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15.0 Casing Strings

Drilling for oil and gas involves boring a hole to the petroleum accumulation and installing pipe from the reservoir to the surface. The pipe, which extends from the target zone to the surface, is called casing. It acts as a protective lining to the wellbore. A string of casing is run after each section of hole has been drilled to line the inside of the wellbore(Fig. 15.1). The main reasons for casing off the open hole are: i) to prevent unstable formations from caving in ii) to protect weak formations from mud weights that may cause these zones to break down iii) to isolate abnormal pressure zones iv) to seal off any lost circulation zones v) to complete and produce the well efficiently vi) to provide structural support for BOPs and wellheads.

15.1 Types of Casing:

In order to carry out these important functions the casing must be securely bonded to the formation by cement. The cemented casing string then becomes an integral part of the pressure control system. Depending on the type of formations encountered during the drilling of the well several casing strings may have to be run. As the well is drilled, deeper, smaller diameter casing is run through the outer casing, which is already in place. Each string of casing extends from the setting depth back to the wellhead at surface. The various casing strings can be described as follows: a) Conductor Casing: This is the first casing string to be run, and consequently has the largest diameter. Its function is to seal off unconsolidated formations at shallow depths. With continuous mud circulation, these formations would be eroded away leaving large washouts. The surface formations may also have low fracture strengths, which could easily be exceeded by the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid when drilling a deeper section of the hole. In areas, where the surface formations are stronger and less likely to be eroded the conductor pipe may not be necessary. The conductor also provides a conduit for the mud returns. Where conditions are favourable the conductor may be driven into the formation and is referred to as stove pipe. b) Surface Casing: The main functions of surface casing are to seal off any fresh water sands, and support BOP equipment. The setting depth of this casing string is important in an area where abnormal pressures are expected. If the casing is set too high, there may not be sufficient formation strength at the shoe to handle a kick when drilling the next section. c) Intermediate Casing: Intermediate (or protection) casing is used to isolate any troublesome formations, which would cause drilling problems (e.g. sloughing shale, lost circulation, high-pressure zones etc.). Depending on the number of such problems encountered several strings of intermediate casing may be required. The setting depth of intermediate casing depends on knowledge of pore pressures and fracture gradients. During drilling the mud, weight controls the pore pressures, but must not exceed the fracture strength of shallower zones.

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d) Production Casing: This is usually the last string of casing to be run and is either run through the pay zone, or set just above the pay zone (for an open hole completion). The main purpose of this casing is to isolate the production interval from other formations (e.g. water bearing sands) and protect the tubing. It also forms the basis for the well completion, and as such should be thoroughly pressure tested before running the completion.

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e) Liner: A liner is a short of casing, which does not extend back to surface. It is run back inside the previous casing to provide some overlap. Liners may be used as an either intermediate or production casing (Fig. 15.2). It either may be suspended from inside the previous casing, or can be set standing on bottom. The liner offers the obvious advantage of being much cheaper than a full length of casing. If required a tieback string can be run to extend the liner back to the wellhead (Fig. 15.3). A liner is usually less than 5000 ft long. The overlap with the previous casing (liner lap) is usually 200 400 . The liner lap may be increased if there is a poor cement bond on the previous casing or if a high-pressure zone is to be cased off. The liner hanger should be set above any weak joints in the existing casing. The advantages of running a liner as opposed to a full string casing are: i) smaller length required, therefore reduced cost ii) liner is run on drillpipe, therefore less rig time is required iii) in deep wells liners can be run inside previous liners to seal off difficult formations and allow the well to reach TD iv) If necessary, a tieback sleeve can be run to extend the liner back to surface. There are three main types of liner installation: a) Drilling liner: to case off high-pressure zones encountered before Td. b) Production liner: for use as a production casing, set either above or through the pay zone. c) Stub liner: set inside the top of one liner and extends back inside the previous string. This is used for repairing damaged casing or for extra protection against corrosion or high formation pressures. The liner is run on drillpipe with special tools, which allow the liner to be run, set and cemented all in one trip. A liner hanger is installed at the top of the liner. The hanger has wedge slips, which can be set against the inside of the previous string. The slips can be set mechanically (rotating the drillpipe) or hydraulically (differential pressure). The presence of slips between the liner and the casing reduces the by-pass area for circulation, which is important for cementing operations. A liner packer is used at the top of the liner to seal off the annulus after the liner has been cemented. The basic running procedure is as follows: i) run liner on drillpipe to required depth ii) set hanger iii) circulate to clean out liner
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back off the setting tool pump down cement, and displace set liner packer Pick up setting tool, reverse circulate to clean out cement and pull out of hole.

