Performance Planning

UNIT 9 PERFORMANCE PLANNING AND and Review

REVIEW
Objectives
After completion of the unit, you should be able to:
l understand the concept of performance appraisal;
l explain the performance appraisal process;
l discuss the benefits of appraisal;
l describe various appraisal methods; and
l understand the problems in appraisal.

Structure
9.1. Introduction
9.2 Concept of Performance Appraisal
9.3 Goals of Performance Appraisal
9.4 Objectives of Performance Appraisal
9.5 The Performance Appraisal Process
9.6 Benefits of Performance Appraisal
9.7 Performance Appraisal Methods
9.8 Performance Counselling
9.9 Problems in Performance Appraisal
9.10 Effective Performance Appraisal
9.11 Summary
9.12 Self Assessment Questions
9.13 Further Readings

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Performance appraisal helps organizations to determine how employees can help to
achieve the goals of organizations. It has two important activities included in it. First
has to do with determining the performance and other with the process of evaluation.
In this unit, concept of performance appraisal and the processes involved in it have
been discussed.

9.2 CONCEPT OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

a) What is Performance?
What does the term performance actually mean? Employees are performing well when
they are productive. Productivity implies both concern for effectiveness and efficiency,
effectiveness refers to goal accomplishment. However it does not speak of the costs
incurred in reaching the goal. That is where efficiency comes in. Efficiency evaluates
the ratio of inputs consumed to outputs achieved. The greater the output for a given
input, the greater the efficiency. It is not desirable to have objective measures of
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Performance Management productivity such as hard data on effectiveness, number of units produced, or percent
and Potential Assessment of crimes solved etc and hard data on efficiency (average cost per unit or ratio of sales
volume to number of calls made etc.).
In addition to productivity as measured in terms of effectiveness and efficiency,
performance also includes personnel data such as measures of accidents, turnover,
absences, and tardiness. That is a good employee is one who not only performs well in
terms of productivity but also minimizes problems for the organisation by being to
work on time, by not missing days, and by minimizing the number of work-related
accidents.
b) What is Appraisal?
Appraisals are judgments of the characteristics, traits and performance of others. On
the basis of these judgments we assess the worth or value of others and identify what
is good or bad. In industry performance appraisal is a systematic evaluation of
employees by supervisors. Employees also wish to know their position in the
organization. Appraisals are essential for making many administrative decisions:
selection, training, promotion, transfer, wage and salary administration etc. Besides
they aid in personnel research.
Performance Appraisal thus is a systematic and objective way of judging the relative
worth of ability of an employee in performing his task. Performance appraisal helps to
identify those who are performing their assigned tasks well and those who are not and
the reasons for such performance.

9.3 GOALS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Conducting performance appraisals on employee’s performance should be more than a
simple checklist of Do’s and Don’ts. Performance evaluation should serve as a vital
component, one that is of interest to both the organization and the employee. From the
organizational perspective, sound performance appraisals can ensure that correct work
is being done, work that assists in meeting department goals simply put. Each
employee’s work should support the activities needed to action his or her supervisor’s
performance objectives. This should ultimately continue up the hierarchy, with all
efforts supporting corporate strategic goals. From the employee perspective, properly
operating performance appraisal systems provide a clear communication of work
expectations. Knowing what is expected is a first step in helping one to cope better
with the stress usually associated with a lack of clear direction. Secondly, properly
designed performance appraisals should also serve as a means of assisting an
employee’s personal development.
To make effective performance appraisals a reality, four criteria need to be present.
These are:
a) Employees should be actively involved in the evaluation and development
process.
b) Supervisors need to enter performance appraisals with a constructive and helpful
attitude.
c) Realistic goals must be mutually set.
d) Supervisors must be aware, and have knowledge of the employee’s job and
performance.

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 Performance Planning
9.4 OBJECTIVES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL and Review

Performance appraisal has a number of specific objectives. These are given below:
a) To review past performance;
b) To assess training needs;
c) To help develop individuals;
d) To audit the skills within an organizations;
e) To set targets for future performance;
f) To identify potential for promotion.
Some employees may believe that performance appraisal is simply used by the
organization to apportion blame and to provide a basis for disciplinary action. They
see it as a stick that management has introduced with which to beat people. Under
such situations a well thought out performance appraisal is doomed to failure. Even if
the more positive objectives are built into the system, problems may still arise because
they may not all be achievable and they may cause conflict. For Example, an appraise
is less likely to be open about any shortcomings in past performance during a process
that affects pay or promotion prospects, or which might be perceived as leading to
disciplinary action. It is therefore important that performance appraisal should have
specific objective. Not only should the objectives be clear but also they should form
part of the organization’s whole strategy. Thus incorporating objectives into the
appraisal system may highlight areas for improvement, new directions and
opportunities.

