P~oy. Enc~ql (oml~,~t. S~i. 1985. X,ol. I1. pp. 193 25l Printed in Great Bi itain.

0360 1285'85 $0.(X) +.50

PARTICULATE REMOVAL FROM HIGH-TEMPERATURE, HIGH-PRESSURE COMBUSTION GASES

S. C. SAXENA,* R. F. HENRY? and W. F. PODOLSKIt
*Department of Chemical EngineerinO, University of lllinois at Chicago, P.O. Box 4348, Chicago, IL60680. ~ .S. A "tChemical Technology Dieision. Argonne National LahoratoJT, 9700 South Cass At~enue, Argonne, 1L60439, U.S.A.

Abstract T h e adoption by utilities of coal-fired pressurized fluidized-bed/combined cycle combustion

systems for electric power generation depends to a large extent on the development of an efficient and economic cleanup system for the high-temperature, high-pressure combustion gases. For adequate turbine protection, these gases must be sufficiently cleaned to bring particulate erosion and alkali vapor corrosion to a level acceptable to gas turbine manufacturers. At the same time, the total particulate content of the flue gas must be reduced to the limit set by the Environmental Protection agency. To accomplish particulate removal from a dust-laden gas stream, a number of separation devices have been developed. These include conventional and augmented cyclones; porous metal, fiber, fabric, and ceramic filtcrs, as well as fixed, moving, and fluidized-bed granular filters; and electrostatic precipitators. Several other novel separation devices have been proposed and developed to different degrees such as: contactors using molten salt, metal, or glass, dry scrubbers, acoustic agglomerators, as well as cyclones and granular-bed filters with external electrostatic or magnetic fields. Some of these separation devices in various combinations have been tested in process development units or in hot gas simulators by ANL, CPC. CURL, CW, Exxon, GE, Westinghouse. etc. The results are discussed and evaluated for PFBC applications.

CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations 1. Summary 2. Introduction 3. Characterization of PFBC System 4. Gas Solids Separation Devices 4.1. Barrier filters 4.1.1. Porous metal filters 4.1.2. Porous ceramic filters 4.1.3. Fabric filters 4.1.4. Augmentation effects 4.2. Cyclone separators 4.2.1. Rotary-flow cyclones 4.2.2. TAN-JET cyclone 4.2.3. Cyclocentrifuge 4.2.4. Wedge separator 4.2.5. Laminar cyclone 4.2.6. Electrostatic enhancement 4.3. Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) 4.4. Granular-bed filters 4.4.1. Fixed-bed filters 4.4.2. Moving-bed filters 4.4.3. Fluidized-bed filters 4.4.4. Augmentation effects 4.4.5. Particle collection by particles dry plate scrubber 4.5. Scrubbers 4.5.1. Scrubbers utilizing molten salts, metals or glass 4.5.2. Scrubbers -dry particle contactors 4.6. Acoustic agglomeration 4.7. Thermal agglomeration 5. Concluding Remarks 6. Appendixes 6.1. Appendix A Theoretical calculations of particulate collection efficiency for granular-bed filters 6.2. Appendix B Hot-gas cleanup system summary Rcfercnccs 193
JPECS II:3-A

194 194 196 197 200 200 200 201 202 205 208 210 212 212 214 214 214 216 219 220 223 225 226 230 232 232 232 233 233 233 234 234 238 243

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S. C. SAXIiNA,R. F. HENRY and W. F. POI)OLSKI

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS* AEP AFBC ANL BR BW c CC CoCrAIY CPC CURL CW DOE DPS EFB EPA EPB EPRI ESP FBC FeCrA1Y GBF GE lEA k kPa m M MPa MSB NCB NSPS NYU Pa American Electric Power Company Atmospheric fluidized-bed combustion (combustor) Argonne National Laboratory Burns and Roe, Inc. Babcock and Wilcox Company centi- (one one-hundredth); used as a prefix with the abbreviation of a unit-e.g. cm=centimeter(s)=0.01 m Combined Cycle A generic alloy containing cobalt, chromium, aluminum, and yttrium Combustion Power Company Coal Utilisation Research Laboratory Curtiss Wright Corporation United States Department of Energy Dry plate scrubber Electrostatically charged fluidized-bed filter or electrified filter bed(s) United States Environmental Protection Agency Electrostatically-charged packed-bed filter Electric Power Research Institute Electrostatic precipitator(s) Fluidized-bed combustion (combustor) A generic alloy containing iron, chromium, aluminum, and yttrium Granular-bed filter General Electric Company International Energy Agency kilo- (one thousand); used as a prefix with the abbreviation of a unit e.g. kW = kilowatt(s)= 1000 W kilopascal(s); see Pa for definition of the pascal milli- (one one-thousandth); used as a prefix with the abbreviation of a unit e.g. mg = milligram(s) = 0.001 g mega- (one million); used as a prefix with the abbreviation of a unit-m.g. MJ = megajoule(s) = 1,000,000 J megapascal(s); see Pa for definition of the pascal Magnetically stabilized bed National Coal Board (United Kingdom) New Source Performance Standards (of EPA) New York University pascal, a unit of pressure=l N/m 2 = 10 dynes/era2; 100,000 Pa= 1 bar (approximately 1 atm.); 1 MPa=approximately 10 atm. Pressurized fluid bed Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion (combustor) Composite of PFBC and CC, for which the definitions are listed Program Research and Development Announcement Small Gas Turbine (used to designate a Curtiss-Wright experimental facility) United Technologies Corporation micro- (one one-millionth); used as a prefix with the abbreviation of a unit-e.g. ,ug = microgram(s)=0.000001 g

#m

micrometer = 0.000039 in.; a unit of length used to describe the size of small particles (in the past, often called the micron

I. S U M M A R Y

PFB PFBC PFBC/CC PRDA SGT UTC /~

The development status of devices and techniques for removing particulate matter from hightemperature, high-pressure combustion gas streams has been reviewed and evaluated to aid the effective planning of research and development programs. High-temperature, high-pressure gas cleanup is one of the most important areas in the P F B C t system concept for the generation of electricity from coal. Of the many types and combinations of cleanup units being developed, only cyclone systems have been demonstrated in P F B C service for extended periods, and these only at what must be considered sub-pilot scale. Current estimates are that three stages of cyclone-type cleanup devices will adequately protect gas turbines, but this still remains to be demonstrated. Nevertheless, this three-stage, cyclone-only system may be looked upon as a "base case". In this base case, additional cleanup of the flue gas will be necessary so that particulate emissions will comply with the U.S. EPA NSPS, but this additional cleanup could be at lower temperature and lower pressure and could certainly utilize existing techn o l o g y - - a baghouse or ESP, for example. Fabric filters have been extensively employed in the purification of dust-laden gas streams at ambient operational conditions with good success. At Envirotech and Acurex, test programs are currently under way to develop ceramic bag filters for P F B C system applications. The state of present technology does not yet promise that this application will be economic and reliable. Theoretical understanding of the operation of such filters is also incomplete. Experience with electrostatically augmented fabric filters at ambient conditions is encouraging, A wellorganized program, including work at high temperatures and high pressures in conjunction with an actual operating PFBC, is in order. Ceramic membrane filters, now under investigation at Westinghouse, have shown encouraging results. The goal of their ongoing effort is operation at temperatures up to 900C (1800F) and pressures up to 1.7 M P a (250 psig) to demonstrate structural integrity and adequate cleaning to limit pressure drop buildup. Cyclones of various sizes and configurations have long been used for separating relatively large particles from gas streams, although theoretical understanding of the complicated operational behavior of cyclones is not yet adequate. Efforts to improve the collection efficiency of cyclones in general, especially for small particles, are required. +Abbreviations are defined in the Glossary or in the text where they first appear.

*In the belief that readers will be familiar with the symbols for most of the SI and English units of physical quantities used in this report, only a few of them are listed here.

Particulate removal from combustion gases Indeed, many such attempts have been made from time to time, but with limited or no success. Examples of equipment used in such attempts are specially-designed Donaldson Company TAN-JET cyclones; Aerodyne Development Corporation rotary-flow dust separators; General Electric cleanair-shielded and electrostatically enhanced cyclones; a centrifugal wedge separator; and a cyclocentrifuge (discussed above). Work on some of these is in progress; the results will influence the future of gas-cleaning technology for PFBC systems. The use of cyclones as primary dust collectors in coal combustor/flue-gas streams is well established, and modified versions of cyclones may yet succeed in removing small particles from gas streams and thereby play a greater role in gas-cleaning operations. Work now in progress will help clarify this. Electrostatic precipitators have successfully removed particulate matter or mists from gas streams at near-ambient conditions. They have been employed in commercial pulverized-coal boilers at atmospheric pressure and at temperatures as high as 315-425C. Currently, Research Cottrell and Denver Research Institute are engaged in extending the scope of this technology to include H T H P environments such as those encountered in PFBC applications. Insofar as PFBC gas stream cleanup is concerned, appraisal of this technology for H T H P applications awaits the results of the work by these two organizations. Of special concern are re-entrainment and structural instability caused by temperature excursions. Granular-bed filters have been used for some time on a commercial scale for gas cleanup operations at ambient conditions. The application of such filters ih various modes for application as final cleanup devices in PFBC systems is relatively recent, but consistent efforts are in progress at different centers. Westinghouse examined fixed-bed granular filters, with extremely encouraging results for dust of size < 10 #m (1) at ambient conditions and (2) at high temperature [600C (ll00F)] and low pressure. Continued testing at high temperatures and high pressures with simulated PFBC-type flue gas is planned. Exxon engineers found that in their miniplant PFBC system operating at about 980C and 1000 kPa, a modified Ducon filter cleaned gas quite successfully, but operational problems of the small size unit resulted in loss of bed media. Combustion Power Company has been experimenting with the concept of moving-bed granular filters, with and without the application of an electric field. Their electroscrubber is commercial, while the screenless countercurrent filter design has operated very successfully at ambient pressure and 870C. Fluidized-bed filters have been tested successfully at ambient conditions only. The chances of success of at least one of these types of filters appear to be quite high provided attrition of media, media loss during

195

cleaning, and media cleaning to levels which will allow acceptable unit performance can be controlled. EFB, Inc. developed a two-stage cross-flow moving-bed electrostatic filter; it is claimed that this filter collects more dust per unit size than other filters. Further work on this filter is in progress at EFB in collaboration with General Electric. The application of an electrostatic field enhances by an appreciable amount the collection efficiency for particles in the submicron range. It has been demonstrated experimentally that triboelectrification increases the collection efficiency of a packed-bed and of a fluidized-bed granular filter. This increase is augmented when an external field is applied and/or the dust particles are charged. Successful operation of granular-bed filters with PFBC effluent remains to be demonstrated; also, the use of granular-bed filtration at high pressures is still essentially unexplored. Exxon has pioneered the use of a magneticallystabilized granular bed for filtration. Their preliminary results are very encouraging. Indeed, the work is being continued in order to understand and resolve problems that arise in extending this technique to high temperatures and high pressures for PFBC applications. The continuing work at Exxon will provide the essential details for proper appraisal of this technique and the bed-material-handling problems likely to arise, assuming performance can be uniquely characterized as a function of operating and design variables. The Air Pollution Technology, Inc. particlecapture-by-particle and dry plate scrubbers have yet to be successfully demonstrated at high temperature and high pressure in PFBC service although hightemperature operation has been achieved on effluent from an AFBC. Potential problem areas are: attrition of collector granules; plugging of orifices by the "sticky" PFBC dust; and developing a procedure for adequate cleaning of the granules prior to recirculation. The "molten solid" contactors (metal, salt, glass) are still largely in the conceptual stage. Several aspects of their feasibility have been demonstrated, but acceptable operation of the complete system has not been shown, even at laboratory scale. For extended operation, material handling and reclaiming both present large uncertainties. Acoustic agglomeration has been shown to increase average particle size and thus provide easier separation in laboratory tests at up to 500C and 7 atm. Currently, the development and demonstration of a suitable sound-generating source which is operable at the required intensities at PFBC conditions is awaited. There is little argument that any of these techniques has the potential for improving hot gas cleanup. Major uncertainties do exist, however, in what the performance of a full-sized unit would be at PFBC conditions. Important also are the uncertainties in operation--that is, potential materials-

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S.C. SAXINA. R. F. HENRYand W. F. POI)OLSK[ and/or fouling of turbine blades, and alkali-metal compounds can lead to corrosion of gas turbine parts. Although the contaminants can act independently to degrade turbine materials, erosion and corrosion have been suspected of acting synergistically to accelerate metal-removal rates. Since testing the PFBC system with large-scale turbines has not yet been attempted, turbine tolerance to particulates and alkali contaminants is estimated from results obtained on small-scale turbines and/or stationary arrays of scaled turbine blades (cascades). Particulate control is of importance in the PFBC concept for another reason-compliance with the EPA NSPS limits.-' Performance of the National Coal Board's Coal Utilisation Research Laboratories (NCB/CURL) and Exxon systems did not consistently meet the EPA NSPS levels in their tests. However, turbines may well tolerate a higher total loading---as long as it consists mainly of finer particles- than will be permitted by EPA standards. This leads to the following alternatives: either hotgas cleanup may be carried out at pressure for turbine protection only, with a post-turbine cleanup performed at lower temperature and lower pressure to satisfy emission requirements; or a cleanup meeting NSPS limits may be carried out upstream from the turbine. In either case, high removal efficiencies of fine particles will be required, but in the former case, this can be accomplished at lower temperature and pressure. Cleanup at lower temperatures and pressures with existing equipment-electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or baghouse technology, for example has been demonstrated on AFBC units. To accomplish particulate removal from a dustladen gas stream, a number of separation devices have been developed. These include cyclones, filters, and electrostatic precipitators. Several other novel separation devices have been developed to different degrees such as: contactors using molten salt, metal, or glass, dry scrubbers, acoustic agglomerators, and cyclones and granular-bed filters with external electric fields. In this report, information concerning the characterizaton of the particulate matter in the PFB off-gas stream and the tolerance of gas turbines to that stream is presented first. Next, individual particulateremoval devices are discussed from the perspective of possible PFBC application. (Particulate-removal devices and concepts which provide insight and/or limiting behavior characteristics, even though some may not be directly applicable to PFBC, are included in this discussion.) These hot gas cleanup devices and systems which have been employed in PFBC facilities are discussed and their performances compared. This report is intended to provide a single reference describing gas cleaning activities which may have PFBC application. It is intended to include sufficient detail so that the reader may realistically appreciate the technological development which has and is

handling problems pertaining to HTHP valves, solids flow control, recycle of filter bed media, heat recovery from hot media, etc. As yet, the data have been adequate only to indicate potential performance improvements that are possible when units are ultimately developed for PFBC conditions. This "sketchiness" of the data has severely limited the accuracy of projected costs. Most of the results reported on for individual devices have been obtained with other than PFBC systems that is, in hot gas test rigs, on AFBC systems, or on small-scale, bench, or laboratory type units. Many of these tests have indicated great potential and, in fact, provided the bases for theoretical performance predictions. Proof of operation at a commercial scale is now necessary to provide the impetus for the acceptance of designs incorporating these devices (be they new or old) and for the construction of a full-size PFBC system that could demonstrate adequate hot gas cleanup, adequate turbine life, and acceptable system operability.

2.1NTROD U(TION

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel, and its nearterm use is advocated for the production of electric power. However, in view of the fact that coal is one of the dirtiest fossil fuels, its use in energy generation presents serious environmental problems. In a recent study, Cain et al) examined several coal conversion processes such as fluidized-bed combustion (atmospheric and pressurized), gasification/combined cycle, fuel cells, and open-cycle magnetohydrodynamics from the viewpoints of cost and environmental constraints. One of their conclusions is the potential superiority of a pressurized fluidized-bed coal combustion-combined cycle (PFBC/CC) for electric power generation.* This study and others indicate that the development of (1) successful techniques for cleanup of hot, pressurized off-gas and (2) suitable materials for turbine blade coating and/or cladding are the primary obstacles left in the development of pressurized fluidized bed-~combined cycle plants for the direct use of coal for power generation. These developments are necessary, in part. because allowable levels of particulate matter and alkali compound concentrations for economically long gas turbine lifetimes are not well-defined and may vary depending on the conditions in PFBC service. Particulate matter, if sufficiently large in size and/or high in concentration, can lead to erosion *In a PFBC/CC system, coal is burned at high pressure in a combustor which has a heat-exchange surtace within it. Electricity is generated by a turbine which is powered by the heat-exchange medium and by another turbine (a gas turbinel which is powered by the hot. pressurized off-gas. The combination of these two turbines yields a superior thermal efficiencyfor the "combined" cycle.

Particulate removal from combustion gases taking place. The report covers particulate removal from PFBC; alkali compound removal is beyond the scope of this report. ]'he efforts dealing with novel separation devices are discussed in this report, but it is beyond the scope of this work to summarize the technology of pressurized fluidized-bed combustion systems. Reviews on the latter topic are developed by Miller et al., 3 Graves, 4 and Roberts, s and the technological status is given in various papers presented at the pressurized fluidized-bed combustion technology exchange workshops 6'7 and at the International Conferences on Fluidized Bed Combustion, most recently, the Sixth and Seventh. 8"9

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3. C H A R A C T E R I Z A T I O N

OF PFBC

SYSTEM

Since testing of a large-scale turbine in a PFBC system has not yet taken place, estimates for particulate limitations have been made based on calculations, burner-rig tests, and several 1000-hr tests of turbine parts in PFBC system effluent. Extrapolation to reasonable turbine lifetimes (25000 hr) has yielded relations such as those shown in Fig. I. The Westinghouse (W) curve ~ represents calculations corresponding to an allowable loading and size distribution based on gas turbine inlet specifications. The General Electric (GE) curves represent extrapolation of some early data ~ obtained at Morgantown and GE from coal-fired turbine experiments combined with more recent estimates of allowable particulate matter based on

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results ~2 obtained in PFBC experiments at Exxon and CURL. Both of their estimates are extrapolations of small-scale, relatively short-term tests-long-term and full-scale tests are deemed a prerequisite to manufacturers' guarantees and utility acceptance of PFBC as a commercially viable alternative. In addition to this uncertainty in turbine tolerance requirements, the combustor effluents are only approximately defined. The range of loadings and particle size distributions are also shown in Fig. 1 for typical effluents from the CURL combustor during the 1000-hr tes0 3 and from data analyzed by GE in characterizing combustor efflux for the PFB/CFCC development program. 14 The performance required for a hot-gas cleanup system is apparent. The system must reduce loadings and particle size distributions from the upper combustor effluent curve to the appropriate lower turbine tolerance curve. Removal of greater than 90% of the total particulate matter loading will surely be required in fact, removal of greater than 99 I~i,for all particles larger than 10 #m (perhaps even for particles larger than 5 pm) may well be required. Examples of the performance of two- and threecyclone cleanup systems used in the CURL 1000-hr test and at the Exxon miniplant are also shown in Fig. 1. Each of these sub-pilot-scale systems achieved cleanup to levels marginally tolerable to the turbine parts exposed. High-temperature, high-pressure gas-cleanup technology is quite involved inasmuch as it includes removal of solid particles of differing compositions. present in widely varying concentrations and size ranges, and removal of alkali vapors which may cause serious corrosion, erosion, and deposition on hot components of heavy-duty gas turbines. The latter aspect of gas cleanup has been reviewed by McCarron and Grey ~5 of General Electric Company as well as Wenglarz, ~6 of Westinghouse. Several research efforts have been aimed at establishing a particulate matter loading and size distribution in flue gas which will cause no serious damage (erosion) to the gas turbine blades. Some of these results are quoted here to develop an idea of the extent of cleaning of combustion gases necessar~ before expansion of hot pressurized gases in the turbine chamber of the power plant can be considered fairly safe. Boericke et al. ~'- reported the probable tolerance of a General Electric heavy-duty industrial gas turbine to erosion by particulate matter in the combusion gases of a pressurized fluidized bed. Their estimate is based on experimental data from three different sources: coal-fired locomotive turbine tests; data from gas-fired, atmospheric pressure General Electric test rig operations at temperatures of 500 8 7 0 C (900-1600'F); and 1000-hr cascade experiments by General Electric researchers ~7 in pressurized ftuidized-bed combustion facilities of the Exxon miniplant and

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S.C. SAXENA,R. F. HrNRY and W. F. PODOLSKI

