Advantages of Sampling - October 21st, 2010 1. Sampling is cheaper than a census survey.

It is obviously more economical, for instance, to cover a sample of households than all households in a territory although the cost per unit of study may be higher in a sample survey than in a census. 2. Since magnitude of operations involved in a sample survey is small, both the execution of the fieldwork and the analysis of the results can be carried out speedily. 3. Sampling results in greater economy of effort as relatively small staffs is required to carry out the survey and to tabulate and process the survey data. 4. A sample survey enables the researcher to collect more detailed information than would otherwise be possible in a census survey. Also, information of a more specialised type can be collected, which would not be possible in a census survey on account of availability of a small number of specialists. 5. Since the scale of operations involved in a sample survey is small, the quality of interviewing, supervision and other related activities can be better than the quality in a census survey.

Advantages of sampling methods

Reduced cost If data are secured from only a small fraction of the aggregate, expenditures are smaller than if a complete census is attempted. With large populations, results accurate enough to be useful can be obtained from samples that represent only a small fraction of the population. Greeter speed For the same reason, the data can be collected and summarized more quickly with a sample than with a complete count. This is a vital consideration when the information is urgently needed. Greater scope In fisheries inquiry trained personnel or specialised equipment, limited in availability must be used to obtain the data. A complete census is impracticable: the choice lies between obtaining the information by sampling or not at all. Thus surveys that relay on sampling have more scope and flexibility regarding the types of information that can be obtained. Greater accuracy Because personnel of higher quality can be employed and given intensive training and because more careful supervision of the field work and processing of results becomes feasible when the volume of work is reduced, a sample may produce more accurate results than the kind of complete enumeration that can be taken.

Advantage of 1. Very 2. Economical 3. Very 4. High suitability ratio towards

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sampling accurate. nature. reliable. different surveys.

5. Takes less time. 6. In cases, when the universe is very large, then the sampling method is the only practical method for collecting the data. Disadvantages of sampling 1. Inadequacy of the samples. 2. Chances for bias. 3. Problems of accuracy. 4. Difficulty of getting the representative sample. 5. Untrained manpower. 6. Absence of the informants. 7. Chances of committing the errors in sampling.

Steps in planning and executing a sample survey

Sample survey now a days, is the most efficient technique of providing relevant information for drawing inference about a population. From economic point of view, it is the only viable means to study the population. It is therefore essential to describe the main steps involved in executing a sample survey. The following are some of the step: Objectives: Whenever we plan a sample survey, a clear and concise statement of the objectives should laid down. The objectives must be kept simple enough to be understood by those working on the survey and to be met successfully when the survey is completed. While setting the objectives, keep in mind the hypothesis (if any) being tested and the end points that will be used in the study to examine these hypotheses. Target Population: the population from which the sample is to be drawn should be defined and identified in clear and unambiguous terms in terms of its contents, units, and extent and reference time. This important because a sample must be selected from the population you define at the outset. The target population may be modified to survey population to take account t of practical constraints. Data: The data to be collected must be relevant and pertinent to the purpose of the survey. Keeping the objectives in view, a detailed list of variables should be prepared, defined and how these variables will be measured should be indicated in advance. Precision Desired: In a sample survey, only a part of the population is measured for which the survey results are almost always subjects to error. Error of measurement is also an additional sources of distorting the survey results. These errors can be reduced to some extent by using larger sample and improved measuring instruments. However, this involves additional cost, time and effort. Consequently, a decision on the degree of precision desired in the result must be specified. Sampling Frame: A sampling frame is an indispensable tool for conducting a sample survey. A complete accurate and up-dated sampling frame must be constructed in order to draw valid sample.

