Global Outline Chapter 34: The Great War: The World in Upheaval

Intro Archduke Francis Ferdinand visited Sarajevo- capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina These provinces of Austria-Hungary had pan-Serbian nationalism- Serbians didnt like him Archduke and his wife were killed in 1914 on way to visit wounded from an earlier attack, in which a would-be assassin tried to poison himself but it didnt work Princip, Ferdinands murderer, tried to poison himself but didnt work- 20 years in prison Tensions b/t Austro-Hungarian empire & Serbia increased then more countries got involved 28 nations formed Allies, 4 formed Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman empire, Bulgaria)the Great War- then renamed World War I First total war in human history, 5 continents, all humans mobilized, relied on industry 15m soldiers dead, 20m injured- power shifted away from Western Europe, 9 new nations formed, huge public debts & inflation, demise of 4 dynasties and their empires

I: The Drift Toward War Caused directly by assassination of Ferdinand, heir to throne of Austro-Hungarian empire Also many other underlying effects: nationalism, economic interests, alliances, etc.

A: Nationalist Aspirations Self-determination- people with same ethnic origins had the right to form sovereign states Many dynastic powers opposed self-determination thus denying national autonomy to many Revolutions helped Belgium, Italy, & Germany, but Balkan region still had issues Nationalist aspirations of minorities threatened multinational empires (Ottoman, etc.) Greece was the first to gain independence from the Ottoman empire Russia promoted Pan-Slavism- stressed importance of Slave people and sought to unite them politically- purpose was to promote secession by Slav areas, thereby weakening Austrian rule and preparing territories for future Russian annexation Russian supported Serbia & the Slavs, Germany supported Austria-Hungary govt

B: National Rivalries Industrial nations of Europe competed for foreign markets- Germany & Britain conflicted Britains power decreased to about that of Germanys- caused strained relations Germany built large battleships, so Britain built super battleships called dreadnoughts Then, Germany built their own dreadnoughts- this was called The Naval Race Colonial competition b/t Britain & Germany + France & Germany fueled tensions Germany, unified since only 1871, didnt get many lands since most were already taken Germany support Moroccan independence, which French didnt want- more tensions Conference in Algeciras, Spain, prevented war Balkan Wars- Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania fought for possession of European territories held by the Ottoman empire- strained relations even more

Many citizens influence tensions- wanted to see their country outshine others Newspapers, pamphlets, and books fueled national arrogance

C: Understandings and Alliances The Triple Alliance/Central Powers stemmed from Dual Alliance b/t Germany & AustriaHungary to prevent a Russian/French attack. Italy, fearful of France, then joined France didnt want another defeat like the one in the Franco-Prussian War, Russia was disturbed by Germanys support of Austria, Britain didnt like the Central Powers France, Russia, and Britain formed The Allies/The Triple Entente Preservation of peace was difficult due to nations different war plans French based theirs around Plan XVII- offensive maneuvers and to attack Germany didnt want to be attacked on 2 fronts- plan by General Count Alfred von Schlieffen Schlieffen plan called for Germans to attack France and then Russia (Russia was slower)

II: Global War War came during the harvest season- people reacted differently Philosopher Bertrand Russell said that average Englishman wanted war French writer Alain-Fournier said that this war is fine and just and great Quickly, reality hit- total war broke out, democratic governments took dictatorial action, women encouraged to work more, colonists brought in to fight, etc

A: The Guns of August Shots from Gavriilo Princips revolver triggered the war- Princip member of Black Hand Black Hand wanted to unite all south Slavs- said Austro-Hungarian empire was barrier Austria issued an ultimatum to allow officials to investigate the assassination, but Serbs didnt want it, so Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia Timing of mobilization orders was crucial to successful conduct of war Russia then mobilized its troops, then tsar of Russia ordered mobilization against Germany Nicholas II declared war early to get troops on the move Germany issued an ultimatum to Russia & France- unhappy, Germany declared war German troops invaded Belgium to defeat French army as per Schlieffen plan Belgium govt wanted to remain neutral, called on signatories of the treaty of 1839 Britain signed, and sent an ultimatum to Germany demanding neutrality be respected Germany refused, so British declared war

B: Mutual Butchery Many thought the war would be quick & many thought God was on their side German belt buckle read Gott mit uns (God is with us) Americans felt called on to make the world safe for democracy German thrust toward Paris (1914) came to a halt along the river Marne Race to the sea took them to Atlantic coast- then battle lines remained almost stationary Each nation tried to war down the enemy, only to have their own forces suffer in return