NCB/CURL. At Exxon, the test materials were exposed to 845C (1550F) combustion gas at 5.6 atm.; at NCB/CURL, the gas was at 790C (1450F) and the cooled specimens were at about 730C (1350F). In all cases, it was found that turbine erosion is negligibly small for particles smaller than 10/am. The dependence of normalized erosion rate, E (grams of metal lost per 106 g of incident ash), on gas velocity, U, was expressed on the basis of experimental data by the following relation:

different materials were evaluated in the two tests, but only five were included in both the Exxon and the CURL miniplant 1000-hr tests. The nominal operating conditions of the former unit were: bed temperature 926-965C (1700-1770F), pressure 10 atm., particle loading 35-860 ppm, particle size 9 5 ~ <10/am, and turbine temperature 815-865C (1500-1590F); while those of the latter unit were: bed temperature 850-862C (1560-1585F), pressure 506 kPa (5 atm.), particle loading about 250 ppm, particle size 99.2~ <10 pro, and specimen temE o c U 2.3. perature 730-800C (1350-1475F). The temperature and pressure differences balance Operating pressure also has a significant influence out in the Exxon and CURL cases, and the operating on turbine tolerance for particulate. The absolute erosion rate is directly proportional to pressure conditions (superficial fluidizing velocity and bed because at a fixed inlet velocity and temperature, the residence time) for the two cases suggest that the mass flow of gas (and particulates) through the CURL bed should have had a more corrosive environment than the Exxon bed did. However, the turbine is proportional to the pressure. Based on the experimental data and appropriate Exxon specimens generally suffered more corrosion corrections for gas velocity and pressure, General and erosion than the CURL specimens did. This is Electric estimates that turbines could tolerate parti- attributed to higher specimen temperatures in expericulate matter concentrations of approximately ments performed at the Exxon facility. It is therefore 100 ppm, provided that 98 ~o or more of the particles concluded that test specimen temperature is a very were smaller than 10/am. The development of important parameter and that cooling the turbine to cladding alloys that would give superior corrosion 730-790C (1350-1450F) may be a viable method of resistance to turbine materials in coal-fired reducing corrosion of turbine parts. Further, it was combined-cycle power plants utilizing pressurized observed that for gas velocities up to 426 m/sec fluidized-bed combustors is reviewed in a General (1400 ft/sec), negligible erosion is caused by particles Electric report, 17 which also includes a discussion of smaller than 10/am. STAL-Laval Turbin AB 22 participated in the hot-gas cleanup technology. The researchers at WestinghouseJ 8.19 on the other 1000-hr test at the Leatherhead, England, pressurized hand, have developed an analytical procedure for fluidized-bed combustion facility (CURL). The estimating the damage to a turbine when dust experiment involved exposing turbine blades in static particles present in the combustion gases are in the cascades to combustion gases at velocities ranging micrometer size range (0-10/am). Numerical results from 180 to 520 m/sec. The combustor was mainfor the erosion damage are obtained by employing tained at 608 kPa (6 atm.) and approximately 860C this erosion model in conjunction with experimental (within a variation of a few degrees) while the erosion damage data available in the literature. The combustion gases at the turbine cascades were calculations reveal that turbine blade damage is between 770 and 780C. The gas-cleaning system small if particles larger than 6/~m are effectively upstream from the cascades consisted of three removed, and if the particulate concentration in the cyclones, and four tests were conducted with this gas for particles smaller than 6/am is reduced to arrangement with the particle loading to the STAL0.005 g per standard cubic meter or 0.002 grain per Laval cascade approximately 100-120 ppm and the standard cubic foot. Several very basic assumptions maximum particle size always less than 6/am. In one have been made in the development of this model, test conducted with the tertiary cyclone removed, the and these tend to make the numerical results efflux contained approximately 200 ppm particulate somewhat conservative. Keairns et al. ~ has indi- of size less than 8/am. The vane and blade sections cated that up to 10 times this loading may be were examined by scanning electron microscopy tolerated, provided the particles are sufficiently fine (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-rays (EDX). There and relatively soft, as PFBC dust is. This analysis, was no evidence of any measurable loss of material with several additional simplifying assumptions, has from the surfaces of FeCrAIY- and CoCrA1Y-coated been recently employed by Keairns e t al. 2 in blades. On the other hand, examination of uncoated evaluating the different turbine designs for pres- blades showed a diversity of corrosion attack, with surized fluidized-bed combustion applications. the maximum attack being in the narrow crevice Grey et al. 2~ have reported the results of their region between the blade and the blade-mounting experiments intended to characterize the propensity device. to turbine material degradation in the effluents from At Curtiss-Wright, 23 experiments in the the Exxon and CURL pressurized fluidized-bed PFB/SGT (small gas turbine) test rig have also combustors. Four cascades, each consisting of six indicated acceptable turbine tolerance in over reaction airfoils, were used as test specimens. Eleven 1000 hr of exposure to hot, particulate-laden gases,

Particulate removal from combustion gases The tests were conducted with a Rover IS-60 turbine which was powered by inlet gases at ~850-860C and ,-,659 kPa (~6.5 atm.) and which had several different candidate alloy blades. The HTHP gas was generated by an air-cooled combustor* and cleaned by a series of cyclone-type units. Gas from the combustor-recycle cyclone couple passed through a Dyna-Therm Whirl-A-Way separator, a Ducon cyclone, and finally an Aerodyne cyclone in which the bed cooling air was used as a secondary flow. Particulate loadings at the turbine were usually in the range of 80-100 ppm with mean size about 1.3 #m. While some damage was observed for some alloys, several were deemed acceptable, including FeCrA1Y and platinum aluminide coatings. Lackey, 24 in a report published in 1979, reviewed the experience on turbine operation in conjunction with solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. His conclusion was that in spite of the efforts of many workers, successful operation of a gas turbine on PFBC effluent at conditions required for an economical combined cycle power plant--10 arm. pressure and 815-870C (1500-1600F) inlet temperature--had not yet been achieved due to erosion and corrosion caused by the combination of high temperature and inadequate gas cleanup. His work discusses the performance of many types of cyclones and other separators. He suggested an evolutionary approach of lower temperatures and modest pressures (593C *Air was used as the medium in the combustor heat exchanger. Part of this clean, heated, compressed air was then used as the secondary flow in the final cyclone unit and part of the mixed clean and cleaned gases fed to the turbine. In the combined cycle concept, steam would be generated by the turbine exit gases to power a "bottoming" steam turbine.

199

and 405 kPa or 1100F and 4 atm.) to demonstrate the principles of the operations. Recent work at Exxon, CURL, and Curtiss-Wright has demonstrated much improved operation of gas cleanup systems at the temperatures and pressures envisioned. Thus, the success of the combined cycle concept is much more strongly indicated, though obviously there is room for further improvement and development of improved and/or novel devices for gas cleanup. To reduce the particulate concentration of the PFBC effluent to a level where it may be appropriately expanded in the gas turbine, a number of separation devices have been developed and several combinations have been used in conceptual designs and small-scale experiments with coal-fired PFBC systems. Several reviews, 25'26 compilations,27,2s and overview/perspective papers 29,3 have been prepared dealing with the various aspects of presurized hotgas cleanup. A number of gas purification devices have been studied. 2s-a2 These include the conventional cyclone and its several modified versions: rotary-flow cyclones, multiclone units, cyclonecentrifuge, augmented cyclones; porous metal, fiber, fabric, and ceramic membrance filters; fixed-bed, intermittently moving bed, continuously moving bed, and fluidized-bed granular filters; and electrostatic precipitators. Several other novel devices which have been proposed and developed to different degrees of perfection are: molten solid contactors, dry scrubbers, and acoustic agglomerators. Several more conventional devices which have been examined with either electrostatic or magnetic field augmentation are also discussed, These include cyclones and fabric and granular-bed filters. In view of the practical technological importance

TABLE 1. Department of energy high-temperature, high-pressure (HTHP) gas cleanup projects PRDA (RA 01-79 ET 15055) I General Electric--Electrostatic granular filter Westinghouse---Ceramiccrossflow filter Exxon--Magnetic granular bed Air Pollution Technology--Dry plate scrubber SUNY Buffalo--Acoustic agglomeration General Electric--Electro cyclone Westinghouse--'Ducon"granular bed Acurex--Ceramic bag filter Research CottrelI--HTHP electrostatic precipitator

II

Non-PRDA General Electric-~Glas slag scrubber M.I.T.--Electro fluid bed filter Combustion Power~ranular bed filter Penn. State--Acoustic agglomeration Denver Res. Inst.--HTHP electrostatic precipitator test facility Linhardt Assoc.--Wedge separator Mechanical Technology--Cyclone centrifuge Argonne--Alkali absorption

200

S.C. SAXI~YA,R. F. HliNRVand W. F. POIX)LSk~ 4.1. Barrier Filters Barrier, or surface, filters are so called ss because, after the initial conditioning period, the dust particles collect on the face of the porous filter medium. Membrane filters, which have controlled pore sizes in the submicrometer range, also fall in this category. In high-temperature applications of such filters, the elements used most frequently are porous metal, ceramic fiber fabrics, and ceramic membranes. The general filtration principle of such filters involves two stages. In the initial stage, as the dusty gas flows through the filter, the dust particles deposit in the voids of the filter, and a dust cake begins to form on the filter face. With the passage of time, the filter cake develops and constitutes the major filter medium (in the second stage). It is permitted to grow until the pressure drop across it becomes appreciable, whereupon the filtration cycle is stopped and most of the filter cake is detached before filtration is resumed. The pressure drop across such a filter is composed of two componenets, viz. the pressure drop due to the clean filter itself and the pressure drop due to the layer of particles deposited on the filter. Particle collection by such filters is not simply due to the collection of particles on single fibers or in voids. In fact, particles which are much smaller than the spacing between the fibers or size of the voids are collected on such filters. The explanation is that particles collect and form an arching bed across the spaces. Only after such a particle bed is formed does such a filter serve as an efficient filter and its efficiency rise to 99 '),; or better. In contrast, depth filters comprise deep beds of either fibers or granules. The former are usually referred to as fibrous felted or matted filters. Depth filters are described below in the discussion of various types of granular bed filters. 4.1.1. Porous metal filters

of the subject of hot and compressed gas cleanup, the United States Department of Energy has sponsored a number of research projects, most recently under a PRDA (Program Research and Development Announcement), to explore, test, and develop several of the promising techniques for separating corrosive vapors and particulate materials from the exit gases of pressurized combustors or gasifiers. These are listed in Table 1. An overview of this program was given by Moore. 33 The current status of different techniques under investigation has been given by Markel and Moore. 3'* These are discussed here in some detail. In Section 4 below, the principles of operation of various particle-separation devices and their current status with respect to operational potential are discussed. These gas cleanup devices include those sponsored by various organizations, including DOE, EPA, and others.
4, G A S - S O L I D S S E P A R A T I O N DE~, ICES

In the general area of gas purification, a vast amount of work has been done employing conventional devices such as fabric filters, cyclones, electrostatic precipitators, and granular bed filters at ambient temperatures and pressures. This work is described in a large number of reviews, many of which are mentioned in the previous section. The underlying operational principles of these devices are described in several texts 3~-'~z and review articles.,~3-49 Until recently, very little attention was paid to particulate removal from gas streams at high temperatures and high pressures. 25'32'5 The experience of the Locomotive Development Committee of Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.,5~ with various designs of fly ash separator tubes (cyclones) for pressures up to 5 atm, and for temperatures up to 705'C (1300 F) is especially worth noting. In recent years, attention has been shifted to the development of economical and effective devices for the removal of particulate material from hot, compressed flue gases 52 for electric utility power generation from coal in pressurized fluidized-bed combustion combined cycle systems. 53'-~4 In addition to work on many of the known separation devices, work has been conducted at a rapid pace on several novel gas cleanup devices. Modified designs of simple cyclones have been developed, in addition to electrocyclones. Similarly, improvements have been incorporated in fabric and granular bed filters. Ceramic monolith filters and external field-augmented separators are also being studied. A greater understanding has been obtained of the adaptability of the electrostatic precipitator for gas purification at high temperatures and pressures. Molten solid contactors, dry scrubbers, and acoustic agglomerators are some of the other devices whose promise and potential are being evaluated for hot-gas cleanup. In the following, the status of all these different separation devices is summarized.

Ortino and Bethea 56 investigated porous metal or metallic filters for removing submicron particles from gas streams at high temperatures (tip to 1200C) and high velocities. Such filters can be fabricated from different materials: sintered powdered metal, plain wire cloth, sintered wire cloth and fiber metal felt. A listing of manufacturers and types of metal filters is given by Meyer and Edwards. 27 Such filters exhibit great resistance to deformation at high gas velocities. Because sintered powdered metal filters easily become blinded, they are usually cleaned by high-energy, 550~590 kPa gauge (80-100 psig), reverse air flow (pulse jets of up to 1-see duration). These authors 56 examined Dynapore* filter media. This is a high-strength, laminated, sintered, porous stainless steel (type 304 or 316) material. For some *The registered trademark of Michigan Dynamics Division, Ambac Industries, Inc.. a subsidiary of United Technologies Corp., Garden City, Michigan.

Particulate removal from combustion gases high-temperature applications, other materials such as Hastalloy, Inconel, Nichrome or other superalloys may be used instead of 304 or 316 stainless steel. Dynapore laminates are bonded together by a sintering process involving atomic diffusion at temperatures approximately 90":~o of the melting point (which is about 1200C for stainless steel). Sintered wire-cloth laminates can be cleaned by mechanical vibration, with or without reverse air flow (either in a continuous manner or in a pulse manner). Pulse or low-flow cleaning is favored 5~ because it leaves a layer of dust on the filter which serves as the true filter for fine particles, i.e. a protective layer of particles is left clustered at each pore opening. An average particle collection efficiency of 99.0% was found by Ortino and Bethea. s~ 4.1.2. P o r o u s ceramic f i l t e r s Drehmel and Ciliberti 5s explored porous ceramic filters for fine particle filtration and tested a ceramic honeycomb cross-flow monolith produced by Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing (3M) company for catalyst support (used in automotive exhaust systems under the tradename of Therma Comb). W. R. Grace Co. makes a similar structure, and this has also been tested: 9 A general schematic of the original cross-flow ceramic membrane filter used by Westinghouse is shown in Fig. 2. ~ Such a filter is made by firing fifty to eighty-five layers into a monolith of 6-in. height, with each thin flat layer of gas-permeable ceramic material sandwiched between two layers of corru-

201

gations (Fig. 2). Further, two consecutive layers of corrugations are oriented at an angle of 90' to each other (Fig. 2). One end of the filter is sealed. Dusty gas enters through the corrugations parallel to the sealed end of the filter, and cleaned gas exits through the corrugations perpendicular to the sealed end of the filter. The most notable advantage of such a filter design is the high filter area per unit volume of the module. The accumulated dust on the filter is blown off periodically with a burst of high-pressure air through the clean corrugated layer. It appears from the work of Ciliberti et al. 6 that for a given channel opening, there is an upper limit to the length of the dirty side of the filter element, because cleaning is not effective over long distances. From the nature of the dependence of the total pressure drop on time, it was concluded ~8 that the behavior of ceramic filters is remarkable similar to that of fabric filters. The total pressure drop, APtota~, is considered to consist of a contribution due to the filter media, AP,,, and a contribution due to the accumulated incompressible cake, A P c, so that APtolal= AP., + A P C. For given gas properties, P., is proportional to the face velocity. U, and filter thickness. L,.. Similarly. APc is proportional to U and to the cake thickness, Lc. If the dust concentration. C, is assumed to be constant, the cake thickness is proportional to U C t , where t is the time during which filtration occurred. For a given gas, temperature, and filter, the total pressure drop is given by: AP~otal- K ' U + K U 2 C t

Gas Permeable
Membranes

---_

/ /

~ , , , . A' A-~+__, - ' ' ' ' I

cas

FIG. 2. Original cross-flow ceramic membrane filter used by Westinghouse."~'

202

S. C. S^XE~A,R. F. HENRYand W. F. PODOLSKI efficiencies of 99.94~o at 1500F and 11 atm. 61 Additional HTHP testing is planned at the Argonne National Laboratory PFBC facility. A different form of ceramic filter--a sponge with 10-80 pores per linear inch--has been proposed by Clyde. 62 The potential for use at temperatures up to 1650C (3000F) is indicated. A West German firm-Shumacher'sche Fabrik--markets a porous, granular silicon carbide matrix which contains pockets of fine mineral fibers for use as a filter at temperatures up to 1850C. 63 Neither of these has yet been evaluated for PFBC service. 4.1.3. Fabric filters Fabric filters employ a woven or felted fabric for the removal of dust from gas streams. A variety of fibers (cotton, wool, paper, nylon, Dacron, Orlon, glass, graphite, asbestos, ceramic, etc.) have been used, 54 the choice depending on the nature of the gas, particulate matter, temperature and pressure of the gas, etc. Use of filters with individual filaments less than l ~ m in diameter leads to good collection efficiency. Fabric filters have been widely used to determine the total loading of aerosols at ambient temperatures and pressures. For such applications, the methodology is well established and is described in several texts. 64- 67 Three important characteristics of such filters (as for most other filters) are the face velocity/pressure drop relationship, particulate collection efficiency, and filter lifetime. Dust is collected in fabric bag filters primarily

where K' and K are constants for a given filter and cake, respectively, Measurements substantiated these concepts inasmuch as they could be correlated by the above relation. The operating pressure drop for porous ceramic filters was 3 - 4 kPa at face velocities of 4 m/min and was considered to compare favorably with the values found for fabric filters. The cleaning can be achieved by a simple pulse. Filters have essentially 100~o particulate collection efficiency for dusts, including particles of submicron size. It is claimed that this type of filter can stand temperatures well above 1093C (2000F), has high resistance to thermal shock, and is chemically inert to the corrosive gases found in advanced coal conversion technologies. Fabrication of the filter element does, however, present some engineering problems--the relatively high pressure cleaning pulse has a tendency to cause delamination of the sealed faces. Effort on this filter concept has been continued at Westinghouse 59'6 under the Department of Energy's hot gas cleanup PRDA (Program Research and Development Announcement). Gas cleanup tests have been conducted at temperatures and pressures from ambient to 1800F and 250 psig, respectively. The most recent cross-flow ceramic elements have been supplied by Coors Porcelain Co. and have better stability and performance due to large channel cross sections, but structural integrity is still a concern (see Fig. 3). The filter element is 15cmxl5cmx5cm (6in. x 6 i n . x2in.). Testing Conducted at Westinghouse facilities has shown

FIG. 3. New filter media fabricated by Coors.

Partictdate removal from combustion gases because of the particle layer that deposits on the fabric surface. It is, therefore, almost impossible to reliably predict the pressure drop and collection efficiency of such filters without performing preliminary tests. As dust accumulates on the filter, the pressure drop across it increases, whereupon filtration must be stopped and the filter cleaned by dislodging the dust. This is commonly accomplished either by mechanically shaking the bags or allowing air to flow in the reverse direction (which may collapse the bags and cause the filter deposit to drop into the hopper) or by introducing a reverse air "pulse" which will momentarily flex the bags to dislodge the particulate cake. An assemblage of many fabric bag filters in one unit or compartment is referred to as a baghouse. A filter installation of such a type usually consists of several compartments. Either a compartment may be removed from service and its bags cleaned while other compartments function and accomplish the desired filtration, or "online" cleaning may be used. A number of papers dealing with the status of fabric filter technology at ambient temperature and pressure have appeared in the proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency. 68 The review by Kennedy and Cheremisinoff 69 gives the history of fabric filters. It also includes the properties of nine different fabrics, different varieties of fabric filters, and recommended procedures for their startup, maintenance, as well as economics and other details. These papers are not discussed in any detail here because the technology has little relevance to PFBC technology. However, these efforts have established that at ambient temperature and pressure, barrier filtration is an effective and attractive technology for achieving the desired level of particulate control. High-temperature application of fabric filter technology depends on suitable choice of materials for the filter medium and other materials of construction, as well as proper engineering. Most conventional fabrics, such as those listed above (cotton, wool, nylon, Dacron, Teflon, etc.) are limited to an upper temperature of 260C (500F) or so. For PFBC conditions, ceramic fiber materials have been investigated. Both Buell Emission Control Division of the Envirotech Corporatation and the Acurex Corporation have published information concerning the characteristics of their ceramic fabric filters at high temperatures. This is reviewed below. 4.1.3.1. Buell woven ceramic. Furlong* and Shevlint have reported 7'71 on a ceramic filter made of alumina-boria-silica ceramic fiber cloth which can stand temperatures in excess of 1093C (2000F) on a continuous basis. The general characteristics of these *Buell Emission Control Division of the Envirotech corporation, subsequently acquired by General Electric. f3M Corporation.

203

nonoxidizing, nonconductive, heat-resistant fibers were shown. A bench-scale, single-bag test at ambient pressure to establish the use of ceramic fiber cloth as a fabric filter at high temperatures, revealed that filtration efficiencies of 97.9 ~o were achieved during 20 hr of operation at bag temperatures of the order of 815C (1500F). These workers 71 have also investigated the important commercial consideration of life expectancy of the bags. This concern is particularly important at high temperatures, where no fiber lubricant is available to protect the fiber cloth during cleaning cycles. To determine life expectancy, they assembled a test rig containing a 7.6-cm (3-in.) dia by 46-cm (18in.) long bag. It performed successfully for 100,000 reverse air cleaning cycles at an air temperature of 538C (1000F). This is claimed to be equivalent to a four-year service life with cleaning every 20 min. After the test, the bag showed no damage. Three filter-cleaning procedures were examined successfully. These are: reverse air flow, mechanical shaking, and the use of an ambient-temperature pulse of air. The filter was also successfully operated at high temperatures and pressures in a 19-bag filter assembly test sponsored by EPRI at the Waltz Mill component test facility of Westinghouse. 72 The temperatures were varied from 425 to 815~'C (800 1500F) at a pressure of 1035 kPa (150 psi) with a filter face velocity of 0,014).03 m/sec (245 ft/min); the particle collection effeciency was 99.7 '?o or greater. The authors 7 indicate that scale-up of the fabric filter for HTHP commercial applications in coal conversion technology is straightforward, including cost estimation. 4.1.3.2. Acurex batted ceramic. The objectives, program plans, and preliminary results of the early work conducted at the Aerotherm Division of the Acurex Corporation were described in a paper by Shackleton and Kennedy. 73 With a goal of developing a ceramic fiber filter capable of operating at 815C and 1013 kPa (10-atm.) pressure, these workers have undertaken to classify the available ceramic media materials into three groups, viz. woven fabrics, ceramic papers, and ceramic felts. Woven fabrics are made from yarns produced from a continuous length of ceramic fibers and are available in various weaves. Ceramic papers are made from short fibers held together with binders. Ceramic felts are made by randomly intermixing the fibers; structurally, they are relatively porous mats without a binder. A standard test of dioctylphthalate smoke penetration was conducted to rate these filter media. The experimental data suggested that the paper media had the highest efficiency for particulate collection, felts in general had an intermediate efficiency, and the woven materials the lowest efficiency. It was pointed out that at high temperatures and pressures,

