R.R.Choudhury, Asst.

Prof

MICROWAVE ENGINEERING Lecture No:1 A Introduction to microwaves:

Microwaves As the name implies, are very short waves .In General RF Extends from dc up to Infrared region and these are forms of electromagnetic energy.A glance look at the various frequency ranges makes it clear that UHF (Ultra high frequency) & SHF (super high frequencies) constitutes the Microwave frequency range with wave length ( ) extending from 1 to 100 cm The basic principle of low frequency radio waves and microwaves are the same .Here the phenomena are readily explained in terms of current flow in a closed electric circuit. At low frequencies, we talk in terms of lumped circuit elements such as C. L, R which can be easily identified and located in a circuit. On the other hand in Microwave circuitry, the inductance & capacitance are assumed to be distributed along a transmission line. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose frequencies range from 1 GHz to 1000 GHz (1 GHz =109 ).

Microwaves so called since they are defined in terms of their wave length, micro in the sense tininess in wave length, period of cycle (CW wave), is very short. Microwave is a signal that has a wave length of 1 foot or less 30.5 cm. = 1 foot. F= 984MHz approximately 1 GHz Microwaves are like rays of light than ordinary waves.

A Microwave Region and band Designation

Frequency 3Hz30 Hz 30 to 300 Hz 300 to 3000 Hz (3 KHz) 3 KHz to 30 KHz 30 to 300 KHz 300 to 3000 KHz ( 3 MHz) 3 MHz to 30 MHz 30 to 300 MHz 300 to 3000 MHz (3GHz ) 3 GHz to 30 GHz 30 to 300 GHz 300 to 3000 GHz(3 THz ), (3 -30 THz,30 to3000 T ) Band Designation Ultra low frequency(ULF) Extra low frequency (ELF) Voice frequency, base band / telephony VLF LF MF HF VHF Ultra high frequency (UHF) SHF EHF Infra red frequencies

Microwave Engineering Lecture No:2 Microwave Engineering

Unit No:1

Advantages: There are some unique advantages of microwaves over low frequencies. 1) Increased bandwidth availability: Microwaves have large bandwidths (1GHz-1000GHz) compared to the common band namely UHF, VHF waves. The advantage of large bandwidths is that the frequency range of information channels will be a small percentage of the carrier

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

frequency and more information can be transmitted in microwave frequency ranges. Microwave region is very useful since the lower band of frequency is already crowded. Infact microwave region (1000GHz) contains thousand sections of the frequency band 0-109 Hz and hence any one of these thousand sections may be used to transmit all the TV, radio and other communications that is presently transmitted by the 0-109 Hz band.(Bandwidth of speech is 4KHz; Music=1015KHz; T.V.= 5-7 MHz; Telegraph channel=120-240 Hz). It is current trend to use microwaves more and more in various long distance communication applications such as Telephone networks, TV network. Space communication, Telemetry, Defence, Railways etc. 2) Improved directive properties: As frequency increases directivity increases and beam

width decreases. Hence the beam width of radiation theta is proportional to (lambda/D). At low frequency bands the size of the antenna becomes very large if it is required to get sharp beams of radiation. However at microwave frequencies antenna size of several wavelengths wide leads to smaller beam widths and an extremely directed beam, just the same way as an optical lens focuses light rays. Therefore microwave frequencies are said to posses quasi-optical properties. As the frequency increases lambda decreases and power radiated and gain increases. As gain is inversely proportional to (lambda)2 high gain is achievable at microwave frequencies i.e. high gain and directive antennas can be designed and fabricated more easily at microwave frequencies, which is highly impracticable at lower frequency bands. 3) Fading effect and reliability: Fading effect due to variation in the transmission medium is

