including6
Authentication: The process of proving one-s identity. &The primary forms of
host-to-host authentication on the $nternet today are name-based or address-based,
both of which are notoriously weak.'
Privacy/confidentiality: (nsuring that no one can read the message e#cept the
intended receiver.
Integrity: "ssuring the receiver that the received message has not been altered
in any way from the original.
Non-repudiation: " mechanism to prove that the sender really sent this
message.
/ryptography, then, not only protects data from theft or alteration, but can also be
used for user authentication. There are, in general, three types of cryptographic schemes
typically used to accomplish these goals6 secret key &or symmetric' cryptography, public-
key &or asymmetric' cryptography, and hash functions, each of which is described below.
$n all cases, the initial unencrypted data is referred to as plaintext. $t is encrypted into
ciphertext, which will in turn &usually' be decrypted into usable plainte#t.
$n many of the descriptions below, two communicating parties will be referred to as "lice
and 4ob0 this is the common nomenclature in the crypto field and literature to make it
easier to identify the communicating parties. $f there is a third or fourth party to the
communication, they will be referred to as /arol and *ave. Mallory is a malicious party,
(ve is an eavesdropper, and Trent is a trusted third party.
3.TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHMS
There are several ways of classifying cryptographic algorithms. 7or purposes of this
paper, they will be categorized based on the number of keys that are employed for
encryption and decryption, and further defined by their application and use. The three
types of algorithms that will be discussed are &7igure 1'6
)ecret 8ey /ryptography &)8/'6 9ses a single key for both encryption and
decryption
ublic 8ey /ryptography &8/'6 9ses one key for encryption and another for
decryption
:ash 7unctions6 9ses a mathematical transformation to irreversibly ;encrypt;
information
" modern crypto device has several essential elements that determine how it works.
7irst is a crypto algorithm, which specifies the mathematical transform action that is
performed on data to encrypt &or' decrypt it. )ome algorithms are for stream ciphers,
which encrypt a digital data stream a bit at a time, and block ciphers which transform
data in fi#ed-size blocks, one block at a time the cipher mode defines how the algorithm
is applied block to datastream.
/rypto algorithm is a procedure that takes the plain te#t data and transforms it into
cipherte#t in a reversible way. " good algorithm produce cipherte#t that yields as few
clues as possible about either the key &or' the plain te#t that produced it.
"n important distinction between crypto algorithms is whether they are secret
key &or' public key algorithms.
" secret key algorithm is symmetric, &or' it uses same key for encryption and also
for decryption. The security of secret key algorithm rests with keeping key itself.
/ompletely secret from others.
ublic key algorithm use different keys for encryption an decryption one key
caused private key, must kept secret by its owner and in general is never shared with
anyone else. The other key called public key will be shared with anyone else. The two
will be mathematically related.
3.1.PRIVATE KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY
" private-key cryptosystem consists of an encryption system ( and a decryption
system *. The encryption system ( is a collection of functions (<8, inde#ed by =keys>
8, mapping some set of =plainte#ts> to some set of =cipherte#ts> /. )imilarly the
decryption system * is a collection of functions *<8 such that *<8&(<8&'' ? for
every plainte#t . That is, successful decryption of cipherte#t into plainte#t is
accomplished using the same key &inde#' as was used for the corresponding encryption
of plainte#t into cipherte#t. )uch systems, where the same key value is used to encrypt
and decrypt, are also known as =symmetric> cryptoystems.
3.2.PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY
$n a classic cryptosystem, we have encryption functions (<8 and decryption
functions *<8 such that *<8&(<8&'' ? for any plainte#t . $n a public-key
cryptosystem, (<8 can be easily computed from some =public key> @ which in turn is
computed from 8. @ is published, so that anyone can encrypt messages. $f decryption
*<8 cannot be easily computed from public key @ without knowledge of private key 8,
but readily with knowledge of 8, then only the person who generated 8 can decrypt
messages. That-s the essence of public-key cryptography, introduced by *iffie and
:ellman in12AB.
3.3. HASH FUNCTIONS
Hash functions, also called message digests and one-way encryption, are
algorithms that, in some sense, use no key &7igure 1/'. $nstead, a fi#ed-length hash value
is computed based upon the plainte#t that makes it impossible for either the contents or
length of the plainte#t to be recovered. :ash algorithms are typically used to provide a
digital fingerprint of a file-s contents, often used to ensure that the file has not been
altered by an intruder or virus. :ash functions are also commonly employed by many
operating systems to encrypt passwords. :ash functions, then, provide a measure of the
integrity of a file.