15.2. Casing Programmes

Casing makes up a considerable part of the overall well cost (up to about 20%), and so great care is taken to decide on a casing programme, which will meet the requirements of each well. Each string of casing must be carefully designed to withstand the expected loading. The designer must also bear in mind the costs involved the availability of different casing types and the operational problems in running the casing string. The casing design relies heavily on expected formation pressures and formation fracture gradient at various depths involved. Normal fracture gradient may vary according to the geological formations. When drilling a development well this information will be available from previous well records, and so the casing programme can be accurately designed. In an exploration well, however, the formation pressures can only be estimated. Troublesome formations may also be encountered which were not expected. The casing design must therefore be more approximate, and the programme should be flexible enough to allow an extra string of casing to be run if necessary. In practice a number of other factors affect the shoe depth design. They are: Regulatory requirements Hole stability Differential sticking Zonal isolation Differential drilling concerns Uncertainty in predicted formation pressures A well drilled in an area of high pressures will usually require additional casing strings or liners. A general method of determining casing setting depths is to plot formation and fracturing pressures vs hole depth (as shown in Fig. 15.4). This procedure, however, is very conservative, typically yielding many strings. A chart used to select casing and hole sizes (The dotted lines represent less commonly used sizes) and the table showing the API recommended bit size are given in Figure 15.5

Shell Intensive Training Programme Engineering Casing

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Shell Intensive Training Programme Engineering Casing

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Shell Intensive Training Programme Engineering Casing

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15.3. Properties Of Casing

Casing is manufactured in a variety of sizes, lengths, grades and weights. Casing can be specially made for difficult environments (e.g. highly corrosive zones). A number of different coupling types are also available. The various types of casing and their properties are shown in manufacturer s catalogues. The API has produced tables, which specify the minimum standards, which must be met for each type of casing. (API Standard 5A, API Bulletin 5C2). Extracts from these specifications are given in the figure 15.6.

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Casing can be classified in terms of: a) Outside Diameter (OD): Casing diameters vary from 4.5 to 36. These can be found in manufacturer s catalogues or field book tables. The choice of OD may be limited by the availability of certain sizes. b)Length of Joint: Casing is available in three ranges as follows: Range 1 2 3 Length (ft) 16-25 25-34 34+ Average Length (ft) 22 31 42

When the casing is delivered to the rig the length of each joint should be measured and recorded on the tally sheet. The length is measured from the top of the collar to the uppermost thread. Lengths are recorded to the nearest 100th of a foot. Range 2 is most common, although shorter lengths are useful as pup joints when spacing out the hanger. c) Grade: The casing grade refers to the physical properties of the steel used in the manufacturing process. The API specifications contain various grades of steel as listed in Table below. Each grade is designated by a letter, and a number. The number refers to the minimum yield strength (i.e. N80 casing has a minimum yield strength of 80000 psi). Apart from the API grades, certain manufacturers produce their own grades. Casing is manufactured in both seamless and welded types. (Only H and J grades are welded). The minimum yield strength for the grades recognised by the API are as follows: Casing Grade Yield Stress, psi Minimum H-40 J-55 K-55 N-80 L-80 C-90 C-95 T-95 P-110 Q-125 40,000 55,000 55,000 80,000 80,000 90,000 95,000 95,000 110,000 125,000 Yield Stress, psi Maximum 80,000 80,000 80,000 110,000 95,000 105,000 110,000 110,000 140,000 150,000 60,000 75,000 95,000 100,000 95,000 100,000 105,000 105,000 125,000 135,000 29.5 24.0 19.5 18.5 19.5 18.5 18.5 18.0 15.0 18.0 Minimum Ult. Tensile, psi Minimum Elongation(%)