more effective at low frequency. Due to line of sight(LOS) propagation and high frequencies there is less fading effect and hence microwave communication is more reliable. 4) Power requirements: Transmitter/receiver power requirements are pretty low at microwave frequencies compared to that at short wave band. 5) Transparency property of microwaves: Microwave frequency band ranging from 300MHz10GHz are capable of freely propagating through the ionized layers surrounding the earth as well as through the atmosphere. The presence of such a transparent window in a microwave band facilitates the study of microwave radiation from the sun and stars in radio astronomical research of apace. It also makes it possible for duplex communication and exchange of information between ground stations and apace vehicles. Applications: Microwaves have a broad range of applications in modern technology. Most important among them are in long distance communication systems, radars, radio astronomy, navigation etc. Broadly the applications can be in the areas listed below. 1) Telecommunications: International Telephone and T.V., space communication,

telemetry communication link for railways etc. 2) Radars: Detect aircraft, track/guide supersonic missiles, observe and track weather patterns, air traffic control (ATC), burglar alarms, gargage door openers, police speed detectors etc.

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

3) Commercial and industrial applications use heat property of microwaves:

1)

microwave Owens (2.45 GHz, 600W). 2) Drying machines- textile, food and paper industry for drying clothes, potato chips etc. 3) Rubber industry/plastics/chemical industries etc. 4) Biomedical applications etc. 4) Electronic warfare: ECM/ECCM systems spread spectrum systems. 5) Identifying objects or personnel by non contact method. 6) Light generated charge carriers in a microwave semiconductor make it possible to create a whole new world of microwave devices, fast jitter free switches, phase shifters, HF generation, tuning elements etc.

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

Microwave Engineering Lecture No: 3 Waveguides

Unit No: 1

Waveguides, like transmission lines, are structures used to guide electromagnetic waves from point to point. However, the fundamental characteristics of waveguide and The differences in these modes

transmission line waves (modes) are quite different.

result from the basic differences in geometry for a transmission line and a waveguide. Waveguides can be generally classified as either metal waveguides or dielectric waveguides. Metal waveguides normally take the form of an enclosed conducting metal pipe. The waves propagating inside the metal waveguide may be characterized by

reflections from the conducting walls. The dielectric waveguide consists of dielectrics only and employs reflections from dielectric interfaces to propagate the electromagnetic wave along the waveguide.

P.Ramar, Asst. Professor, ECE-GMRIT, Rajam

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

Microwave Engineering Lecture No: 3

Unit No: 1

Comparison of Waveguide and Transmission Line Characteristics Transmission line A Two or more conductors separated by some insulating medium (two-wire, coaxial, microstrip, etc.). A Normal operating mode is the TEM or quasi-TEM mode (can support TE and TM modes but these modes are typically undesirable). A No cutoff frequency for the TEM mode. Transmission lines can transmit signals from DC up to high frequency. A Significant signal attenuation at high frequencies due to conductor and dielectric losses. A Small cross-section transmission lines (like coaxial cables) can only transmit low power levels due to the relatively high fields concentrated at specific locations within the device (field levels are limited by dielectric breakdown). A Large cross-section transmission lines (like power transmission lines) can transmit high power levels. Waveguide A Metal waveguides are typically one enclosed conductor filled with an insulating medium (rectangular, circular) while a dielectric waveguide consists of multiple dielectrics. A Operating modes are TE or TM modes (cannot support a TEM mode). A Must operate the waveguide at a frequency above the respective TE or TM mode cutoff frequency for that mode to propagate. A Lower signal attenuation at high frequencies than transmission lines. A Metal waveguides can transmit high power levels. The fields of the propagating wave are spread more uniformly over a larger cross-sectional area than the small cross-section transmission line. A Large cross-section (low frequency) waveguides are impractical due to large size and high cost.