9.5 THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL PROCESS

Following steps are involved in appraisal process:
1) The appraisal process begins with the establishment of performance standards.
These should have evolved out of job analysis and the job description. These
performance standards should also be clear and objective enough to be
understood and measured. Too often, these standards are articulated in some
such phrase as “a full day’s work” or “a good job.” Vague phrases tell us
nothing. The expectations a manager has in term of work performance by the
subordinates must be clear enough in their minds so that the managers would be
able to at some later date, to communicate these expectations to their
subordinates and appraise their performance against these previously established
standards.
2) Once performance standards are established, it is necessary to communicate
these expectations. It should not be part of the employees’ job to guess what is
expected of them. Unfortunately, too many jobs have vague performance
standards. The problem is compounded when these standards are not
communicated to the employees. It is important to note that communication is a
two-way street. Mere transference of information from the manager to the
subordinate regarding expectations is not communication. Communication only
takes place when the transference of information has taken place and has been
received and understood by subordinate. Therefore feedback is necessary. Hence
the information communicated by the manager has been received and understood
in the way it was intended.
3) The Third step in a appraisal process is measurement of performance. To
determine what actual performance is, it is necessary to acquire information
about it. We should be concerned with how we measure and what we measure.
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Performance Management Four common sources of information are frequently used by mangers to measure
and Potential Assessment actual performance: personal observation, statistical reports, oral reports, and
written reports. Each has its strengths and weaknesses; however, a combination
of them increases both the number of input sources and the probability of
receiving reliable information.
What we measure is probably more critical to the evaluation process than how
we measure. The selection of the wrong criteria can result in serious
dysfunctional consequences. What we measure determines, to a great extent,
what people in a organization will attempt to excel at. The criteria we choose to
measure must represent performance as stated in the first two steps of the
appraisal process.
4) The fourth step in the appraisal process is the comparison of actual performance
with standards. The attempt in this step is to note deviations between standard
performance and actual performance. One of the most challenging tasks facing
managers is to present an accurate appraisal to the subordinate and then have the
subordinate accept the appraisal in a constructive manner. The impression that
subordinates receive about their assessment has a strong impact on their self-
esteem and, very important, on their subsequent performance. Of course,
conveying good news is considerably less difficult than conveying the bad news
that performance has been below expectations. Thus, the discussion of the
appraisal can have negative as well as positive motivational consequences.
5) The final step in the appraisal is the initiation of corrective action when
necessary. Corrective action can be of two types; one is immediate and deals
predominantly with symptoms. The other is basic and delves into causes.
Immediate corrective action is often described as “putting out fires”, where as
basic corrective action gets to the source of deviation and seeks to adjust the
differences permanently. Immediate action corrects something right now and gets
things back on track. Basic action asks how and why performance deviated. In
some instances, managers may rationalize that they do not have the time to take
basic corrective action and therefore must be content to “perpetually put out
fires.” Figure 9.1 shows the performance process in summary.

Establish
Performance
s

Standards

Initiate Communicate
Corrective Performance
Action, if expectations
necessary
s

Comparison of s

Actual Measurement
Performance in
s

of Actual
the Performance Performance
standards

Figure 9.1: The Performance Appraisal Process

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 Performance Planning
9.6 BENEFITS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL and Review

The benefits of an effective appraisal scheme can be summed up under three

categories. These are for the organization, for appraiser and for appraisee.
1) For the Organizations: Following benefits would accrue to the organization.
a) Improved performance throughout the organization due to more effective
communication of the organization’s objectives and values, increased sense
of cohesiveness and loyalty and improved relationships between managers
and staff.
b) Improvement in the tasks performed by each member of the staff.
c) Identification of ideas for improvement.
d) Expectations and long-term plans can be developed.
e) Training and development needs can be identified more clearly.
f) A culture of continuous improvement and success can be created and
maintained.
g) People with potential can be identified and career development plans can be
formulated for future staff requirements.
2) For the appraiser: The following benefits would accrue to the appraiser:
a) The opportunity to develop an overview of individual jobs and departments.
b) Identification of ideas for improvements.
c) The opportunity to link team and individual objectives and targets with
departmental and organizational objectives.
d) The opportunity to clarify expectations of the contribution the manager
expects from teams and individuals.
e) The opportunity to re-prioritize targets.
f) A means of forming a more productive relationship with staff based on
mutual trust and understanding.
3) For the appraisee: For the appraisee the following benefits would accrue:
a) Increased motivation.
b) Increased job satisfaction.
c) Increased sense of personal value.

