CHAPTER I.

THE BIOLOGY OF MAJOR FRESHWATERCULTIVATED FISHES IN CHINA

1. Biology of Major Cultivated Fishes China has a vast area of water, with a distribution of inland rivers, lakes, reserviors and ponds throughout its territory, and hence it is rich in fishery resources. There is an ample variety of fishes, of which more than 50% are carps. Up until now, there have been about 20 species cultured in ponds in integrated fish farms. The introduction here focuses on the four main wellknown carps: Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp, and other good stocks-----Common carp, Crucian carp, Chinese bream (Wuchang fish), Mud carp and Tilapia etc. Understanding the habits of fish, mastering the laws of their growth, development, propagation and feeding and satisfying their ecological requirements accordingly will be of great practical significance to the development of fishery production, to the application of farming techniques and to the increase of fish yield. 1) Morphology 1. Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) (Fig. 1---1) Silver carp belong in taxonomy to Family Cyprinidae, Subfamily Hypophthalmichthyinae. Body: compressed Scales: small, Mouth: in front, with lower jaw slightly slanting upward. Eyes: comparatively small, situated below the horizontal axis of body. Gill membrane: unconnected to isthmus. Gill rakers: dense, interlaced and connected, covered with a sponge-like membraneous sieve. Abdominal keel: extending from the base of pectoral fins to the anus. Pectoral fin: its terminal tip does not exceed the base of ventral fin. Pharyngeal teeth: one row in 4/4, with fine lines and tiny grooves on surface. Intestinal length: 6---10 times that of body length. Colour of body: silvery white while alive; colour of dorsal, very dark brown. The largest body so far discovered is about 20 kg.

Fig. 1--1 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 2. Big head (Aristichthys nobilis Fig. 1---2) Bighead are similar to Silver carp in shape. They belong to the same genus Hypophthalmichthys. Head: bigger. Snout: short and blunt. Eyes: small, situated below the horizontal axis of body. Gill membrane: unconnected to isthmus. Gill rakers, dense and separated; without spongelike sieve. Abdominal keel: between the bases of ventral fins and the anus. Pectoral fin: the terminal tip reaches 1/3---2/5 of the base of ventral fin. Pharyngeal teeth: one row in 4/4, surface flat. Intestinal length: about 5 times that of body length. Colour of body: while alive, dorsal and upper sides, light black, scattered with irregular yellowish black spots; ventral surface, silvery white. The largest body so far found is about 40 kg. Fig. 1--2 Aristichthys nobilis

3. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngoden idellus) (Fig. 1---3) Grass carp are larger-size fish in sub-family Leuciscinae of family Cyprinidae. Body shape: almost cylindric, with flat head and round abdomen. Scales: big. Mouth: in front; lower jaw, shorter. Gill membrane: connected to isthmus. Gill raker: small and short, in scattered arrangement. Pharyngeal teeth: 2 rows in 2,5/4,2 compressed like combs. Intestinal length: 2.3---3.3 times that of body length. Colour of body: while alive, dorsal, grey; abdomen, light grey; sides, greenish yellow; fins, a lighter colour. The largest body so far found is about 35 kg. Fig. 1--3 Ctenopharyngodon idellus

4. Black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus) (Fig. 1---4) Black carp are more close to Grass carp among Cyprinidae. Body shape: like Grass carp with a pointed head. Scales: big and circular. Mouth: arc-shaped in front. Eyes: medium size, situated in the middle part of head sides. Gill raker: short. Gill membrane: connected to the isthmus. Pharyngeal teeth: one row in 5/4, big, short and molar-like; surface smooth. Intestinal length: 1.2---2 times that of body length. Colour of body: while alive, greenish black; dorsal darker; abdomen light grey; Fins, black. The largest body so far discovered is about 70 kg.