The minimum Yield Strength is defined as the tensile stress required to produce a total elongation of 0.5% of the length (0.6% of the length for P-110) d) Weight: In discussing casing weights, we must know which weight is being discussed. We must differentiate between plain-end weight, average weight with threads and couplings, and
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normal weight of casing. The following discussion applies only to on-upset casing. (Upset tubular goods are those, which have an increased wall thickness at the ends to compensate for the reduced strength which, could otherwise result from the presence of threads.) The plain-end weight of casing is the weight of the casing without threads and couplings. It is easily calculated by assuming the casing to be a cylindrical tube of uniform wall thickness. Plain-end weights are given in API Standard 5A. The average casing weight is the average weight (per foot) of a joint of casing with threads on both ends and a power-tight coupling on one end. The average weight is more accurate than is the Nominal weight. The nominal weight is an approximate average weight per foot and is accurate enough for most calculations. The nominal weight is also useful for identification purposes. Within each grade casing various wall thickness are available for a given OD. The wall thickness is indicated by the weight per foot, which can be obtained from field book tables e.g. consider four different weights of 9 5/8 casing as follows: (all dimensions in inches) Weight 53.5 Lb/ft 47 Lb/ft 43.5 Lb/ft 40 Lb/ft OD 9.625 9.625 9.625 9.625 ID 8.535 8.681 8.755 8.835 Wall Thickness 0.545 0.472 0.435 0.395 Drift Diameter 8.379 8.525 8.599 8.679

The actual ID may vary slightly in the manufacturing process. For this reason the drift diameter is given, which refers to the guaranteed minimum diameter. This may be important when deciding whether certain drilling tools will be able to pass through the casing. (E.g., Note that 53.5 LB/ft drift is less than an 8 1/2 bit). Some companies place one joint of the smallest ID casing used on top of the string as a drift gauge. For calculating the volume of the casing, however, the given ID is taken as being correct. e)Connections: Each joint of casing is threaded externally at either end and is connected to the next joint by a coupling, which is threaded internally. Couplings must posses sufficient strength to withstand axial loads and at the same time be leak resistant. Couplings are graded in the same manner as the casings and the physical properties of the couplings must be at least equal to those of the casing sections it joins. Couplings are classified according to the OD and the wall thickness of the casing on which used and according to the lengths of the threads of the casing and the coupling as either ST&C (short thread and couplings) or LT&C (long threads and couplings). API Standard 5A gives dimensions of long and short threads and couplings. i) short thread (STC) ii) long thread (LTC) iii) buttress thread (BTC) iv) extreme line(EL) These are shown in Figures 15.7. The length of a joint of casing is taken to be the overall length of the pipe; in addition, attached coupling made up power-tight. When joints of casing are made up to form a section or string, the overall length will be less than the sum of the individual lengths by the amount of

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makeup of the threads. There have been some embarrassing goof-ups where casing strings were set high because the threads were not subtracted. The axial tension, which can be supported at a casing joint, is called the joint strength. Joint strength depends on the effective length and type of threads. Joint strengths for standard API round thread, buttress, and X-line are given in API Bulletin 5C2 ( given in Appendix) The STC thread profile is rounded with eight threads per inch. The LTC is similar but with a longer coupling which provides better strength and sealing properties than the STC. The buttress thread profile has flat crests, with the front and back cut at different angles. Extreme line connections also have flat crests and have five or six threads per inch. A metal to metal seal is provided at the pin end and an external shoulder. Various other types of connection are available from certain manufacturers (e.g. Hydril, Vam). These may be used for special applications e.g. providing a gas tight seal for gas lift operations. Surveys have shown that over 80% of casing failures can be attributed to poor connections. This may be due to a variety of reasons, including: i) excessive torque used in making connections ii) dirty threads iii) cross-threading iv) Fusing the wrong thread compound. To ensure that the connections do not leak the casing string should be pressure tested before drilling the next section. Most of the causes for connection failures can be eliminated by good handling and running procedures on the rig. The recommended make-up torque (as given in API RP 5C1) is calculated from: Torque (ft/lbs) = 0.01 x minimum joint strength (lbs) This is an empirical result obtained from tests using API modified thread compound on API connections. The recommended make up torque for other connections are available from manufacturers.