Sample Design: When a number of sampling designs are available for a particular sample survey, one that is most efficient in terms of cost, reliability and appropriateness to meet the objectives, should be employed (e.g. simple random, stratified or cluster). An approximately chosen sampling design is highly desirable to obtain reliable estimates of the population parameters. Many surveys have produced little or no useful information because they were not properly designed. Survey Design: The design of a survey involves many interrelated decisions on such factors as the mode of data collection, constructing questions, data processing method as well as the sample design. Field data may be collected in a number of ways. A questionnaire may be constructed an d be mailed to the respondents, who will be instructed to fill-it up and send back the same to surveyor. This is sometimes called self-administered questionnaire method. The survey may also employ a face-to-face interview using an interview schedule. This is referred to as the interview method. Data may also be collected through telephonic conversation or through direct observation, in which it is called an observational study. Sample Size: Determination of sample size is perhaps the most difficult part of a statistical investigation. Often it is the claimed that a sample should bear some proportional relationship to the size of the population from which it is drawn. This is not true. The absolute size of a sample is a much more important than its size compared with the population. The size of a sample is a function of the variation in the population parameters under study and the precision of the estimate needed by the researcher. A sample of 500 may be appropriate sometimes, while more than 2000 are required in other circumstance; in other cases, perhaps a sample of only 50 is called for. Preparation of Field Materials: Questionnaire is an important instrument for any scientific study. It is therefore necessary to construct questionnaires relevant to the study keeping in mind the objectives. Necessary instruction manuals to fill-up the questionnaire must also be prepared in advance so that the field workers can collect data without any difficulty. Pre-Testing: Pre-testing is a trial or operation that allows us to test the questionnaire in the field or other measurement instruments, to screen interviewers and to check on the management of field operations. The results of the pre-test usually suggest that some modifications must be made before a full-scale sampling is undertaken. The failure to pre-test concepts and detailed plans for the survey could result in loss of time, costs exceeding budget limit and even a survey o poor and inadequate quality. Pre-testing provides the

means of uncovering deficiencies and the basis for corrective action prior to carrying out the actual survey work. It may also suggest amount of workload to be assigned to each investigator and an insight into the data processing operation in advance. Duration of Study: Once the data of execution of the survey is decided, it remains to set up a work schedule for the completion of the various stages of the study. These included, among others, the time that would be needed for preparatory works, sample selection, pre-test, questionnaire development field work including travelling and subsistence, tabulation plan, training of field staff, data coding, data entry processing and report writing. It is recommended that this information be presented in the form of a detailed timetable with months across on the top and activities listed along the left margin. For each of the activities mark a cross against the month(s) in which they will occur. Fieldwork: Efficient organization of this fieldwork is a pre-requisite of the successful completion of a statistical investigation. The personal involved in the fieldwork should receive-adequate training related to the work. Appropriate measures should be taken so that the field personnel are regularly supervised and their works be monitored. Quality of the work should be ensured at very early stage of the work so that any inconsistence or shortcomings can be removed well before the completion of the work. An instruction manual should be prepared for all categories of person involved in the field operation. This will ensure quality data assuring maximum accuracy in the estimates. Data Management: Large surveys generate huge amounts of data. Hence, a well-prepared data management plan is of prime importance. This plan should included the steps for processing data from the very inception of the study until the final analysis is completed. The administrative and computer procedures to be used, the type of staff available and whether any training will be needed to facilitate data management should also be described. A quality control scheme should also be included in the plan in order to check for agreement between processed data and data gathered in the field. Editing and Checking: A detailed plan must be outlined at the outset to check and edit the field data soon after they are hand for any erroneous and inconsistent entries. Both manual and computer checking may be employed for any inconsistency in data. For any erroneous entry, which cannot be corrected at this stage, should be corrected by re-interviewing the respondents. Data Processing and Analysis: once the data are checked, edited and

corrected for errors, processing of data should be attempted keeping in view the objectives of the survey. This task also needs careful planning. The next step is the statistical analysis, which is carried out to arrive at the desired estimates of the population parameters. Outline the statistical methods that will be used for analysis of the data, including a description of how the information collected will be used to test the stated hypothesis and how any missing data will be dealt with. Project Management: For collaborative study, involving several organizations, indication should be made at the planning stage, which will have overall responsibility, which other organizations will be involved and what their responsibilities will be, and the manner in which the work will be coordinated and monitored. Report Writing: Finally, report of the finding of the study highlighting the policy implications and suggesting possible action and measures to be taken including policy recommendation, should be written in the report. Lessons Learned: Survey is a complex undertaking and is liable to large margin of errors if not properly handled. Because of this complexity, things never go exactly as we plan. The main obstacle and difficulties, which one expects, might interfere with the successful completion of the study within the time and cost proposed should therefore be described