Activity A
Assume you are currently operating an appraisal system in your organisation. How
will you carry out the same following the above sections.
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9.7 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL METHODS

This section looks at how management can actually establish performance standards
and devise instruments that can be used to measure and appraise an employee’s
performance. A number of methods are now available to assess the performance of the
employees. 21
Performance Management 1) Critical Incident Method
and Potential Assessment
Critical incident appraisal focuses the rater’s attention on those critical or key
behaviors that make the difference between doing a job effectively and doing it
ineffectively. What the appraiser does is write down little anecdotes that describe what
the employee did that was especially effective or ineffective. In this approach to
appraisal, specific behaviors are cited, not vaguely defined personality traits. A
behaviorally based appraisal such as this should be more valid than trait-based
appraisals because it is clearly more job related. It is one thing to say that an
employee is “aggressive” or “imaginative or “relaxed,” but that does not tell anything
about how well the job is being done. Critical incidents, with their focus on behaviors,
judge performance rather than personalities. Additionally, a list of critical incidents on
a given employees provides a rich set of examples from which the employee can be
shown which of his or her behaviors are desirable and which ones call for
improvement. This method suffers from following two drawbacks:
a) Supervisors are reluctant to write these reports on a daily or even weekly basis
for all of their subordinates as it is time consuming and burdensome for them
b) Critical incidents do not lend themselves to quantification. Therefore the
comparison and ranking of subordinates is difficult.

2) Checklist
In the checklist, the evaluator uses a bit of behavioral descriptions and checks of those
behaviors that apply to the employee. The evaluator merely goes down the list and
gives “yes” or “no” responses. Once the checklist is complete, it is usually evaluated
by the staff of personnel department, not the rater himself. Therefore the rater does not
actually evaluate the employee’s performance; he/she merely records it. An analyst in
the personnel department then scores the checklist, often weighting the factors in
relationship to their importance. The final evaluation can then be returned to the rating
manager for discussion with the subordinate, or someone from the personnel
department can provide the feedback to the subordinate.

3) Graphic Rating Scale

One of the oldest and most popular methods of appraisal is the graphic rating scale.
They are used to assess factors such as quantity and quality of work, job knowledge,
cooperation, loyalty, dependability, attendance, honesty, integrity, attitudes, and
initiative etc. However, this method is most valid when abstract traits like loyalty or
integrity are avoided unless they can be defined in more specific behavioral terms. The
assessor goes down the list of factors and notes that point along the scale or
continuum that list of factors and notes that point along the scale or continuum that
best describes the employee. There are typically five to ten points on the continuum. In
the design of the graphic scale, the challenge is to ensure that both the factors
evaluated and the scale pints are clearly understood and unambiguous to the rater.
Should ambiguity occur, bias is introduced. Following are some of the advantages of
this method:
a) They are less time-consuming to develop and administer.
b) They permit quantitative analysis.
c) There is greater standardization of items so comparability with other individuals
in diverse job categories is possible.

4) Forced Choice Method

The forced choice appraisal is a special type of checklist, but the rater has to choose
between two or more statements, all of which may be favorable or unfavorable. The
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appraiser’s job is to identify which statement is most (or in some cases least) Performance Planning
descriptive of the individual being evaluated. To reduce bias, the right answers are not and Review
known to the rater. Someone in the personnel department scores the answers based on
the key. This key should be validated so management is in a position to say that
individuals with higher scores are better-performing employees.
The major advantages of the forced choice method are:
a) Since the appraiser does not know the “right” answers, it reduces bias.
b) It looks at over all performance.
c) It is based on the behavior of the employees.

5) Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales

These scales combine major elements from the critical incident and graphic rating
scale approaches. The appraiser rates the employees based on items along continuum,
but the points are examples of actual behavior on the given job rather than general
descriptions or traits. Behaviorally anchored rating scales specify definite, observable,
and measurable job behavior. Examples of job-related behavior and performance
dimensions are generated by asking participants to give specific illustrations on
effective and ineffective behavior regarding each performance dimension. These
behavioral examples are then retranslated into appropriate performance dimensions.
Those that are sorted into the dimension for which they were generated are retained.
The final group of behavior incidents are then numerically scaled to a level of
performance that each is perceived to represent. The incidents that are retranslated and
have high rater agreement on performance effectiveness are retained for use as
anchors on the performance dimension. The results of the above processes are
behavioral descriptions, such as anticipates, plans, executes, solves immediate
problems, carries out orders, and handles emergency situations.
This method has following advantages:
a) It does tend to reduce rating errors.
b) It assesses behavior over traits.
c) It clarifies to both the employee and rater which behaviors connote good
performance and which connote bad.

6) Group Order Ranking

The group order ranking requires the evaluator to place employees into a particular
classification, such as “top one-fifth” or “second one-fifth.” Evaluators are asked to
rank the employees in the top 5 per cent, the next 5 per cent, the next 15 per cent. So
if a rater has twenty subordinates, only four can be in the top fifth and, of course, four
must also be relegated to the bottom fifth. The advantage of this method is that it
prevent raters from inflating their evaluations so everyone looks good or from
homogenizing the evaluations for everyone is rated near the average outcome that are
usual with the graphic rating scale. It has following disadvantages:
a) It is not good if the number of employee being compared is small. At the
extreme, if the evaluator is looking at only four employees, it is very possible
that they may all be excellent, yet the evaluator may be forced to rank them into
top quarter, second quarter, third quarter, and low quarter!
b) Another disadvantage, which plagues all relative measures, is the “zero-sum
game”: consideration. This means, any change must add up to zero. For example,
if there are twelve employees in a department performing at different levels of
effectiveness, by definition, three are in the top quarter, three in the second
quarter, and so forth. The sixth-best employee, for instance, would be in the
second quartile. Ironically, if two of the workers in the third or fourth quartiles 23
Performance Management leave the department and are not replaced, then our sixth best employee now fit
and Potential Assessment into the third quarter.
c) Because comparison are relative, an employee who is mediocre may score high
only because he or she is the “best of the worst” Similarly, an excellent
performer who is matched against “stiff” competition may be evaluated poorly,
when in absolute terms his or her performance is outstanding.

7) Individual Ranking
The individual ranking method requires the evaluator merely to list all the employees
in an order from highest to lowest. Only one can be the “best.” If the evaluator is
required to appraise thirty individuals ranking method carries the same pluses and
minuses as group order ranking.

8) Paired Comparison
The paired comparison method is calculated by taking the total of [n (n-1)]/2
comparisons. A score is obtained for each employee by simply counting the number of
pairs in which the individual is the preferred member. It ranks each individual in
relationship to all others on a one-on-one basis. If ten people are being evaluated, the
first person is compared, with each of the other nine, and the number of items this
person is preferred in any of the nine pairs is tabulated. Each of the remaining nine
persons, in turn, is compared in the same way, and a ranking is evolved by the greatest
number of preferred “victories”. This method ensures that each employee is compared
against every other, but the method can become unwieldy when large numbers of
employees are being compared.

9) Management by Objectives
Management by objectives (MBO) is a process that converts organizational objectives
into individual objectives. It can be thought of as consisting of four steps: goal setting,
action planning, self-control, and periodic reviews:-
a) In goal setting, the organization’s overall objectives are used as guidelines from
which departmental and individual objectives are set. At the individual level, the
manager and subordinate jointly identify those goals that are critical for the
subordinate to achieve in order to fulfill the requirements of the job as
determined in job analysis. These goals are agreed upon and then become the
standards by which the employee’s results will be evaluated.
b) In action planning, the means are determined for achieving the ends established
in goals setting. That is, realistic plans are developed to attain the objectives.
This step includes identifying the activities necessary to accomplish the objective,
establishing the critical relationships between these activities, estimating the time
requirement for each activity, and determining the resources required to complete
each activity.
c) Self-control refers to the systematic monitoring and measuring of performance.
Ideally, by having the individual review his or her own performance. The MBO
philosophy is built on the assumptions that individuals can be responsible, can
exercise self-direction, and do not require external controls and threats of
punishment.
d) Finally, with periodic progress reviews, corrective action is initiated when
behavior deviates from the standards established in the goal-setting phase. Again,
consistent with MBO philosophy, these manager-subordinate reviews are
conducted in a constructive rather than punitive manner. Reviews are not meant
to degrade the individual but to aid in future performance. These reviews should
24 take place at least two or three times a year.
Following are the advantages of MBO: Performance Planning
and Review
a) It is result –oriented. It assists the planning and control functions and provides
motivation.
b) Employees know exactly what is expected of them and how they will be
evaluated.
c) Employees have a greater commitment to objectives that they have participated
in developing than to those unilaterally set by their bosses.