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15.4. Wellheads
The most important function the wellhead is to suspend the weight of the casing strings and to withstand the maximum surface pressure expected during drilling and production. On a land well or offshore platform the casing strings are hung off at the surface just below the rig floor. When drilling from a floating rig the wellhead is installed at the seabed. Subsea wellheads will be discussed later. Each casing string is suspended from a casing hanger, which rests on the landing shoulder of the previous casing head housing, or spool. Hangers must be designed to take the full weight of the casing, and provide a seal between the casing and the housing. To allow the various drilling tools to pass through the wellhead the drift diameter of the casing spools must not be less than the drift diameter of the casing string. To protect the inside of the wellhead when the drillstring is run through, a wear bushing is installed. This is a protective sleeve, which must be removed before the next casing string is run. There are two types of casing hanger in common use: i) Slip type: Where the hanger is latched around the casing and then lowered to sit inside the casing head. The slips are automatically set by the applied weight when the casing is landed ii) Mandrel type: (boll weevil), where the hanger is made up on top of the casing string and spaced out so that it lands in the casing housing when the shoe reaches the correct depth. This type cannot be used if there is a risk of the casing failing to reach bottom Wellheads can be designed to accept both types of hanger. A sealing element (pack off) must provide a pressure tight seal. Either wellheads can be built up using a series of spools, or a compact spool may be installed. 15.4.1 Separate Spool Type Wellhead: The procedure for installing a separate spool system can be outlined as follows: The conductor (30 ) is run and cemented in place. It is then cut off just above the well head deck. The 20 casing is run through the conductor and cemented. Sometimes a landing base is welded on to transfer some weight to the 30 casing. The 20 casing is cut off just above the 30 casing and a 20 casing spool (lowermost casing head) is installed. This casing spool has a casing bowl designed to receive the next casing hanger, and side outlets to give access to the annulus. The casing head must also support the BOP stack used in drilling the next section. The 13 3/8 casing is run with the hanger landing in the 29 casing bowl. The casing is cut as before and another spool (13 5/8 ) is flanged up on top of the 20 spool. The BOPs are nippled up and 12 hole is drilled. The process continues, with a separate spool being installed for each casing string. Eventually a tubing head spool is connected which allows the completion tubing to be suspended from the wellhead. Finally, the Christmas tree is installed on top of the wellhead. Sealing between each set of flanges is obtained by using ring gaskets approved by the API. The gaskets have pressure energised seals, rated up to 15000 psi. The disadvantages of this type of wellhead are: i) a lot of time is spend flanging up the various spools ii) the greater the number of seals, the more chance of a pressure leak
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BOPs must be removed to install the next casing spool A lot of headroom is required, which may not be available in the wellhead area of an offshore platform. To overcome these problems compact spools can be used. 15.4.2. Compact Spool (Speedhead): A compact spool enables several casings strings or tubing to be suspended from a single unitised spool. The procedure is as follows: The first stage is to install the 20 lowermost casing head as before. After the 13 3/8 casing is run and cemented, the casing is cut off and the Speedhead is connected to the casing head. The BOPs can then be nippled up, and the next section drilled. The 9 5/8 casing is then run, with the hanger resting on a landing shoulder inside the Speedhead. A 7 casing string can be run, without changing the wellhead, and suspended in a similar manner to the 9 5/8 casing. The tubing string may also be run and landed in the Speedhead. The Christmas tree can then be installed as before. The disadvantages or the compact spool is that the casing programme cannot be easily altered, and so is less flexible than the separate spool system.

iii) iv)

15.5. Rig-Site Operation

Many casing failures are not caused by inferior design but by damaging the threads while handling and running the casing on the rig. It has also been known for a joint of different grade or weight to be run in the wrong place and thus creating a weak spot in the string. Such mistakes are usually very expensive to repair in terms of both rig time and materials. It is important, therefore, to take precautions in the way the casing is handled on the rig. 15.5.1. Handling Procedure: i) When the casing arrives at the rig the length, grade, weight and coupling for each joint should be checked and recorded on a tally sheet. ii) The casing should be carefully stacked in the correct running order. This is especially important when the string contains sections of different casing grades and weights. On offshore rigs where deck space is limited, do not stack the casing too high or else, excessive lateral loads will be imposed on the lowermost row. Casing is off loaded from the supply boat in reverse order, so that it is stacked in the correct running order iii) Before running the casing, each joint should be clearly numbered and run in sequence. If any joint has to be laid down due to damaged threads it can be crossed off the tally sheet. A correct tally sheet is vital when spacing out the hanger or stage cementing collar. iv) While the casing is on the racks the threads and couplings should be thoroughly checked and cleaned. Any loose couplings should be tightened. v) Casing should always be handled with thread protectors in place. These need not be removed until the joint is ready to be stabbed into the string. 15.5.2. Running Procedures:

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Before the casing is run, a check trip should be made to ensure that there are no tight spots or ledges, which may obstruct the casing and prevent it reaching bottom. ii) Each joint should be drifted before it is run. iii) Joints are picked up from the catwalk and temporarily rested on the ramp. A single joint elevator is used to lift the joint up through the V door into the derrick iv) A service company (casing crew) is usually hired to provide a stabber and one or two floormen to operate the power tongs. The stabbing board is positioned at the correct height to allow the stabber to centralise the joint directly above the box of the joint suspended in the rotary table. The pin is then carefully stabbed into the box and the power tongs make up the connection slowly to ensure no cross threads. Care should be taken to use the correct thread compound to give a good seal. The correct torque is also important and can be monitored from a torque gauge on the power tongs. On buttress casing there is a triangle stamped on the pin end as a reference mark. The coupling should be made up to the base of the triangle to indicate the correct make-up. v) As more joints are added to the string, the increased weight may require the use of heavy-duty slips (spider) and elevators vi) If the casing is run too quickly into the hole, surge pressures may be generated, increasing the risk of breaking down the formation. (A speed of 100 ft per hour is often used in open hole sections). If the casing is run with a float shoe, it should be filled up regularly as it is run. The casing shoe is usually set 10-30 ft off bottom. 15.5.3. Landing Procedures After the casing is run to the required depth, it is cemented in place while suspended in the slips. Once the cement has reached its initial set, the casing is landed. The method used for landing the casing will vary from area to area depending on the forces exerted on the casing string after the well is completed. These forces may be due to changes in formation pressure, temperature, fluid density and earth movements (compaction). These will cause the casing to either shrink or expand, and the landing procedure must take account of this. Basically there are 3 different approaches: i) landing the casing under tension ii) landing the casing under compression iii) landing the casing as cemented. The third option is recommended, since compression may cause buckling and tension that reduce the casing s collapse resistance. For this method, the casing should be landed with the same hook load as used during cementing (i.e. no picking up or slacking off weight).

i)

15.6. Casing Design

Casing string designers usually take up several weights or grades of casing to make up a given string. They must be concerned with the string of the casing relative to its position in the wellbore, overall depth of the wellbore, expected pressures, and weight of the fluids. These expected loads are explained below: 15.6.1 Anticipated Loading on Casing: The following loads should be considered in the approach to casing design:

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a) Collapse Loading: This is the resultant external pressure imposed on the casing, tending to crush the pipe inwards. Since the external forces are greatest at the base of the casing due to hydrostatic pressure, this implies that the strongest casing should be at the bottom. Any internal fluid within the casing will reduce the collapse loading. b) Burst Loading: This is the resultant internal pressure imposed on the casing tending to rupture the pipe outwards. The burst pressure will be greatest where the external load is least, i.e. at the surface. The worst condition is where gas enters the casing from a highpressure zone and completely fills the casing. In designing the casing to resist burst loading the pressure rating of the BOP stack should be considered since the casing is part of the well control system c) Tensile Loading: This is the load imposed by the weight of casing itself. Each joint must be capable of supporting the weight of the string below that point. As with burst loading the tension criterion implies that the strongest casing be installed at the top of the string. d) Compression: The effect of compressive forces need only be considered for surface casing, due to the weight transferred from later casing strings. It is not usually a critical factor. e) Biaxial Loading Considerations: It has been established that an axial tensile load imposed on a joint will reduce that joint s resistance to collapse, while increasing its burst resistance. An axial compressive load on a casing joint has the opposite effect (see Figure 15.8).

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The heavier the axial tensile load, the greater the reduction in collapse resistance. This must be taken into account in the design, especially for deep wells where the collapse resistance may be considerably reduced. From experimental results, the effect of axial loading is given by the equation of an ellipse. Y2 +XY+X2=1 Where, Y= fractional collapse resistance X= fractional tensile yield stress i.e. Y= Collapse resistance under tension Collapse resistance with no tension and X= suspended weight body yield strength This relationship is usually given in graphical form and is contained in manufacturer s catalogues (see Figure 15.9). This allows the designer to de-rate the collapse resistance for the tensile effect caused by the suspended weight of the casing string.

