Chromatography (from Greek chroma "color" and graphein "to

write") is the collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the separation of
mixtures. It involves passing a mixture dissolved in a "mobile phase" through a
stationary phase, which separates the analyte to be measured from other molecules
in the mixture based on differential partitioning between the mobile and stationary
phases. Subtle differences in a compound's partition coefficient result in
differential retention on the stationary phase and thus changing the separation.
Chromatography may be preparative or analytical. The purpose of preparative
chromatography is to separate the components of a mixture for further use (and is
thus a form of purification). Analytical chromatography is done normally with
smaller amounts of material and is for measuring the relative proportions of
analytes in a mixture. The two are not mutually exclusive.
Contents
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1 History
2 Chromatography terms
3 Techniques by chromatographic bed shape
o 3.1 Column chromatography
o 3.2 Planar chromatography
3.2.1 Paper chromatography
3.2.2 Thin layer chromatography
4 Displacement chromatography
5 Techniques by physical state of mobile phase
o 5.1 Gas chromatography
o 5.2 Liquid chromatography
6 Affinity chromatography
o 6.1 Supercritical fluid chromatography
7 Techniques by separation mechanism
o 7.1 Ion exchange chromatography
o 7.2 Size-exclusion chromatography
8 Special techniques
o 8.1 Reversed-phase chromatography
o 8.2 Two-dimensional chromatography
o 8.3 Simulated moving-bed chromatography
o 8.4 Pyrolysis gas chromatography
o 8.5 Fast protein liquid chromatography
o 8.6 Countercurrent chromatography
o 8.7 Chiral chromatography
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History
The history of chromatography begins during the mid-19th century.
Chromatography, literally "color writing", was usedand named in the first
decade of the 20th century, primarily for the separation of plant pigments such as
chlorophyll. New types of chromatography developed during the 1930s and 1940s
made the technique useful for many types of separation process.
Chromatography became developed substantially as a result of the work of Archer
John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge during the 1940s and
1950s. They established the principles and basic techniques of partition
chromatography, and their work encouraged the rapid development of several
types of chromatography method: paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and
what would become known as high performance liquid chromatography. Since
then, the technology has advanced rapidly. Researchers found that the main
principles of Tsvet's chromatography could be applied in many different ways,
resulting in the different varieties of chromatography described below.
Simultaneously, advances continually improved the technical performance of
chromatography, allowing the separation of increasingly similar molecules.
Chromatography terms
The analyte is the substance to be separated during chromatography.
Analytical chromatography is used to determine the existence and possibly
also the concentration of analyte(s) in a sample.
A bonded phase is a stationary phase that is covalently bonded to the
support particles or to the inside wall of the column tubing.
A chromatogram is the visual output of the chromatograph. In the case of
an optimal separation, different peaks or patterns on the chromatogram
correspond to different components of the separated mixture.

Plotted on the x-axis is the retention time and plotted on the y-axis a signal
(for example obtained by a spectrophotometer, mass spectrometer or a
variety of other detectors) corresponding to the response created by the
analytes exiting the system. In the case of an optimal system the signal is
proportional to the concentration of the specific analyte separated.
A chromatograph is equipment that enables a sophisticated separation e.g.
gas chromatographic or liquid chromatographic separation.
Chromatography is a physical method of separation in which the
components to be separated are distributed between two phases, one of
which is stationary (stationary phase) while the other (the mobile phase)
moves in a definite direction.
The eluate is the mobile phase leaving the column.
The eluent is the solvent that will carry the analyte.
An eluotropic series is a list of solvents ranked according to their eluting
power.
An immobilized phase is a stationary phase which is immobilized on the
support particles, or on the inner wall of the column tubing.
The mobile phase is the phase which moves in a definite direction. It may
be a liquid (LC and CEC), a gas (GC), or a supercritical fluid (supercritical-
fluid chromatography, SFC). The mobile phase consists of the sample being
separated/analyzed and the solvent that moves the sample through the
column. In the case of HPLC the mobile phase consists of a non-polar
solvent(s) such as hexane in normal phase or polar solvents in reverse phase
chromotagraphy and the sample being separated. The mobile phase moves
through the chromatography column (the stationary phase) where the sample
interacts with the stationary phase and is separated.
Preparative chromatography is used to purify sufficient quantities of a
substance for further use, rather than analysis.
The retention time is the characteristic time it takes for a particular analyte
to pass through the system (from the column inlet to the detector) under set
conditions. See also: Kovats' retention index
The sample is the matter analyzed in chromatography. It may consist of a
single component or it may be a mixture of components. When the sample is
treated in the course of an analysis, the phase or the phases containing the
analytes of interest is/are referred to as the sample whereas everything out of
interest separated from the sample before or in the course of the analysis is
referred to as waste.
The solute refers to the sample components in partition chromatography.
The solvent refers to any substance capable of solubilizing other substance,
and especially the liquid mobile phase in LC.
The stationary phase is the substance which is fixed in place for the
chromatography procedure. Examples include the silica layer in thin layer
chromatography
Chromatography is based on the concept of partition coffecient. Any solute will
partition between two immissible solvents. When we make one solvent immobile
(by adsorption on a solid support matrix) and another mobile it results in most
common applications of chromatography. If matrix support is polar (e.g. paper,
sillica etc.) it is forward phase chromatography, and if it is non polar (C-18) it is
reverse phase.
Techniques by chromatographic bed shape
Column chromatography
Column chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary bed is
within a tube. The particles of the solid stationary phase or the support coated with
a liquid stationary phase may fill the whole inside volume of the tube (packed
column) or be concentrated on or along the inside tube wall leaving an open,
unrestricted path for the mobile phase in the middle part of the tube (open tubular
column). Differences in rates of movement through the medium are calculated to
different retention times of the sample.
[1]