Figure 1---4 Mylopharyngodon piceus 5. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) (Fig. 1---5) Body: compressed. Dorsal: projected in arch-shape. Abdomen: round. Mouth: slightly downwards with a long blunt snout and with two pairs of barbels on upper jaw; lower pair a little longer. Dorsal fin: long. Scales: big and thick. Pharyngeal teeth: 3 rows in 1,1,3/3,1,1; teeth on inner sides, molar like. Intestinal length: 1.5---2 times that of body length. Colour of body: while alive, varying with different living conditions, usually dark grey or yellowish brown on dorsal; sides golden yellow; lower part of caudal fin, red. The largest body so far discovered is about 40 kg. China has a long history of culturing Common carp, which have a wide distribution and strong adaptability. There are a lot of

morphological variations through artificial breeding and natural selections, such as Scale carp, Mirror carp, Wu Yuan red purse carp, Xing Guo red carp etc.

Figure 1--5 Cyprinus carpio 6. Crucian carp (Carassius auratus) (Fig. 1--6) Crucian carp are very close to Common carp. Body: compressed and relatively thick. Abdomen: round. Head: small and short. Snout: blunt. Mouth: arc-shaped in front. Lip: thick without barbels. Pharyngeal teeth: compressed, one row in 4/4. Intestinal length: 2.7--3.2 times that of body length, some even reaching 5 times. Colour of body: silvery grey when alive; darker on dorsal and lighter on abdomen. The largest body found is about 1.5 kg. They have a wide distribution and a strong adaptability. They can live in different water body such as rivers, lakes, ponds and ditches with some variations and differentiations in characteristics. Carassius auratus gibelio are sub-species of Crucian carp. Body: higher than usual Crucian carp. Abdomen: round. Colour of body: bluish grey with silvery white on abdomen. The largest body is about 3 kg. Japanese Crucian carp originated from Lake Pipa in Japan and was introduced into China in 1976. They grow faster than Carassius auratus gibelio. A large variety of golden fish are bred out through long period of artificial breeding.

figure 1--6 Carassius auratus 7. Chinese bream, or Wuchang fish (Megalobrama amblycephala) (Fig. 1---7) Chinese bream belong to subfamily Abramidinae. Body: high, compressed and lozenge-shaped. Head: small and short Mouth: slanting. Abdominal keel: extending from the base of pelvic fin to the anus. Pharyngeal teeth: 3 rows arranged in 2,4,5/4,4,2. Intestinal length: 2.7 times that of body length. Colour of body: dark grey while alive, darker on dorsal; scale, dark grey in the middle and lighter on its edge. The largest body so far caught, is about 3 kg.

Figure 1--7 Megalobrama amblycephala (8) Mud carp (Cirrhina molitorella) (Fig. 1--8) Mud carp belong to family Cyprinidae, subfamily Barbinae, genus Cirrhina. Body: long and compressed. Abdomen: round and slightly flat. Snout: short, round and blunt. Mouth: inferior and transverse, with two pairs of barbels; snout barbels, strong and thick; jaw barbels, small and short. Caudal fin: deeply separated with upper part a little longer than the lower one. Lateral line: from the upper part of the pectoral fin around the lateral line, there are 8--12 scales with dark dots at their bases which form lozenge-shaped spots. Fins: dark-grey. Pharyngeal teeth: 3

rows in 2,4,5/5,4,2. Intestinal length: about 14 times that of body length. The largest body caught is about 4 kg.

Figure 1--8 Cirrhina molitorella (9) Tilapia (Fig. 1--9, Fig. 1--10) Tilapia belong to order Perciformes, family Cichlidae, genus Tilapia. This genus comprises more than 100 species including subspecies. At present, 15 of them are taken as cultured fishes all over-the world. In China, mainly Tilapia mossambica and T. nilotica etc. are reared. Body of T. mossambica: short and compressed. Dorsal: a little higher. Shape: similar to Crucian carp. Mouth: bigger. Lip: thick, with lower jaw a little long than upper jaw. Scales: circular. Lateral line: disjointed. The intestinal length about 7 times that of body length. Colour of body: dark grey while alive; during spawning stage, body colour of male fish, dark green; edges of dorsal, anal and caudal fins, obvious red; female, greyish yellow. The largest body weight so far discovered is about 0.5 kg.