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f) Effect of Bending: When designing a casing string in a deviated well the bending stress must be considered. The bending effect will reduce the collapse resistance and tensile load strength. In sections of the hole where there are severe dogleg (sharp bends), the bending stresses should be checked. The most critical sections are where dog-leg severity exceeds 100 per 100. Experience has shown that a casing failure due to bending can occur from 200 below to 300above a dog-leg. A minimum of 500 of heavier weight or higher-grade casing should therefore be used to strengthen such an interval. 15.6.2. Approach of Casing Design: The designer must consider all the anticipated loading on the casing string at the time when the casing is run and throughout the life of the well. The design must meet the conflicting requirements of collapse and burst, while ensuring the tensile properties of the casing are never exceeded. The most economical design should be selected, consistent with good engineering practice. This usually results in a combination string (or tapered string), where the OD remains the same throughout but certain sections of differing grade and weight of casing are included to reduce costs. In this course, the"Maximum Load Concept will be used. 15.6.3. Design Safety Factors Certain safety factors are already included in the casing properties published in catalogues to account for variations in manufacturing process. The designer must also apply safety factors to allow for unexpected loading and unknown variables. These factors are applied to increase the actual loading figures to obtain the design loading. Design factors are determined largely through experience, and are influenced by the consequences of a casing failure. The degree of uncertainty must also be considered (e.g., an exploration well may require higher design factors than a development well). The following ranges of factors are commonly used: a) Burst design factors 1.0-1.33 b) Collapse design factors 1.0-1.125 c) Tension design factors 1.0-2.0 (Note: An overpull of 100,000 lbs may also be included to determine the tension design loading). All the above figures depend on the type of casing string being designed, the loading criteria, amount of back-up and economic considerations. 15.6.4. Loading Considerations on each casing string For each case of design, the worst case is chosen. The same basic principles are applied to each string but with different loading criteria. I) Surface Casing: a) Burst conditions: The maximum internal pressure at the bottom of the casing is determined from the fracture strength of the formation at the casing shoe; in addition, an additional safety margin (usually 1ppg equivalent mud weight). This is referred to as the injection pressure. The worst case is where a column of gas fills the casing, and so the internal pressure at surface can be calculated from the gas density (i.e. surface pressure = injection pressure gas hydrostatic). The back up fluid in the annulus is usually taken to be formation water since this has the lowest density and therefore gives the highest resultant burst loading.

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b) Collapse Conditions: The maximum external pressure on the casing is due to the hydrostatic head of the mud or cement in the annulus when the casing was set. Generally no fluid is considered to be acting on the inside of the casing as a back-up (i.e. casing is empty). c) Tension conditions: Once the preliminary choice of casing has been made on burst and collapse criteria the tensile loading can be determined from the weight of the casing itself and buoyancy forces. Biaxial effects, such as the reduction in collapse resistance due to tension, must also be considered. Example: A 13 3/8 surface casing is to be set at 3500 ft. Use the following data to design the casing: Formation fluid density Fraction gradient at 3500 ft Mud weight when casing run Cement density (back to surface) Gas gradient expected Design factors: DF (burst) DF (collapse) DF (tension) Casing available Grade Wt Lb/ft 54.5 68 72 ID Inches 12.615 12.415 12.347 Burst Psi 2730 3450 5380 Collapse Psi 1130 1950 2670 Tension STC 547 718 1040

= 9 ppg = 0.78 psi/ft = 9.5 ppg = 12 ppg = 0.115 psi/ft = 1.1 = 1.1 = 1.6 plus 100000 lbs pull

K 55 K 55 N 80

(1000 lbs) BTC 11038 1300 1693

Pipe Body Yield 1000 lbs 853 1069 1661

1. Burst design: Injection pressure = ( 0.78 + 1 ppg) x 3500 x 0.052 0.052 = 2912 psi Surface pressure = 2912 ( 3500 x 0.115) = 2510 psi = 0.052 x 9 x 3500 = 1638 psi

Back-up fluid pressure at 3500

The following table summarises these loads: Depth Internal Loading Back-up Loading 0 2510 0
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Resultant 2510

