NguyenLyHeDieuHanh 14-15 HeDieuHanhLinux

The Linux System
History Design Principles Kernel Modules Process Management Scheduling Memory Management File Systems Input and Output Interprocess Communication Network Structure Security
History
Linux is a modem, free operating system based on UNIX
standards.
First developed as a small but self-contained kernel in
1991 by Linus Torvalds, with the major design goal of UNIX compatibility. Its history has been one of collaboration by many users from all around the world, corresponding almost exclusively over the Internet. It has been designed to run efficiently and reliably on common PC hardware, but also runs on a variety of other platforms. The core Linux operating system kernel is entirely original, but it can run much existing free UNIX software, resulting in an entire UNIX-compatible operating system free from proprietary code.
Operating System Concepts
20.1
Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002
20.2
The Linux Kernel

Version 0.01 (May 1991) had no networking, ran only on
Linux 2.0
Released in June 1996, 2.0 added two major new
80386-compatible Intel processors and on PC hardware, had extremely limited device-drive support, and supported only the Minix file system. Linux 1.0 (March 1994) included these new features:
Support for UNIXs standard TCP/IP networking protocols BSD-compatible socket interface for networking
capabilities:
Support for multiple architectures, including a fully 64-bit
native Alpha port.

Support for multiprocessor architectures
programming Device-driver support for running IP over an Ethernet Enhanced file system Support for a range of SCSI controllers for high-performance disk access Extra hardware support
Other new features included: Improved memory-management code Improved TCP/IP performance Support for internal kernel threads, for handling dependencies between loadable modules, and for automatic loading of modules on demand. Standardized configuration interface Available for Motorola 68000-series processors, Sun
Version 1.2 (March 1995) was the final PC-only Linux
kernel.
Sparc systems, and for PC and PowerMac systems.
20.3
20.4
The Linux System

Linux uses many tools developed as part of Berkeleys
Linux Distributions
Standard, precompiled sets of packages, or distributions,
BSD operating system, MITs X Window System, and the Free Software Foundation's GNU project. The min system libraries were started by the GNU project, with improvements provided by the Linux community. Linux networking-administration tools were derived from 4.3BSD code; recent BSD derivatives such as Free BSD have borrowed code from Linux in return. The Linux system is maintained by a loose network of developers collaborating over the Internet, with a small number of public ftp sites acting as de facto standard repositories.
include the basic Linux system, system installation and management utilities, and ready-to-install packages of common UNIX tools. The first distributions managed these packages by simply providing a means of unpacking all the files into the appropriate places; modern distributions include advanced package management. Early distributions included SLS and Slackware. Red Hat and Debian are popular distributions from commercial and noncommercial sources, respectively. The RPM Package file format permits compatibility among the various Linux distributions.
20.5
20.6
Linux Licensing
The Linux kernel is distributed under the GNU General
Design Principles
Linux is a multiuser, multitasking system with a full set of
Public License (GPL), the terms of which are set out by the Free Software Foundation.
Anyone using Linux, or creating their own derivative of
UNIX-compatible tools..
Its file system adheres to traditional UNIX semantics, and
it fully implements the standard UNIX networking model.

Main design goals are speed, efficiency, and
Linux, may not make the derived product proprietary; software released under the GPL may not be redistributed as a binary-only product.
standardization.
Linux is designed to be compliant with the relevant
POSIX documents; at least two Linux distributions have achieved official POSIX certification. The Linux programming interface adheres to the SVR4 UNIX semantics, rather than to BSD behavior.
20.7
20.8
Components of a Linux System
Components of a Linux System (Cont.)

Like most UNIX implementations, Linux is composed of
three main bodies of code; the most important distinction between the kernel and all other components.
The kernel is responsible for maintaining the important
abstractions of the operating system.

Kernel code executes in kernel mode with full access to all
the physical resources of the computer.

All kernel code and data structures are kept in the same
single address space.
20.9
20.10
Components of a Linux System (Cont.)

The system libraries define a standard set of functions
Kernel Modules
Sections of kernel code that can be compiled, loaded, and
through which applications interact with the kernel, and which implement much of the operating-system functionality that does not need the full privileges of kernel code.
The system utilities perform individual specialized
unloaded independent of the rest of the kernel.