4. W$% T$&'' E()&%*+,-( T')$(,./'0
)o, why are there so many different types of cryptographic schemes+ 5hy can-t
we do everything we need with .ust one+
The answer is that each scheme is optimized for some specific application&s'. :ash
functions, for e#ample, are well-suited for ensuring data integrity because any change
made to the contents of a message will result in the receiver calculating a different hash
value than the one placed in the transmission by the sender. )ince it is highly unlikely
that two different messages will yield the same hash value, data integrity is ensured to a
high degree of confidence.
)ecret key cryptography, on the other hand, is ideally suited to encrypting messages. The
sender can generate a session key on a per-message basis to encrypt the message0 the
receiver, of course, needs the same session key to decrypt the message.
8ey e#change, of course, is a key application of public-key
cryptography &no pun intended'. "symmetric schemes can also be used for non-
repudiation0 if the receiver can obtain the session key encrypted with the sender-s private
key, then only this sender could have sent the message. ublic-key cryptography could,
theoretically, also be used to encrypt messages although this is rarely done because
secret-key cryptography operates about 1333 times faster than public-key cryptography.
!.WHATS WRONG WITH CLASSICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY
The purpose of cryptography is to transmit information in such a way that access
to it is restricted entirely to the intended recipient. ,riginally the security of a cryptote#t
depended on the secrecy of the entire encrypting and decrypting procedures0 however,
today we use ciphers for which the algorithm for encrypting and decrypting could be
revealed to anybody without compromising the security of a particular cryptogram. $n
such ciphers a set of specific parameters, called a 1'%, is supplied together with the
plainte#t as an input to the encrypting algorithm, and together with the cryptogram as an
input to the decrypting algorithm.The encrypting and decrypting algorithms are publicly
announced0 the security of the cryptogram depends entirely on the secrecy of the key, and
this key must consist of any &2(3-45% chosen, sufficiently long string of bits. ,nce the
key is established, subsequent communication involves sending cryptograms over a
public channel which is vulnerable to total passive eavesdropping &e.g. public
announcement in mass-media'. :owever in order to establish the key, two users, who
share no secret information initially, must at a certain stage of communication use a
reliable and a very secure channel. )ince the interception is a set of measurements
performed by the eavesdropper on this channel, however difficult this might be from a
technological point of view, ,( *&,(),*5' any )5200,)25 key distribution can always be
passively monitored, without the legitimate users being aware that any eavesdropping has
taken place.
Mathematicians have tried hard to solve the key distribution problem. The 12A3s
brought a clever mathematical discovery in the shape of CCpublic key; systems D1,EF. $n
these systems users do not need to agree on a secret key before they send the message.
They work on the principle of a safe with two keys, one public key to lock it, and another
private one to open it. (veryone has a key to lock the safe but only one person has a key
that will open it again, so anyone can put a message in the safe but only one person can
take it out. These systems e#ploit the fact that certain mathematical operations are easier
to do in one direction than the other. The systems avoid the key distribution problem but
unfortunately their security depends on unproven mathematical assumptions, such as the
difficulty of factoring large integers &G)" - the most popular public key cryptosystem
gets its security from the difficulty of factoring large numbers. This means that if and
when mathematicians or computer scientists come up with fast and clever procedures for
factoring large integers the whole privacy and discretion of public-key cryptosystems
could vanish overnight. $ndeed, recent work in quantum computation shows that quantum
computers can factorize much faster than classical computers .