204

S.C. Saxl!nA,R. F. HENRYand W. F. PODOLSKI Saffilt alumina blanket insulation material). This filter media was held between two layers of knit-type 304 stainless-steel screen. 78 Three additional 200-hr tests at near ambient conditions and media face velocites of 2.5, 4.8, and 9.0 cm/sec were successfully completed with re-entrained PFBC dust from the Exxon miniplant. Off-line pulse cleaning was concluded to be sufficient. The system pressures were 930, 660, and 500 kPa, respectively; the corresponding cleaning pulse pressures were 1100, 1100 and 860 kPa. Pulse duration was 150 msec and pulse interval was one cleaning cycle every 10 min. The reverse-flow cleaning cycle pulse duration was 2 sec. The reported overall particle-collection efficiency remained always greater than 99.964 o~ and appeared to be almost independent of filter face velocity in the range investigated. Average outlet concentration of dust particles under all operating conditions was found 75 to be below the limit proposed by Westinghouse ~s for the tolerance of large turbines to particulate loading. Samples of Saffil filter media have been tested for 1000 hr at CURL (Leatherhead, England) in the PFBC gas effluent environment. SEM and X-ray examination at the end of tests showed no physical or structural damage to the fibers. A 1.5-ft2 ceramic bag filter was tested 75 at the EPA/Exxon Miniplant PFBC. The pressure drop across the unit varied with time in the same manner as for a typical fabric filter, implying that the bags could be cleaned. Filtration efficiencies ranged between 96 and 99.5 '!J0. During the tests, one double bag and eight single-thickness bags were exposed to PFBC conditions. With increasing exposure time, the outlet particulate concentration showed a decrease and the pressure drop continuously increased. The filter cake was not completely removed by cleaning; this was the cause of a lower particulate loading in the outlet but a greater pressure drop. The filter was periodically cleaned by a continuous reverse flush and intermittent short high-pressure pulses. 79 Particulate samples were taken at the inlet and the outlet of the filter, using the Balston filter method, and were analyzed with the Coulter counter. 75 At a face velocity of 4.6 m/rain, pressure drops under 2 kPa could be maintained for over 6 hr; particulate collection efficiencies ranged between 95 and 99 '~0. The details of the performance characteristics of the Acurex filters at the Exxon PFBC miniplant are given by Ernst and Shackleton. s The ceramic bag test filter was 10 cm in dia and 45.7 cm long with a type-304 stainless-steel support screen and was surrounded by a heater element to maintain the gas at temperatures up to 880~'C. The performance of the filter was examined when fed a slip stream of

particle collection efficiency decreased due to a reduction in the effectiveness of the mechanism of inertial impaction. However, this can be compensated for by using finer diameter fibers (3/~m) than the conventional (10 20/tm) fibers used for filters. Collection efficiency can also be improved by making a filter bed thicker, thereby increasing its basis weight, i.e. weight per unit area. A gain of this nature is always accompanied by an increase in the pressure drop of the filter. Also very important for a filter is the extent of fibrous structure openness. A solidity (~) of 0.10 (i.e. 10'~,~,of the filter volume is occupied by fibers) is regarded as a typical value for a structure designed for filtration, according to Shackleton and Kennedy. v3 Based on such considerations, it was concluded that ceramic fiber filter media should be able to remove particles from high-temperature, highpressure gas streams. The Acurex test facility was constructed to investigate whether such filter media would be able to survive the stresses experienced during operation and cleaning cycles in hightemperature and high-pressure applications. Both pulse-jet and reverse-flow methods of cleaning the filter bags were tried. Pulse-jet cleaning does not interrupt forward-flow filtering, whereas reverse-flow cleaning, a milder technique, requires the interruption of forward flow. It was stressed that in the technology of media cleaning techniques, special attention should be given to the development of ceramic fiber filters that accommodate high air-tocloth ratios* (i.e. 0.03q3.07 m/sec (6-15 ft/min) as compared with the 0.0054).01 m/sec (1-2 ft/min) that is usual in less severe services). Shackleton and Drehmel 7'* and Shackleton 75'76 describe the Acurex test experience of ceramic bag filters made from 3.0 /im dia fiber for: different periods of filtration, filter face velocity, filter pressure drop as a function of time. outlet particulate concentration age of the filter, accelerated media cleaning tests, etc. Based on experimental data 77'78 on a large number of ceramic fiber filter media candidates at ambient conditions, it is concluded v4 that "blanket" ceramic fiber materials (felts) made of 3.0-/tm dia fibers are probably the most promising materials for the filtration of flue gas at high temperatures and high pressures. This is based on their good filtration efficiency and relatively high mechanical strength. Fibers are arranged in a mat having a low solidity so that they can move relative to one another. This prevents their breaking during cleaning. Filter performance at high temperatures and high pressures was simulated in a 200-hr test run with the filter media which appeared to be the most promising (an approximately l-cm thick layer of *Ratio of vo/tmletric gas flow rate to area of cloth.

tSaffil alumina is a trade name of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI).

Particulate removal from combustion gases particulate-laden flue gas at pressures up to 930 kPa, downstream from the second-stage cyclone. The inlet loading of the gas was approximately 900 mg/m 3, with 50 O/,oof the particles finer than 3.5/~m. Particle concentrations in the filter outlet were typically 7-16 mg/m 3. The filter face velocity ranged from 2.6 to 6.0 m/rain, and the pressure drop was generally maintained between 7.3 and 12.2 kPa. The cleaning cycle was 20 to 40 sec long, consisted of reverse flow with short pulses, and was initiated every 5-30 min. The overall particle collection efficiencies in these high-temperature high-pressure tests were always better than 99.95'~,;, and were generally better than 99.98 ?'i,. It was noticed that a type-304 stainless-steel filter support screen was rapidly corroded when heated in excess of 815- 870C, due to overheating of the heater elements. Acurex now uses flexible woven ceramic fabric instead of stainless steel screens. EPRl-sponsored experiments performed at Westinghouse72 under simulated PFBC conditions with ceramic bags supplied by Acurex/Aerotherm (0.2 m in dia and 1.5 m in length) in a 5-bag pilot unit (Fig. 4) at temperatures ranging from 427 to 8 2 7 C and 15-psig pressure presented difficulties with bag cleaning, though overall particle collection efficiencies were as high as 99.5 99.8 ?,~+. Increasing the blowback pressure from 200 psig to 400 psig did not completely remedy' the bag-cleaning problems. A test program at Acurex by Shackleton et al. 8~'82 to

205

develop optimum cleaning procedures and other operating and design parameters employing a filter test chamber as shown in Fig. 5 has been concluded, and a sub-pilot-scale test at the Curtiss Wright SGT facility carried out. Mechanical failure of the filter media prevented collection of long-term test results. but acceptably high efficiencies were demonstrated for short times. Conceptual pilot- and commercialscale designs are shown in Figs 6 and 7.

4.1.4. Augmentation effects 4.1.4.1. Electric field. Electrostatic charging of the filter is advocated by linoya and Orr 5 to increase its particle collection efficiency. This can be accotnplished in many ways. If the particles and the fibers are charged oppositely, the resulting electrostatic attraction will enhance collection efficiency. If onl~ one of the two are charged, the induced charge on the other and the resulting attraction between the two will increase particle deposition. The electrostatic field also enhances particle agglomeration, thereb5 increasing particle-capture efficiency. Particles ma 3 develop charges during any filtration process due to frictional effects. The collection of charged particles on fibrous filters has been studied experimentally and theoretically by a large number of investigators. References to many of them can be found in the papers of Nielsen. 83's4 Apitron Inc., Division of American Precision Industries, Charlotte, North Carolina, developed an electrostatically augmented fabric filter for efficiently collecting very small particles in the range 0.01 ]tm to albout 5 ~m. Southern Research Institutes5 conducted tests to determine the fine particle collection capabilites of this device. Their results are summarized below. The Apitron device ~5 employs a wire-pipe type electrostatic precipitator as a precollector and particle charger immediately upstream from a conventional pulse-induced reverse-air fabric filter. The dust-laden gas flows through the precipitator tube, which removes a significant part of the particulate material and also imparts unipolar electrical charges to most of the remaining particles, which are then removed by fabric filter. These authors 85 report that the charged dust particles influence the nature of the dust cake formed on the fabric filter surface, i.e. the cake is more porous and open in structure than when formed from uncharged particles. As a result of this, the flow resistance of the dust cake on the filter is lower than in the absence of electrical charge on the dust particles. This allows an Apitron system to have a much higher filtration velocity than do conventional fabric filters for the same operating pressure loss. Typical gas flo~ velocity for the Apitron is in the range of 30 75 mm/sec (6 15 ft/min). The fabrics suggested for bag filters are felted Nomex, Teflon, or polyester. A small-scale mobile

Outlet

Damper Valves

Thermal Expansion Cone

Isolation Plate

Hot Gas, I ~ Ousl

Cer~mlc Media

FIG. 4. Westinghouse/Acurexceramic bag pilot unit.

206

S.C. SAXliNA,R. F. HENRYand W. F. POI)OLSKI results of three different investigations on an electrostatically augmented fiber filter at ambient conditions. The filtration fabric for all tests was 409 g/m 2 (11 oz/sq yd) polyester felt, and the corona power was 0.00011-0.00014 W m - 3sec- 1 (0.23-0.29W per cfm). The results are not, however, comparable from one series of runs to the other because the amount and the size distribution of the inlet dust varied, as did the bag cleaning method. High particulate-collection efficiencies up to 99.98 ~o were found, and in all cases the electrostatic augmentation improved the performance of the filter. Particle penetration was found to be strongly dependent on

unit with felted Teflon bags was tested on fly ash from a sidestream in a pulverized-coal-fired boiler flue gas system. The collection efficiency was found to be as high as 99.9 ~o. A large-scale pilot plant with well-conditioned polyester bags was tested for collecting redispersed silica dust at normal atmospheric conditions. The dust-collection efficiency was found to be as high as 99.99 ~o. Efficiencies were always in excess of 90~o for particles larger than 0.01/~m and were in excess of 99.9~ for particles larger than 0.3 pm. Typical energy consumption with electrical augmentation was approximately 900-1400 J/m 3. Helfritch and Kirsten s6 have summarized the

F ~

SOLENOIO VALVE .,,..... FROMMTIIOGEN

TO AIISOLU~ FILTERAND EXHAUST

PULSEPRESSURE TANK PULS4E TUBE(WI'ERCHANGEABLE| PLENUM(W'fiEflCHANGEANI E) VENTURI (OP'flOBAL)

PRESSURE VESSEL

CLAMPISST)

FILTERFRAME IINTERCHANGEABLE) FILTERBAG (INTERCHANGEAiltE I~". 3", ON 4 ~ " ) VIEWPORT TYP3 PL

CtJ~P (SST)

FROM
" " - - COMPRESSOR

,,

.*.--. FLYASHFEEDLINE

ASH CONTAINMEN1 CONE

q~
ASH COU.Ec'noN

FIG. 5. Acurex filter test chamber.

Particulate removal from combustion gases

207

Pneumatic Actuator Housing

er

"l'he r n,l l

Expansion Corn
nt

the mass mean diameter of the particles. The HTHP potential of this technique is apparent, but awaits evaluation of its performance at PFBC conditions. Imposition of an electrostatic charge between conductors on the surface of a fabric filter has also been studied. 87 Addition of a precharger has also been evaluated. 88,a9 Adaptation of either of these electrostatic concepts to HTHP has not yet occurred, and certainly the increased conductivity of the surface filter cake must be considered a drawback. However, precharging may ultimately be of use at HTHP by the mechanism of inducing a charge on the filter proper. 4.1.4.2. Magnetic field. Magnetism has also been employed to remove magnetic particles from a gas stream. The basic principle of high-gradient magnetic filtration (HGMF) is simple and is based on the interaction of a small paramagnetic or ferromagnetic dust particle with a ferromagnetic wire in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. The applied field magnetizes the wire and induces a magnetic dipole in the particle, which is then attracted in the highly nonuniform field towards the wire, as shown in Fig. 8. Gooding and Drehmel 9'91 used such a filter, in which ferromagnetic type-430 stainless-steel wool was loosely packed in a canister which was placed in a magnetic field generated by a solenoid. The porosity of the filter was high (0.98-0.995), and

Inlet Flow Distributor

FIG. 6. Conceptual pilot-scale ceramic bag filter.

From

PFBC/cyctones

FIG. 7. Conceptual commercial-scaleceramic bag filter.

208

S. C. SAXliNA.R. F. HENRYand W. F. POI)OLSKI Extension of magnetic effect to HTHP use presupposes a material which still has magnetic properties at operating conditions. Of the common metals, only cobalt has a high enough Curie point to maintain its ferromagnetism. One could envision cobalt wires woven into a fabric filter (or as a matrix on or in a ceramic fabric)-- this has not been evaluated experimentally. 4.2. Cyclone Separators For at least a hundred years (1885, German patent 39219), separation of particulate solids from gases in cyclone type devices has been carried out in view of the simple design, high efficiency in separating large particles from gas streams, and favorable economics of such devices. Cyclones operate by the conversion of the inertia of the incoming stream to centrifugal force in a confined vortex. Separation is thus accomplished by settling, due to the difference in density of the particles and the gas, and is greatly accentuated by the high centrifugal forces present in the vortex. In spite of the seeming simplicity of the equipment and governing principles, characterization of their particulate-removal performance has been the subject of many efforts. Since this performace is significantly less than 100'!,; and is a function of particle size, geometry, and operating conditions, review of some of the work on predictive relationships is included here. Early researchers" efforts at characterization of separation performance were largely empirical, with some efforts aimed at a description of flow patterns to provide a basis for theoretical analysis. Most of this work has been summarized in treatises by Stern, et al. 49 Jackson, "* Razgaitis, 32 and others. 41"42"48"9<97 Various levels of empiricism appear, ranging from simple statements of performance trends to more sophisticated theoretical derivations. In general, there is agreement on the use of operating conditions as part of a performance prediction model, usually as an "impaction" number grouping, not unlike the Stokes number. There is some agreement on the use of a factor for cyclone geometry, but less agreement on the form. Many works imply confidence in predictions only for scaling results from similar dusts in similar-shape equipment. Few claim to be capable of predicting separation efficiencies a priori. Rosin et al. 96 formulated a balance of forces acting on particles in laminar flow, i.e. centrifugal acceleration and viscous drag, which resulted in an expression for dp.mi,, the diameter of the smallest particle which could be collected, viz.
dr,.mi, = 3 x / I t g D / 4 r c N p~ U.

FERROMAGNETIC W RE

FIG. 8. Conceptual illustration of high-gradient magnetic collector.

particles deposited throughout the matrix. To regenerate the filter, the magnetic field was switched off, and the filter was backflushed with clean gas. The trajectories of MnO 2 paramagnetic particles (25-30 pm) entrained in the nitrogen flow in the vicinity of a 250-/~m circular nickel wire (ferromagnetic fiber) in a magnetic field of strength up to 0.739T have been photographed by Treat et al. 92 They have also compared their experimentallyobserved particle trajectories with the predictions of their theoretical calculations. 93"94 Following their approach, 93 Gooding and Felder 9s have derived the following expression for the collection efficiency, r/, of a filter of length Z: r/= 1 - e x p [ 4:tZyc ] -~z2R,,(1--x)2 A"

Here, ~ is the filter packing density (i.e. volume of the fibers per unit volume of the filter), y~ is the single wire reduced collision radius, and Rc is the wire radius. It is assumed here that every particle that collides with the wire adheres to it. In the particle trajectory calculations, the inertial, gravitational, and magnetic forces were taken into account. Gooding and Felder95 found that the above relation does not correlate their experimental data for particles larger than 5 pro. Efforts to modify the above relation so that it reproduced the experimental data by correcting for re-entrainment did not prove successful. They have, therefore, empirically modified the above relation by introducing a parameter, P, inside the square brackets which represents the probability of particle adhesion on the wire surface. The term P was empirically represented in terms of the dimensionless magnetic parameter and Stokes number. It thus appears that considerably more controlled experimental work is needed to validate the model and also to understand the dependence of geometric and operating parameters on the collection mechanism.

Here/t is the gas viscosity, g is the acceleration due to gravity, D is the cyclone diameter, N is the number of rotations made by the gas (a measure of residence

Particulate removal from combustion gases time), p.~ is the particulate density, and U is the gas inlet velocity. Use of this prediction equation is straightforward, once N is known from an empirical correlation. 4s Another approach to defining the residence time in a cyclone was made possible by the work of Alexander. 46 In this work, one of the more significant findings was that the vortex flow in a cyclone exhibits a property of "natural length" which depends on cyclone geometry, but not gas velocity. Many others 98-~7 have studied flow patterns, particle trajectories, velocity profiles, effect of cyclone geometry, and pressure drop relations in efforts to improve performance predictions, as well as the operating characteristics, of conventional, returnflow cyclones. Analogous studies of non return-flow (the axial or uni-flow) cyclones have also been reported. See, for example, the works of Dobbins e t al. 18 and Stenhouse and TrowJ 9 Results of these early studies have also been reviewed 4v'~ o and have led to some reliable scaling-type predictions when used for similar cyclone designs on identical dusts. Modest success has also been experienced for small extrapolations. Recent work by Leith and Licht ~ has resulted from a slightly different approach to cyclone performance description, with encouraging results and a claim for confidence in the prediction of gradeefficiency relationships a priori. This approach employs the concept of backmixing and average residence time, as well as the geometry of the cyclone and the natural-length phenomena exhibited by vortical flows, to account for the turbulent and flowrelated redistribution of uncollected particles in the gas. The result of their theoretical approach is an equation which accounts for geometric design, cyclone diameter, particle size, and physical properties of both gas and solids; operating conditions; and the vortex law which characterizes the tangential velocity distribution. More recently, Dietz H2 has established another theoretical relationship based on a three-region model of the cyclone with associated force and particle balances. Two valid criticisms may be made of both the Leith and Licht ~11 and the Dietz I ~2 approaches (as well as of most other attempts): there is no provision to account for agglomeration of particles, an important mechanism in the collection of fine dusts, as shown by Abrahamson et al. ~ 3 nor is there a provision for the "loading effect" at higher loadings, collection efficiency improves, as shown by Briggs Lt 4 Parent, 15 van Ebbenhorst Tengbergen J 1~ and in the API manual. 48 Despite these many investigations, not one presents a satisfactory method of predicting cyclone performance which includes all known effects. Perhaps the best available predictive relationships are those of Leith and Licht, 1~ or Dietz, ~2 but awareness of the other contributing mechanisms must be maintained.
JPECS II:3-B

209

Particulate-removal performance of a cyclone has been shown to depend on cyclone geometry, gas and particulate physical properties, and operating conditions. Removal efficiency may be greater than 99 ", for large particles in small units operated with high inlet velocities, but falls off for small particles, large units, and low inlet velocities. In general, for applications at near-ambient conditions, pressure drop is measured in inches of water and follows performance--that is, better particle removal efficiency is obtained at greater pressure drop. Better particle removal efficiency may also be attained at the same pressure drop in a smaller unit. When high particle-removal efficiency is required, this characteristic of small units has been used to justify the use of many parallel smaller units for a given stream flow rather than a single larger unit having a greater pressure drop. A high-flow design, which still retains high efficiency, has been proposed b ) G e n e r a l Electric as part of the supporting work of the CoalFired Combined Cycle program. 117 Probably the largest commercial use of cyclones is for the recovery of regenerated catalyst fines in petroleum refinery catalytic cracking units. The usual practice is to use several parallel trains of two (or more, usually three) units in series to assure that removal of particles larger than 10 pm is essentially complete. Operating conditions vary, but temperatures approaching 700C are not unusual in more modern units: pressures approach 4 atm. Perhaps the best available and most useful predictive relation for fractional efficiency is the Leith Lieht relationship. It has been widely used to predict cyclone performance. Calculations 1~8'119 for potential hot-gas cleanup systems for a PFBC/CC power plant indicate that three stages of simple cyclones in series will be required to achieve the particulate levels required by the current estimates of gas turbine tolerance. On the other hand, levels required by the EPA NSPS are not likely to be attainable by conventional cyclones alone. In rig tests at Curtiss-Wright, ~2o ExxonJ 21 and at CURL,122 particulate-removal performance of conventional cyclones in PFBC systems, at operating conditions ranging from 405 to 1013 kPa (6 - 10 arm.) pressure and temperatures of 700 900:C, has been demonstrated to be marginally adequate for turbine protection. All of these results are encouraging-particulate-removal efficiencies were higher than generally expected. Simple cyclones had been thought to be of little use for particles smaller than 10 pm in dia. However, in some of the Exxon 121 tests, fractional particle removal efficiencies of 90(~0 were achieved for particles as small as 2/~m. These results from cyclones all smaller than 2 ft in dia agreed with predictions based on the Leith and Licht theory. Further tests of larger cyclones at the pilot scale are being planned for the lEA Grimethorpe lz-~ facility and at the Curtiss-Wright ~24 pilot plant.