A kernel module may typically implement a device driver, a
file system, or a networking protocol.

The module interface allows third parties to write and
management tasks.
distribute, on their own terms, device drivers or file systems that could not be distributed under the GPL. Kernel modules allow a Linux system to be set up with a standard, minimal kernel, without any extra device drivers built in. Three components to Linux module support:
module management driver registration conflict resolution
20.11
20.12
Module Management
Supports loading modules into memory and letting them
Driver Registration
Allows modules to tell the rest of the kernel that a new
talk to the rest of the kernel. Module loading is split into two separate sections:
Managing sections of module code in kernel memory Handling symbols that modules are allowed to reference
driver has become available.

The kernel maintains dynamic tables of all known drivers,
The module requestor manages loading requested, but
and provides a set of routines to allow drivers to be added to or removed from these tables at any time. Registration tables include the following items:
Device drivers File systems Network protocols Binary format
currently unloaded, modules; it also regularly queries the kernel to see whether a dynamically loaded module is still in use, and will unload it when it is no longer actively needed.
20.13
20.14
Conflict Resolution
A mechanism that allows different device drivers to
Process Management
UNIX process management separates the creation of
reserve hardware resources and to protect those resources from accidental use by another driver
The conflict resolution module aims to: Prevent modules from clashing over access to hardware resources Prevent autoprobes from interfering with existing device drivers Resolve conflicts with multiple drivers trying to access the same hardware
processes and the running of a new program into two distinct operations.
The fork system call creates a new process. A new program is run after a call to execve.
Under UNIX, a process encompasses all the information
that the operating system must maintain t track the context of a single execution of a single program. Under Linux, process properties fall into three groups: the processs identity, environment, and context.
20.15
20.16
Process Identity
Process ID (PID). The unique identifier for the process;
Process Environment
The processs environment is inherited from its parent,
used to specify processes to the operating system when an application makes a system call to signal, modify, or wait for another process. Credentials. Each process must have an associated user ID and one or more group IDs that determine the processs rights to access system resources and files. Personality. Not traditionally found on UNIX systems, but under Linux each process has an associated personality identifier that can slightly modify the semantics of certain system calls. Used primarily by emulation libraries to request that system calls be compatible with certain specific flavors of UNIX.
and is composed of two null-terminated vectors:

The argument vector lists the command-line arguments
used to invoke the running program; conventionally starts with the name of the program itself
The environment vector is a list of NAME=VALUE pairs
that associates named environment variables with arbitrary textual values. Passing environment variables among processes and
inheriting variables by a processs children are flexible means of passing information to components of the usermode system software. The environment-variable mechanism provides a customization of the operating system that can be set on a per-process basis, rather than being configured for the system as a whole.
Operating System Concepts 20.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002
20.17
Process Context
The (constantly changing) state of a running program at
Process Context (Cont.)

Whereas the file table lists the existing open files, the
any point in time. The scheduling context is the most important part of the process context; it is the information that the scheduler needs to suspend and restart the process. The kernel maintains accounting information about the resources currently being consumed by each process, and the total resources consumed by the process in its lifetime so far. The file table is an array of pointers to kernel file structures. When making file I/O system calls, processes refer to files by their index into this table.
file-system context applies to requests to open new files. The current root and default directories to be used for new file searches are stored here. The signal-handler table defines the routine in the processs address space to be called when specific signals arrive. The virtual-memory context of a process describes the full contents of the its private address space.
20.19
20.20
Processes and Threads

Linux uses the same internal representation for
Scheduling
The job of allocating CPU time to different tasks within an
processes and threads; a thread is simply a new process that happens to share the same address space as its parent. A distinction is only made when a new thread is created by the clone system call.
fork creates a new process with its own entirely new
operating system.
While scheduling is normally thought of as the running
and interrupting of processes, in Linux, scheduling also includes the running of the various kernel tasks.
Running kernel tasks encompasses both tasks that are
process context
clone creates a new process with its own identity, but that is
allowed to share the data structures of its parent Using clone gives an application fine-grained control over
requested by a running process and tasks that execute internally on behalf of a device driver.
exactly what is shared between two threads.
20.21
20.22
Kernel Synchronization
A request for kernel-mode execution can occur in two
Kernel Synchronization (Cont.)