".NEW TRENDS IN CRYPTOGRAPHY
".1. E55,*+,) C/&6' C&%*+-7&2*$%
$n general, public-key cryptography systems use hard-to-solve problems as the
basis of the algorithm. The most predominant algorithm today for public-key
cryptography is G)", based on the prime factors of very large integers. 5hile G)" can
be successfully attacked, the mathematics of the algorithm have not been comprised, per
se0 instead, computational brute-force has broken the keys. The defense is ;simple; H
keep the size of the integer to be factored ahead of the computational curveI $n 12JK,
(lliptic /urve /ryptography &(//' was proposed independently by cryptographers
Lictor Miller &$4M' and %eal 8oblitz &9niversity of 5ashington'. (// is based on the
difficulty of solving the (lliptic /urve *iscrete Mogarithm roblem &(/*M'. Mike the
prime factorization problem, (/*M is another ;hard; problem that is deceptively simple
to state6 Niven two points, and O, on an elliptic curve, find the integer n, if it e#ists,
such that p? nO. (lliptic curves combine number theory and algebraic geometry. These
curves can be defined over any field of numbers &i.e., real, integer, comple#' although we
generally see them used over finite fields for applications in cryptography. "n elliptic
curve consists of the set of real numbers &#, y' that satisfies the equation6
y
E
? #
P
Q a# Q b
The set of all of the solutions to the equation forms the elliptic curve. /hanging a
and b changes the shape of the curve, and small changes in these parameters can result in
ma.or changes in the set of &#,y' solutions.
7igure shows the addition of two points on an elliptic curve. (lliptic curves have
the interesting property that adding two points on the elliptic curve yields a third point on
the curve. Therefore, adding two points, 1 and E, gets us to point P, also on thecurve.
)mall changes in 1 or E can cause a large change in the position of P.)o let-s go back
to the original problem statement from above. The point O is calculated as a multiple of
the starting point,
z
, or, O ? n. "n attacker might know and O but finding the integer, n, is a difficult
problem to solve. O is the public key, then, and n is the private key.
".2.QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY
The :eisenberg uncertainty principle and quantum entanglement can be e#ploited in a
system of secure communication, often referred to as ;quantum cryptography;. Ouantum
cryptography provides means for two parties to e#change a enciphering key over a
private channel with complete security of communication. There are at least three main
types of quantum cryptosystems for the key distribution, these are6
&"'
/ryptosystems with encoding based on two non-commuting observables proposed
by ).5iesner &12A3', and by /.:.4ennett and N.4rassard &12JR'
&4' /ryptosystems with encoding built upon quantum entanglement and the 4ell
Theorem proposed by ".8.(kert &1223'
&/' /ryptosystems with encoding based on two non-orthogonal state vectors proposed by
/.:.4ennett &122E'
Ouantum cryptosystem &"' can be e#plained with the following simple e#ample. The
system includes a transmitter and a receiver. " sender may use the transmitter to
send photons in one of four polarisations6 3, RK, 23, or 1PK degrees. " recipient at the
other end uses the receiver to measure the polarisation. "ccording to the laws of
quantum mechanics, the receiver can distinguish between rectilinear polarisations &3
and 23', or it can quickly be reconfigured to discriminate between diagonal
polarisations &RK and 1PK'0 it can never, however, distinguish both types. The key
distribution requires several steps. The sender sends photons with one of the four
polarisations which are chosen at random. 7or each incoming photon, the receiver
chooses at random the type of measurement6 either the rectilinear type or the
diagonal type. The receiver records the results of the measurements but keeps them
secret. )ubsequently the receiver publicly announces the type of measurement &but
not the results' and the sender tells the receiver which measurements were of the
correct type. The two parties &the sender and the receiver' keep all cases in which the
receiver measurements were of the correct type. These cases are then translated into
bits &1-s and 3-s' and thereby become the key. "n eavesdropper is bound to introduce
errors to this transmission because heSshe does not know in advance the type of
polarisation of each photon and quantum mechanics does not allow himSher to
acquire sharp values of two non-commuting observables &here rectilinear and
diagonal polarisations'. The two legitimate users of the quantum channel test for
eavesdropping by revealing a random subset of the key bits and checking &in public'
the error rate. "lthough they cannot prevent eavesdropping, they will never be fooled
by an eavesdropper because any, however subtle and sophisticated, effort to tap the
channel will be detected. 5henever they are not happy with the security of the
channel they can try to set up the key distribution again.
The basic idea of cryptosystems &4' is as follows. " sequence of correlated particle pairs
is generated, with one member of each pair being detected by each party &for
e#ample, a pair of so-called (instein-
odolsky-Gosen photons, whose polarisations are measured by the parties'.
"n eavesdropper on this communication would have to detect a particle to read the
signal, and retransmit it in order for his presence to remain unknown. :owever, the
act of detection of one particle of a pair destroys its quantum correlation with the
other, and the two parties can easily verify whether this has been done, without
revealing the results of their own measurements, by communication over an open
channel.
CONCLUSION
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