210 4.2.1. Rotary-flow cyclones

S.C. SAXliNA,R. F. HENRYand W. F. POI)OLSKI

EXHAUST

The particle-collection efficiency of large conventional cyclones decreases rapidly for particles smaller than 5 #m. Rotary-flow cyclones or rotarystream dust separators have been developed 125 in the hope of improving the collection of particles less than 5/zm in diameter. The reference to earlier and more recent German work is given by Caplan.125 Aerodyne Development Corporation, which is the U.S.A. licensee of System Siemens, has marketed such dust collectors.126 Particle collection efficiencies of 100, 94, and 55 % are claimed for particles of sizes greater than 6, 2, and 0.5 pm, respectively, and having a specific gravity of 2.0. According to a recent estimate given by Weber and Pieper, 12~ about 3000 units are currently in use. These authors ~27 also report a particle collection efficiency plot as a function of particle size for a dust of density 2.6 g/cm a and of known particle size distribution in the primary inlet dirty gas. A schematic of a typical Aerodyne particulate separator is shown in Fig. 9. The dirty primary gas stream which is to be cleaned enters the separator unit at the base and passes through a stationary vane which imparts a spinning motion to the incoming gas and a rotary motion to the flow. A secondary gas stream is introduced around the circumference of this cylindrical unit through a set of inlet vanes. Centrifugal force separates the dust particles present in the primary flow and directs them outwards towards the wall of the collector. The secondary air jets create an outer downward vortex with an inward radial component and a downward axial component. The secondary gas pressure is suitably chosen so that sufficient centrifugal action is maintained. The net result of the interaction of the primary and secondary flow is to concentrate the dust in an annular space, referred to as the mixed-flow region. 125 The dust thus spirals downward, and the secondary gas stream protects the outer wall from abrasion. Klein 128 concluded from his investigations that the performance of the Aerodyne rotary flow cyclone is predominantly independent of gas temperature and cyclone size. These findings do not agree with the simple mathematical analyses of such units performed at Westinghouse by Ciliberti and Lancaster) z9,~3o Their formulation suggests that the particle collection efficiency depends on viscosity and hence on temperature. The gas viscosity increases with an increase in temperature while the collection efficiency decreases. Ciliberti and Lancaster la have also tested a 4-in. dia Aerodyne rotary-flow cyclone rated at 50 cfm. A primary flow of 50 cfm was introduced through a 2in. dia vane, while the secondary flow of 30 cfm entered through eight tangential jets. The cyclone body from inlet to outlet was 13 in. long. The measured particle-collection efficiencies exhibit an appreciable discrepancy from the manufacturer's

S SECONDAR GASINLE~ L

N D IO NALLS

ER

---R

PRIMARY GASDUST INLET

AS

FIG. 9. Operation of Aerodyne particulate separator.

claim in the particle size range of I-4 pm. For larger than 3.75 pm fine limestone dust, the manufacturer claims complete collection whereas experimental values ranged between 90 and 95 %. Experiments were also conducted T M with a larger 0.188 ma/sec (400-cfm) Aerodyne unit with a view to establishing the effect of equipment size on efficiency. The primary flow was maintained at 0.177 ma/sec (375 cfm) of dirty gas; the secondary flow was 0.108 ma/sec (230-cfm) of clean or dirty gas. The collection efficiencies of this larger unit were not as good as those of the smaller 0.023 ma/sec(50-cfm) unit, establishing that efficiency is not independent of unit size. Additional experiments have been conducted t32 with a higher ratio of secondary to primary flow, to verify that a low secondary flow T M was not responsible for the poor collection efficiency. The primary flow in these experiments was 0.094 m3/sec (200 cfm) and the secondary flow was 0.122 ma/sec (260 cfm). Performance was similar to that in the previous runs. It was concluded that rotary-flow tornado-type cyclones do not perform appreciably better than conventional high-efficiency cyclones. General Electric x7,13a has also examined an Aerodyne-type rotary flow cyclone consisting of two cyclones, one inside the other. It was designed and operated for conditions corresponding to their conceptual design of a 500-MW coal-fired combinedcycle power plant. It is shown in Fig. 10 and had an outside diameter of 0.91 m (3 It) and was approximately 3.66 m (12 ft) in length with a 0.48-m dia (1.5ft dia) second stage. At standard conditions, it was rated for a flow of 1280 cfm. The coarse particles

Particulate removal from combustion gases

IO" O nF4=WIRL VANES

211

- OUTLET ORIFICE S- 7/8" O

- 0UST OISCHARGE PLATE OUST BAFFLE - 36" O - PRIMARY INLET ORIFICE

NO STAGE COLLECTOR

FIG. 10. Aerodyne cold-flow test model.

separate from the gas stream in the outer unit, where the flow splits into primary and secondary streams, each of which enter the inner cyclone through a spinner. Suitably located baffles separate the dust from the incoming gas before it enters the inner primary inlet orifice. Cold and hot flow tests agreed with the Westinghouse results. It was also noticed in these experiments that electrostatic forces dominated and enhanced the separation process. When the charges on the dust particles were suppressed, the separation efficiency decreased monotonically with flow rate. When such precautions were not taken, the separation efficiency remained constant, decreasing only for small gas flow rates. If, however, the charge on the dust particles was deliberately increased by introducing a corona charger, the separation efficiency increased both in cold-flow tests and in hot tests. These results led to GE work on the electrocyclone discussed in a later section. Curtiss-Wright 23 employed an Aerodyne twostage separator in their secondary gas clean-up system consisting of three cyclonic-type units in series placed downstream from the primary recycle cyclone. The system consisted of a Dyna-therm

n;.*,, ~^~hustion
I,,, A.

.con gas
Cleaned

gas outlet

lary

b~e~ ndary S Leon air )

Stationary vanes (secondaryflow provides downward force on dust particles)

Ctec gas

gas.

Stationary spinner (dust particles directed towards

wa Ll ]

rty ,'nbustion ' iS inlet

~ ~
.f

:ed

Collected dust Aerodyne 2 stage separator

Dynatherm "whirl-o-way"

Oucon

cyclone

FIG. l 1. Curtiss-Wright hot-gas cleanup system.

212

S.C. SAXJiNA. R. F. HI!NRY and W. F. PODOLSKI

Whirl-A-Way separator, a Ducon cyclone, and a clean-secondary-air Aerodyne (Fig. l l.) This particulate clean-up system was examined on the hot gas from a 0.91-m ID (3-ft ID) pressurized fluidized-bed combustor at 900C (1650F) and 690 kPa (100 psia). During the test phase, several design modifications were incorporated to improve gas cleanup performance. The Aerodyne unit can be assessed on the basis of reported collection efficiency data as the inlet long was progressively lowered. The collection efficiency was 75 % when the inlet loading was 6.62 kg/hr (14.6 lb/hr) with an inlet particulate mean diameter of 4.4/~m. When the inlet loading was reduced to 1.72 kg/hr (3.8 Ib/hr) for an inlet mean particulate diameter in the range of 1.5-20/zm, the collection efficiency dropped to 37 0~o.On the other hand, when the inlet loading further dropped to 1.18 kg/hr (2.6 lb/hr) for an inlet mean particle diameter of 2.6/Lm, the collection efficiency remained almost constant at 35 %. These results may be compared with the collection efficiency of 78 ~i given by the vendor for an inlet loading of 0.85 kg/hr (1.88 lb/hr) and an inlet mean particle diameter of 2.5 ~m. This study suggests that in the PFBC application, the particle removal efficiency of an Aerodyne unit is lower than that claimed by the manufacturer. In summary, the operational experiences of Westinghouse, General Electric, and Curtiss-Wright clearly suggest that the Aerodyne separators do not give the particle-removal efficiency claimed by the manufacturers. 4.2.2. TAN-JETcyclone The TAN-JET employs a secondary flow of clean air to improve gas-solid separation in the primary air flow of dirty gas entering the cyclone. The secondary air flow is preheated to the temperature of the incoming primary gas and enters the cyclone through specially designed nozzles which may operate at sonic velocity. To achieve this in the TAN-JET, a pressure ratio of 0.528 is required between the nozzle pressure and primary air flow pressure. The secondary air passing through the nozzle generates a vortex inside the cone and is supposed to provide the separation force. Both Westinghouse and ANL have carried out tests on a TAN-JET. The ANL/Donaldson TAN-JET cyclone T M is shown in Fig. 12, and its design and operational features are described by Verrant.135 Argonne National Laboratory tested and evaluated a Donaldson Company-designed and supplied TAN-JET cyclone installed in the flue-gas system of their 15.2-cm dia combustor downstream from a primary cleanup cyclone. Experiments were performed 136'137 with a fluidized bed of limestone at ambient temperature and a system pressure of about 240 kPa with no combustion. The results of these experiments revealed that the combined particlecollection efficiencies of the two cyclones ranged

between 96.4 and 99.5~o; the particle loadings downstream from the two stages of particle removal were between 0.08 and 0.17 g/m 3. These authors 136 also emphasized that the only significant correlation they could establish about TAN-JET performance was between collection efficiency and the mass loading of flue gas entering the TAN-JET. It was found that the collection efficiency increased with an increase in the loading of the entering flue gas. Additional experiments were performed in actual combustion situations in which Sewickley coal was burned in a bed of Greer limestone. TAN-JET collection efficiency ranged from a low of 88 % to a high of 94 ~;. At Westinghouse also, 131,132 ambient pressure and temperature testing has been conducted on the Donaldson TAN-JET dust collector cyclone. It was found that by properly altering the nozzle design, a high collection efficiency could be obtained at secondary gas flow rates much smaller than are required for the original design. They found collection efficiencies for different nozzle flow rates to
t CleonGasOut

DirtyGasIn ~Body Tangential Gas Jet Assembly Out

GosJets Dust
FIG. 12. ANL/Donaldson T A N - J E T cyclone.

be in good agreement with those reported by the manufacturers. 131.132 The secondary gas requirement for such cyclones is much smaller than the requirement for Aerodyne units but still represents an appreciable portion of the process cost. This has probably been the overriding consideration resulting in reduced experimentation with, and development of, such cyclones. The option of employing a secondary flow of dirty gas is unattractive because it would be likely to cause erosion of the secondary inlet jets. 4.2.3. Cyclocentrifu,qe Separation of particles in a turbine-rotor augmented cyclone is proposed by Mechanical

Particulate removal from combustion gases Technology Incorporated} 38 In this concept (shown in Fig. 13), the separation force is provided by the turbine-driven rotor. The rotor blades impart a high angular velocity to the incoming gas, which then passes to the cyclone section where separation occurs. Inner turbine blades of the rotor derive energy from the gas as the gas enters the base of the clean gas outlet. Cold tests have shown fractional removal efficiencies of 50% for particles of about 1.2/~m; for particles in the range of 1-1.6/~m, predictions for 538c'C (1000F) operation of a 0.188 m3/sec (400-scfm) unit indicated 50~o removals. Aero-

213

dynamic studies have also been reported, 139,14o and a 5.90m3/sec (12500-scfm) prototype has been designed to operate at 538C (1000F) and 1725 kPa (250 psig). This concept was originally planned for cleanup of hot gas in a gasification/combined cycle process and as such is designed for lower temperatures and higher pressures than are envisioned for PFBC/CC systems} 4 Equipment redesign would be required in order to evaluate the cyclocentrifuge at higher PFBC temperatures and might provide a viable hot-gas cleanup device which could then be fully evaluated in terms of costs, pressure drop and performance.
Variable Speed Drive (For Test rangement Only)

Discharge Upper Bearing Support - ~ Bearing / Upper Nose C o n e /

Upper Centrifuge /Support Struts Buffered Labyrinth Seal

~
~...

Inlet

Lower Nose C o n e ~ Bearing ~ Lower Bearing Support _ J Stationary Nose Cone i Vortex Core /..

~"'I ~ ~ L ~~'Turbine er Centrifuge Support Struts Shroud "

"

/-*

~ " ' C y c l o n e Shell

~Cone

Dust Collection Hopper

FIG. 13. Cyclocentrifuge, general arrangement.

214 4.2.4. Wedge separator

S.C. SAXE!YA. R. F. HI~NRYand W. F. POIX)LSKI 4.2.5. Laminar cyclone Since one major limitation of performance for conventional cyclones is thought to be reentrainment of dust by a turbulence mechanism, investigations of the possibility of maintaining the laminar character of the flow were conducted at General Electric. ~44 The exploratory phase of the project led to the conclusion that laminar flow could be maintained to relatively high Reynolds numbers in the radially inward swirl flow regime of the entrance region, but the large instability at the transition to the axial swirl region in the main body of the unit was not suppressible. This investigation was terminated.

A novel approach to the separation of small particulates from a flowing gas stream has been investigated by Linhardt and Associates.14t They are experimenting with two approaches which provide for significant slip of the particles in relation to the flow field. In their simple wedge separator concept, the inlet stream is accelerated to trans-sonic conditions and directed toward the wedge, as shown in Fig. 14. The shock separation of particles and flow is the proposed mechanism of operation for this device. Another version, the centrifugal wedge shown in Fig. 15, has been tested at conditions ranging up to 982C (1800F) and 3100 kPa (450 psi). T M Particle removal was shown to be better than that of several types of cyclones given in the literature, but pressure drops were higher. With bleed stream flows of 20 % or more of the primary flow and with velocities varied from Mach 0.3 to greater than Mach 0.9~ 42,143 particle removals of greater than 90 9/0 for 2-10 m particles are reported. This version utilizes a clean undisturbed flow field for inertial separation via a bleed slot--it is, thus, similar to the inlet portion of a conventional cyclone. Evaluations thus far are based on data from laboratory apparatus with flow paths about onequarter of an inch in size. Data from realisticallysized equipment should allow better judgment of performance advantages and pressure drop penalties which characterize this technique. Results of the recent tests at the Westinghouse Waltz Mill facility have not yet been published, but the high-bleed stream flow rates and pressure drops required for the high efficiencies reported earlier lead to some apprehension regarding economics and operating requirements.

4.2.6. Electrostatic enhancement Studies of the Aerodyne cyclone by GE, ~33 discussed above, yielded indications of the effects of electrostatic forces. Concurrent studies, ~45.~,~6 with a converted cyclone burner model, which had two inlets, led to the development of the clean-airshielded electrocyclone.147.148 Experiments on several sizes, as well as with variations of the design geometry (both high-flow and high-efficiency designs) were carried out to characterize performance, as well as the relative effects of electrostatic and inertial forces. A schematic of this concept which shows the dimensions varied is given in Fig. 16. At higher inlet velocities, the augmentation in performance due to the air shield feature diminished. During the dbvelopment and testing of the electrocyclone, potential performance advantages were estimated. Initial predictions 14~ were that an air-

Diffuser
v

(~)
(~

Upstream conditions NozzLe throat. Upstream of oblique shock

(~) Downstream of oblique shock (~) InLet to diffuser

(~ Discharge of diffuser
(~) ParticLe stream discharge

FIG. 14. Schematic of high-velocity wedge separator.

Particulate removal from combustion gases

215
O I - p r i m a r y t u r n i n g angle prlnmry t u r n i n g a n g l e , OlP pressure side Ols - primary turning angle. suction slde O12 - angle between primary and secondary flow region R l - p r i m a r y t u r n i n g radius R2 - s e c o n d a r y turning

radius angle

0 2 - secondary turning

II.2

FIG. 15. Centrifugal wedge separator.

CLEAN INLET

I~-~D~

DIRTY

HII E

DUST HOPPER

FIG. 16. Air-shielded electrocyclone.

shielded electrocyclone with a 4.3-m (14-ft) dia would have a particulate-removal efficiency equivalent to that of a conventional 15-cm (6-in.) diameter cyclone, but with 250 times the throughput. Later estimates 15 predicted that a 3.7-m (12-ft) dia airshielded electrocyclone would have performance equal to a 25-cm (10An) dia conventional cyclone. In a more recent presentation, the applications of several gas cleanup systems to a pulverized-coal system were evaluated. For this study, T M acoustic agglomeration for augmentation of particle capture was also included. For conventional cyclones in such a system, it was estimated that a large (l.2-m or 4-ft dia cyclone followed by a stage of 25-cm (10-in.) multiclones could lower the particulate level sufficiently to meet the EPA limit, whereas three stages of 3.7-m (12-ft) dia electrocyclones would be required. The advantage of the electrocyclone in these predictions is not so much in superior removal efficiency as in greater throughput. During the development of the electrocyclone, two electrostatic phenomena were considered to be potential concerns. These are space-charge and corona-quench effects, t 52

216

S.C. SAXIiNA,R. F. HliNRYand W. F. PODOLSKI structed and tested--including units for PFBC, coal gasification, and natural gas cleanup service, as shown in Table 2.16 Many workers have discussed the state of the art and their own work in connection with the operation of ESPs at high temperatures and pressures. See, for example, the publications of Rinard et al., 16z Weber et al.] 62 and Bush et

Space-charge effects are reported to be of no benefit for unit sizes larger than about 1.8 m (6 ft), while corona quenching is only of importance at dust loadingsgreater than0.23 g/m 3 (1 gr/scf). This leads to the conclusion that an electrocyclone may not perform as predicted if it is larger than 1.8 m (6 It) in dia and/or it has a dust loading greater than 1 gr/scf. Throughout the GE work, electrostatic/augmentation effects were observed for cyclones when inertial forces were relatively low--that is, in high-flow, lower-collection-efficiency cyclones, or when a cyclone was operated below its design throughput. Most recently, 552 the air-shield feature has been discarded. Testing of an electrocyclone at HTHP conditions is yet to be carried out (thus far, all cyclone work with electrostatic fields has been at LTLP). Perhaps the most significant potential advantage of the electrocyclone is that, if it is designed to provide acceptable separation for a given throughput, electrostatic augmentation might compensate for fall-off of efficiency when lower throughputs are used at reduced load conditions in a PFBC/CC system. This is not an insigificant advance, and certainly is a demonstration of an important effect, but it does not provide the enhancement of a well-designed cyclone. The potential for maintaining performance at lowered throughput is an effect that also must be demonstrated at HTHP.

aL163,164
Successful operation of ESPs depends on particle migration due to a charge (induced on the particle in the presence of an electric field). This, in turn, depends on the generation of a stable "'corona" discharge and the ability of particles to both develop a charge and dissipate it once collection has occurred. Physical removal of the collected particles is an important step in overall ESP operation. Practical operation of an ESP is carried out at voltages in excess of the corona starting potential, and stable operation is possible up to the spark-over or breakdown voltage. As higher operating temperatures are experienced, the useful voltage operating range becomes narrower such that at 800'C, only a very narrow range exists for operation at atmospheric pressure. There is, however, a compensating effect of pressure: at a given temperature, the operating range widens with increasing pressure. These effects are explained by an ~'ion mobility" mechanism which is inversely related to gas density, which implies that operation is feasible at PFBC conditions (about 1013 kPa or 10 atm. and 850C). Early work in HTHP ESP was carried out by Shale and coworkers at the Bureau of Mines at Morgantown, West Virginia (now the Department of Energy Morgantown Energy Technology Center). 565- 167 in a benchscale unit constructed of a single 5-cm (2-in.) pipe having a 0.5-mm (0.02-in.) platinum wire electrode (see Fig. 17). Test conditions could be adjusted within the range from ambient to 815C (1500F) at a pressure of 653 kPa (80 psig). The Bureau of Mines pilot-scale unit was provided by Research Cottrell and comprised 16 tubes of 15.2cm (6-in.I dia, each with a 2-ram (0.08-in.t dia central wire. (See Table 2 and Fig. 18.) The entire assembly, with electrode grid, tubes in a tube sheet, and rapping mechanism, was assembled in a pressure shell. In the first tests of this series at ambient pressure and with a negative corona* at temperatures up to 730oc,565 stable operation of the bench scale precipitator was shown. Above this temperature, operation with a stable corona was possible only at elevated pressures. In subsequent work, 16~ also in the bench unit, use of a positive corona'j" resulted in lower operating currents and higher voltages. The tentative conclusion was that the use of a positive corona might lead to higher particulate collection effici-

4.3. Electrostatic Precipitators ( ESPs) Oglesby and Nichols] 53 Robinson] 54 and many others have described the basic operating principles and characteristics of electrostatic precipitators. According to Ziminski] 55 the use of an ESP on a coal-fired boiler dates back to 1923. Since then, ESPs have been increasingly used for flue-gas cleanup on commercial pulverized-coal boilers. In this service at essentially atmospheric pressure, temperatures in the range of 95-205C are seen. Some commercial installations firing Western coal have ESPs on the "hot side" of the final flue gas heat-recovery unit and operate at temperatures of 315~25C. This facilitates the collection of the higher-resistivity fly ash. Resistivity decreases with increasing temperature. There is much research, development, and characterization of ESP technology for conventional combustion and other low-temperature and low-pressure applications--as indicated by the number and scope of papers presented at the symposia on the Transfer and Utilization of Particulate Control Technology, conducted regularly by the U.S. EPA. 156- 559 Extrapolation of ESP technology to the hightemperature high-pressure (HTHP) conditions required for pressurized fluidized-bed combustor/ combined cycle (PFBC/CC) systems appears to be feasible, but only laboratory and smaller than pilot-scale experiments have been performed. During the 1960s, several pilot systems were con-

*The central discharge electrode was negative. tThe central discharge electrode was positive.

TABI.I 2. Texas Gas Transmission Co. 1965-1967 Lake Cormorant, M1 Pipeline gas Pipeline Lube oil

Pilot HTHP electrostatic precipitator experience ~'~

Union Carbide Olefins Combustion Power Co. 1966-1968 Montebello, CA Methanol 1961-1963 Montebello, CA Heavy oil (12: API) Gasifier Carbon Texaco Co. 1963 1968 Morgantown, W. VA Natural gas H.P. Gas burner (lab) Flyash, reinjectcd

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Dates tested Location Fuel

1962 1964 Institute, W. VA Coal

System

PFB Burner

Dust type

Ash

F/ g

2.6 870-1000 304-810 19 15.2 1.83 0.2-1.2 570 820 ~21-4 Wires Twisted wires 14.6 16.7-27.9 Twisted wires rigid elect rodes One 3 x 1.8 twisted, five 3 x 1.8 twisted, 6-vane paddlewheel 98.8

30 1000 1100 456--659 16 15.2 1.83 0.3-1.1 2600

Water expansion burner Alumina/flyash injected 6 10 1150 1200 456-1114 1 20.3 4.57 2.9 980 0.00743.01 4~65 2129-2532 5,3,1 10.2, 15.2, 20.3 1.83 0.6l-1.1 490 8.9 Wires

0.7 310-316 5370 5672 Plates: 7 ducts 7.6 (plate spacing) 3.05 x 0.6 high 39 163,000

g
3

Mean particle dia, Itm T, K P, kPa No. of pipes in nnit Pipe dia, cm Pipe Length, m Gas velocity, m/see Gas Flow, kg/hr Specific collection area, m-'/1000 acfm Discharge electrode: type

18.6 111

Wires

0"Q

Discharge elect rodc: dia, mm 2.1 3x2.8

2.1,3.4

0.25

98.8

91-96

80- 82

99 Water flush

Typical collection efficiency. ";, Precipitator cleaning system: High temp Low temp Rappcr Rapper Rapper Rapper

Rapper Rapper

Spray syslems

-.-..I

218
OC

S.C. SAXIiNA,R. F. HFNRYand WmF. PODOLSKI

FROM ,~ SOURCE ~/IGN ITE;coOLIN WATER G

>GAS

GAS >[ COOLIN WATER G <l -.----INSULATOR ~SPIOER

WEIGHT-~

;t

COOLIN WATER G

encies because of the higher voltages possible-although this was not accomplished in the experiments, probably because of a power supply limitation. In 1969 work, 167 the pilot-scale unit was operated at H T H P conditions. Mechanical difficulties were encountered due to thermal expansion and some design inadequacies, but stable operations were observed with both a positive and a negative corona. Once again, the predicted potential advantages of a positive corona were not observed. Further work on H T H P ESP was undertaken at Reserch Cottrell and has been described by Feldman and Kumar ~68 and in several review articles. 154'16'163']6'* Extensive tables and graphical presentations of corona currents, breakdown voltages, and other operating characteristics have been presented in many of these references. Current efforts in HTHP ESP research are being carried out at both Research Cottrell 169 and Denver Research Institute (DRI).I7 Conceptual precipitator designs by each of these organizations are shown in Figs 19 and 20. Each has a provision for cooling the electrode insulators. Proposed test programs include investigation of the effects of: 1. Discharge electrode type

FIG. 17. Morgantown bench-scale high-temperature, highpressure electrostatic precipitator design.

2. Cleaning method and intensity 3. Electric field strength 4. Polarity of applied voltage 5. Operating pressure 6. Operating temperature 7. Gas Velocity.

ilftllf'~ll~
/.. f / J / / I" POWER CONNECTION~ [~ ~ ~"~ I RAPPING MECHANISM |WIRES)

,~

MECHANISM

~:D'~:t~q:J,4~.

tl~

HOPPER

t ~ SUSPENSION ~. "~ ~ ] , , " ~ WEIGHT

FIG. 18. Pilot-scale high-temperature, high-pressure electrostatic precipitator design.