Figure 1--9 Tilapia mossambica

Fig. 1--11 A male

Fig. 1--11 B female

Colour of T. nilotica: changing with external conditions, light black; abdomen white, with 9 longitudinal black stripes on body surface, of which, 7 below dors; fins and 2 on the peduncle;

caudal fin with 10 clear vertical black stripes for life. Scales: ctenoid. The largest body weight is 2.5 kg.

Figure 1--10 Tilapia nilotica Nuptial colour can be found on the male and the female of Tilapia at reproductive period. But their external genital organs are different in appearance. The male has two pores; anus in front and cloaca in the rear (Fig. 1--11 A). The female, 3 pores i.e. anus in front, genital pore in the middle and excretory pore in the rear (Fig. 1--11B) 2) Feeding habits Although Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp, Black carp, Common carp and Mud carp, belong to Cyprinidae, they have formed their respective ways of food in-take and their respective food chains at different stages of the development, It is due to their long-term adaptations to ecological conditions, the restrictions of water body environment and the perfection of body structure as well as the development of foodintake and digestive organs along with their growth. (1) The main natural food Silver carp and Bighead feed on are plankton. Silver carp mainly feed on zooplankton at larval stage, whereas their feeding turns to phytoplankton after grown-up. Bighead feed on zooplankton mainly all their life. The differentiation of feeding habits are caused by the structure and the density of their filtering organs------ gill rakers. The gill rakers of Silver carp and Bighead are situated in the operculum with 4 pairs on either side, and the 5th pair of gill arch which was specialized into inferior pharyngobranchial. The gill arch bone is the base to which gill rakers and gill filaments attach. The gill rakers of Bighead are delicate and sabre-shaped, each consisting of a neck, a stem and a base. The neck is narrow and short. The stem is the principal part of the gill raker. The dorsal part of it is thicker, while the ventral part thinner. On either side, there is a row of wartlike protuberance, so to speak, lateral protuberance. The lateral protuberance of a gill-raker is interwoven with the next one in serration. Occasionally there are opposite protuberances, their triangle-shaped bases cling to the gill arch bones. Besides, gill rakers can be divided into two kinds, broad and narrow ones. There exists one broad gill raker every 3---6 narrow gill rakers. (Figs. 1---12 A and B)

Figure 1---12 The gill rakers of Silver carp are different from that of Bighead. The gill rakers are interconnected by minute bony bridges, which are covered with spongy sieve membranes. The density of gill rakers is higher than that of Bighead's gill raker (Fig. 1---13)

1. 2. 3. 4.

inner gill raker bony bridge gill raker lateral protuber Fig. 1--13 Structure of the gill raker of Silver carp

The newly hatched Silver carp and Bighead fry nourish themselves with egg yolk and begin to take in plankton in the water when their body length reaches 7---9 mm, 3---4 days after hatching.