10) 360 degree appraisal

The 360 degree feedback process involves collecting perceptions about a person’s
behaviour and the impact of that behaviour from the person’s boss or bosses, direct
reports, colleagues, fellow members of project teams, internal ad external customers,
and suppliers. Other names for 360 degree feedback are multi-rater feedback, multi-
source feedback, full-circle appraisal, and group performance review. 360 degree
feedback is a method and a tool that provides each employee the opportunity to
receive performance feedback from his or her supervisor and four to eight peers,
subordinates and customers. 360 degree feedback allows each individual to understand
how his effectiveness as an employee, co-worker, or staff member is viewed by others.
The most effective processes provide feedback that is based on behaviours that other
employees can see. The feedback provides insight about the skills and behaviours
desired in the organization to accomplish the mission , vision, goals and values. The
feedback is firmly planted in behaviours needed to exceed customer expectations.
People whoe are chosen as raters are usually those that interact routinely with the
person receiving feedback. The purpose of the feedback is to:
a) assist each individual to understand his or her strengths and weaknesses.
b) contribute insights into aspects of his or her work needing professional
development.
Following are some of the major considerations in using 360 degree feedback.
These are basically concerned with how to:
a) select the feedback tool and process;
b) select the raters;
c) use the feedback
d) review the feedback; and
e) manage and integrate the process into a larger performance management system.
Features of 360 degree appraisal
Organizations that are using with the 360 degree component of their performance
management systems identify following positive features of the process. These
features will manifest themselves in well-managed, well-integrated 360 degree
processes.
a) Improved Feedback from more sources: Provides well-rounded feedback from
peers, reporting staff, co-workers, and supervisors. This can be a definite
improvement over feedback from a single individual. 360 feedback can also save
managers’ time in that they can spend less energy providing feedback as more
people participate in the process. Co-worker perception is important and the
process helps people understand how other employees view their work.
b) Team Development: Helps team members learn to work more effectively
together. Team members know more about how other members are performing
than their supervisor. Multirater feedback makes team members more
accountable to each other as they share the knowledge that they will provide 25
Performance Management input on each member’s performance. A well-planned process can improve
and Potential Assessment communication and team development.
c) Personal and Organizational Performance Development: 360 degree feedback
is one of the best methods for understanding personal and organizational
developmental needs.
d) Responsibility for Career Development: For many reasons, organizations per se
are no longer responsible for developing the careers of thei employees. Multirater
feedback can provide excellent information to individuals about what they need
to do to enhance their career. Additionally, many employees feel 360 degree
feedback is more accurate, more reflective of their performance, and more
validating than feedback from the supervisor along. This makes the information
more useful for both career and personal development.
e) Reduced Discrimination Risk: When feedback comes from a number of
individuals in various job functions, biases because of varying reasons are
reduced. The judgemental errors of the supervisors are eliminated as the
feedback comes from various sources.
f) Improved Customer Services: Feedback process involves the internal or external
customer. Each person receives valuable feedback about the quality of his
product or services. This feedback should enable the individual to improve the
quality, reliability, promptness, and comprehesiveness of these products and
services to his/her customers.
g) Training Needs Assessment: Multirater feedback provides comprehensive
information about organization training needs and thus helps in mounting
relevant training programmes. Such programmes add value to the contribution
made by the individual employee.
Benefits of 360 degree Appraisal:
Following benefits of 360 degree Appraisal accrue to the individual, team and
organization:
To the individual:
a) This process helps individuals to understand how others perceive them
b) It uncovers blind spots
c) It provides feedback that is essential for learning
d) Individuals can better manage their own performance and careers
e) Quantifiable data on soft skills is made available.
To the team:
a) It increases communication between team members
b) It generates higher levels of trust ad better communication as individuals identify
the causes of breakdowns
c) It creates better team environment as people discover how to treat others and
how they want to be treated
d) It supports teamwork by involving team members in the development process
e) It increased team effectiveness.
To the Organization:
a) It reinforces corporate culture and openness and trust
b) It provides better opportunities for career development for employees
c) Employees get growth and promotional opportunities
d) It improves customer service by having customers contribute to evaluation
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e) It facilitates the conduct of relevant training programmes.
Activity B Performance Planning
and Review
Review the above mentioned methods of Performance Appraisal and evaluate their
advantages and disadvantages in the context of your organisation.
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9.8 PERFORMANCE COUNSELLING