Particulate removal from combustion gases

C.E. R A p D F ~

219

COOLING (

rOR

[ COOLING FINS ~ IELDS D.E. SUPPI SYSTE& RAPPEF )ZZLE

RADIATION SHIELD -

HV FEEOTHROUGH p L _~ -

WATER COOLING JACKET RAPPING R00S

C.E. TUBE

COLLECTII
ELECTRO{

TRODE

C.E. LO~ ING

INLET

~
4 p

'
~t~

PRESSURE SHELL
BLANKET INSULATION

FIG. 19. High temperature-high pressure electrostatic precipitator. Cottrell Environmental Sciences.

REFRACTOR,

There is agreement in principle on the feasibility of ESP operation at HTHP conditions, but several physical concerns remain to be addressed and longterm operability demonstrated. Two of these are the potential re-entrainment of solids during "rapping" and the adherence of dust to electrode and insulator surfaces. The adequacy of performance characterization and alleviation of these operating concerns, along with extended operation in conjunction with a PFBC, should indicate directions for further development and evaluation. To this end, a demonstration of an ESP unit designed by Cottrell at the Curtiss-Wright Small Gas Turbine Test Facility is planned. DRI is working on supporting studies for the final unit design. 4.4. Granular-Bed Filters Granular-bed filters have a long history of a wide variety of uses and development, well documented in several reviews such as those of Razgaitis, 32 Yung et al.,i7~ Saxena and Swift, 25 and Saxena.31,172 Granular-bed filters have been exploited in all of the four possible operational modes, viz fixed-bed, intermittently moving bed, continuously moving bed, and fluidized bed. The primary collection mechanism is impaction, and very high efficiencies are obtained only by establishing very small separation distances. Secondary effects of importance are: (1) for very small particulate, diffusion (Brownian motion) and

WATER COOLING JACKET

....

FIG. 20. High temperature-high pressure electrostatic precipitator. Denver Research Institute.

(2) for small collection surfaces, direct interception. Further, for filter beds of appreciable depth, agglomeration may occur as a result of the tortuous path. Particulate removal levels are a function of bed depth and/or contacting efficiencies, and in most concepts must be balanced against pressure drop and media handling considerations. For the special application of final cleanup of hot and compressed gas from PFBC for combined-cycle operations, moving-bed and fixed-bed granular filters are currently being investigated. These investigations are discussed here in some detail. Air Pollution Technology has developed a slightly different variant of a moving-bed filter in which particle collection is predominantly by inertial impaction. The application of an external electric or magnetic field is found to enhance particulate collection efficiency, and work with electrogranular and magnetically stabilized beds is being pursued. These efforts, as well as the current status of various ongoing projects, are

220

S.C. SAXENA.R. F. HENRYand W. F. POI)OLSKI of using spent sulfur-absorbing sorbent from a PFBC as a fixed-bed filtration media for the flue gas from a 15.2-cm dia fiuidized-bed combustor. However, fresh as well as sulfated limestone and dolomite has been used as a granular-bed material. Flue gas passed downward through the granular-bed filter, which has an inside diameter of either 7.8 or 15 cm and a depth of 5-40 cm. Preliminary experiments were performed at ambient conditions without combustion to determine the degree to which dust from the limestone granular bed would contribute to dust loading in the effluent gas from the filter. In these tests compressed air at gas velocities ranging from approximately 0.6 to approximately 2.4 m/sec was passed through granular filter beds of fresh or sulfated limestone of particle size ranges, - 1 4 +30 mesh and - 6 +14 mesh. Acceptable particle collection revealed the appropriateness of limestone sorbent materials in fixed granular-bed filters. Experiments were next performed employing the flue gas from the combustor, which was operated at about 1123 K and about 308 kPa. During a typical combustion experiment, the flue gas temperature at the filter was only about 453 K. The tests were, however, regarded as valuable in that they were performed using a gas that contained particulate dust generated by an operating PFBC. These experiments were performed particularly to evaluate the effects on filtration efficiency of filter-bed particle size, bed depth, and gas velocity. Filtration efficiency was found to increase with bed depth in the range examined. At a given gas velocity and a given bed depth, decreasing the mean particle size of the filterbed material resulted in increased collection efficiency. The results of tests designed to determine the effect of gas velocity on filtration efficiency were inconclusive.1v3,174

discussed briefly in the following section, while a summary of theoretical calculations and modeling work is given in Appendix A. 4.4.1. F i x e d - b e d f i l t e r s Discussed below is work on fixed-bed filters performed in recent years at Argonne National Laboratory, Exxon, and Westinghouse. The filter and the filter loop at Argonne used by Swift et aL 17s and Johnson et al. 174 are shown in Figs 21 and 22. One of the goals of their work was to evaluate the concept

GAS

IN

3'OR6"FILTER ASSEMBLY

H E R M O C O U P L E
FIG. 21. Argonne National Laboratory test filter.

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE FLUE GAS..~"-L] F R O M s F E B c C o N D A R Y )/ CYCLONE

P R M IA R Y
---

.__,,,. TO VENT

FILTER ~ . . . ~ SAMPLE

ASIt10 RECEIVER

] SINTEREn METAL

- I

L._.JFILTER

spL,-rLO* 00P .IC'S,N,ffgE,,E,AL

FIG,22. Schematicof ArgonneNational laboratoryfilter loop.

Particulate removal from combustion gases At the Exxon Miniplant, funded by EPA, Nutkis et al.175 tested a Ducon-supplied granular-bed filter (see Fig. 23) in conjunction with their miniplant pressurized fluidized-bed combustion system operating at temperatures up to 1253 K and pressures up to 1000 kPa. At a typical fluidization velocity of about 1.8 m/sec (6 ft/sec), the flue gas rate was 650 scfm. The particulate loading in the flue gas entering the filter was about 2.3 g/m 3 or 1.0 gr/scf. The mass median particle diameter was 5-7 #m. The filter elements were installed in a pressure vessel (2.4m in dia and 3.4 m in height) lined with refractory. The vessel had four flanges at the top and held up to four filter elements, each one contained within a shroud. The pressure vessel was heated to a temperature above the dew point of the combustor flue gas before filtration was started. The dusty inlet gas was piped and metered to each shroud at the top end through a flanged joint. The filtered gas also exited from the top of each shroud and filled the interior of the pressure vessel. Particulates removed from the filter during the filtration cycle impinged on the inside surface of the shroud and collected at the bottom in lockhoppers. The blowback air (in the cleaning cycle) entered each of the filter elements at the top end and flowed through the granular bed in the direction opposite to its direction during the filtration cycle. Initially, tests were conducted with three Ducon filter elements. Each element was 20 cm in diameter and 1.8 m long and contained 12 beds of a granular material such as alumina, quartz, etc. There was an inlet screen of 50-mesh size that had the function of retaining the filter media during the cleaning cycle

221

FILTRATION CYCLE

BLOWBACK CYCLE

&
BEDS SHROUD ~ .

<Z ..

FiG. 23. Granular-bed filter schematic.

while allowing the fine dust particles to pass through. A number of tests were undertaken, but the pressure drop across the filter was excessive and all efforts to blowback were unsuccessful. Visual inspection of these filter elements revealed that a hard filter cake had formed on the inlet retaining screens. Very little particulate dust material was found in the filter medium. Further testing under different conditions was conducted, but the problem of screen plugging remained, preventing successful testing. Filter element design was therefore modified (1) by removing the screens and (2) by providing more freeboard (to prevent entrainment of filter media during blowback). A perforated-plate fluidization grid, used to support the media, ensured good distribution of blowback air. Modified filter elements were fabricated, and two of the filter elements were installed, each containing five filter beds for testing. To prevent the entrainment of filter media, a freeboard height of 18 cm was used in each of the filter beds and was found adequate. The successful operability of this modified filter was demonstrated in a 24-hr test run. During this period, no significant increase in the baseline pressure drop across the filter occurred. Blowback was usually required every 10-20 min, during which time the filter pressure drop had increased by only 14 kPa above its baseline value. Blowback periods ranged between 2 and 30 sec, and the superficial gas velocity was varied between 0.15 and 0.75 m/sec. Filtration velocities ranged between 20 m/sec and 24 m/sec. Filter media particles were either 300- to 600-~,m quartz particles, or 840- to 1400-/~m alumina particles. Particulate-collection efficiencies of 90-95 o;, were found for outlet particulate concentrations of about 0.1 g/m 3. The particulates in filtered gas had a mean median size of about 3 #m, with about l0 t'' ,o of the particles larger than 10 F~m.It was also observed that the outlet loadings increased with time. Also, dust particles were found to be retained in the filter bed (10-30~o of bed); these were uniformly distributed throughout the filter bed. Several design problems were discovered in ambient-temperature tests in a transparent filter unit. Unfortunately, testing of this filter was terminated before cell operability problems could be solved. 121 At Westinghouse, Lippert et al. ~76 are evaluating the Ducon concept of fixed-bed granular filtration under a PRDA contract from the DOE for PFBC applications. In Fig. 24, a single element is shown that consists of four compartments which operate in parallel in both the filtration and cleaning (or blowback) cycles. Each compartment contains a shallow bed of granular particles supported on an appropriate gas distributor plate and serving as the filter media. In the filtration cycle, the dusty gas enters through a slot at the top of each compartment and passes down through the filter bed. The cleaned gas from all compartments combines and exits from the element through the clean gas plenum.

222

S.C. SAX]!NA,R. F. Hl!nR'and W. F. POIX)LSKI

GBFeLement-fiLtrotion mode ~ ~ CLeepigp:

I~"~R111

(" ~ ' k , ' ~ . l I ~ S e d 9ranutes

' '"

GOFeLement-cteoning mode

'~..-Dist r ibutor prate

FIG. 24. Westinghouse fixed, granular-bed test filter.

In the bed-cleaning cycle, the beds are cleaned by fluidizing them with high-pressure air flowing in the reverse direction for a short time. Sufficient freeboard height is available in each bed compartment so that media granules are not lost in the bedcleaning cycle while dust particles are being ejected from the bed. For steady-state bed fluidization, it is necessary to select the proper granule size, compartment design, backflush velocity, and duration of backflush cycle. The backflush fluidization velocity must fall between the minimum fluidization velocity of the largest granules and the terminal velocity of the smallest bed granules. The relationships of the operating variables and system geometry to particulate collection efficiency and filter pressure drop are reasonably well understood from cold model and bench-scale test

experiments, at According to Lippert et al., t76 the high collection efficiency in their filter bed is not due to clean bed conditions but to an operating state of the filter in which dust collected on individual media granules bridges the gap between them, and the collection mechanism shifts to what is referred to as barrier filtration. Under such conditions, high filtration efficiency is achieved due to the formation of dust cake on the surface of filter granules. Indeed, the experimental work conducted by Ducon, Inc., and Westinghouse independently on small-scale, Plexiglas models at low temperatures and low pressure confirmed this. The Ducon tests were conducted with fly ash (90~o<95/~m, 50~o< 10/tm, and 5 ~o< I /~m), and the formation of a surface cake was visually observed; collection efficiency was almost 100 ~o. Similar results were found with carbon black. The filter face velocity was kept below 80 ft/min. This preserved the surface cake. At higher velocities, breakthrough of dust was observed. Westinghouse employed ground limestone dust (100~o< 10 mm) and, during a test period of 12 hr, obtained a collection efficiency ranging between 99.7 and 99.9~o at ambient temperature in the pressure range between 5 and 10kPa. In their hightemperature (593C or 1100F), low-pressure runs at a gas velocity of 30 ft/min, the collection efficiency ranged between 99.0 and 99.9 ~o. These authors ~76 also examined the test runs of Exxon researchers ~2t and suggested several possibilities that might have contributed to the problems which limited the operational success of the Exxon unit. Much of this concern is related to the backflush procedure; it is proposed that dust expelled from one element probably settled onto another. It was pointed out that proper settlement of the dust in the containment vessel was an important aspect of the filtration process. Further, a problem may arise if either the backflush velocity is excessively high or the bed is highly agitated. In both cases, the agglomerated dust particles in the containment vessel may get so dispersed and be of a size range which is hard to settle. These authors also believe that in most of the Exxon tests, the filter was pulsed during backflush. This might have caused loss of part of the bed media during the pulsed transient. Based on their experience, the Westinghouse engineers have designed a six-element test unit contained inside a single pressure vessel, as shown in Fig. 25. This unit is used for filtering hot gas containing fly ash or other dust at high pressure. Each element contains four parallel operating compartments, each having a bed of 15.2cm x30.5 c m 3 . 8 c m deep and a surface area of 0.047 m:. The six-element unit thus has a total surface area of 1.1 m 2. The media has a particle size range of 250~550/tm, the freeboard height is 30.5 cm, and the backflush velocity is 52 cm/sec. The operating filter face velocity is 25.4 cm/sec, and this pilot unit has a rated capacity of 16.7 m3/min. In the

Partictflate removal from combustion gases

223

W /"

~
v~n ~ I[~ muim / , 4 1 ItOW41AII
r.~E

SUPPORT Sat FNIEIIFIIAX A

IS t a A 1 1 0 1 1

FILTER MD ~

--OUCOII

GRANULAR lEO FILI1ER ELEMENT

m~,um./ w.l~t

POROUS iq.ATE SECTION A-A

SECTION B-B

FIG. 25. General arrangement of six-element Westinghouse granular-bed filter pilot unit.

cleaning cycle, only one element is operated on backflush at a given time. Recent test results ~77 have indicated a problem with flow distribution--most of the cleaning flow passes through only one of the four parallel compartments causing loss of media. As a result, most of the forward flow also passes through the one "cleaned" bed and less than optimum performance is observed. Modifications are planned to alleviate this problem, first by sealing off three of the four beds, and second by construction of a new single-bed unit of area equivalent to the four in the original design. 4.4.2. Movino-bed filters Combustion Power Company has been investigating a moving-bed granular filter (GBF) for application in pressurized, high-temperature energy conversion systems under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Energy) 78 The design details of the moving-bed granular filter and the flow diagram of the test system are given by Guillory 179 and Geffken et a l ) 78 The dirty gas to be cleaned is allowed to flow radially outward in cross-flow through an annulus of granular collecting media. The still dirty media is then pneumatically transported to a fluid bed located just above the filter housing. After the media is cleaned, it is cycled back into the filter. Guillory, 179 on the basis of linear regression analysis of the test data, has correlated the collection efficiency and pressure drop by the following simple relation:

Here, q is the particulate collection efficiency, AP is the pressure drop across the granular bed, U is the superficial gas velocity, L~ is the inlet dust concentration, / is the media flow rate, and Ao and A1 are the empirical coefficients determined by linear regression of the experimental data. Wigton is and Geffken et al. i t s have expressed the collection efficiency as the sum of four terms representing particulate collection by impaction, interception, diffusion, and sedimentation mechanisms, viz~,
q = Ns t + e 2 Dp

1 3

3 ed-+4"36
e

(Nee)- 2/3 + . . . . (No, r)3~4. 8

0.384

1-~=A0 F

Geffken et al. ~Ta considered a simple empirical model (having little theoretical basis) for reentrainment phenomena. They also considered the relationship of collection efficiency and pressure drop to dimensional considerations. Wade T M has summarized the early experience of the Combustion Power Company (CPC) with a moving granular-bed filter, including design details, experimental data, and mathematical modeling. Moresco et al. ~s2 described a modified version of the moving granular-bed filter with several improvements and reported on the filtering of particulate matter from the exhaust gases of an atmospheric coal-fired, fluid-bed combustor. The results look encouraging inasmuch as particulate collection efficiencies were greater than 99% for particles larger than 3 #m. Continuing work at the CPC is described in recent articles by Moresco and Cooper zs3 and Guillory) a4 The CPC has produced commercial cross-flow "screened" granular-bed filters for filtration of stack gas particulate and fugitive dust cleanup. A schematic of the screened cross-flow moving-bed granular

224

S.C. SaxJ~na. R. F. HI NR', and W. F. POI)OLSKI p r o p a n e ~ i r heaters. Particle-laden combustion gases were passed through a recycle cyclone, a primary cyclone, a particle sampling duct, and into the filter. The clean filtered gas exited at 1113 K and was passed through a particle sampling duct before exiting into the atmosphere. Two-millimeter alumina refractory particles flow down countercurrently to the hot-gas flow in the filter bed (Fig. 27). Tests of continuous operation of the filter for 100-, 200-, 300and 400-hr periods (total of 1000 hr) have been successfully completed without any sign of performance deterioration. In all tests, the particlecapture efficiency of the filter remained approximately 99"~,; filter pressure-drop values ranged between 6.0 and 7.0 kPa, and the inlet gas flow velocity and particle loading were 0.18 m3/sec and 6.0 g/m 3, respectively, at 1113 K. Particle collection efficiency (by weight) was measured for several size fractions. It was found to decrease from 99 ,o for particles having an aerodynamic particle diameter of > 4 / t m to about 93.2+1.0!~,, for particles having a diameter of about 0.3/;m. Moresco and Cooper ~82 have recently reported on low-temperature test runs conducted with this screenless granular-bed filter. Titanium dioxide particulate was added to the inlet gas since it permitted investigation of the ability of the filter to collect micron and submicron particles. The mass median

filter is shown in Fig. 26. Gas flows radially through the annulus of natural "'pea gravel" (used as bed material in the commercial filters) or special alumina (used in high-temperature filters). Plugging problems were encountered in some of these screened filters, at both low and high temperatures, when used with sticky particulate matter. When particulate matter was filtered from flue gas emitted by an atmospheric fluidized-bed combustor burning Illinois No, 6 coal in dolomite, the screens blinding was attributed to the adhesive/cohesive nature of the coal ash and the sulfated sorbent. Thus, the pressure drop across the screened filter steadily increased, and the test run had to be terminated. The CPC then developed a screenless, countercurrent flow design for the filter, as shown in Fig. 27. No plugging problem was encountered in a 1000-hr test run with this filter. Some details of this run are as follows. Illinois No. 6 coal was burned with dolomite in a fluidized bed at atmospheric pressure and 1143 K. The feed air was preheated by in-line

COLLECTED pAImCULATE TOMG FILTFJ

-I

I I

ET

GAS OUTLET ;TERNAL MEDIA

ESERVOIR

EQUALLY SPACED EDIA FEED LEGS

OUTERSHELL AND CLEANGAS OU~.~ DUCT O(L_ITIEOFOR CLANTY

~ , ~
~ G,~ ~" FL( t
/

dNER MEDIA LOW ANNULUS

"%
~ DIRTY MEDIA
FIG.

26. Cross-flow moving-bed granular Combustion Power Company. Inc.

filter of

FIG. 27. Combustion power company screcnless counter-

current high-temperature moving-bed granular filter.

Particulate removal from combustion gases diameter of the particles was 2/~m. The dependent variables measured were total filtration efficiency, fractional efficiency, and presure drop. The parameters, in terms of Reynolds number (NRe) and modified Stokes number ((/p Z Ns,/~Dp), were varied during the runs within the following ranges: 102 <NR,,< and I O- ~ < (/pZ N s, < I O- ~. V~D~ Here, (~, and f~ are the volume flow rates of particulates and granular collector particles, respectively, Z is the filter bed depth, and D~ is the diameter of collector particles. The experimental test results could be correlated by the following relation: P = 3.5 10- 3 NR,,0.3I(
10 4

225

accumulation in the bed. That is to say, this efficiency increases with an increase in average dust accumulation, reaches a maximum value, and thereafter decreases even though the average dust accumulation increases further. The authors emphasize the need to know such characteristics of the filter bed for an adequate design of a filter pilot plant. To summarize the status of the moving-bed filters, CPC has commercialized their screened concept for LTLP work and are developing the screenless version for HTHP applications. Other small-scale studies are being carried out to elucidate mechanisms and to indicate future directions. 4.4.3. Fluidized-bed filters Gutfinger et al. 188 employed a fluidized-bed, crossflow filter to clean the exhaust gases from a 2.5-hp "Peter" Diesel engine. The filter was operated in the steady-state mode so that the clean media granules were continuously introduced at the top and dirty granules removed from the bottom. The particulate collection filter efficiency, q, is obtained from the single filter-granule efficiency, qp, by the following relation: q=l-exp -1.5qp 1-e Z ) 2R r Here, Z is the total height of the filter, ~ is the porosity of the filter bed, and Rp is the media granule radius. The mechanisms and theories involved in the determination of r/p are given and reviewed by Gutfinger eta/. 189A9 They performed experiments with a 10-cm thick granular bed of coarse quartz sand of 1.6-mm average particle diameter in the fluidized mode. 19 Particulate collection efficiencies of the fluidized-bed cross-flow filter were measured as a function of dust particle diameter, with gas temperature a parameter. The smoke coming out of the diesel engine was diluted with hot compressed air. The particle size distribution of the diesel smoke was between 0.02 and 1 pm, with a peak in the range, 0.1 -0.2 Itm. The superficial gas velocity was 87 cm/sec, and the measurements were conducted at mean gas temperatures of 303, 468 and 478 K. It was noted that in particulate collection, all three mechanisms diffusion, inertia, and interception--were participating. It was also observed that triboelectric effects were quite pronounced at room temperature, with much less contribution at higher temperatures. The cross-flow moving-bed filter mode was also examined at 300, 573, and 773 K at a bed thickness of 15 cm. Experimental results in all cases are compared with the predictions of theory as given by the above relationship (where in computing the single-particle efficiency, the effects of inertia, interception, and diffusion are considered). In all cases, the experimental collection efficiencies are greater than those predicted on the basis of theoretical calculations.

(/pe N s , / ~ D p ) -

0.26.