Linux uses two techniques to protect critical sections: 1. Normal kernel code is nonpreemptible when a time interrupt is received while a process is executing a kernel system service routine, the kernels need_resched flag is set so that the scheduler will run once the system call has completed and control is about to be returned to user mode. 2. The second technique applies to critical sections that occur in an interrupt service routines. By using the processors interrupt control hardware to disable interrupts during a critical section, the kernel guarantees that it can proceed without the risk of concurrent access of shared data structures.
ways:
A running program may request an operating system
service, either explicitly via a system call, or implicitly, for example, when a page fault occurs.
A device driver may deliver a hardware interrupt that causes
the CPU to start executing a kernel-defined handler for that interrupt. Kernel synchronization requires a framework that will
allow the kernels critical sections to run without interruption by another critical section.
20.23
20.24
Kernel Synchronization (Cont.)

To avoid performance penalties, Linuxs kernel uses a
Interrupt Protection Levels
synchronization architecture that allows long critical sections to run without having interrupts disabled for the critical sections entire duration. Interrupt service routines are separated into a top half and a bottom half.
The top half is a normal interrupt service routine, and runs
with recursive interrupts disabled.

The bottom half is run, with all interrupts enabled, by a
miniature scheduler that ensures that bottom halves never interrupt themselves.
This architecture is completed by a mechanism for disabling
Each level may be interrupted by code running at a
selected bottom halves while executing normal, foreground kernel code.
higher level, but will never be interrupted by code running at the same or a lower level. User processes can always be preempted by another process when a time-sharing scheduling interrupt occurs.
Operating System Concepts 20.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002
20.25
Process Scheduling
Linux uses two process-scheduling algorithms: A time-sharing algorithm for fair preemptive scheduling between multiple processes A real-time algorithm for tasks where absolute priorities are more important than fairness A processs scheduling class defines which algorithm to
Process Scheduling (Cont.)

Linux implements the FIFO and round-robin real-time
scheduling classes; in both cases, each process has a priority in addition to its scheduling class.
The scheduler runs the process with the highest priority; for
apply. For time-sharing processes, Linux uses a prioritized, credit based algorithm.
The crediting rule
equal-priority processes, it runs the process waiting the longest

FIFO processes continue to run until they either exit or block A round-robin process will be preempted after a while and
credits :=
credits + priority 2
moved to the end of the scheduling queue, so that roundrobing processes of equal priority automatically time-share between themselves.
factors in both the processs history and its priority.

This crediting system automatically prioritizes interactive
or I/O-bound processes.
Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002
20.27
20.28
Symmetric Multiprocessing
Linux 2.0 was the first Linux kernel to support SMP
Memory Management
Linuxs physical memory-management system deals with
hardware; separate processes or threads can execute in parallel on separate processors.

To preserve the kernels nonpreemptible synchronization
allocating and freeing pages, groups of pages, and small blocks of memory.
It has additional mechanisms for handling virtual memory,
requirements, SMP imposes the restriction, via a single kernel spinlock, that only one processor at a time may execute kernel-mode code.
memory mapped into the address space of running processes.
20.29
20.30
Splitting of Memory in a Buddy Heap
Managing Physical Memory

The page allocator allocates and frees all physical pages; it
can allocate ranges of physically-contiguous pages on request. The allocator uses a buddy-heap algorithm to keep track of available physical pages.
Each allocatable memory region is paired with an adjacent
partner.
Whenever two allocated partner regions are both freed up they
are combined to form a larger region.

If a small memory request cannot be satisfied by allocating an
existing small free region, then a larger free region will be subdivided into two partners to satisfy the request.
Memory allocations in the Linux kernel occur either statically
(drivers reserve a contiguous area of memory during system boot time) or dynamically (via the page allocator).
20.31
20.32
Virtual Memory
The VM system maintains the address space visible to
Virtual Memory (Cont.)

