Computers Programming

Course 5
Iulian Nstac

Recap from previous course Classification of the programming languages

High level (Ada, Pascal, Fortran, etc.)
programming languages with strong abstraction from the details of particular computer

Medium level (C, C++, FORTH, etc.) Low level (assembly languages)
programming languages that provide little or no abstraction from a computer's instruction set architecture
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Recap C programming language

1966 Martin Richards (University of Cambridge) developed BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language) 1969 Ken Thomson with contributions from Dennis Ritchie B programming language 1969-1973 Dennis Ritchie C programming language 1978 Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan had elaborated a famous book, "The C Programming Language".
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Recap The main properties of C programming language

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Portability Data types Errors control Work at assembler level Few keywords Structured language Programmers' language
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Recap The structure of a C program

global statements:
inclusions of header files statements of constants and global variables declarations of local functions

function main()

other functions
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Recap C preprocessor
The preprocessor provides the ability for:
inclusion of header files macro expansions conditional compilation

Constants in C Language
Constants can be very useful in C programming whenever you need a value that is repeated during the program Ex: #define PI 3.14159 Declaring a constant allows you to quickly and easily change a value that is used throughout the program simply by changing the initial declaration.
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Data types
four basic arithmetic type specifiers:
char int float double

optional specifiers:
signed, unsigned short long
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Type char

Explanation
Smallest addressable unit (8 bits) that can contain basic character set. It is an integer type. Actual type can be either signed or unsigned depending on the implementation. Same size as char, but guaranteed to be signed Same size as char, but guaranteed to be unsigned short signed integer type. At least 16 bits in size

signed char unsigned char short short int signed short signed short int unsigned short unsigned short int int signed int unsigned unsigned int

Same as short, but unsigned Basic signed integer type. At least 16 bits in size Same as int, but unsigned

Type
long long int signed long signed long int unsigned long unsigned long int long long long long int signed long long signed long long int unsigned long long unsigned long long int

Explanation
long signed integer type. At least 32 bits in size

Same as long, but unsigned long long signed integer type. At least 64 bits in size (specified since the C99 version of the standard). Same as long long, but unsigned (specified since the C99 version of the 10 standard).

Type
float

Explanation
Single-precision floating-point format is a computer number format that occupies 4 bytes (32 bits) in computer memory and represents a wide dynamic range of values by using a floating point. Double-precision floating-point format is a computer number format that occupies 8 bytes (64 bits) in computer memory and represents a wide dynamic range of values by using floating point. Extended precision floating-point type. Unlike types float and double, it can be either 80-bit floating point format, or IEEE 754 quadrupleprecision floating-point format if a higher 11 precision format is provided.

double

long double

long double

The 80-bit floating point format was widely available by 1984 after the development of C and similar computer languages, which initially offered only the common 32- and 64-bit floating 12 point sizes.

Notes:
The actual size of integer types varies by implementation. The standard only requires size relations between the data types and minimum sizes for each data type. the long long is not smaller than long, which is not smaller than int, which is not smaller than short.
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Notes:
char size is always the minimum supported data type, all other data types can't be smaller. The minimum size for char is 8 bit, the minimum size for short and int is 16 bit, for long it is 32 bit and long long must contain at least 64 bit. Many conversions are possible in C.
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Conversions in C
Implicit conversion
If there are several types of data, then all of them will be converted to the larger one

By assignation
when "equal" operator is involved, then the type of right side result is converted to the type of the left side.

Logic conversion
when logic operators are involved
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Explicit type conversion (cast conversion)

float a = 1.3; double b = 2.5; long c = 3.4; int x; x = (int)a + (int)b + (int)c; Note: the result is x == 9 if implicit conversion would be used (as with x = a + b + c"), result would be equal to 7
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Variables
Variables are simply names used to refer to some location in memory.

Types of variables:
Local variables Global variables

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A more comprehensive classification

Automatic variables
variables which are allocated and deallocated automatically when program flow enters and leaves the variable's context An automatic variable is a variable defined inside a function block

External variables
variable defined outside any function block

Static local variables

variables that have been allocated statically whose lifetime extends across the entire run of the program

Register variables
register allocation is the process of assigning a large number of target program variables onto a small number of CPU registers
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Automatic variable
The term local variable is usually synonymous with automatic variable, since these are the same thing in many programming languages, but local is more general. Most local variables are automatic local variables, but static local variables also exist, notably in C. Automatic variables may be allocated in the stack frame of the procedure in which they are declared; this has the useful effect of allowing recursion and re-entrancy. The specific keyword is auto (not compulsory).
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External variables
As an alternative to automatic variables, it is possible to define variables that are external to all functions (variables that can be accessed by name by any function). An external variable may also be declared inside a function. In this case the extern keyword must be used, otherwise the compiler will consider it a definition of a local variable, which has a different scope, lifetime and initial value. This declaration will only be visible inside the function instead of throughout the function's module. An external variable can be accessed by all the functions in all the modules of a program. It is a global variable.
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Static local variables

static variable is a variable that has been allocated statically whose lifetime extends across the entire run of the program. This is in contrast to the more ephemeral automatic variables (local variables are generally automatic), whose storage is allocated and deallocated on the call stack. Static variables are declared as such with a special storage class keyword (static).
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Register variables
For efficiency, the optimizer will try to allocate some of local variables in processor registers. In most register allocators, each variable is either in a register or in memory. If a variable can not be assigned a register then all of the variable's usage, including its definition, is preceded by a load from memory. The specific keyword is register (not compulsory). The register must be big enough to host that variable.
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Conversion format specifiers