P.Ravikumar, Asst. Professor, ECE-GMRIT, Rajam

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

Microwave Engineering

Lecture No: 5

Unit No: 1

RECTANGULAR AND CIRCULAR WAVEGUHDES

Hollow-pipe waveguides do not support a TEM wave. In hollow-pipe waveguides the waves are of the TE and TM variety. The waveguide with a rectangular cross section is the most widely used one. It is available in sizes for use at frequencies from 320 MHz up to 333 GHz. The WR2300 waveguide for use at 320 MHz has internal dimensions of 58.42 in by 29.1 in and is a very large duct. By contrast, the WR-3 waveguide for use at 333 GHz has internal dimensions of 0.034 in by 0.017 in and is a very miniature structure. The standard WR-90 X-band waveguide has internal dimensions of 0.9 in by 0.4 in and is used in the frequency range of 8.2 to 12.5 GHz. The rectangular waveguide is widely used to couple transmitters and receivers the antenna. For high-power applications the waveguide is filled with j inert gas such as nitrogen and pressurized in order to increase the voltage breakdown rating. Circular waveguides are not as widely used as rectangular waveguide but are available in diameters of 25.18 in down to 0.239 in to cover tn frequency range 800 MHz up to 116 GHz. RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE:

The rectangular waveguide with a cross section is an example of a wave guiding device that will not support a TEM wave. Consequently, it turns out that unique voltage and current waves do not exist, and the analysis of the waveguide properties has to be carried out as a field problem rather than as a distributed-parameter-circuit problem. In a hollow cylindrical waveguide a transverse electric field can exist only if a time-varying axial magnetic held is present. Similarly, a transverse magnetic field can exist only if either an axial displacement current or an axial conduction current is present, as Maxwell's equations how. Since a TEM
P.RavoAR Asst Professor ECE-GMRIT-RAJAM

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

Microwave Engineering

Lecture No: 5

Unit No: 1

wave does not have any axial field components and there is no center conductor on which conduction current can exist, a TEM wave cannot be propagated in a cylindrical waveguide. The types of waves that can be supported (propagated) in a hollow empty waveguide are the TE and TM modes. The essential properties of all hollow cylindrical waveguides are the same, so that an understanding of the rectangular guide provides insight into the behavior of other types as well. As for the case of the transmission line, the effect of losses is initially neglected. The attenuation is computed later by using the perturbation method given earlier, together with the loss-free solution for the currents on the walls. The essential properties of empty loss-free waveguides, which the detailed analysis to follow will establish, are that there is a double infinity of possible solutions for both TE and TM waves. These waves, or modes, may be labeled by two identifying integer subscripts n and m, for example, TEnm. The integers n and in pertain to the number of standing-wave interference maxima occurring in the field solutions that describe the variation of the fields along the two transverse coordinates. It will be found that each mode has associated with it a characteristic cutoff frequency fc m below which the mode does not propagate and above which the mode does propagate. The cutoff frequency is a geometrical parameter dependent on the waveguide cross-sectional configuration. Another feature common to all empty uniform waveguides is that the phase velocity vp is greater than the velocity of light c by the factor Ag/A0 . On the other hand, the velocity at which energy and a signal are propagated is the group velocity v. and is smaller than c by the factor A0 /A# . Also, since /3, and hence As, u , and vg, are functions of frequency, any signal consisting of several frequencies is dispersed, or spread out, in both time and space as it propagates along the guide. This dispersion results from the different velocities at which the different frequency components propagate. If the guide is very long, considerable signal distortion may take place. With some of the general properties of waveguides considered, it is now necessary to consider the detailed analysis that will establish the above properties and that, in addition, will provide the relation between kc and the guide configuration, the expressions for power and attenuation, etc. The case of TE modes in a lossfree empty rectangular guide is considered first. If the waveguide walls have finite conductivity, there will be a continuous loss of power to the walls as the modes propagate along the guide. Consequently, the phase constant jfi is perturbed and becomes y = a + j/3, where a is an attenuation constant that gives the rate at which the mode amplitude must decay as the mode
P.Ravi ,AR Asst Professor ECE-GMRIT-RAJAM