The food-filtering organs are imperfect with short and sparse gill rakers before the body length reaches 15 mm. At that time, both Silver carp and Bighead eat the same food. The major groups of zooplankton that Silver carp and Bighead eat are rotifera, nauplius of copepods and tiny cladocera. The shape and structure of filtering organs of fry about 2030 mm in body length, are generally the same as those of adult fish's. The fry of Silver carp will take in phytoplankton as its main foods, since it has nearly 200 gill rakers, 1 mm in length each, with minute bony bridges between them Sieve membranes covering the bridges form a fine. The gill rakers of Bighead fry, short and sparse, are separated with larger spaces and difficult to detain tiny phytoplankton. As a result, their main food changes from tiny zooplankton to all sorts of zooplankton. Beside the filtering organs------gill rakers, Silver carp and Bighead have accessary organs-----palatine folds, that is, inter-gill raker folds. Palatine folds, located at the apex of mouth cavity, consist of 9 vertical ridges of mucus membrane, four on either side and one in between. The middle ridge is very short like an inverted letter Y with the branched end backwards. Palatine folds act in coordination with gill rakers, to get the food through filtering. Under culture conditions, Silver carp and Bighead can also feed on commercial feeds such as cakes, brans, dregs and wastes. (2) Feeding habits of Grass carp and Black carp The fry of both fishes under 15 mm in body length have the same feeding habits, mainly feeding on zooplankton. But the feeding habits of the fry above 2030 mm in body length will differentiate. The fry of Grass carp start to take in tender aquatic plants, while the fry of Black carp eat Benthos such as snails and corbicula spp. etc. Grass carp are typical herbivorous species taking in all sorts of aquatic and land grasses, hence, the pharyngeal teeth are well developed, tough and strong (tooth formula: 2,5/4.2). The teeth are shaped like choppers with saw-toothed edges. Pharyngeal teeth at both sides are interlaced with each other. They are against callous pad of the basioccipital, grinding food into pieces for digestion in intestines. Grass carp are voracious eaters, feeding amount usually could reach 40%. But the plant cellulose could not be digested and utilized. Black carp are carnivorous fish, and usually feed on molluscs like snails, clams and corbicula spp. By using pharyngeal teeth and callous pad, they crush hard shells, then swallow the meat. Their pharyngeal teeth are strong and tough and molar-shaped (tooth formula: 4/5). Under culture conditions, both fishes tend to be more or less omnivorous, feeding on oil seed cakes, brans, dregs and animal feeds like silkworm pupae, earthworm, animal entrails. (3) Feeding habits of Common carp and Crucian carp At the larval stage, feeding habits of the two are basically similar. They chiefly feed on rotifer, cladoceran, copepoda, chironomid larvae and other insects' larvae. Common carp and Crucian carp about 50 mm in body length tend to be omnivorous. Common carp are inclined to be more carnivorous, whereas Crucian carp more herbivorous. Both have feeding habits of phagotrophy.

The pharyngeal teeth of Common carp are relatively developed, molarshaped in 3 rows, with transverse grooves on the rest of the inner row except the first tooth, which is smooth. Common carp display a wide adaptation to foods. Their common natural foods are benthos such as snails, young clams, corbicula spp. cladocera, copepod, chironomid larvae, shrimps and insects' larvae. Also they take certain amount of detritus of higher aquatic plants and plant seeds. The nasal bone of Common carp is well developed so that their premaxilla and mandible could be projected out like a tube to dig the mud for organic detritus. Foods for Crucian carp are chiefly large amounts of detritus, diatom, filament algae, aquatic grasses and plant seeds, including a certain amount of cladocera, copepod, chironomid larvae and water earthworm etc. Under culture conditions, Common carp and Crucian carp also like to take commercial feeds such as oil seed cakes, brans, crops and silkworm pupae, etc. (4) Feeding habits of Chinese Bream Wuchang fish At larval stage, Chinese bream feed mainly on zooplankton such as cladocera and copepod, whereas, at adult stage, mainly on aquatic grass such as Vallisneria spiralis, Hydrilla verticillata, and Potamogeton malainus and secondarily on Potamogeton crispus, Myriophyllum spicatum, Spirogyra and plant detritus. With a mouth small in size, and the pharyngeal teeth and callous pad small and weak, the ability and intensity of food intake of Wuchang fish fail to come up with Grass carp. (5) Feeding habits of Mud carp With a small mouth, transverse in inferior position, under the natural conditions, mud carp use the bony edges of upper and lower jaws to scrape diatom, green algae chlamydomonas and filament algae etc. attached to stones and something else. Not seldom, they take detritus of higher plants, bottom humus and a little zooplankton as feeds. Under culture conditions, they like to eat commercial feeds such as seedcakes, dregs, brans, and animal manures. (6) Feeding habits of Tilapia Tilapia are omnivorous fish, with a tendancy to be herbivorous. Tilapia feed mainly on zooplankton at larval stage. The scope of food enlarges with the growth. The usual common foods are all kinds of planktonic, benthic and epiphytic algae, tender higher aquatic plants, all organic detritus and a little animal feeds such as earthworms, small shrimps and aquatic insects. Tilapia nilotica, possessing denser gill rakers (24---31), are more likely to feed on phytoplankton and could utilize the green algae Chlorophyta and blue algae Cyanophyceae which can not be digested by other fishes, but detritus occupies greater proportion among the natural feeds for Tilapia mossambica because they only have 14--- 19 gill rakers. Under culture conditions they can utilize all kinds of vegetable leaves tender grass, animal manures brans, seed cake and pelleted feeds if applied. At a proper temperature, they ability and intensity of their food intake are much higher.