THE PRINCIPAL STEPS IN A SAMPLE SURVEY

As a preliminary to a discussion of the role that theory plays in a sample survey, it is useful to describe briefly the steps involved in the planning and execution of a survey. The principal steps in a survey are grouped somewhat arbitrarily under 11 headings.

3.1 Objectives of the survey

The first step when assessing a sample survey is to well identify the general objectives of the survey. Without a lucid statement of the objectives, it is easy in a complex survey to forget the objectives when engrossed in the details of planning, and to make decisions that are at variance with the objectives. One of the principal choice is between average values (mean of the population) or total values. In fact, depending on this choice, techniques for the optimal sample size and estimators factors are different.

A number of measures exist that have been used by various agencies to measure the economic significance of fisheries to the regional economy. In addition, a number of performance indicators also exist that can be used to assess the performance of fisheries management in achieving its economic objectives (see chapter 1 and related annexes).

3.2 Population to be sampled

The word population is used to denote the aggregate from which the sample is chosen. The definition of the population may present some problems in the fishing sector, as it should consider the complete list of vessels and their physical and technical characteristics. The population to be sampled (the sampled population) should coincide with the population about which information is wanted (the target population). Some-times, for reasons of practicability or convenience, the sampled population is more restricted than the target population. If so, it should be remembered that conclusions drawn from the sample apply to the sampled population. Judgement about the extent to which these conclusions will also apply to the target population must depend on other sources of information. Any supplementary information that can be gathered about the nature of the differences between sampled and target population may be helpful. For example, let us consider the Italian statistical sampling design for the estimation of quantity and average price of fishery products landed each calendar month in Italy by Community and EFTA vessels (Reg. CE n. 1382/91 modified by Reg. CE n. 2104/93). Aim of the survey is to estimate total catches and average prices for individual species. Therefore, the sampling basis consists of the more than 800 landing points spread over the 8 000 km of Italian coasts. It is not however feasible to consider the list of the landing points as the list of elementary units. To overcome these difficulties, a sampled population, distinct from the target population but including units in which the considered phenomenon takes place, has been considered. In synthesis, the elementary units considered are the landings of the vessels belonging to the sampled fleet. Thus, the list from which the sampling units are extracted is constituted by all the vessels belonging to the Italian fishery fleet.

3.3 Data to be collected

It is well to verify that all the data are relevant to the purposes of the survey and that no essential data are omitted There is frequently a tendency to ask too many questions, some of which are never subsequently analysed. An overlong questionnaire lowers the quality of the answers to important as well as unimportant questions.

3.4 Degree of precision desired

The results of sample surveys are always subject to some uncertainty because only part of the population has been measured and because of errors of measurement. This uncertainty can be reduced by taking larger samples and by using superior instruments of measurement. But this usually costs time and money. Consequently, the specification of the degree of precision wanted in the results is an important step. This step is the responsibility of the person who is going to use the data. It may present difficulties, since many administrators are unaccustomed to thinking in terms of the amount of error that can be tolerated in estimates, consistent with making good decisions. The statistician can often help at this stage.