Design Loading ( x1.1) 2761

Shell Intensive Training Programme Engineering Casing 3500 2912 1638 1272

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1399

The design loading can now be plotted on a pressure-depth graph Fig. 15.9. 2. Collapse design: Maximum hydrostatic load (cement) = 0.052 x 12 x 3500 Depth 0 3500 External loading 0 2184 Back-up loading 0 0

= 2184 psi Resultant 0 2184 Design Loading (x 1.1) 0 2402

These design loads can also be plotted (Fig. 15.10) 3. Choice of Casing: Based on the design loading lines for both burst and collapse the following string can be chosen a preliminary design: 0 2500 ft K55 68 lb/ft 2500 3500 ft N80 72 lb/ft Notice that a short length of K55, 54.5 lb/ft casing could be used between the K55, 68 lb/ft at the top and the N80, 72 lb/ft at the bottom. However, the design should be kept as simple as possible (minimum length of section is 1000 ft). 4. Check Tension Loading: W1 = 1000 x 72 W2 = 2500 x 68 F1 = (P x A) Where P = 0.052 x 9.5 x 3500 = 1729 psi A = / 4 ( 13.3752 12.3472) = 20.77 inch2 F1 = 1729 x 20.77 = 35911 lbs F2 = (P x A) Where P = 0.052 x 9. 5 x 2500 = 1235 psi A = / 4 (12.4152 12.3472) = 1.32 inch2. F2 = 1235 x 1.32 = 1630 lbs The tensile loading at each depth can now be calculated as in DE/33 for drillstring design. Section Depth Tension lbs Overpull Apply DF = 1.6 100,000 lbs
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= 72000 lbs = 17000 lbs

Shell Intensive Training Programme Engineering Casing N 80 K 55 3500 2500 2500 0 -35911 36089 37719 207719 64089 136089 137719 307719 -57742 60350 332350

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This information can be plotted (Fig. 15.11). From the graph it can be seen that the pipe body yield strength of the chosen casings exceeds the tension design lines. STC couplings will allow sufficient joint strength. 5. Check Biaxial Effects: Using the actual tension figures the reduction in collapse resistance should be calculated. Section N 80 K 55 Depth 3500 2500 2500 0 Tension -35911 36089 37719 207719 Pipe Yield 1661000 1069000 X 0.022 0.035 0.194 Y 1.0 0.99 0.99 0.93 De-rated collapse 2670 2643 1930 1813

The de-rated collapse resistance can now be plotted. Notice that at 3500 ft the string is actually in compression, which means that the collapse resistance is in fact, increased (Figure 15.7). This has little effect on the design and is usually ignored (factor Y is taken as 1.0). Compression reduces burst resistance but at the bottom of the string, this has little effect since burst loading is usually at a minimum. However, if the subsequent casing strings have their loads transferred to the surface casing this compression may significantly reduce burst resistance at top of the surface casing failure.

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II) Intermediate Casing: a) Burst Conditions: The worst case is where a kick occurs while drilling below the intermediate casing shoe, filling the string with both gas and mud. There are three conditions to be considered for burst loading. a) Kick pressures from gas and mud b) Injection pressure at casing shoe c) Maximum surface pressure at top of casing These three pressures can be expressed mathematically in this relationship (Fig. 15.12) Ps + X (Gm) + Y (Gg) = IP Where: Ps = maximum surface pressure (usually BOP rating) X = length of mud column Gm = mud gradient (heaviest mud used below shoe) Y = length of gas column Gg = gas gradient IP = injection pressure (calculated before for surface casing) Since ps, Gm, Gg and IP can be obtained there are only two unknowns, x and y. Since x + y = tpta; length of casing x and y can be determined by solving the two equations simultaneously. Example 15.2 Determine the burst loading of a 9 5/8 intermediate casing string under the following conditions: Casing setting depth = 100000ft Max. Surface pressure = 5000 psi Fracture gradient at shoe = 0.75 psi/ft Heaviest mud wt. below shoe = 14 ppg (0.728 psi/ft) Gas gradient = 0.115 psi/ft Equation 1 5000 + 0.728 + 0.115y = IP where 0.75 IP = + 1 ppg 0.052 100000 = 3020 psi 0.052 0.0728x + 0.115y = 3020 Equation 2 x + y = 100000 Combining these two equations gives 0.728x + 0.115(100000 x) 0.613 x x y = 3020 = 1870 = 3050 ft (mud column) = 6950 ft (gas column)