Here, P is the penetration of the dust particles. Kalinowski and Leith 186 report on their results obtained in a 20.3-cm dia concurrent moving granular-bed filter, which they claim should be preferred to a continuously moving cross-flow design. 111 their arrangement, the particle-laden gas passes downward through a descending bed of media granules while clean granules are added continuously at the top of the bed. Least-squares regression fit of mass penetration, Pt, data at two bed volumes yielded the following result: Pt(i!~b) = 2.42 + 0.69 x 1O- 4 K UZ. Here, K is the intergranular dust deposit (1-5 % by weight), U is the superficial gas velocity (100200 ram/see), and Z is the bed depth (130 or 230 mm). Yamamura and Terada t sv have extensively tested a moving-bed filter in which the bed consisted of about 50 cm of alumina bails of diameters 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 mm. In one series of runs, the gas velocity was maintained at 0.5 m/see and the inlet dust concentration at 1 g/m 3. It was noticed that the outlet dust concentration for each bed decreased with an increase in the bed depth; for bed depths greater than 10 cm, the relation was linear on a semilogarithmic scale. Also, for a given bed depth, the outlet dust concentration was found to be largest for the smallest size bed particle and smallest for the largest bed particle. Their experiments also revealed that the outlet dust concentration decreased both as the gas velocity decreased and also as the velocity of the moving bed decreased. At higher velocities of moving bed, there is less of an increase in the outlet dust concentration with an increase in the velocity of the beds. Dust accumulation on the alumi'na balls depends on operating conditions. When the inlet dust concentration is high or the velocity of the bed is low, dust accumulation is high. Experimental results show a maximum in the curve representing the particle collection efficiency vs average dust
JPECS II:3-C

226

S.C. SAXIiNA,R. F. HENRYand W. F. PODOLSKI (1400F) have been investigated. At temperatures above 593C (II00F), the electrical power consumption in EPB is greater than 217 W per m3/sec (10 W/100 acfm), and EFB has been investigated as an alternative. Experiments revealed that for certain operating conditions with the particle electrical conductivity low, fluidized-bed current could be even larger than packed-bed current. At temperatures greater than 371C (700F), where the particle conductivity is high, fluidization of the bed reduces the required bed current by 25-50~o. These results are valid for a gently fluidized bed; with an increase in gas velocity, different qualitative trends are possible. Two mechanisms for charge transfer are postulated.199 In the EPB situation, charge transfer occurs via particles which bridge the distance between the two electrodes. In EFB, such a charge transfer can take place by the formation of short-duration particle linkages. A second transfer mechanism in EFB is due to bubble-induced particle convection. While residing at the electrode surface, a particle acquires a limited charge. Bubbling sweeps this charged particle away from the electrode and replaces it with a different bed particle. While in the emulsion phase of the bed, the charged particle shares its charge with another particle upon contact. It has been shown that the convective transfer mechanism dominates for particles having low electrical conductivity, but that chain transfer dominates for particles having high conductivity. Particulate-collection efficiency also exhibits a dramatic increase when an electric field, E, of a few kV/cm (d.c. or a.c.) is applied across a bed of insulating or semi-insulating granules. The enhancement is much more pronounced for particles of submicron size than for larger particles. The electrical effectiveness, 7, is defined 21 in terms of the particle penetration of the filter, P, as
P ( E = O) - P(E)

Additional fluidized-bed filtration work is described in the following sections of this report. 4.4.4. A u g m e n t a t i o n effects Both electrostatic and magnetic effects have also been noted and studied as they apply to granular bed filters. Studies range from the fundamental and theoretical at several universities to pilot-scale developmental work of EFB Inc./GE and CPC. 4.4.4.1. Electric field. It has been known for some 30 yr that electric charge acquired by the media particles of a granular bed as a result of frictional electrification (autoelectrification or triboelectrification) makes the media particles more effective for capturing dust particles than an uncharged medium. This effect is particularly pronounced if the bed granules are dielectric material. In recent years, triboelectrification enhancement of filtration efficiency has been explicitly demonstrated by Balasubramanian et al. 191 for spouted-bed filters and by Tardos et al. 192-194 for fluidized-bed filters. It was found 192 that the capture efficiency of a bed of plastic granules (40-50 mesh) exhibited a sudden appreciable increase as soon as the gas velocity exceeded the minimum fluidization velocity. To demonstrate more conclusively that triboelectrification was responsible for the enhancement of the filter capture capabilities, a spherical nickel probe was installed in a bed of 1-mm spherical Lucite particles of 30-cm thickness, filtering 0.23- and 0.48l~m (neutral) latex aerosols/92 The probe potential increased with gas velocity at velocities above minimum fluidization, and aerosol capture efficiency was maximum when the potential reached its maximum value. Similar experiments were performed, 19s with a modified Faraday cage included to allow measurement of the electrostatic charge generated on the granules. These experiments indicated that at low gas humidities (10-30~o), the particle-capture efficiency is almost constant at gas velocities above minimum fluidization. At high values of relative humidity (40~0~o), where the charge on the particles is relatively small and the electrostatic forces are weak, the collection efficiency decreases due to gas bypassing. At MIT, Melcher et al. 169- 2oo have been investigating electropacked beds (EPB) and electrofluidized beds (EFB) as devices for efficient particulate collection from particle-laden gas streams. Their bed has a central electrode to which an electric potential is applied relative to the bed wall; thus, the bed particles are in an electric field. The gas-entrained particles are charged before entering the bed. In a recent report, 199 the properties of such beds consisting of sand or glass beads at ambient pressure but at temperatures up to a maximum of 760C

P(E=0) The experiments of Self et al., 21 performed in a 20-cm thick (8-in. thick) fixed bed of 6-mm (1/4-in.) alumina balls contained in a 10-cm (4-in.) by 10-cm (4-in.) vertical duct of Plexiglas, showed that ?, increases with applied electrical field and asymptotically approaches a value of about 7 5 ~ at an E of about 5 kV/cm. A metal screen located in the central section of the bed served as a high-voltage electrode, and similar metal-grounded screens were placed at the top and bottom ends of the bed. The dust particle diameter effect is expressed by an electrical factor of improvement, F, which is defined as:
F = P ( E = 0). P

For suhmicron particles, F ranges between three and five, whereas for particles more than 3 gm in

Particulate removal from combustion gases dia, F is about one. They also reported that y is a weakly increasing function of dust loading, and that it decreases as gas velocity is increased. Their experiments did not distinguish between any effects of a.c. or d.c. voltage on collection efficiency. They also point out the importance of an electrical charge on the dust particle in enhancing particle collection efficiency. It was concluded that a large enhancement of collection efficiency for submicron range particles is possible by the application of a strong electric field and that the additional increase is significant if the dust particles are charged. Presser and Alexander 22 have reported their continuing effort on an electrically augmented moving granular-bed filter (Fig.28). This design is based on experience in developing the commercial technology of Electrified Filter Beds (EFB), which has been successfully used in specific situations. For instance, 23 at an asphalt roofing plant, such filters have operated with an efficiency of greater than 98 ~o for particles less than 2 #m in dia. In this design, 22 the problem of front face plugging (which involves the blinding of the incident filter face) has been resolved by reducing louver areas to the minimum essential for retaining the bed granules. (The dust deposits are formed at the lips of the louvers.) Elimination of the exposed louver surfaces (overhanging portion of each louver) left no bare metal

227

surfaces where structures of dust particles could build and cause the plugging. Their experimental filter was a cylindrical unit (60-cm outer dia; 40-cm inner dia; bed depth, 10 cm; and bed particles, 2 mm in dia) in which two filter stages were vertically arranged. The dust-laden gas passed first through the lower stage, where most of the filtration occurred. The partially cleaned gas then rose in the central hollow region where its dust particles were charged by the corona discharge from the high voltage electrode installed along the axis of the filter. This gas next exited through the upper stage of the filter, where the media granules were electrically polarized by an applied electric field, efficiently attracting and holding the dust particles. It is claimed that the problem of re-entrainment of collected dust was solved in this design. Any dust reentrained from the lower stage was recaptured in the upper stage. The granules moved downward through the beds at a low speed which was controlled by the screw feeder as shown in Fig. 28. The granules and dust were separated in the disengagement chamber, and the clean granules were recycled to the filter bed. In order to avoid bed blockage in the initial contact region of the lower bed, a coarse mesh screen (fast face screen) was installed at about one-fourth of the bed overall depth from the front louvers. Bed

DIS{ CHA

OUTLET

~l
ROTARY BLOWER

FEEOER

FIG. 28. Cross-flow moving-bed electrostatic filter.

228

S.C. SAX]iNA,R. F. HENRYand W, F. POIX)LSKI

granules in this region move downward at a faster rate than in the remainder of the bed. This arrangement prevents bed blockage by removing this portion of the dust from the bed more quickly. A successful 84-hr test run at room temperature and pressure in a 0.33 m3/sec (800-cfm) pilot unit, with Burgess No. 10 pigment simulating HTHP fly ash, has been completed. 24 This two-stage design is claimed to collect more dust per unit volume of bed material than other designs. In other commercial design concepts, electrodes are inserted into the second stage, providing a voltage gradient across the bed granules. This arrangment was found to increase the collection efficiency of particulates (which are charged in the central section by the corona wire). However, due to the finite electrical conductivity of the media particles and the associated power loss if a high-voltage collection field should be used in PFB applications of this device, 25 a high-voltage collecting field cannot be used. Nevertheless, present experience suggests that due to the electrostatic attractive force between charged dust particles and bed conducting particles, which in turn is due to image charges that appear across the ground plane, appreciable augmentation of the collection efficiency is possible. From limited early cold-flow test results, they concluded that particle penetration was a function of the bed loading parameter, which is defined as the ratio of the rate of dust collection to the rate of media flow. 24 An updated single-stage version of this two-stage design (as shown in Fig. 29) would handle a large gas throughput for a given size of media granules (chosen to optimize the dust collection process) without blowing the granules out of the bed. This design differs from the earlier one of Fig. 28, chiefly in the direction of gas flow, which is now from the inside out rather than from the outside in. Also, the filter is now a single-stage unit. Testing of the single-stage version, without electrostatics, has been carried out on the effluent from METC's AFB facility 2~ at 870"C (1600F). Both molochite and sandy gravel were used as filter media. Media fracture (attrition) and a high solids loading in the dirty gas both led to filter plugging and led to the specification of a maximum inlet dust loading of 4.57 g/m 3 (2 gr/acf) for the PFB version which has been designed for testing at the NYU-PFB facility. Grace eta/. 27 at Combustion Power Company have developed an electroscrubber granular filter primarily for use at near-ambient conditions or on dirty flue gas from boilers (a schematic is shown in Fig. 30). It consists of a cylindrical vessel containing two concentric, cylindrical louvered screens. The annulus between the screens is filled with pea-size gravel media. An electrostatic grid in the form of a cage is located in this media. A high voltage is applied to this grid, and the electric field generated between this conductor and the inner and outer screens enhances the particulate collection efficiency as the dusty gas passes through the media. The

%.ULE !

ANO FL,
IN

J ;;J1
l

:1
il

Jf

I I~

I~

(;LEAN GAS OUT

-i'
-\t
GRANULE AND FLY ASH OUT

FIG. 29. Updated design of EFB. lnc./GE cross-flow moving-bed electrostatic granular filter.

enhancement is due to the frictional charging (or tribocharging) of the particulate as the dirty gas flows through pipes and cyclones. Clean gas exits through the outer screen. The filter media moves continuously downward and is recycled into the filter after being cleaned in the deentrainment vessel. It was found that electrostatics increase the collection efficiency; for submicron particles, this enhancement is very pronounced, ranging from about 65"/,i (without) to 95 ~i (with). As a result of the enhancement of collection efficiency, the dependence of particle collection efficiency on particle diameter disappears. Additional details and historical applications of the Combustion Power company's electroscrubber filter are given in a recent paper by Parquet. zs Application of the electroscrubber at PFB conditions has not been suggested because the bed wall probably would be too conductive, but some aspects of operation will provide technical information pertinent to other designs. 4.4.4.2. Magnetic field. Exxon Research and Engineering Company pioneered a novel method for the collection of dust entrained in a gas stream, using a cross-flow moving granular bed enclosed in an externally applied magnetic field (Fig. 31). The proposed bed material consisted of an admixture of

Particulate removal from combustion gases

PARTICULATE TO [-]

229

4k

ml

ELECTROSTATIC GRID

ELEMENT

PNEUMATIC MEDIA RECIRCULATION i PARTICULATE REMOVAL SYSTEM ( L I F T IIIIIEI MEDIA F I L L HQIqDER

MEDIA L I F T AIR IILOWER

FIG. 30. Combustion Power Company cross-flow moving-bed electroscrubber granular filter.

ferromagnetic (cobalt) and nonmagnetic (bauxite or alumina) particles. The experimental work of Golan and Matulevicius 29 with a bed composed of ferromagnetic material only revealed that the pressure drop across such a bed is considerably reduced and that the solids blowout velocity is appreciably increased for otherwise identical conditions by the application of an external magnetic field. In a 10-cm thick (4-in. thick), magnetically stabilized bed of particles of 900-/tm dia, the application of a magnetic field could (1) reduce the pressure drop by 50';,o at a fixed value of gas velocity, or (2) allow the superficial gas velocity to be increased by a factor of two without changing the pressure drop. The advantages claimed by Exxon of this ability to reduce the pressure drop or to increase the gas throughput of a magnetically stabilized bed (MSB) system are: high particulate-capture efficiency, improved trace metal removal (with appropriate admixtures), and the ability to use a wide variety of coals.

The application of a magnetic field to a granular bed influences the structure and orientation of its media particles. Increasing the magnetic field increases the bed voidage. This characteristic readily explains (1) the observed smaller pressure drops and (2) the higher gas throughputs before any appreciable solids blowout occurs, in a magnetically stabilized bed as compared with an unstabilized bed. The magnetic field of a small MSB was varied from 0 to 105 Oe., and the particulate-collection capability from an air stream containing 3.88 g/m3(1.7 gr/scf) of fly ash at a superficial velocity of 56.7 m/min (3.1 ft/sec) was assessed as a function of time. The overall collection efficiency was found to decrease with time. The decrease during the first hour with no field applied was appreciable but as the magnetic field was applied, the rate of decrease slowed. At a magnetic field of 105 Oe., the overall collection efficiency decreased slowly, even after 1 hr. Thus, such MSB filters can be employed to obtain a longer

230

S.C. SAXI!NA,R. F. HENRYand W. F. PODOLSKI

CLEAN MAGNETIClm ~ / ~ / A L V E BED MATERIAL BED MATERIAL

[] MAGNETIC
co,

CLEAN_ GAS
,.,

RETAINING

L ~

~_~:.,~,~ ,7 ,

SCREEN

-.IS~- ~

[] [] []
DIRTY -- ,
GAS

;O N

REFRACTORY BLOWOUT RECOV

INNER LOUVERS

DIRTY MAGNETIC _
B'~D M A T E r n A L --

FIG. 31. Exxon's magnetically stabilized granular-bed filter.

filtration cycle and also can handle much larger gas thoughputs than can unstabilized granular-bed filters. Golan and Matulevicius have also demonstrated that MSB filters are much more efficient than other conventional filters such as sand filters, fabric filters, and electrostatic precipitators for dust particles in the size range, 0.5-2/lm. Particle collection in MSB filters takes place by the combined effects of inertial impaction, direct interception, and Brownian diffusion. The reason for high collection efficiencies of MSB filters is not well understood at present; however, the authors attribute the high efficiencies to added opportunity for impaction due to higher gas velocities in MSB. Furthermore, due to the higher bed voidage in MSB filters, particle collection on already-collected dust particles is possible without causing plugging or excessive pressure drop due to cake buildup. Finally, it should be noted that particulate collection in an MSB is independent of the magnetic properties of the dust particles, depending only on the magnetic properties of the bed particles and the magnitude of the magnetic field. Exxon researchers 209.210 under DOE sponsorship

planned to investigate this novel filtration principle for the cleaning of flue gas from an actual PFBC at temperatures in the range 815-926C (1500-1700F) and pressures of 810-1010kPa (8-10atm.). The particulate collection efficiency was measured as a function of dust loading, filter media residence time, magnetic field strength, and gas velocity in atmospheric pressure tests at low and high temperatures. An evaluation of magnetic material has shown acceptable stability to corrosion and erosion in an atmospheric fluidized-bed hot flue gas environment. 211 A subpilot scale PFBC test facility has been assembled to provide particulate-laden HTHP gas (870C, 1013 kPa or 10 atm.) for further testing of the magnetically stablized bed filter. Early particulate collection efficiencies have been in the 80-99 ~,~ range and scattered. Attempts to characterize performance are, as yet, incomplete. 4.4.5. Particle collection by particles--dry

plate

scrubber
Air Pollution Technology, Inc. (APT) developed a dry-plate scrubber (DPS) concept in which particles

Particulate removal from combustion gases

231

CLEA", GRANULES GRANULES are collected by contact with larger particles. This CLEAN IN I .!!N concept is being extended to particulate removal #-:I GAS t from high temperature, high-pressure gas streams. " ~...~l'~J~"'.,;u Early theoretical and experimental work is described by Calvert e t al. 2 ~ 2,213 :"p~::'a:...;::..~::~': "... The dry-plate scrubber uses one or more shallow -'.z-,,--.~':~;':_ I v...:~;~'.~'" i - ~LATE beds of granular material which, as shown in in Fig. i~i.~?..;:. 32, can be either horizontal or sloping and can have DIRTY T.." either single or multiple feeds. These dense mobile GAS beds are supported over and move across perforated | DIRTY I:!:I plates, while the dust-laden gas at high velocities GAS T ~ OUT UT / emerges in the form of gas jets through the perforations and moves upwards through the solid HORIZONTAL S L O P I N G PLATE collectors. The fine solid dust particles collect on the PLATE media granules by inertial impaction and by direct interception in a manner similar to other granularGRANULES bed filters. The dust deposition process can be t GAS augmented by the application of an electric field which enhances the adhesive force between the dust particles and the solid collectors. It is claimed 2~4 that GRA.ULES'" I T ~ the multiple stages of a DPS can be designed so as to preferentially collect large particles on the lower -- PLATE stages and fine particles and vapors on the upper stages. The device is considered by APT to be - I GAS especially appropriate for cleaning high-temperature (900'~C), high-pressure (1000 kPa) effluent from a M U L T I P L E FEED PFBC system. Single- and multiple-stage DPS units have been operated under controlled conditions to FIG. 32. Air Pollution Technology, Inc,, dry plate scrubber investigate the effects of various process design and concept. operating parameters, and an appropriate benchscale design for the evaluation of DPS operation at high temperatures and pressures has evolved. For preliminary tests and parametric investi- plate was 1.0-3.5 Vo. gation, monodisperse polystyrene latex (PSL) microThe electrostatic dry plate scrubber (EDPS) was spheres (0.50, 0.76, 1.1 or 2.0#m in dia) or also investigated at near ambient conditions in all polydisperse fly ash (0.5-10 l~m) was used as dust. At four possible operational modes, viz., uncharged room temperature, uniform-diameter glass beads particles and neutral collectors (UP/NC), uncharged (0.5 1.0 ram) were used as bed media, and at particles and polarized collectors (UP/PC), charged high temperature, slightly ellipsoidal zirconia beads particles and neutral collectors (CP/TqC), and (5.4 g/cm 3) and alumina spheres (3.6 g/cm 3) were charged particles and polarized collectors (CP/PC). used. The sizes of the other two types of particles The dust particles were charged by means of a corona ranged between 0.42 and 0.85 mm. Experiments discharge in an electric field with a strength of revealed that deeper beds do not appreciably in- ~5.4 kV/cm. The collector particles are exposed to fluence the collection efficiency. Shallow beds (about an electric field strength of ~4.5 kV/cm by intro1.5 cm) are preferable because of their small pressure ducing an electrode above the bed and maintaining it at a suitable negative potential with respect to the drops. Particulate collection efficiency is a sensitive grounded body of the EDPS. The obvious advantage function of the particle size of collector media. The of an EDPS is that only one electrode is in direct smaller particles (0.48-ram glass beads) were found to contact with the bed; therefore, the problem of be more efficient for dust collection than larger electrical shorting at high temperatures does not particles (1.0 ram). To obtain stable bed movement arise. Both dielectric (glass, alumina, zirconia) and and flow from one stage to another, an average diameter of about 0.7 mm is proposed for media conductive (nickel) media collector particles have particles. In all of these investigations, superficial gas been used. In the case of conductive particles, the velocities were varied in the range, 20-70 cm/sec. The positive potential of the perforated distributor plates velocity of gas jets passing through the perforations charges the particles positively by pulling away their was much higher--in the range, 15-40 m/sec. The electrons. Dielectric particles, however are polarized, collector particle to gas flow ratio (by weight) was and local positive and negative charge regions exist about 0.1. Jet diameters were 1 ~ mm, and the on their surfaces. A polarized collector system has an percent open area of the perforations on the grid enhanced collection efficiency because of the stronger

t i:!

232

S. C. SAXI-NA,R. F. HENRYand W. F. POI)OLSKI scrubbers are scrubbers in which the additional medium is a molten salt, metal, or glass. There are also plate column and counter (or cross flow) contactors which use granules of a solid as the scrubbing medium (see Fig. 28). Contacting principles for each of these types are analogous to the conventional systems, but separation of stream contaminants and recovery of the scrubbing medium present more difficult challenges, to say nothing of "straightforward" material-handling problems. In contrast to other gas cleanup systems, liquid or wet contactors provide a potential for higher efficiency of solids capture and a possibility that some vapor species may be captured along with particulates. However, most of the known wet contactors use water-based solutions, necessitating that the gas be cooled considerably before treatment. Substitution of a "higher temperature" liquid has been suggested; in fact, several experimental investigations have been described by Weber et al., 162"216 McCreight et al., 21 v.2~8 Moore et al., 21 ~ and Fedarko et al. 22'221 in which molten salt, metal, or glass has been used as a contacting medium. A conceptual design with preliminary economic analysis has been presented by Shui et al. 222 Each of these variations has considerable materials-handling problems, but higher particleremoval efficiencies and reliable operation on a demonstration scale might well justify their added expense. Final judgment awaits firm performance data and cost information.

coulombic attraction of the dust and the media particles. Single-stage laboratory experiments with 0.5-/tin dia polystyrene latex particles and dielectric particles revealed that the best collection efficiency is obtained when the dust particles are charged and the media particles are polarized (CP/PC). The worst results are obtained when the particles are uncharged and the collectors are not polarized (UP/NC). Collection efficiency improves if either the dust particles are charged or the collector particles are polarized although the improvement is more for CP/NC than for UP/PC. Other experiments have been conduo.ted with conductive nickel (0.38-mm) collectors. In this case also, polarization of the collector particles introduces a definite improvement so that the collection efficiency for the (CP/PC) case is better than for the (UP/NC) case. The effect of electrostatics has also been studied in a three-stage unit in which the dust particles were charged in all three stages but the alumina collectors were polarized (in the third stage only), by the application of a high-voltage electric field. It was noticed that in comparison to a neutral DPS, the collection efficiency in the first two stages did increase as a result of charging the particles, especially for particles smaller than 2 ,urn. Furthermore, most of the improvement in collection efficiency came in the third stage, where the collectors were polarized. Zirconia beads appear to be very promising collectors; on the basis of the preliminary investigations, they are preferable to alumina beads. Work in progress will provide details essential for adequate selection of the proper bed material. The particulate collection efficiency of an EDPS for particles smaller than 5 Ibm is found to range from 97.9 to 98.8~,,. At a given amount of dust reentrainment, the denser zirconia particles are found to stabilize bed movement and also to allow greater gas throughputs than do beds of alumina particles. The promising performance of the multiple-stage electrostatically augmented dry-plate scrubber has been further verified 2~ in tests on hot gas from an AFB. Performance has exceeded that of previous tests at ambient conditions. At ~800 C, the fourstage trait gave greater than 99 I),i particle collection efficiency. An HTHP design including five perforated plates has been prepared.