Virtual memory regions are characterized by: The backing store, which describes from where the pages for a region come; regions are usually backed by a file or by nothing (demand-zero memory) The regions reaction to writes (page sharing or copy-onwrite). The kernel creates a new virtual address space 1. When a process runs a new program with the exec system call 2. Upon creation of a new process by the fork system call
each process: It creates pages of virtual memory on demand, and manages the loading of those pages from disk or their swapping back out to disk as required. The VM manager maintains two separate views of a processs address space:
A logical view describing instructions concerning the layout
of the address space. The address space consists of a set of nonoverlapping regions, each representing a continuous, page-aligned subset of the address space. A physical view of each address space which is stored in the hardware page tables for the process.
20.33
20.34

On executing a new program, the process is given a new,

The VM paging system relocates pages of memory from
completely empty virtual-address space; the programloading routines populate the address space with virtualmemory regions. Creating a new process with fork involves creating a complete copy of the existing processs virtual address space.
The kernel copies the parent processs VMA descriptors,
physical memory out to disk when the memory is needed for something else.
The VM paging system can be divided into two sections: The pageout-policy algorithm decides which pages to write out to disk, and when. The paging mechanism actually carries out the transfer, and pages data back into physical memory as needed.
then creates a new set of page tables for the child.

The parents page tables are copied directly into the childs,
with the reference count of each page covered being incremented.

After the fork, the parent and child share the same physical
pages of memory in their address spaces.
20.35
20.36

The Linux kernel reserves a constant, architecture-
Executing and Loading User Programs

Linux maintains a table of functions for loading programs;
dependent region of the virtual address space of every process for its own internal use.
This kernel virtual-memory area contains two regions: A static area that contains page table references to every available physical page of memory in the system, so that there is a simple translation from physical to virtual addresses when running kernel code. The reminder of the reserved section is not reserved for any specific purpose; its page-table entries can be modified to point to any other areas of memory.
it gives each function the opportunity to try loading the given file when an exec system call is made. The registration of multiple loader routines allows Linux to support both the ELF and a.out binary formats. Initially, binary-file pages are mapped into virtual memory; only when a program tries to access a given page will a page fault result in that page being loaded into physical memory. An ELF-format binary file consists of a header followed by several page-aligned sections; the ELF loader works by reading the header and mapping the sections of the file into separate regions of virtual memory.
20.37
20.38
Memory Layout for ELF Programs
Static and Dynamic Linking

A program whose necessary library functions are
embedded directly in the programs executable binary file is statically linked to its libraries.
The main disadvantage of static linkage is that every
program generated must contain copies of exactly the same common system library functions.
Dynamic linking is more efficient in terms of both physical
memory and disk-space usage because it loads the system libraries into memory only once.
20.39
20.40
File Systems
To the user, Linuxs file system appears as a hierarchical
The Linux Ext2fs File System

Ext2fs uses a mechanism similar to that of BSD Fast
directory tree obeying UNIX semantics. Internally, the kernel hides implementation details and manages the multiple different file systems via an abstraction layer, that is, the virtual file system (VFS). The Linux VFS is designed around object-oriented principles and is composed of two components:
A set of definitions that define what a file object is allowed to
File System (ffs) for locating data blocks belonging to a specific file. The main differences between ext2fs and ffs concern their disk allocation policies.
In ffs, the disk is allocated to files in blocks of 8Kb, with
look like The inode-object and the file-object structures represent individual files the file system object represents an entire file system A layer of software to manipulate those objects.
blocks being subdivided into fragments of 1Kb to store small files or partially filled blocks at the end of a file. Ext2fs does not use fragments; it performs its allocations in smaller units. The default block size on ext2fs is 1Kb, although 2Kb and 4Kb blocks are also supported. Ext2fs uses allocation policies designed to place logically adjacent blocks of a file into physically adjacent blocks on disk, so that it can submit an I/O request for several disk blocks as a single operation.
20.41
20.42
Ext2fs Block-Allocation Policies
The Linux Proc File System

The proc file system does not store data, rather, its
contents are computed on demand according to user file I/O requests. proc must implement a directory structure, and the file contents within; it must then define a unique and persistent inode number for each directory and files it contains.
It uses this inode number to identify just what operation is
required when a user tries to read from a particular file inode or perform a lookup in a particular directory inode.
When data is read from one of these files, proc collects the
appropriate information, formats it into text form and places it into the requesting processs read buffer.
20.43
20.44
Input and Output

The Linux device-oriented file system accesses disk
Device-Driver Block Structure
storage through two caches:

Data is cached in the page cache, which is unified with the
virtual memory system

Metadata is cached in the buffer cache, a separate cache
indexed by the physical disk block.