A conversion format specifier consist of both % (percent character) and a terminating conversion character that indicate the type of variable that is used

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Conversion format specifier %c %s %d %u %p %f %lf %Lf

Type of associate variable single character string integer unsigned decimal integer pointer float double long double
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Note:
%5d is associated with an integer that get maximum 5 character positions with right alignment %-5d is associated with an integer that get maximum 5 character positions with left alignment

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Escape (backslash \) character

C programming language specifies the doublequote character (") as a delimiter for a string literal. An escape character is a character which invokes an alternative interpretation on subsequent characters in a character sequence. The backslash (\) escape character typically provides special ways to treat the following part of a string or introduce a new character.
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Note:
\" becomes " inside a string
Escape (backslash \) character \n \t \b \v \\ \/ Effect in a string new line tab backspace vertical tabulation backslash character slash
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ASCII code
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a character-encoding scheme originally based on the English alphabet that encodes 128 specified characters (the numbers 0-9, the letters a-z and A-Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes, and a blank space) into the 7-bit binary integers.
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ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters:

33 are non-printing control characters (many now obsolete) 95 printable characters, including the space (which is considered an invisible graphic)

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Example ESC 1 2 : 9 0 A B : a b :

Hex Code 1B 31 32 : 39 30 41 42 : 61 62 :
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Standard I/O routines

are substitute for missing of I/O instructions C programming language provides many standard library functions for input and output. These functions make up the bulk of the C standard library header <stdio.h> (also in <conio.h> and <stdlib.h>) 32

A. Main output routines

1. printf function int printf ( const char * format, ... ); Writes the C string pointed by format to the standard output. If format includes format specifiers (subsequences beginning with %), the additional arguments following format are formatted and inserted in the resulting string replacing their respective specifiers. Ex.: printf(\n Result %d \n, x);
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2. puts function int puts ( const char * str ); Writes the C string pointed by str and appends a newline character ('\n'). Ex.: printf(Message \n);

puts(Message);

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3. putchar function int putchar ( int character); Writes a character to the output Ex.: #include <stdio.h> int main() { char c; for (c = 'A' ; c <= 'Z' ; c++) putchar(c); return 0; }
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4. putch function int putch ( int character); putch displays any alphanumeric characters to the standard output device. It displays only one character at a time.

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B. Main input routines

1. scanf function int scanf ( const char * format, ... ); Reads data and stores them according to the parameter format into the locations pointed by the additional arguments. Ex.: scanf(%d %d, &x, &y); scanf(%d, %d, &x, &y);
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2. gets function char * gets ( char * str ); gets() accepts any line of string including spaces from the standard Input device (keyboard). gets() stops reading character from keyboard only when the enter key is pressed.
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#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> int main() { char a[20]; gets(a); puts(a); getch(); }

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3. getchar function int getchar ( void ); getchar() accepts one character type data from the keyboard. Ex variable_name = getchar();

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#include <stdio.h> int main() { putchar(getchar()); putchar(\n); getch(); }

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4. getch function int getch ( void ); getch() accepts only single character from keyboard. The character entered through getch() is not displayed in the screen (monitor).

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5. getche function int getche ( void ); Like getch(), getche() also accepts only single character, but unlike getch(), getche() displays the entered character in the screen.

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synthesis
Output functions printf puts putchar putch Input functions scanf gets getchar getch getche
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Expressions
An expression in a programming language is a combination of explicit values, constants, variables, operators, and functions that are interpreted according to the particular rules of precedence and of association for a particular programming language, which computes and then produces another value. This process, like for mathematical expressions, is called evaluation. The value can be of various types, such as numerical, string, and logical.
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 primary expressions list of expressions

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Order of operations
In computer programming, the order of operations (operator precedence) is a rule used to clarify which procedures should be performed first in a given mathematical expression. The operators in C have a strict precedence level.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

() [] -> . :: ! ~ - + * & sizeof type cast ++x - -x * / % + << >> < <= > >= == != & ^ | && || ?: = += = *= /= %= &= |= ^= <<= >>= ,

Grouping, scope, array / member access (most) unary operations, sizeof and type casts Multiplication, division, modulo Addition and subtraction Bitwise shift left and right Comparisons: less-than, ... Comparisons: equal and not equal Bitwise AND Bitwise exclusive OR Bitwise inclusive (normal) OR Logical AND Logical OR Conditional expression (ternary) and assignment operators Comma operator 48

Automated conversion inside expressions

Usually, the implicit conversion is involved (see a previous slide)

Rule of implicit conversion in C

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Example:
float x; double y; char c; int i; ...

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Operators in C
Programming languages typically support a set of operators, which differ in the calling of syntax and/or the argument passing mode from the language's functions. C programming language contains a fixed number of built-in operators.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

() [] -> . :: ! ~ - + * & sizeof type cast ++x - -x * / % + << >> < <= > >= == != & ^ | && || ?: = += = *= /= %= &= |= ^= <<= >>= ,

Grouping, scope, array / member access (most) unary operations, sizeof and type casts Multiplication, division, modulo Addition and subtraction Bitwise shift left and right Comparisons: less-than, ... Comparisons: equal and not equal Bitwise AND Bitwise exclusive OR Bitwise inclusive (normal) OR Logical AND Logical OR Conditional expression (ternary) and assignment operators Comma operator 52

1. Brackets in C

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