3.5 The questionnaire and the choice of the data collectors

There may be a choice of measuring instrument and of method of approach to the population. The survey may employ a self-administered questionnaire, an interviewer who reads a standard set of questions with no discretion, or an interviewing process that allows much latitude in the form and ordering of the questions. The approach may be by mail, by telephone, by personal visit, or by a combination of the three. Much study has been made of interviewing methods and problems. A major part of the preliminary work is the construction of record forms on which the questions and answers are to be entered. With simple questionnaires, the answers can sometimes be pre-coded, that is, entered in a manner in which they can be routinely transferred to mechanical equipment. In fact, for the construction of good record forms, it is necessary to visualise the structure of the final summary tables that will be used for drawing conclusions. Information may be collected using a number of different survey methods. These include personal interview, telephone interview or postal survey. The questionnaire design needs to vary based on the approach taken. Personal interviews involves visiting the individual from which data are to be collected. The interviewer controls the questionnaire, and fills in the required data. The questionnaire can be less detailed in terms of explanatory information as the interviewer can be trained on its completion before starting the interview process. This type of survey is best for long, complex surveys and it allows the interviewer and fisher to agree a time convenient for both parties. It is particularly useful when the respondent may have to go and find information such as accounts, log book records etc. The personal interview approach also allows the interviewer to probe more fully if he/she feels that the fisher has misunderstood a question, or information provided conflicts with other earlier statements. Data collectors are usually external to the phenomenon that is being examined and, moreover, they are often part of some public structure, in order to avoid possible influences due to personal interests. However, on the basis of the experience acquired in this field by Irepa, it has been demonstrated (Istat, Irepa 2000) that it is essential to have data collectors belonging to the fishery productive chain in order to obtain correct and timely data. Therefore, data collectors should belong to the productive or management fishery sectors. During meetings on socio-economic indicators partners involved presented several questionnaires. These questionnaires are aimed to collect the information required to calculate the socio-economic indicators and some of them are reported in appendix C.

3.6 Selection of the sample design

There is a variety of plans by which the sample may be selected (simple random sample, stratified random sample, two-stage sampling, etc.). For each plan that is considered, rough estimates of the size of sample can be made from a knowledge of the degree of precision desired. The relative costs and time involved for each plan are also compared before making a decision.

3.7 Sampling units

Sample units have to be drawn according to the sample design. To draw sample units from the population, several methods can be used, depending on the type of the chosen sample strategy:

sample with equal probabilities sample with probabilities proportional to the size (PPS).

In the first case, each unit of the population has the same probability to take part of the sample, while in the case of a PPS sample each unit has a different probability to be sampled and this probability is proportional to the following measure: Pi = Xi/Xh, where, i = a generic vessel, h = stratum, X= a size parameter, for example the overall length of a vessel.

3.8 The pre-test

It has been found useful to try out the questionnaire and the field methods on a small scale. This nearly always results in improvements in the questionnaire and may reveal other troubles that will be serious on a large scale, for example, that the cost will be much greater than expected.

3.9 Organization of the field work

In a survey, many problems of business administration are met. The personnel must receive training in the purpose of the survey and in the methods of measurement to be employed and must be adequately supervised in their work. A procedure for early checking of the quality of the returns is invaluable. Plans must be made for handling non-response, that is, the failure of the enumerator to obtain information from certain of the units in the sample.

3.10 Summary and analysis of the data

The first step is to edit the completed questionnaires, in the hope of amending recording errors, or at least of deleting data that are obviously erroneous. The check on the elementary data to eliminate nonsampling errors can be achieved by means of computer programmes implemented to correct the erroneous values and to permit statistical data analysis. These programmes are mainly based on graphical analysis of elementary data. Thereafter, the computations that lead to the estimates are performed. Different methods of estimation may be available for the same data. In the presentation of results it is good practice to report the amount of error to be expected in the most important estimates One of the advantages of probability sampling is that such statements can be made, although they have to be severely qualified if the amount of non-response is substantial

3.11 Information gained for future surveys

The more information we have initially about a population, the easier it is to devise a sample that will give accurate estimates. Any completed sample is potentially a guide to improved future sampling, in the data that it supplies about the means, standard deviations, and nature of the variability of the principal measurements and about the costs involved in getting the data. Sampling practice advances more rapidly when provisions are made to assemble and record information of this type. Figure 1: The principal steps in a sample survey