In 1978, W. C. Still introduced a modified version of column chromatography
called flash column chromatography (flash).
[2][3]
The technique is very similar to
the traditional column chromatography, except for that the solvent is driven
through the column by applying positive pressure. This allowed most separations
to be performed in less than 20 minutes, with improved separations compared to
the old method. Modern flash chromatography systems are sold as pre-packed
plastic cartridges, and the solvent is pumped through the cartridge. Systems may
also be linked with detectors and fraction collectors providing automation. The
introduction of gradient pumps resulted in quicker separations and less solvent
usage.
In expanded bed adsorption, a fluidized bed is used, rather than a solid phase made
by a packed bed. This allows omission of initial clearing steps such as
centrifugation and filtration, for culture broths or slurries of broken cells.
Planar chromatography


Thin layer chromatography is used to separate components of chlorophyll
Planar chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary phase is
present as or on a plane. The plane can be a paper, serving as such or impregnated
by a substance as the stationary bed (paper chromatography) or a layer of solid
particles spread on a support such as a glass plate (thin layer chromatography).
Different compounds in the sample mixture travel different distances according to
how strongly they interact with the stationary phase as compared to the mobile
phase. The specific Retention factor (R
f
) of each chemical can be used to aid in the
identification of an unknown substance.
Paper chromatography
Paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot or line of
sample solution onto a strip of chromatography paper. The paper is placed in a jar
containing a shallow layer of solvent and sealed. As the solvent rises through the
paper, it meets the sample mixture which starts to travel up the paper with the
solvent. This paper is made of cellulose, a polar substance, and the compounds
within the mixture travel farther if they are non-polar. More polar substances bond
with the cellulose paper more quickly, and therefore do not travel as far.
Thin layer chromatography

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a widely employed laboratory technique and
is similar to paper chromatography. However, instead of using a stationary phase
of paper, it involves a stationary phase of a thin layer of adsorbent like silica gel,
alumina, or cellulose on a flat, inert substrate. Compared to paper, it has the
advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between different
adsorbents. For even better resolution and to allow for quantification, high-
performance TLC can be used.

Displacement chromatography
The basic principle of displacement chromatography is: A molecule with a high
affinity for the chromatography matrix (the displacer) will compete effectively for
binding sites, and thus displace all molecules with lesser affinities.
[4]
There are
distinct differences between displacement and elution chromatography. In elution
mode, substances typically emerge from a column in narrow, Gaussian peaks.
Wide separation of peaks, preferably to baseline, is desired in order to achieve
maximum purification. The speed at which any component of a mixture travels
down the column in elution mode depends on many factors. But for two substances
to travel at different speeds, and thereby be resolved, there must be substantial
differences in some interaction between the biomolecules and the chromatography
matrix. Operating parameters are adjusted to maximize the effect of this difference.
In many cases, baseline separation of the peaks can be achieved only with gradient
elution and low column loadings. Thus, two drawbacks to elution mode
chromatography, especially at the preparative scale, are operational complexity,
due to gradient solvent pumping, and low throughput, due to low column loadings.
Displacement chromatography has advantages over elution chromatography in that
components are resolved into consecutive zones of pure substances rather than
peaks. Because the process takes advantage of the nonlinearity of the isotherms,
a larger column feed can be separated on a given column with the purified
components recovered at significantly higher concentrations.