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Shell Intensive Training Programme Engineering Casing The hydrostatic pressure due to gas = 6950 x 0.115 = 799 psi The hydrostatic pressure due to mud = 3050 x 0.728 = 2220 psi The worst case is when the mud coulumn overlies the gas. At surface, burst pressure At 3050 ft, burst = 5000 + hydrostatic (2220 psi) At 10000 ft, burst = 7220 + gas hydrostatic (799 psi)

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= 5000 psi (surface pressure) = 7220 psi = 8091 psi

As before a back-up pressure equivalent to formation water density is used to calculate the resultant burst load, which is then multiplied by a design factor to produce the design. 2. Collapse conditions: The maximum external loads on the casing are due to the mud weight in which the casing was run or the cement density in the annulus if this extends back to surface. It is unlikely that intermediate casing will ever be empty, so some back-up fluid (formation water) is allowed in the design. 3. Tension loading: Intermediate casing is treated in exactly the same way as surface casing for tension requirements. With longer casing strings, the reduction in collapse resistance due to biaxial effects becomes more critical. III) Production Casing 1. Burst conditions: The worst case in the production string is when a leak occurs in the tubing hanger, exposing the top of the casing to high internal pressure. The internal pressure = bhp gas hydrostatic (at the top). To find internal pressure at the bottom, add the hydrostatic pressure of the completion fluid in the annulus. Again, a back-up pressure equivalent to formation water density can be used to calculate the actual burst loading. 2. Collapse conditions: Similar to intermediate casing, but consider the back-up fluid. If the well is to be gas lifted at some later stage then the casing should be designed as for an empty string (i.e. no back up). If no lift operations are likely then some back up may b taken into account in the design. 3. Tension Conditions: It is the same as surface casing

15.7. General design procedure

Maximum load design can be summarised as follows: i) Determine the burst loading on the casing by if the worst case applies. Use back-up fluids and design factors where appropriate to obtain the design loading line, which can be plotted.

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Shell Intensive Training Programme Engineering Casing ii)

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Determine the collapse loading, again assuming the worst case. Plot the collapse design loading line on the same diagram as the burst conditions. iii) Find the relevant physical properties for the casings, which are available from the tables or casing catalogues. Match the properties to the design lines for collapse and burst, and select the best combination to suit these conditions. Collapse loading will dictate the selection of casing near the bottom, while burst will generally be critical near the surface. Do not go too close to the design lines on the first attempt, and do not choose casing sections less than 1000 ft. iv) For the combination string chosen in (iii), determine the actual tensile loading, considering buoyancy. Plot this loading versus depth, and apply overpull and a design factor to obtain the design line. Check that the pipe body yield strength of the selected casing exceeds the design loading. Choose a coupling whose joint strength is greater than the design loading. Select the same type of coupling throughout the entire string. v) Taking the actual tensile loading from (iv) determine the reduction in collapse resistance at the top and bottom of each section. Modify the pressuredepth diagram accordingly, and re-design any section, which fails. Several attempts may have to be made before all these loading criteria are satisfied and a final design is produced. When deciding on a final design these points should be considered: a) Include only those types of casing, which are available. In practice only a few weights and grades will be kept in stock. b) Use a maximum of three different weights and grades of pipe to avoid confusion at a rig site and to make running procedures simpler. c) Check that the final design meets all requirements and state clearly all design assumptions. d) If several different designs are possible, choose the most economical scheme to meet requirements. 15.8. Other Design Consideration: In the previous sections, the general approach to casing design has been explained. However, there are special circumstances, which cannot be satisfied by this general procedure. When dealing with these cases a careful evaluation must be made and the design procedure modified accordingly. These special circumstances include: a) Temperature effects: high temperatures will tend to expand the pipe, causing buckling. This must be considered in geothermal wells. b) Casing through salt zones: massive salt formations can flow under temperature at pressure. This will exert extra collapse pressure on the casing and cause it to shear. A collapse load of around one psi/ft (overburden stress) should be used for design purposes where such a formation is present. c) Casing through H2S zones: if hydrogen sulphide is present in the formation, it may cause casing failures due to hydrogen embrittlement. C75 grade casing is specially manufactured for use in H2 zones.

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Shell Intensive Training Programme Engineering Casing

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