The main objective of performance counselling is to help the employee to overcome
his weaknesses and to reinforce his strengths. In this sense it is a developmental
process where the supervisor and the subordinate discuss the past performance with a
view to help the subordinate to improve and become more effective in future.
Appraisal reports serve as spring board for discussion. One of the fallout effects of
this dyadic interaction is the identification of training needs. Counselling provides an
opportunity to the supervisor to give feedback to the subordinate on the performance
and performance related behavior. Feedback can be an effective tool provided:
a) Both negative and positive feedbacks are communicated.
b) It is not just an opinion but is backed by data. In other words it should be
descriptive and not evaluative.
c) It focuses on behavior rather than on the individual.
d) It is timely. Delayed feedback is neither helpful nor effective. On the other hand,
it might be seen as criticism which may further deteriorate the relationship. As
time passes, details are forgotten and recall may be jeopardized by distortions.
Several conditions for effective counseling are identified. The Following are some of
the important ones:
a) A climate of openness and trust is necessary. When people are tense and hostile,
attempts should be made to counsel and help rather than be critical.
b) The counselor should be tactful and helpful rather than critical and fault finding.
c) The subordinate should feel comfortable to participate without any hesitation or
inhibition.
d) The focus should be on the work-related problems and difficulties rather than
personality or individuals likes, dislikes or idiosyncrasies.
e) It should be devoid of all discussions on salary, reward and punishment. Any
discussion on compensation changes the focus from performance improvement to
the relationship between performance and reward.
Since counselling is a difficult activity, the supervisor should be specially trained in
social competence to handle these aspects of his job. The skill required to do well in
these situations is often referred to as the use of non-directive technique. It is a
methodology of generating information and using this information to help employees.
A sample of non-directive technique could be to start the interview by asking “tell me
how you think you are doing”. This provides an environment for the subordinate to
talk about his part of the story first. The essential feature is to provide an employee an
opportunity to talk and share his experience which the supervisor should be able to
listen and then process and provide feedback to him.
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Performance Management Many supervisors are hesitant to initiate performance counseling sessions because the
and Potential Assessment subordinates may raise uneasy questions for which they may not have answers. Or
they may question their judgments and decisions which may lead to argument, debate
and misunderstanding. That is why there is a need to train supervisors in the
techniques of counseling sessions.
One major outcome of performance counseling is identification of the potential of the
employee’s skills and abilities not known and utilized by the organization. Potential
appraisal is different from performance appraisal as the latter limits evaluation to
what the subordinate has done on the job (or his performance) whereas the former on
the other hand, seeks to examine what the subordinate can do?. The distinct advantage
of a thoroughly carried out potential appraisal are given below:
a) The organizations are able to identify individuals who can take higher
responsibilities.
b) It also conveys the message that people are not working in dead-end jobs in the
organization.

Activity C
List out the contexts in which Performance Counselling is carried out for a particular
employee in your organization.
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Career Path
One of the important objectives of appraisal, particularly potential appraisal is to help
employees to move upwards in the organization. People do not like to work on dead-
end jobs. Hence, a career ladder with clearly defined steps becomes an integral
component of human resources management. Most HRM practitioners favor
restructuring of a job to provide reasonably long and orderly career growth. Career
path basically refers to opportunities for growth in the organization. Availability of
such opportunities has tremendous motivational value. It also helps in designing salary
structures, identifying training needs and developing second line in command. Career
paths can be of two kinds:
a) Those where designations changes to a higher level position, job remaining more
or less the same. A good example of this is found in teaching institutions, where
an assistant professor may grow to became associate professor and a professor,
but the nature of job (teaching and research) remains the same. Career path in
such situations means a change in status, better salary and benefits and perhaps
less load and better working condition.
b) Those where changes in position bring about changes in job along with increased
salary, status and better benefits and working conditions. In many engineering
organizations, an employee may grow in the same line with increased
responsibilities or may move to other projects with different job demands.
One important mechanism to identify the promotability of employees is Assessment
Centre. It is a method which uses a variety of technique to evaluate employees for
manpower requirements in the organization. It uses situational tests including
exercises requiring participants to prepare written reports after analyzing management
problem, make oral presentations, answer mail or memo in in-basket situation and a
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whole lot of situational decision making exercises. Assessors observe the behavior and Performance Planning
make independent reports of their evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the and Review
attributes being studied.