4.5.2. S c r u b b e r s - - d r y particle con tactors

4.5. Scrubbers 4.5.1. Scrubbers utilizing molten salts, metals, or glass Devices in which a new medium is introduced for the purpose of entraining or dissolving contaminants from the primary stream are classed as scrubbers. In hot gas cleanup, several variations exist. The direct analogs of the more familiar ambient-condition wet

In the spectrum of possible particulate-collection devices which use an additional solid as a medium, fixed-granular-bed filters may be considered one extreme. A thin bed may be used with low gas velocities--as in the Ducon filter ~76 described above. Equivalent collection should be attainable at higher velocities with a thicker moving bed as in the Combuston Power Company filter. ~s3 The other design extreme--the absence of a bed and very high gas velocities--is the approach being investigated by Air Pollution Technology, Incorporated ( A P T ) their dry plate scrubber and P P scrubber concepts. Particle collection is mainly by impaction, and the high gas velocities ensure high capture ratios. The two separate implementations of this concept being evaluated are: (I) the dry P P scrubber (particle capture by particle) wherein collection is accomplished in a "venturi" type contactor and (2) the dry-plate scrubber (previously discussed) wherein the media flows approximately horizontally over perforated trays while the gas to be cleaned is forced upwards at high velocities through the holes in the trays. In the P x P scrubber, atmospheric-pressure

Particulate removal from combustion gases experiments have been carried out at a bench and a pilot scale at ambient and high temperatures, with and without electrostatic aumentation.211.213.223.224 Gas stream velocities of about 50 m/sec were used, with 105-#m sand, the collection medium at ambient temperatures. Resultant capture efficiencies ranged to greater than 90% for l-/am methylene blue particles. Performance with fly ash was somewhat poorer. Tests at 500C also showed somewhat poorer collection---capture efficiencies fell to about 70% for the 1-4/am size range. Operation of the pilot-scale EP P (electrostatic P P) system for several days at 870C (1600F) was carried out with little difficulty. However, attrition prevented determination of collection efficiency.225 Recent APT work has been concentrated on the dry plate scrubber concept (discussed above).

233

4.6, Acoustic Agglomeration Probably the most obvious method of improving any type of particle-gas stream separation is by increasing the size of the particles to be separated. This is achievable for particle systems in which particle-particle collisions result in agglomeration. Any method which increases collisions should result in easier-to-separate particles. For a given applied force, smaller particles move greater distances than larger particles and thus collide with larger particles. One of the ways of accomplishing an increase in collisions is to create additional oscillations of the particles. The desired oscillations might be accomplished by generating high-energy sound waves in a chamber through which the gas stream flows. The degree of agglomeration would depend on the residence time, the applied energy level, and the cohesive tendency of the solid particles. Of course, a collection device downstream from the agglomerating device would collect the particles (which would have a new, larger mean size); a net increase in removal efficiency would occur if agglomeration had taken place. In spite of its potential, the technology has either been enthusiastically supported or disregarded in cycles over the years--as may be seen in the principal survey work of Mednikov, 226 originally published in Russian in 1963. The bulk of continuing research in the Western world is being carried out (1) by Scott's group at the University of Toronto, where effects of different sonic wave forms are being studied; 227 and (2) at the State University of New York at Buffalo in Shaw's group. 22s- 230 The effects of higher-intensity sound levels are being studied, and acoustically induced turbulence has been shown to enhance agglomeration at levels above 160 db; (3) additional work has been carried out by Scholz et al. T M at the University of Iowa, where superposition of acoustic and 60-Hz electric waves enhanced agglomeration. The most notable recent review of acoustic aggloJPECS II:3-C*

meration is that of Shaw 232 from the symposium on Aerosol Science and Technology. Since that review, workers at the Institute of Gas Technology 223 presented results of a study of acoustic agglomeration and subsequent filtration of particles from a gas at pressures up to 7 MPa (1000 psi) and temperatures up to 265C. Extension of these results to higher temperatures is envisioned. Applications at less severe conditions are being studied by Reethof 234'235 in his work at Penn State where mechanisms, frequency dependence of agglomeration, and strength of agglomerates are being studied. Shaw 236-23s continues to explore and evaluate applications to PFBC conditions and has presented preliminary economics which show that a cyclone/acoustic agglomeration should cost less than a cyclone/baghouse system for a PFBC facility. Demonstration of the phenomena at a suitable scale still awaits development of an appropriate sound source. 4.7. Thermal Agglomeration One other mechanism of agglomeration has been suggested by Tsao et al. 239 and evaluated on a theoretical basis--that is, heating of the particles in the dirty flue gas to the softening point. Under these conditions, agglomeration should occur by a sticking mechanism and should depend on collision rates. This mechanism is suggested for use prior to a first stage of cyclone cleanup, but has not been demonstrated experimentally on a significant scale.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS The development of high-temperature, highpressure gas cleanup devices that would attain NSPS levels upstream from turbines is based on expectation of longer turbine lifetimes at lower particulate loadings. The economic benefit of longer turbine lifetimes must be balanced against the costs of an improved cleanup device (both capital and operating costs), as well as the savings from the elimination of post-turbine cleanup equipment. The demonstration of a commercial-sized module of an operating PFBC system at steady state is considered to be the next stage of development for PFBC. Knowledge of inlet loadings and particle-size distributions for each stage of the cleanup system is required, as well as knowledge of outlet loadings and particle-size distributions--with verification of material balance. Most important for the acceptability of this system and believability of the data are test duration and particle loading fluctuations during the test period. The latter is, perhaps, the critical observation in evaluating cyclic units--for example, the fluctuations caused by momentary re-entrain-

234

S. C. SAX|!NA,R. F. HliNRYand W. F. POPOLSKI solids flow control, recycle of filter bed media, heat recovery from hot media, etc. As yet, the data have been adequate only to indicate potential performance improvements that are possible when units are ultimately developed for PFBC conditions. This "sketchiness" of the data has severely limited the accuracy of projected costs and cost advantages, but this is true for other developing technologies. Perhaps the most important comment of this retrospective review is that no final conclusions have yet been reached. Survey and evaluation work is continuing, as is experimental and developmental testing. As data become available, better comparisons will be possible. Eventually, information on costs and performance will allow comparisons and tradeoff studies that will define the most appropriate hot-gas cleanup system and its overall integration into a PFBC plant. PFBC system development is also progressing, as discussed in Appendix B. The AEP Component Test Facility in Sweden and the IEA facility at Grimethorpe with "cyclones-only" cleanup systems are both operational. Data from these test units should provide better estimates of turbine lifetimes and full-size cyclone performance. These data should permit calculations of the trade-offs of post-turbine cleanup with shorter turbine lifetimes and should also indicate the potential for savings if advanced cleanup devices are used upstream from the turbine. Test results from Curtiss Wright available in the near future should allow better definition of the recommendations and status of hot-gas cleanup units and system development. Continuation of review and assessment work will provide valuable input for further program planning. Close monitoring of these many aspects of PFBC/CC systems and hot-gas cleanup unit development is necessary to judge their implications for future research requirements.

merit during rapping of ESP electrodes or by the blowback or pulsed cleaning of fabric or bed filters. Also necessary is stable, long-term operation to verify the absence of "build up" types of performance degradation, such as blinding of fabrics, attrition of granules, deposition and slough-off, and materialshandling problems. Once long-term stable operation at commercial size is attained, true estimates of costs and performance are possible, allowing realistic assessment, Such long-term operation of commercial size units has been attained for several AFBC cleanup systems. Some of these results have served as a basis for extrapolation for conceptual designs for PFBC. Most of these systems are described in Appendix B and the use of a cyclone-type unit for at least the first stage of the system is obvious. Performance data for some of the cleaning system devices are summarized in preceding sections, but in many cases, only limited data were taken on particulate loadings and size distributions. In many early studies, the demonstration of FBC operation was the focus of the work, and no detailed data were reported on cleanup system performance. To provide a meaningful perspective for the evaluation of hot-gas cleanup units, several points should be remembered. First, combustion effluents depend greatly on combustor design and operating conditions, as well as characteristics of the coals and sorbent stones used. Second, almost without exception cyclones are used as a first stage of hot-gas cleanup since a simple cyclone will provide an appreciable reduction in solids loading. The corollary to this observation is that a high-pressure-drop, high-operating-cost device (for example, a granular bed or a fabric filter) is almost never used as a first stage. Third, although higher efficiency cyclones have been used in multiple-stage sub-pilot-scale cleanup systems, no type of pressurized unit has yet been demonstrated on a commercial scale. There have been promising indications from the results at CURL and CW for cyclone-only systems. Evaluations of experimental hot gas cleanup systems have been performed at several PFBC installations. Among these are the systems of Exxon, CURL, Curtiss-Wright, Combustion Power Company, and others that are described above or in Appendix B. Current status, advantages, disadvantages, and potential for hot-gas cleanup devices which have been tested at HTHP and for some devices which have obvious application in HTHP service are summarized in Table 3. There is little argument that any of these techniques has the potential for improving hot-gas cleanup. Major uncertainties do exist, however, in what the performance of a full-size unit would be at PFBC conditions. Important also are the uncertainties in operation--that is, potential materialshandling problems pertaining to HTHP valves,

6. APPENDIXES 6.1. Appendix A--Theoretical Calculations of Parti-

culate Collection Efficiency for Granular-Bed Filters

For adequate design and scale-up work, it is imperative to have a mechanistic mathematical model. The following is a summary of the scale and scope of work that has been carried out for granularbed filters. Very little systematic work in this direction has been performed, and the need for a systematic mathematical development of a model based on operational experience is obvious. The approaches most commonly adopted so far have been semiempirical at best, in which an investigator has expressed his data by an empirical expression involving such characteristic numbers as Stokes, Peclet, gravitation, etc. The work of Wigton 18o and

TABLE3. Status of hot-gas cleanup devices

Device Multi-stage req'd Secondary air req'd HTHP HTHP HTHP LTLP LTLP (MTHP) {HTHP) Lower efficiency Single/loading limits

Advantages

Disadvantages

Potential demonstrated (some problems) Uncertainties or status

Inertial (Cyclone) Conventional

Aerodyne

Simple Simple

Dyna-Therm

Simple

Elect rocyclone

Cyclo-centrifuge Wedge separator

Turn down capability Higher performance Higher performance Complexity Multi-stage; flow equilization Flow uniformity; re-entrainment

Electrostatic precipitator

Simple

Scaleup to large units Performance lower than predicted Performance lower than expected Charge and corona effects on scaleup HT design Flow distribution and bleed rate Balance of plant problem in recent tests

8
O-

Filters

Higher efficiency

Material handling problems--cycles open and/or addition mat'l

In situ cleaning

Granular Bed

Fixed Larger beds req'd Complexity Special media req'd Media problems Special media req'd Multi-stage req'd media cleaning req'd

Smaller beds

(HTHP) HTLP (HTHP) (HTHP) (HTHP) (HTHP) HTLP

Moving--Conventional Electrostatic Magnetic

No plugging Higher efficiency Higher throughput

Flow equalization in multi-bed units Media cleaning and recycle Media attrition and plugging Anomalous results

Barrier (Ceramic)

Fabric

Close to baghouse

Membrane

Rigid elements

Nonwoven fabric failed-woven to be tested Thermal shocks and structural integrity Media cleaning and recycle

Dr3' Particle Collector (P P, EP P. Drr Plate~

Wide range of operability

236

S. C. SAXliYA,R. F. HI-NRYand W. F. POI)OLSK! into play; consequently, qp increases along with U. However, for a hard, nonsticky particle, an energetic collision with a hard solid bed particle results in rebound of the former. Thus, at some high velocity, the effect of dust particles bouncing off and being reentrained in the gas flow more than offsets their capture by bed particles, and r/e starts decreasing again. Similar qualitative variation of r/e with U is found for dust particles of nearly all sizes except that as particle size decreases, the transition velocities at which different mechanisms play significant roles are shifted to higher values, For the smallest particles (0.51 #m) used in this work, the gas velocity was never too high to cause impaction to be the dominant mode for dust capture; hence, r/e decreased monotonically with U over the entire range of experimentation. Another observation brings out the importance of the Brownian diffusion capture mechanism for smaller particles at low gas-flow velocities. He found that as long as the gas velocity was small, qe for the smallest particles (0.51 /~m) was larger than qe for the next larger size particles (0.93 pm) at the same flow rate. For such conditions, qv will increase as particle size decreases due to the larger contribution of Brownian diffusion. Based on his data, Goren 24 derived quantitative expressions for the particle collection efficiency in the regions where the predominant collection mechanisms are due to inertial impaction, gravitational settling, and Brownian diffusion. In these three regimes, the collection process is uniquely dependent upon the Stokes, Ns,; gravitation, N6r; and Peclet, Nee numbers, respectively. The single-particle collection efficiencies for the three regimes which will be represented by qfl, q~s, and r/nPo,were:

Geffken et al. 178 is in this category. For moving-bed filters, more empirical approaches have been adopted to take account of the media flow rate, filter pressure drop, inlet dust concentration, filter depth, volume flow rate of dust, etc. Work of Guillory 179 and Moresco and Cooper 185 falls in this category. Goren's 24 work, which is primarily an experimental effort to establish the collection efficiency of a granular filter, is described below in some detail. Goren v~ performed a series of experiments at ambient temperature and pressure for gas-flow velocities and media particle sizes of the same magnitude as those employed by Combustion Power Company179.185 in their moving-bed granular filter. The filter was formed of 2-mm dia alumina spheres in a Plexiglas tube of 4.39-cm internal dia and supported by a coarse wire-mesh screen. The bed height was 3 to 19.3 cm. The test aerosol was solid, monodisperse, electrically neutral potassium biphthalate particles of five different geometric diameters, viz. 0.5l, 0.93, 1.56, 2.78 and 3.91 pm. The density of the solid particles was 1.636 g/cm3; the gas was dry air at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, and its superficial velocity was varied from 1 to 100 cm/sec. The individual bed-particle collection efficiency, qe, is calculated from the measured values of bed penetration, P, and the following formula: 4RelnP 3(1 - e ) Z or I P=l-q=exp 3(1 - e ) Z ] -4 Rp- qe "

Here, e is the bed voidage or ( l - e ) is the solids fraction in the bed, Z is the bed height, Re is the bed particle radius, and q~, is the individual bed particle collection efficiency. A constant value of 0.4 was used fore. Measured P values have been reported 24 as a function of superficial gas flow velocity, U, for all five sizes of aerosol particles. These data were then used to generate qp, and a plot of qe vs U was made for each particle size. For the largest particle (3.91 mm), qe first decreases as U increases to 9 cm/sec; after that (up to 35 cm/sec), as U increases, qe increases; thereafter, as U further increases, r/p decreases again. These results can be qualitatively explained on the basis of the different mechanisms responsible for the deposition of dust particles on bed particles (i.e. alumina spheres). Gravitational settling is the predominant mode for large-particle collection at low flow rates. As U increases, the particle residence time decreases and less and less time is available for particle deposition on the bed particle. As a result, qp decreases with increasing U. For sufficiently large values of U, the dust particles acquire sufficient inertia to bring the mechanism of inertial impaction

(Ns,)9/4, q~s=0.97 (NGr)3/4,

r/~t = 1270 and r/~o = 232 (Nee)- 2/3. Furthermore, pp d~ U C~
r/s t 9p

Dr

pp d~ # C~
~]Gr --

18p U

and flee -3np dp Dp U C~ kaT

Here, pp is the particle density, dp is the mean diameter of the dust particles, C~ is the Cunningham empirical slip correction factor,/~ is the gas viscosity, Dp is the mean bed particle diameter, g is the acceleration due to gravity, Tis the temperature, and kB is the Boitzmann constant.

Particulate removal from combustion gases Experimental data for the range of operating variables of relevance to coal conversion processes are very essential for the design of granular-bed filters for cleaning flue gas from coal combustors and gasifiers. The dependence of rf] t on Stokes number is found to be very different from the nearly first power dependence reported in the literature, which was established from the limited data then available. Similarly, the correlation for q~s is strictly valid for gas flows vertically downward through the filter. Horizontal or vertical upward gas flows might lead to somewhat different correlations. Similarly, the exponent of Np,, in the correlation for q~o is in agreement with the theory of Brownian deposition from very low Reynolds number flows, but the coefficient, 232. is larger than that derived by earlier workers for beds of smaller particles at lower flow rates. Yung et al. T M proposed an analytical model for the collection efficiency of dust in a granular-bed filter. It is assumed that most of the large particles are removed by the earlier cleaning units such as primary and secondary cyclones and that as a result, the mass loading of particulates is reduced to the order of 221 g or less per cubic meter (~< lgr/ft2). A granular bed is pictured as comprising either a stationary or a slowly moving bed of individual relatively closepacked granules. It is assumed that in large-scale units, no filter cake will be formed--either on the bed surface or within the bed. Consequently, it is assumed that the collection of dust particles takes place on clean granular-moving-bed particles. It is also claimed that the estimates of collection efficiencies thus obtained are conservative. The granular bed is visualized as a collection of a number of impaction stages connected in series, with particle collection taking place by inertial impaction. The particle penetration, Ptj, for a granular bed consisting of N impaction stages is given by the following relation in terms of the single-stage collection efficiency, ~hJ,
P t d = ( l --rhl) N

237

experimental data are analyzed on the basis of the above relation to evolve qH as a function of Ns,. Thus, the theory was not tested for its absolute ability to reproduce the experimental data, but to examine its consistency over a range of operating variables. Nevertheless, these equations did predict the experimental data to a fair degree of accuracy and consistency. The overall collection efficiency, E, may be calculated from the knowledge of Ptd and the particle size frequency distribution function, on the basis of the following formula:
E = 1 -- S Ptd f(dp) d(dp).
0

It is well known that the collection efficiency of a bed is dependent on the amount of dust already captured by the bed. Most theoretical work is addressed to the dynamics of particle deposition on bed particles during the initial stages of dust collection only, when it can be assumed that the bed particles are almost free of dust particles. Recent works of the former category are due to Pendse and Tien, 242 Outfinger and Tardos, 243 Tardos et al. 244 and Thambimuthu et al. 245 In the experiments of Goren, 24 the filtration period was short enough that it may be considered that dust deposition was on a clean granular bed. In actual situations, this would not be the case and the dust loading in the bed would control both the particulate collection efficiency and the filter pressure drop. Theoretical work in this direction has just begun. Pendse et al. 246 in recent work measured the increase in the hydrodynamic drag force on a spherical particle under creeping flow' conditions as small spherical particles were attached to its surface. They finally expressed the fractional increase in pressure drop for a granular-bed filter partially clogged by dust particles as: AP APo
= l +F

~=t AFDi" Do i=

the subscript d signifies that the penetration refers to particles of diameter d o. The inertial impaction collection efficiency, q . , is assumed to be a function of the inertial impaction parameter or Stokes number. N s . which is finally expressed in terms of the bed porosity, e; mean-bed particle diameter Do; and other quantities such that 3(1-e.)ppd~ U C s
Nst = 2 e2

9p D o
3Z 2D o

For a randomly packed bed, N=

where Z is the bed depth. The explicit relationship between qtl and Nst is not developed, but instead the particle penetration

Here AP and APo are the pressure drops corresponding to the clogged and clean filter, respectively. Fo,, is the drag force acting on the clean collector, and AFo, is the drag force contribution due to the ith deposited particle on a collector which has a total of N particles deposited on its surface. The authors report a procedure for estimating AFo,; however, this involves knowledge of the morphology of deposited particles The position of each deposited particle on the bed particle is proposed to be established by the simulation model developed by Tien et al. 247 and Wang et al. 248 Extension of these ideas to prediction of the dynamic behavior of a granular-bed filtration process as it becomes increasingly clogged is discussed by Pendse and Tien 249 under a well-defined approximation. The granular bed is assumed to be represented by the constricted tube model proposed by Payatakes eta/.; 25 accordingly, it can be viewed as a number of unit bed elements (UBE) of specified

238

S.C. SAXENA,R. F. HENRYand W. F. PODOLSKI Boericke et al. 24 are working along the "unit cell" approach, outlined in one of the earlier papers from General Electric Company. 257 The granular bed is regarded as a homogeneous assemblage of identical cells, each cell consisting of an individual spherical particle surrounded by a concentric shell of gas whose radius is determined to duplicate the void fraction of the bed. By proper assignment of the boundary conditions for fluid flow, corresponding to creeping (Stokes) flow at low Reynolds numbers or potential flow at high Reynolds numbers, particle trajectories have been computed for dilute noninteracting particle suspensions with appropriate initial conditions. Drag forces, particle inertia, and electrostatic forces have been considered in the calculations of the limiting trajectories and, hence, the collection efficiency. The total bed collection efficiency is next obtained by the integration of this result over the depth of the granular bed for the specified operating conditions and dust size. These workers realized that this unit cell approach underestimates the actual collection efficiency of a granular bed. One of the reasons for this is what is referred to as the "jetting effect." This is caused by the presence of particles in the bed which restrict the actual flow to a smaller region of the unit cell. Currently, analytical work is in progress to account for this jetting effect, and controlled experiments are being planned to validate the theoretical model. The experiments involve the measurement of collection efficiency with spherical particles of different sizes, with monodisperse aerosols of different sizes, and for a range of face velocities. These experiments are intended to establish a correlation for the jetting parameter as a function of particle Reynolds number. They are also being conducted to understand electrostatic augmentation with conducting media and charged aerosols. Measurements will be made over a range of media particle sizes and gas residence times. 6.2. Append& B--Hot-Gas Cleanup System Summary Most systems used or proposed for the cleanup of hot, pressurized flue gas in PFBC power plants consist of combinations of individual gas cleanup devices discussed in the previous section. Many of these systems have been presented as part of conceptual plant designs; some have been evaluated in AFBC systems and proposed for use in PFBC systems; a few have been evaluated in hot-gas simulators or PFBC test units; most have included at least one cyclone-type unit. Many of these systems and/or units have been proposed for AFBC gas cleanup, with possible extension to PFBC service. Most are based on extensions of existing technologies which have been developed for pulverizedcoal-fired boilers and other low-temperature, nearambient-pressure gas-cleanup applications. A summary of these systems with types of cleaning units listed, is given in Table B-1.

thickness connected in series. Each UBE consists of a number of unit collectors (constricted tube type unit cells), assumed to be identical in shape and size. The constricted tube model parameters, such as number of constricted tubes per unit area, length of unit bed element, constriction diameter, height of the unit cell, and maximum diameter of the unit cell, are related to the macroscopic properties of porous media. In the numerical simulation, additional approximations are made limiting the number of dust particles in the gas stream; particle trajectories are taken that correspond to extremely high- and low-particle inertia, and fluid streamlines are strictly appropriate only when the flow is laminar. Thus, though this work marks the beginning of a theoretical calculation in the right direction, it is far from being appropriate for application under conditions encountered in coal conversion technology. Gutfinger et aL, 18s-19 solving the equation of motion under the influence of a known force-field, compute the single granule collection efficiency by numerical calculations of dust particle collision trajectories as the dust particles are swept by the media particle in the gas stream. The filter efficiency is obtained by integration of this single filter element. The earlier papers of these authors which give such details are referenced in the review by Saxena. 31 The penetration of dust through a filter, when both mechanical and electrical effects are present, is expressed as:
(1 - r/)tot = (1 -r/),z,c (1 - ?])mech.