Techniques by physical state of mobile phase
Gas chromatography
Gas chromatography (GC), also sometimes known as Gas-Liquid chromatography,
(GLC), is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas. Gas
chromatography is always carried out in a column, which is typically "packed" or
"capillary" (see below) .
Gas chromatography (GC) is based on a partition equilibrium of analyte between a
solid stationary phase (often a liquid silicone-based material) and a mobile gas
(most often Helium). The stationary phase is adhered to the inside of a small-
diameter glass tube (a capillary column) or a solid matrix inside a larger metal tube
(a packed column). It is widely used in analytical chemistry; though the high
temperatures used in GC make it unsuitable for high molecular weight biopolymers
or proteins (heat will denature them), frequently encountered in biochemistry, it is
well suited for use in the petrochemical, environmental monitoring and
remediation, and industrial chemical fields. It is also used extensively in chemistry
research.
Liquid chromatography
Liquid chromatography (LC) is a separation technique in which the mobile phase
is a liquid. Liquid chromatography can be carried out either in a column or a plane.
Present day liquid chromatography that generally utilizes very small packing
particles and a relatively high pressure is referred to as high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC).
In the HPLC technique, the sample is forced through a column that is packed with
irregularly or spherically shaped particles, a porous monolithic layer (stationary
phase) or a porous membrane by a liquid (mobile phase) at high pressure. HPLC is
historically divided into two different sub-classes based on the polarity of the
mobile and stationary phases. Methods in which the stationary phase is more polar
than the mobile phase (e.g. toluene as the mobile phase, silica as the stationary
phase) are termed normal phase liquid chromatography (NPLC) and the opposite
(e.g. water-methanol mixture as the mobile phase and C18 = octadecylsilyl as the
stationary phase) is termed reversed phase liquid chromatography (RPLC).
Ironically the "normal phase" has fewer applications and RPLC is therefore used
considerably more.
Specific techniques which come under this broad heading are listed below. It
should also be noted that the following techniques can also be considered fast
protein liquid chromatography if no pressure is used to drive the mobile phase
through the stationary phase. See also Aqueous Normal Phase Chromatography.
Affinity chromatography
Affinity chromatography
[5]
is based on selective non-covalent interaction between
an analyte and specific molecules. It is very specific, but not very robust. It is often
used in biochemistry in the purification of proteins bound to tags. These fusion
proteins are labeled with compounds such as His-tags, biotin or antigens, which
bind to the stationary phase specifically. After purification, some of these tags are
usually removed and the pure protein is obtained.
Affinity chromatography often utilizes a biomolecule's affinity for a metal (Zn, Cu,
Fe, etc.). Columns are often manually prepared. Traditional affinity columns are
used as a preparative step to flush out unwanted biomolecules.
However, HPLC techniques exist that do utilize affinity chromatogaphy properties.
Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography (IMAC) is useful to separate
aforementioned molecules based on the relative affinity for the metal (I.e. Dionex
IMAC) . Often these columns can be loaded with different metals to create a
column with a targeted affinity.
Supercritical fluid chromatography
Supercritical fluid chromatography is a separation technique in which the mobile
phase is a fluid above and relatively close to its critical temperature and pressure.
Techniques by separation mechanism
Ion exchange chromatography
Ion exchange chromatography uses ion exchange mechanism to separate analytes.
It is usually performed in columns but can also be useful in planar mode. Ion
exchange chromatography uses a charged stationary phase to separate charged
compounds including amino acids, peptides, and proteins. In conventional methods
the stationary phase is an ion exchange resin that carries charged functional groups
which interact with oppositely charged groups of the compound to be retained. Ion
exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins using FPLC.

Size-exclusion chromatography
.
Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) is also known as gel permeation
chromatography (GPC) or gel filtration chromatography and separates
molecules according to their size (or more accurately according to their
hydrodynamic diameter or hydrodynamic volume). Smaller molecules are able to
enter the pores of the media and, therefore, molecules are trapped and removed
from the flow of the mobile phase. The average residence time in the pores
depends upon the effective size of the analyte molecules. However, molecules that
are larger than the average pore size of the packing are excluded and thus suffer
essentially no retention; such species are the first to be eluted. It is generally a low-
resolution chromatography technique and thus it is often reserved for the final,
"polishing" step of a purification. It is also useful for determining the tertiary
structure and quaternary structure of purified proteins, especially since it can be
carried out under native solution conditions.
Special techniques
Reversed-phase chromatography
Reversed-phase chromatography is an elution procedure used in liquid
chromatography in which the mobile phase is significantly more polar than the
stationary phase.


Two-dimensional chromatography
In some cases, the chemistry within a given column can be insufficient to separate
some analytes. It is possible to direct a series of unresolved peaks onto a second
column with different physico-chemical (Chemical classification) properties. Since
the mechanism of retention on this new solid support is different from the first
dimensional separation, it can be possible to separate compounds that are
indistinguishable by one-dimensional chromatography. The sample is spotted at
one corner of a square plate,developed, air-dried, then rotated by 90 and usually
redeveloped in a second solvent system.
Simulated moving-bed chromatography
Pyrolysis gas chromatography
Fast protein liquid chromatography
Fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) is a term applied to several
chromatography techniques which are used to purify proteins. Many of these
techniques are identical to those carried out under high performance liquid
chromatography, however use of FPLC techniques are typically for preparing large
scale batches of a purified product.
Countercurrent chromatography
Countercurrent chromatography (CCC) is a type of liquid-liquid chromatography,
where both the stationary and mobile phases are liquids. It involves mixing a
solution of liquids, allowing them to settle into layers and then separating the
layers.
Chiral chromatography
Chiral chromatography involves the separation of stereoisomers. In the case of
enantiomers, these have no chemical or physical differences apart from being
three-dimensional mirror images. Conventional chromatography or other
separation processes are incapable of separating them. To enable chiral separations
to take place, either the mobile phase or the stationary phase must themselves be
made chiral, giving differing affinities between the analytes. Chiral
chromatography HPLC columns (with a chiral stationary phase) in both normal
and reversed phase are commercially available.