9.9 PROBLEMS IN PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

While it is assumed that performance appraisal process and techniques present an
objective system it would be naïve to assume, however, that all practicing managers
impartially interpret and standardize the criteria upon which their subordinates will be
appraised. In spite of our recognition that a completely error-free performance
appraisal can only be idealized a number of errors that significantly impede objective
evaluation. Some of these errors are discussed below:

1) Leniency Error
Every evaluator has his/her own value system that acts as a standard against which
appraisals are made. Relative to the true or actual performance an individual exhibits,
some evaluators mark high and others low. The former is referred to as positive
leniency error, and the latter as negative leniency error. When evaluators are positively
lenient in their appraisal, an individual’s performance becomes overstated; that is
rated higher than it actually should. Similarly, a negative leniency error understates
performance, giving the individuals as lower appraisal.

2) Halo Effect
The halo effect or error is a tendency to rate high or low on all factors due to the
impression of a high or low rating on some specific factor. For example, if an
employee tends to be conscientious and dependable, the supervisor might become
biased toward that individual to the extent that he will rate him/her high on many
desirable attributes.

3) Similarity Error
When evaluators rate other people in the same ways that the evaluators perceive
themselves they are making a similarity error. Based on the perception that evaluators
have of themselves, they project those perceptions onto others. For example, the
evaluator who perceives him self or herself as aggressive may evaluate others by
looking for aggressiveness. Those who demonstrate this characteristic tend to benefit,
while others are penalized.

4) Low Appraiser Motivation

What are the consequences of the appraisal? If the evaluator knows that a poor
appraisal could significantly hurt the employee’s future particularly opportunities for
promotion or a salary increase the evaluator may be reluctant to give a realistic
appraisal. There is evidence that it is more difficult to obtain accurate appraisals when
important rewards depend on the results.

5) Central Tendency
It is possible that regardless of whom the appraiser evaluates and what traits are used,
the pattern of evaluation remains the same. It is also possible that the evaluator’s
ability to appraise objectively and accurately has been impeded by a failure to use the
extremes of the scale, that is, central tendency. Central tendency is the reluctance to
make extreme ratings (in either directions); the inability to distinguish between and
among ratees; a form of range restriction.
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Performance Management 6) Recency vs. Primacy Effect
and Potential Assessment
Recency refers to the proximity or closeness to appraisal period. Generally an
employee takes it easy for the whole year and does little to get the punishment.
However, comes appraisal time, he becomes very active. Suddenly there is an aura of
efficiency, files move faster, tasks are taken seriously and the bosses are constantly
appraised of the progress and problems. All this creates an illusion of high efficiency
and plays a significant role in the appraisal decisions. The supervisor gets railroaded
into believing that the employee is alert and hence, rates him high. In reality though it
refers only to his two to three month’s performance.
The opposite of recency is primacy effect. Here the initial impression influences the
decision on year end appraisal irrespective of whether the employee has been able to
keep up the initial impression or not. First impression is the last impression is perhaps
the most befitting description of this error.

9.10 EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

The issues raised above essentially focus on the problems of reliability and validity of
performance appraisal. In other words, how do we know whether what is appraised is
what was supposed to be appraised. As long as appraisal format and procedure
continues to involve subjective judgment, this question cannot be fully answered and
perhaps, will not be answered completely because no matter how objective a system is
designed it will continue to be subjective. Perhaps, the following steps can help
improve the system.
a) The supervisors should be told that performance appraisal is an integral part of
their job duties and that they themselves would be evaluated on how seriously
they have taken this exercise.
b) To help them do this task well, they should be provided systematic training on
writing performance reports and handling performance interviews.
c) Conduct job evaluation studies and prepare job descriptions/roles and develop
separate forms for various positions in the organization.
d) Design the system as simple as possible so that it is neither difficult to
understand nor impossible to practice
e) Generally after the appraisal interview the employee is left alone to improve his
performance on the dimensions. The supervisor should monitor now and then
whether the improvement in performance in the areas found weak is taking place
or not and, if not, help the employee to achieve the required improvement.
f) Finally, reviewing, the appraisal systems every now and then help updating it,
and making suitable evolutionary changes in it. This is the most important factor
in making performance appraisal effective. As time passes changes in technology
and work environment necessitate changes in tasks, abilities and skills to perform
these tasks. If changes in the format are not incorporated the reports may not
generate the kind of date needed to satisfy appraisal objectives.
In addition, following can also help in improving the effectiveness of an appraisal:

a) Behaviorally Based Measures

The evidence strongly favors behaviorally based measures over those developed
around traits. Many traits often considered to be related to good performance may, in
fact have little or no performance relationship. Traits like loyalty, initiative, courage,
reliability, and self-expression are intuitively appealing as desirable characteristics in
employees. But the relevant question is, Are individuals who are evaluated as high on
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those traits higher performers than those who rate low? Traits like loyalty and Performance Planning
initiative may be prized by managers, but there is no evidence to support that certain and Review
traits will be adequate synonyms for performance in large cross-section of jobs.
Behaviorally derived measures can deal with this objection. Because they deal with
specific examples of performance-both good and bad, they avoid the problem of using
inappropriate substitutes.

b) Ongoing Feedback
Employees like to know how they are doing. The annual review, where the manager
shares the subordinates evaluations with them, can become a problem. In some cases,
it is a problem merely because managers put off such reviews. This is particularly
likely if the appraisal is negative. The solution lies in having the manager share with
the subordinate both expectations and disappointments on a day-today basis. By
providing the employee with frequent opportunities to discuss performance before any
reward or punishment consequences occur, there will be no surprises at the time of the
annual formal review. In fact, where ongoing feedback has been provided, the formal
sitting down step should not be particularly traumatic for either party.

c) Multiple Raters
As the number of raters increase, the probability of attaining more accurate
information increases. If rater error tends to follow a normal curve, an increase in the
number of raters will tend to find the majority congregating about the middle. If a
person has had ten supervisors, nine having rated him or her excellent and one poor,
we can discount the value of the one poor evaluation.

d) Peer Evaluations
Periodically managers find it difficult to evaluate their subordinates’ performance
because they are not working with them every day. Unfortunately, unless they have
this information, they may not be making an accurate assessment. One of the easiest
means is through peer evaluations. Peer evaluations are conducted by employees’ co-
workers, people explicitly familiar with the jobs involved mainly because they too are
doing the same thing, they are the ones most aware of co-workers’ day to-day work
behavior and should be given the opportunity to provide the management with some
feedback.
The main advantages to peer evaluation are that (a) there is tendency for co-workers
to offer more constructive insight to each other so that, as a unit, each will improve;
and (b) their recommendations tend to be more specific regarding job behaviors-unless
specificity exists, constructive measures are hard to gain.

9.11 SUMMARY
Performance appraisal is concerned with setting objectives for individuals, monitoring
progress towards these objectives on a regular basis in our atmosphere of trust and
cooperation between the appraiser and the appraisee. Well designed appraisal systems
benefit the organisation, managers and individuals in different ways and need to fulfill
certain key objectives if they are to be successful. Appraisal systems should be
designed to focus employees on both their short and long-term objectives and career
goals. It is also important to be aware of the problems associated with performance
appraisal systems.

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Performance Management
and Potential Assessment 9.12 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1) Explain the Performance Appraisal System. Either suggest improvements to an
existing appraisal system in your organisation or design an appraisal system
which would meet the objectives outlines in this chapter.
2) Describe the 360 degree appraisal with the help of examples.
3) Write short notes of:
a) Management by objectives
b) Behaviourly Anchored Rating Scale
c) Performance Counselling

9.13 FURTHER READINGS

Dessler, Gary, (2002) Human Resource Management Delhi. Pearson Education, Pvt.
Ltd.
Fisher, Martin, (1996) Performance Appraisals London: Kogon Page.
Robbins, Stephen P., De Cenzo, David. A(1993) Human Resource Management New
Delhi, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
Rao, T.V., (2004) Performance Management and Appraisal Systems HR Tools for
global competitiveness New Delhi, Response Books.
Saiyadain, Mirza S., (2003) Human Resource Management
(3rd Edition) New Delhi Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited.

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