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

Microwave Engineering

Lecture No: 5

Unit No: 1

progresses along the guide. For practical waveguides the losses caused by finite conductivity are so small that the attenuation constant may be calculated using the perturbation method outlined in Sec. 3.8 in connection with lossy transmission lines. The method will be illustrated for the dominant H10 mode only. For the Hnm and also the Enm modes, the calculation differs only in that somewhat greater algebraic manipulation is required. CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDES: Figure illustrates a cylindrical waveguide with a circular cross section of radius a. In view of the cylindrical geometry involved, cylindrical coordinates are most appropriate for the analysis to be carried out. Since the general properties of the modes that may exist are similar to those for rectangular guide, this analysis is not as detailed.

Microwave Engineering

Lecture No: 6

Unit No: 1

TE and TM Modes in Ideal Waveguides

Waves propagate along the waveguide (+z-direction) within the waveguide through the lossless dielectric. The electric and magnetic fields of the guided waves must satisfy the source-free Maxwells equations.

Assumptions: (1) The waveguide is infinitely long, oriented along the z-axis, and uniform along its

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

length. (2) The waveguide is constructed from ideal materials [perfectly conducting pipe (PEC) is filled with a perfect insulator (lossless dielectric)]. (3) Fields are time-harmonic. The cross-sectional size and shape of the waveguide dictates the discrete modes that can propagate along the waveguide. That is, there are only discrete electric and magnetic field distributions that will satisfy the appropriate boundary conditions on the surface of the waveguide conductor. If the single non-zero longitudinal field component associated with a given waveguide mode can be determined Ez for a TM mode, Hz for a TE mode), the remaining transverse field components can be found using the general wave equations for the transverse fields in terms of the longitudinal fields.

General waves in an arbitrary medium:

The longitudinal magnetic field of the TE mode and the longitudinal electric field of the TM mode are determined by solving the appropriate boundary value problem for the given waveguide geometry.

Ideal Rectangular Waveguide:

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

The rectangular waveguide can support either TE or TM modes. The rectangular crosssection (a > b) allows for single-mode operation. Single -mode operation means that only one mode propagates in the waveguide over a given frequency range. A square waveguide cross-section does not allow for single-mode operation.

Rectangular Waveguide TM modes:

The longitudinal electric field of the TM modes within the rectangular waveguide must satisfy the wave equation

Which expanded in rectangular coordinates is

The electric field function may be determined using the separation of variables technique by assuming a solution of the form

Inserting the assumed solution into the governing differential equation gives

where h2 = 2 + k2 Dividing this equation by the assumed solution gives

Note that the first term in (1) is a function of x only while the second term is a function of y only. In order for (1) to be satisfied for every x and y within the waveguide, each of the first two terms in the equation must be constants.

P.Ravi Kumar, Asst. Professor, ECE-GMRIT-RAJAM

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

Microwave Engineering

Lecture No: 6

Unit No: 1

The original second order partial differential equation dependent on two variables has been separated into two second order ordinary differential equations each dependent on only one variable. The general solutions to the two separate differential equations are

The resulting longitudinal electric field for a rectangular waveguide TM mode is

The TM boundary conditions for the rectangular waveguide are

The application of the boundary condition yields

The resulting product of the constants A and C can be written as a single constant (defined as Eo). The number of discrete TM modes is infinite based on the possible values of the indices m and n. An individual TM mode is designated as the TMmn mode.

R.R.Choudhury, Asst. Prof

Microwave Engineering

Lecture No: 6

Unit No: 1

The longitudinal electric field of the TMmn mode in the rectangular waveguide is given by

The transverse field components of the TMmn mode are found by differentiating the longitudinal electric field as defined by the standard TM equations.

In general, the cutoff frequency will increase as the mode index increases. Thus, in practice, only the lower order modes are important as the waveguide is operated at frequencies below of the cutoff frequencies of the higher order modes.