Grace et al. 27 ha~)6 given the following expression for r/,~ec which involves the various system parameters: (i-q),,,c=exp [ - 2 ( 1 - e ) Z E qp C s ] ~rpD-papU J'/

Here, e is the bed porosity, Z is the bed thickness, E is the average electric field strength, and qp is the particle charge. It is evident from this relation that increasing the particulate charge and electric field strength both increase the particle collection efficiency. The important mechanisms which lead to mechanical collection are impaction and diffusion, and they express these effects as
m 213

(1-- q)mech= [1-- (N~!) ] [ 1 - 4 " 3 ]_ 6g N_ p,,

where m is an empirically determined number whose value depends upon the Stokes number range. It appears that this relation has not yet been tested in detail on the basis of experimental data. The approach adopted by Gutfinger and coworkers for the calculation of filter efficiency (referred to above) has also been extended to the dust collection process in electrostatic granular-bed filters.

TABLEB-1. Summary of gas cleanup systems Identification Cyclone/Baghouse Cyclone/GBF Cyclone/Baghouse Cyclone/EFB Cyclone/Baghouse Cyclone/Baghouse Cyclone/Baghouse Cyclone/Baghouse Cyclone/Baghouse Cyclone/ESP Cyclone/Baghouse Cyclone/GBF Cyclone/GB F 253 269
4

Type of system 252 253 254, 255 256, 257 258,259 260 261 262 263-265 266, 268 267 183

Cleanup devices

Reference

AFBC-onceptual design AFBC*~onceptual design

AFBC--unit AFBC--unit

AFBC--unit AFBC--unit AFBC--unit AFBC unit AFBC--unit AFBC--unit AFBC--unit AFBC--unit

Combustion Engineering Burns & Roe, United Technologies Corp., Babcock & Wilcox Babcock & Wilcox, EPRI Energy Resources Co., Electro Fluidized Bed Inc. Morgantown Energy Technology Center Virginia Tech Wilkes-Barre Shamokin Georgetown Rivesville Alexandria Combustion Power Co.

PFBC--conceptual design

8
120 270 271,272 273 79,121 122,274 276 120 270 123,129 277 212-215 264, 278 59, 60
o"

PFBC---conceptual design PFBC~onceptual design PFBC--conceptual design PFBC--conceptual design PFBC---conceptual design Combustion Power Corp. Exxon Research & Engineering NCB CURL Curtiss-Wright American Electric Power Co. IEA43rimethorpe General Electric Corp Air Pollution Technology GCA Corp. Westinghouse Denver Research Institute Acurex Div. Aerotherm Corp.

Burns & Roe, United Technologies Corp., Babcock & Wilcox ANL, Steams Roger ORNL Curtiss-Wright American Electric Power Co. General Electric Company Cyclone/GBF Cyclones Cyclones Cyclones Cyclones/GB F: Cyclone/Elect rocyclones Cyclones: Cyclone/GBF Cyclones: Cyclones/GBF; Cyclones/Baghouse Cyclones Cyclones Cyclones Cyclones Cyclones

PFBC--unit PFBC--unit

PFBC unit PFBC unit PFBC--unit PFBC--unit PFBC--unit (LTMTF)

Test rig Survey Test rig/survey

Test rig Test rig

Dry scrubbers Baghouse: ESP Cyclones/GBF; Cyclones/ Baghouse; Cyclones ESP Baghouse

161,170 73-78, 80, 81

I,,9

*Hybrid: both AFBC and PFBC in system.

240

S.C. SAXENA,R. F. HIiNRYand W. F. PODOLSKI The U.S. Department of Energy has constructed and operated a 45-cm dia (18-in. dia) AFBC at Morgantown Energy Technology Center (METC). 258 Bed operating temperatures have ranged from 790 to 910C (1450 1670T); with the flue-gas temperature at the outlet to the cleanup system usually about 540C (1000F). Hot gas cleanup is accomplished by two cyclone stages and a bag filter unit. Most experiments have been carried out with Western subbituminous coals; studies have been concentrated on SOx/NO x and respirable particulate emissions. Elemental compositions and mutagenicity evaluations of particulates from this unit and from several conventional coal-fired power plants showed that AFBC emissions can be expected to be comparable to or lower than those of a conventional plant. 2s9 The Virginia Tech experience with a novel "Fluidfire" boiler is of interest in that many potential operating problems were pointed out. 26 This AFBC system included a cyclone and a baghouse cleanup system. Many of the problems were associated with the baghouse, being caused by a combination of low combustion efficiency in the boiler and a limited solids capacity at the base of the baghouse. Solids with appreciable carbon content could accumulate in the baghouse and eventually build up until they contacted the bag bottoms. Then, combustion of the carbon in these solids could cause bag failure. These problems, partially related to the scale and sophistication of the unit, must also be dealt with in large systems. Foster Wheeler Corporation with Pope, Evans and Robbins have designed a fluidized-bed steam generator for a low-quality anthracite culm for the city of Wilkes-Barre in Pennsylvania. T M It is expected to produce 45000 kg/hr (100,0001b/hr) of saturated steam at a pressure of 1035 kPa (150 psig). Particles entrained in the flue gas and which escape collection in the cyclone will be removed in a baghouse having an efficiency of approximately 99.8'~i. It will be valuable to assess the progress of this project, which may demonstrate the firing of other types of coal wastes, including washery refuse, in a fluidized bed to produce steam on a sound technical, economic, and environmentally clean basis. A similar, but smaller facility for lower grade anthracite culm has been completed in the Shamokin (PA) industrial park. Saturated steam at 1035 kPa (150 psig) is produced and delivered to a local paper reprocessing company at a rate of 10430kg/hr (230001b/hr). A cyclone/baghouse system is also used. Activities have been coordinated by Curtiss Wright. 262 A 45300 kg/hr (100,000 lb/hr) atmospheric fluidized-bed boiler plant located at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., has been in operation since June 1979. 203 Pope, Evans and Robbins, and Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation jointly worked on the engineering and construction of this unit, which is sited in an urban institutional

Combustion Engineering 252 proposed a conceptual design for an AFBC system with primary cyclone, carbon burn-up cell (CBC), and a secondary cyclone followed by a baghouse with felted acrylic bags. The design basis was Wyoming coal with a sulfur content ranging from 0.9 to 3.25 ~o and with limestone fed at a Ca/S ratio of 2.3~,.0 to achieve the required sulfur capture over the sulfur range in the coal. Envisioned operating temperatures were 370C (700F) and 425cC (800"F) for primary and secondary cyclones, respectively, and 115C (240F) for the bag filter unit. Efficiencies of 80, 90 and 99.7 ~ , respectively, were assumed--as compared with vendor guarantees of 98 5o and 95 ~ o for the primary and secondary cyclones and 99.7yo predicted for the baghouse. Overall particulate cleanup is claimed to be more than adequate to meet the EPA standards (old NSPS, 0.1 lb/MBtu). The team of BR, UTC and BW 253 proposed a conceptual design for a combination PFBC, AFBCcombined cycle plant (Table B-l). They envisioned a rotary-flow cyclone followed by a granular-bed filter for turbine protection in the PFBC portion of the plant and a multicyclone for the first stage of AFBC flue-gas cleanup. Both flue gas streams would then be combined and treated by an ESP to satisfy EPA requirements. Design conditions for the PFBC portion were 10 atm. and 900C (1650F), with both the cyclone and the filter operating at essentially these conditions. The AFBC portion was envisioned to operate at 84ffC (1550F) with the CBC at 1090"C (2000F)--AFB gas cleanup occurs downstream from steam-reheat at gas temperatures near 430C (800F). Final cleanup of the mixed AFB and PFB flue gases occurs in the ESP, which has a design maximum temperature of 415C (775F). Detailed particulate removal efficiency was not given, but the overall design is said to reduce emissions below 0.1 lb/MBtu (old NSPS). BW has been funded by EPR1254 to build and operate an AFBC development facility. In the original design, the flue gas from the 1.8-m by 1.8-m (6-ft by 6-ft) combustor is cleaned by a stage of simple cyclones followed by a spray quencher which serves as a scrubber. This design was updated by replacing the spray quencher with a boiling-water heat exchanger and final gas cleanup by a baghouse which operates at about 175C (350F)f155 Energy Resources Co., Inc. (ERCO) 256 has built a 2 MW hr (6 MBtu/hr) AFBC test system. Flue gas from this combustor is cleaned by a cyclone, followed by a wet cooler/scrubber. Plans include experiments with the electro-fluidized bed filter of EFB, Inc. ERCO has also built and oparated a large 1.2m 2.7-m (4-ft 9-ft) AFBC with a cyclone and electrified fluidized-bed (EFB) filter cleanup system. Claimed particle-removal capabilities for the EFB are as high as 99.9 ~',, for l-ltm particles and 99 ~,', for 0.1#m particles. ,,5 v

Particulate removal from combustion gases surrounding. The flue gas leaves the multiclone collectors at 400~C (750F) and is brought to 205'C (400F) or below by passage through an extendedsurface economizer. The dusty gas then passes through a baghouse consisting of 792 bags installed in 22 cells. The original bags, which were of "Teflon" felt, developed a high differential pressure with use due to permanent blinding of the bags and were replaced with bags of nylon/glass felt fabric. Cleaning of the bags is accomplished by a reverse air flow, supplemented by a pulse jet. The baghouse is designed for an air-to-cloth ratio of 4.6:1 while operated in the cleaning cycle. The entire filter system is regarded as reliable for extended periods of operation. GCA Corporation was scheduled to undertake z64 a comprehensive evaluation of tiffs fabric filter during the summer of 1980 under EPA sponsorship. The manufacturers reworked the baghouse in February 1980, but the bags developed trouble in April 1980, burning out at the bottom. 26~ Other performance data for ESP and baghouse technology on AFBC units has been presented by Buell/Envirotech (now G E Environmental Systems), based on their experience with units at Rivesville, West Virginia, and Alexandria, Virginia. 266 Both systems have cyclone-type precollectors; in operation, both have shown that emissions, as well as final cleanup unit performance, are a function of the stability of boiler operation. In steady operation, each has achieved consistent performance. The baghouse on the smaller Alexandria unit (approximately 0.5 MW) consistently captured greater than 99.7 ~il of the particulate and met the NSPS particulate level limits over a wide range of boiler operating conditions. 267 The ESP system on the 30M W unit has not reached expectations, but the entire system has attained emission compliance, with the ESP efficiency approaching 99//oo.268 Argonne National Laboratory and Stearns-Rogers Engineering Co. 269 completed a preliminary design for a PFBC/CTIU* with a 0.91-m square (3-ft square) PFBC bed. This design includes three stages of cleanup: a primary cyclone, a secondary rotaryflow cyclone, and a final granular-bed filter. Provisions were also made in the design to accommodate tests of prototype devices in a slipstream of hot dirty gas. The design base operation includes bed conditions of 1013 kPa (10 atm.) and 900~'C (1650"F), with 90"~ sulfur capture and particulate cleanup efficiencies of approximately 84, 90 and 95 ~0 overall for the three stages. Oak Ridge National Laboratory has proposed a "developmental" conceptual design for a "turbocharged" boiler FBC/CC system. 4 In their scheme, the boiler would be operated to provide hot flue gas at 354 506 kPa (3.5-5 atm.) pressure. The combustion temperature would be about 900c'C (1650F), but the turbine inlet temperature would be much *Component Test and Integration Unit.

241

lower, 600C (ll00F). Hot-gas cleanup would be with conventional cyclones. The Curtiss-Wright Corporation has also proposed a conceptual design for an air-cooled, 500MW commercial PFBC/CC power plant. 120 In this design, hot gas cleanup is accomplished by three cyclone stages--downstream from the recycle cyclone. This design philosophy has also been followed in their 13+ MW pilot plant and in their PFB/small gas turbine (SGT) unit. The choice of cyclone types has varied--for example, in the SGT unit a Dyna-Therm was followed by a Ducon followed by an Aerodyne cyclone unit. Operating conditions for each system are approximately 710 kPa (7 atm.) pressure and 900"C (1650 F) bed temperature. The hot-gas cleanup system performance requirements for the CW air-cooled combustion system are slightly less stringent than for other steam-cooled combustion systems because of the dilution effect of heated clean air which is mixed with the cleaned combustion effluent upstream from the gas turbine. The American Electric Power Corporation 27 has participated with STAL-Laval in some of the tests at CURL and has several conceptual designs for PFBC/CC power generation facilities.271 The largest of these is for a 500-MW commercial installation which might be built in the 1990s. This design includes three stages of cyclones for hot-gas cleaning upstream from the gas turbine, with a baghouse downstream form the turbine to ensure compliance with the NSPS. The next modular design 170 MW. or demonstration-scale---could be ready for operation in the mid-1980s at an existing Ohio installation and has essentially equivalent hot-gas cleanup facilities. Prior to final design of either of these plants, they are building a component test facility in Sweden. This facility includes commercial-size hotgas cleanup equipment, but only a single train of units. It, too, will have three stages of cyclones upstream from the turbine. In each of these designs, operating conditions of near 16-atm. pressure and 815C (1500F) turbine inlet temperature are planned. The General Electric Company has proposed a conceptual design for a 660-MW PFBC/CC commercial plant. 271 Early versions of the design used twostage cyclone-granular-bed filter combinations for hot-gas cleanup. Cost estimates and later development work led to replacement of the granular-bed filters with advanced cyclones. In the final version, 272 hot-gas cleanup is provided by one simple cyclone stage and two electrocyclone stages. Combustion Power Company (CPC) has a pilotscale PFBC development unit with a 7-ft dia bed that has been operated on many different fuels including coal.2V3 Pressures of 405 -506 kPa (4-5 atm.) and temperatures of up to 8 4 0 C (1550 F) have been used. Their original hot-gas cleanup system consisted of three stages of cyclone separa-

242

S.C. SAXIiNA,R. F. HENRYand W. F. POI)OLSKI Stream 1 outlet loadings were about 105 ppm. Removal of the third unit of Stream 1 resulted in a loading of about 155 ppm. Stream 2 outlet loadings were about 235 ppm. Outlet mean particle sizes were all in the 1-2/tm range. In these extended tests, 1000-hr exposure resulted in negligible damage of turbine parts. Predictions by CURL indicated that scale-up to commercial sizes would also provide adequate turbine protection. A more detailed discussion of results of the STALLaval stream tests was given by Jansson e t aL 22 Their conclusions concerning turbine blade evaluation were that no major erosive attack was seen; that there was very minimal corrosive attack; that tolerable levels of particles > 5/~m from a full-scale unit might be 2-3 times greater than the levels experienced in the CURL tests; and that existing cyclone systems could provide adequate particulate removal. A more detailed discussion of the results of the General Electric stream tests was given by Grey et al. 21 and Boericke et al. 12 They discussed CURL tests along with earlier results of GE testing at Exxon, as well as results of other work of historical interest and concluded that in the CURL tests, which were carried out at a slightly lower temperature with finer particle-size distributions and less "upset" conditions of significance, the potential for turbine damage was lower. The General Electric Company has built a PFBC unit as part of a long-term materials test facility. 277 This unit incorporates a hot-gas cleanup system with three stages of single cyclones and is supposed to provide a test flow with a particle loading of about 30 ppm and a size distribution which has no particles larger than 8 pm. In June of 1978, the U.S. EPA awarded a four-year contract to GCA/Technology Division to perform a comprehensive environmental assessment and systems analysis of fluidized-bed combustion technology. 264'27s Most of this work has been confined to AFBC installations, and most of these installations have used fabric filters as the final cleanup stage. Operating temperatures were mostly in the 120290C (250-550F) range. Only the final cleanup stage, be it a filter or an ESP, was studied. The most important conclusion of this work was that the precollector or cyclone stages should have been considered an integral part of the total particulate control system. Westinghouse has presented results form extensive evaluations of a PFBC-gas turbine combined-cycle system, wherein many trade-offs were studied. Effects of electricity cost of PFBC conditions, coal, sorbenL hot-gas cleanup units, and many other parameters are summarized in an overview paper. 2 They considered a hot-gas cleanup system consisting of a medium-efficiency recycle cyclone, a high efficiency cyclone, and a final device (an additional cyclone, granular bed, or bag filter). Estimates of trends in

tors. Operating problems were experienced with the second and third stages, which were small-diameter multicyclone units; these were replaced. The final cleanup configuration was two stages of cyclones followed by a granular-bed filter. CPC is operating development units in AFBC installations which also use cyclone/granular-bed combinations. The first extended test of a PFBC in which gas turbine materials have been evaluated was conducted at the Exxon miniplant. 79 This facility was constructed and operated under a contract with the U.S. EPA. The 0.33-m dia (13-in. dia) combustor was operated at pressures up to 950 kPa (approximately 10 atm.) and temperatures up to 1000C (1830F). Effluent gases passed through three simple cyclones in series, a recycle cyclone to improve combustion efficiency and two cleanup units. Several types of cyclones, as well as a granular-bed filter, and a fabric filter, were evaluated as the final gas cleanup stage. Additional cleanup tests with EPA's portable, trailermonitored ESP and baghouse units were also carried out downstream from the cleanup train at lower temperature and pressure. In the HTHP cleanup experiments, minimal damage to turbine parts was found, but the EPA/NSPS limit was not regularly met except with the fabric filter unit. Both LTLP units were able to meet these limitations. Perhaps the largest body of PFBC operating experience to date has been accumulated at the research facilities of the NCB's C U R L . 122'274-276 Their 0.6-m (2-ft) by 0.9-m (3-ft) combustor has been operated for many thousands of hours at a variety of conditions with many coals and stones. Hot-gas cleanup has been achieved with one or more stages of cyclones. There have also been tests of a rotary-flow cyclone. Final cleanup has been attained by a wet scrubber system at lower temperatures and pressures. Combustor operating conditions have usually been in the range of 5064508 kPa (545 atm.) and 815900C (1500-1650F). In the well-known 1000-hr test in which turbine parts were exposed to flows of cleaned hot gas, the combustor effluent was split into streams of 0.9 and 0.5 kg/sec (2 and 1.2 lb/sec), which were each cleaned by cyclone systems. Stream 1, the "STAL-LavaI" stream of 0.9 kg/sec (21b/sec), was successively treated by a 0.8-m (20-in.) van Tongeren AC850 cyclone, then by a 0.6-m (15.4-in.) van Tongeren AC850 cyclone with reduced outlet size, followed by a 0.5-m (13-in.) Stairmand high-efficiency cyclone. Stream 2, the "General Electric" stream of 0.5 kg/sec (1.21b/sec) was also treated by a three-cyclone system: the first unit was a 0.9-m (36-in.) chambertype cyclone; the second unit was a 0.25-m (10-in.) hybrid volute entry type; while the third unit was a 0.25-m (10-in.) Stairmand high-efficiency type with an outlet skimmer to enhance performance. In operation, both streams had inlet loadings of about 10,000 ppm with a mean particle size of about 35 pm. Cleanup system performance was such that

Particulate removal from combustion gases costs are given for m a n y options. They conclude t h a t for o p t i m u m design, a total system must be viewed a n d t h a t a competitive P F B C plant could be designed with current or slightly more a d v a n c e d technology, depending on its specific application. In s u m m a r y , it is realized that several stages of hot-gas cleanup are necessary since n o single unit h a s the c o m b i n a t i o n of operability a n d performance needed for the overall system. This fact is reflected in all P F B C d e v e l o p m e n t work a n d conceptual designs. T h e largest P F B C installation in o p e r a t i o n is at the l E A G r i m e t h o r p e facility. 129 T h e system has a n o m i n a l capacity of l0 t o n n e / h r of coal. C o m b u s t i o n c o n d i t i o n s are 1013 1216 k P a (10-12 atm.) a n d 850 (1560F). C l e a n u p of the hot gas is by two cyclone stages in series. Plans include further cleaning of part of the h o t gas stream by a d d i t i o n a l cyclones a n d testing of t u r b i n e parts in this stream. D a t a from these tests will a u g m e n t earlier results from C U R L a n d Exxon pertaining to cyclone performance, as well as t u r b i n e material resistance to corrosion, erosion, a n d deposition.

243

Acknowledgment~Disclaimer--This report was prepared by Argonne National Laboratory as an account of work sponsored by the United States Department of Energy. The report is available through the National Technical Information Service. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product. or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

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