Italy left in favor of neutrality, then enter war on the side of the Allies Treat of London- once allies won, they promised to cede to Italy Austro-Hungariancontrolled territories, specifically south of Tyrol and most of the Dalmatian coast Italians defeated at Caporetto and then maintained a defensive line only Barbed wire on constant machine gun fire = defensive missions, stalemate Desire to reintroduce movement prompted the development of powerful weapons Germans used poisonous gas such as mustard gas- caused death Britain began using tanks- had short-term effectiveness, but not desirable in the long run Airplanes were in their infancy and couldnt car enough weapons to do serious damage Used for aerial reconnaissance- led to ace fighters and dog fights Germany relied on submarines to attack Allied commercial shipping No-mans-land, which is where the trenches were, was where soldiers fired their weaponsscattered with shell casings, cadavers, etc.- most who fought there were killed In eastern Europe and the Balkans, the battle lines were more fluid Austrian and German forces defeated many nations and pushed Russia out of Prussia Germans tried to break stalemate by an assault on the fortress of Verdun- tons of deaths Also, many civilians became targets of warfare because they were crucial to military ops German zeppelin dropped a bomb on the Parisians (killed only 1, but led to more events) Also use naval blockade to deny food to who populations hoping to starve tons of people British blockade of Germany contributed to the deaths of 500k Germans

C: Total War: The Home Front Helmuth Karl von Moltke, former chief of Prussian General Staff, predicted a Great War Home front- outcome of war depended on how well each nation mobilized its economy Governments took control of private enterprises and imposed discipline on labor process Required governments to abandon laissez-faire capitalist market economy Governments controlled wages, work hours, price control, etc- unemployment vanished Women became increasingly important- took over their husbands job, etc. Most crucial work by women was the making of shells (very dangerous conditions) Suffered from explosions in the factories and TNT poisoning War gave middle and upper-class women meaning- a liberating experience- felt important Working-class women were already accustomed to work- govt promised them equal pay for their work, but they were often never paid Womens role during the Great War led to voting rights in many countries (Britain 1st) To maintain spirit of the home front, govts restricted civil liberties, censored bad news, and encouraged vilification of the enemy through propaganda Those who criticized their own nation were often prosecuted as traitors Past prime minister of France, Joseph Caillaux- 2 years in jail- wanted treaty with Germany Atrocious propaganda was spread by all countries, suggesting to civilians that the enemies were bad and if their country was defeated, they would be in grave condition Eventually, people stopped believing in the false propaganda and became skeptical

D: Conflict in East Asia and the Pacific War expanded because European govts carried their animosities into their colonies

Also b/c they used their colonists for war efforts: British relied heavily on troops from dominion lands like Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Newfoundland, and South Africa Finally, because desires and objectives of some countries that entered the war- Japan, U.S., and Ottoman empire- had little to do with the murder in Sarajevo Japan desired to secure firm and enduring peace in Eastern Asia- sent ultimatum to Germany demanding the handover of the German-leased territory of Jiaozhou Also required the Germans to remove their warships from Japanese and Chinese waters Germans refused to comply, so Japan entered the war on the side of the Allies Japanese to the German-held port of Qingdao & German-held Marshall Islands & others In 1915, Japan presented Chinese govt with 21 secret demands- if ultimatum was accepted, China would have been reduced to a protectorate of Japan The demands allowed Japan to basically run China- very unfair, Japan wanted to dominate Chinese leaked the note to British authorities who protected China

E: Battles in Africa and Southwest Asia Allied forces tried to capture German colonies in Africa Togoland fell to French after 3 weeks, but other captures took longer German control didnt disappear from Africa until the end of the war Winston Churchill, 1st lord of the Admiralty (British navy), wanted to attack the Ottomans Suggested that since they were a weak ally of the Central Powers, this would hurt Germany Allied ships were damaged from floating mines and withdrew Decided on a land force on the beaches of the Gallipoli peninsula- campaign failed Date of the landing became known as Anzac Day (Australian & New Zealand Army Corps) in Australia (because Australian soldiers fought in the mission)- day of public homage Commander of the Turkish division that defended Gallipoli- Mustafa Kemal- crucial role After Otomman state adopted a new policy of Turkish nationalism, tried to get rid of the non-Muslim Armenians, who were seeking independence & autonomy These wartime atrocities have become known as Armenian genocide (1 million died) Eventually, Turkish troops were unable to defend the empire against British armies British armies received support from the Arab revolt against the Turks Led by Ibn Ali Hussain, sheriff of Mecca and king of the Hejaz, they rose up against Turks Wanted to secure independence from the Ottoman empire and create an Arab nation

III: The End of the War In the Russian empire, war amplified existing stresses- Romanov dynasty was forced to abdicate in favor of a provisional govt Yielded power to the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took Russia out of the war in 1918 This was offset by the entry of the U.S. in 1917- exhausted the Central Powers

A: Revolution in Russia In 1917, many strikes in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and Tsar Nicholas II abdicated throne Russia ceased to be a monarch and The March Revolution was an unplanned affair Political power in Russia shifter to the provisional govt & the Petrograd soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies

Soviets were revolutionary councils organized by socialists- had considerable control The provisional govt disbanded the tsarist police; repealed all limitations on freedoms of speech, press, and association; and abolished discriminatory laws Still, it wasnt able to satisfy popular demands for an end to war and for land reform Said that changes such as giving land to peasants had to be held off for a future assembly Also wanted to continue the war to a victorious conclusion On the other hand, the Petrograd soviet called for an immediate peace- gained more support Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, a revolutionary Marxist, believed that the working class was incapable of developing the proper revolutionary consciousness that would lead to effective action German transported Lenin & other revolutionaries to Russia in a sealed train, hoping they would bring about Russias withdrawal from the war Lenin head the Bolsheviks, the radical wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party Soviets began to support the antiwar effort- govt couldnt support the citizens Used slogan Peace, Land, and Bread- gained support from the people On November 6th, armed members seized power in the name of the All-Russian National Congress of Soviets- stormed the Winter Palace, the home of the provisional govt U.S. journalist John Reed saw the seize and described it as ten days that shook the world Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended Russias involvement in the war Gave Germany control of much of Russia, but allowed internal problems to be settled

B: U.S. Intervention and Collapse of the Central Powers During first 2 years of war, U.S. economy suffered & there was 15% unemployment Economic recovery became dependent on sales of war materials to the British Allied countries took out large loans with American banks- America no longer neutral U.S. entry officially determined by Germans resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare Germany depended on their submarine fleet to strangle Britain economically Sinking of the Lusitania, although it carried ammunition & traveled through warzone, angered many Americans- resulted in the death of 128 U.S. citizens Woodrow Wilson declared war against Germany on April 6th, 1917 Effects of war showed: Great Easter Rebellion- Irish tried to overthrow British rule, Central Powers suffered from food shortages as a result of British blockades, etc. German and French soldiers refused to fight- many French soldiers were sentenced to death Eventually, German was exhausted- Ottomans concluded an armistice, Austria-Hungary surrendered, and German accepted an armistice on November 11th, 1918- final end

C: After the War Tons of physical destruction (most visible in France & Belgium), millions killed The flue pandemic of 1918-19 killed more people than the war- termed Spanish flu Wartime traffic probably contributed to the spread of the infection 25% of Pacific island population wiped out, Indian postal & legal service shut down, etc. At The Paris Settlement, Georges Clemenceau, Lloyd George, and Woodrow Wilson (leaders of France, Great Britain, and the U.S.) set terms for the defeated nations 27 nations represented at Paris- often conflicted, so these 3 men took control Threatened to resume war if the terms were not accepted

Before the end of the war, Wilson had postwar visions- the Fourteen Points Wanted freedoms and peace for all and a general association of nations Many allied nations didnt like it because they wanted to take advantage of defeated nations Treaty of Versailles denied the Germans a navy and an air force and limited size of army Allies prohibited an alliance b/t Germany & Austria & Central Powers must pay for war The Paris peace conference also resulted in the Treaty of Neuilly- Bulgaria ceded small lands The Treaty of St. Germain & the Treat of Trianon (Allies & Austria, Allies & Hungary) took lots of land and reduced the population The Treaty of Sevres dissolved the Ottoman empire, Turkish werent happy Mustafa Kemal defeated the Greek, British, French, & Italians- made Republic of Turkey Allies recognized the Republic of Turkey in the Treaty of Lausanne Musta Kemal, now known as Ataturk (Father of the Turks) wanted modernization Govt supported industrialization- led to success Govt was secular- separate from Muslim religious establishments Religious institutions replaced with secular ones, women emancipated, European law, more Ataturk ruled Turkey as a virtual dictator until his death in 1938 Most other treaties at the Paris Conference were too weak- just a 20 year truce, then WWII Created the League of Nations- mission was to maintain world peace League had no power to enforce its decision and it relied on collective security as a tool for preservation of global peace- (aggression against any one state = aggression against all) U.S. never joined because the Senate rejected the idea, Germany & Japan left it in 1933 Although it failed, it led to its successor, the United Nations Woodrow Wilson promoted self-determination- key to international peace & cooperation Self-determination existed in parts of Europe, but not in Austria and Germany Some diplomats violated the notion of self-determination because they found it impossible to redraw national boundaries without creating large minorities on one side Creation of Yugoslavia (Land of the South Slavs) = a triumph of self-determination Still, beneath that unity, there lingered the separate national identities European powers came up with the idea of a trusteeship for Germanys former colonies League of Nations decided to have those colonies be supervised by victors of the war This was the Mandate System- also established mandates in the former Ottoman empire French & British promised Arab nationalists independence & Jewish a homeland in Palestine after the war, but the Mandate System went against this- many didnt like this

D: Challenges to European Preeminence To most Europeans, the large world and the Continents role in it remained unchanged Appeared that European global hegemony was more secure- still ruled old colonies & new protectorates- but not really, since the damage was so great War fueled desires for independence and self-determination Decline in European power was related to diminished economic stature (caused by war) Lost overseas investments and foreign markets which had brought huge profits Europes reduced economic power indicated by the reversal of the economic relation with the U.S.- before the war, U.S. was a debtor nation, owing money to Europeans, but after the war, it was a major creditor

Lost many colonies, which viewed the war as a European civil war Many colonists returned home and attested to the atrocities of the war War also spread revolutionary ideas to the colonies, promoted nationalist aspirations Wilson wanted the interests of native populations to be given equal weight w/ Europeans Also sought inspiration from the Soviet Union- denounced all imperialism Messages went against imperial control and appealed to colonial peoples