Linux splits all devices into three classes: block devices allow random access to completely independent, fixed size blocks of data character devices include most other devices; they dont need to support the functionality of regular files. network devices are interfaced via the kernels networking subsystem
20.45
20.46
Block Devices
Provide the main interface to all disk devices in a system. The block buffer cache serves two main purposes: it acts as a pool of buffers for active I/O it serves as a cache for completed I/O The request manager manages the reading and writing of
Character Devices
A device driver which does not offer random access to
fixed blocks of data.

A character device driver must register a set of functions
which implement the drivers various file I/O operations.

The kernel performs almost no preprocessing of a file
buffer contents to and from a block device driver.
read or write request to a character device, but simply passes on the request to the device. The main exception to this rule is the special subset of character device drivers which implement terminal devices, for which the kernel maintains a standard interface.
20.47
20.48
Interprocess Communication
Like UNIX, Linux informs processes that an event has
Passing Data Between Processes

The pipe mechanism allows a child process to inherit a
occurred via signals. There is a limited number of signals, and they cannot carry information: Only the fact that a signal occurred is available to a process. The Linux kernel does not use signals to communicate with processes with are running in kernel mode, rather, communication within the kernel is accomplished via scheduling states and wait.queue structures.
communication channel to its parent, data written to one end of the pipe can be read a the other.
Shared memory offers an extremely fast way of
communicating; any data written by one process to a shared memory region can be read immediately by any other process that has mapped that region into its address space.
To obtain synchronization, however, shared memory
must be used in conjunction with another Interprocesscommunication mechanism.
20.49
20.50
Shared Memory Object

The shared-memory object acts as a backing store for
Network Structure
Networking is a key area of functionality for Linux. It supports the standard Internet protocols for UNIX to UNIX communications. It also implements protocols native to nonUNIX operating systems, in particular, protocols used on PC networks, such as Appletalk and IPX. Internally, networking in the Linux kernel is implemented
shared-memory regions in the same way as a file can act as backing store for a memory-mapped memory region.
Shared-memory mappings direct page faults to map in
pages from a persistent shared-memory object.

Shared-memory objects remember their contents even if
no processes are currently mapping them into virtual memory.
by three layers of software:

The socket interface Protocol drivers Network device drivers
20.51
20.52
Network Structure (Cont.)

The most important set of protocols in the Linux
Security
The pluggable authentication modules (PAM) system is
networking system is the internet protocol suite.

It implements routing between different hosts anywhere on
available under Linux.

PAM is based on a shared library that can be used by any
the network.
On top of the routing protocol are built the UDP, TCP and
system component that needs to authenticate users.

Access control under UNIX systems, including Linux, is
ICMP protocols.
performed through the use of unique numeric identifiers (uid and gid). Access control is performed by assigning objects a protections mask, which specifies which access modes read, write, or executeare to be granted to processes with owner, group, or world access.
20.53
20.54
Security (Cont.)
Linux augments the standard UNIX setuid mechanism in
two ways:
It implements the POSIX specifications saved user-id
mechanism, which allows a process to repeatedly drop and reacquire its effective uid. It has added a process characteristic that grants just a subset of the rights of the effective uid.
Linux provides another mechanism that allows a client to
selectively pass access to a single file to some server process without granting it any other privileges.
20.55
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The Linux System

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

The Linux Kernel

native Alpha port.

Version 1.2 (March 1995) was the final PC-only Linux

Sparc systems, and for PC and PowerMac systems.

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

The Linux System

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

it fully implements the standard UNIX networking model.

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Components of a Linux System

Components of a Linux System (Cont.)

abstractions of the operating system.

the physical resources of the computer.

single address space.

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Components of a Linux System (Cont.)

unloaded independent of the rest of the kernel.

file system, or a networking protocol.

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

driver has become available.

The module requestor manages loading requested, but

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Under UNIX, a process encompasses all the information

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

and is composed of two null-terminated vectors:

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Process Context (Cont.)

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Operating System Concepts

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

Processes and Threads