3) Growth The growth rate is an important criterion to evaluate production efficiency. Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp, Black carp and Common carp, with the features of large size and speedy growth, have been taken as the dominant cultured species for polyculture in Chinese integrated fish farms, whereas Crucian carp, Wuchang fish and Mud carp, owing, to smaller size and slower growth are usually regarded as a secondary species for polyculture so as to raise per-unit fish yield. As a mass production, the latter are well-known species for high yields. The growth rate of every kind of fish involves genetics of species, besides, it's also closely related to water quality, water temperature, nourishment, stocking density and management. As a rule, the growth of body in length and weight is absolutely the fastest before the first sexual maturity, then it will slow down and even stop. (1) Growth of Silver carp and Bighead It is the second year that Silver carp grow the fastest. After the fourth year the growth rate decreases during th period of the 3rd ---- 6th years, Silver carp gain the maximum weight. Bighead have the fastest growth during the period of the 2nd ---- 3rd year, and gain the maximum growth in weight in the 3rd year. (2) Growth of Grass carp and Black carp Grass carp have the fastest increase in length during the period of the 1st ---- 2nd years, and gain the maximum growth in weight during the period of the 2nd ---- 3rd years. Black carp have the fastest increase in length during the period of the 1st ---- 2nd years, and gain the maximum growth in weight during the period of the 3rd ---- 4th years. (3) Growth of Common carp, Crucian carp and Wuchang fish Common carp have the fastest increase in length during the period of the 1st --- 2nd years. The female fish grow faster than the male fish, and Common carp gain the maximum growth in weight during the period of the 4th --5th years. Crucian carp, have the fastest increase in length in the first year and gain the max growth in weight during the period of the 4th --- 5th years. Wuchang fish have the fastest growth during the period of 1st --- 2nd years, afterwards, the growth rate decreases gradually, and they gain the max growth in weight in the second year.
Silver carp Grass carp Black carp Common carp Crucian carp Wuchang fish

Species age item max increase in length

Bighead

2--3

1--2

1--2

1--2

1--1

max growth in weight

3--6

2--3

3--4

4--5

4--5

Table 1--1 Relationship between the age and the growth of main cultured fish (4) Growth of Mud carp Mud carp have the fastest increase in length but gain the minimum growth in weight in the 1st year. The increase in length will slow down gradually. Sexual maturity begins in the 3rd year with the continuation of gaining weight (Table 1---2) Table 1---2. Growth rate of Mud carp reared in ponds
age item body length (cm) body absolute measurement annual increase absolute measurement

3 26.1 2.7

4 29.2 3.1

5 33.6 4.4

6 36.5 2.9

14.5 23.4 14.5 8.9

70.9 257.9 354.5 499.1 739.3 969.5 70.9 187.0 96.6 144.6 240.2 230.2

weight (g) annual increase

4) Natural reproduction (1) Propagation of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp, Black carp and Mud carp The natural spawning grounds of Silver carp, Grass carp and Black carp are vastly distributed in Pearl River, Qiantangjiang River, Changjiang River, Huaihe River, northwards up to Heilongjiang River systems, while those of Bighead mainly in Changjiang River, Huaihe River and Pearl River. Mud carp, as a subtropic species have the spawning-ground distribution in the southern part of China like Hainan Island, Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian and Yunnan. Among all these river systems mentioned above, the spawning grounds of Changjiang River and Pearl River are the biggest. Quantities of fry of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp proliferate in Changjiang River & Pearl River systems. Chinese carps usually like to stay in the lower reaches of rivers, or river branches or lakes for fattening, where the water current is slow and the water is fertile with abundance of food. When the spawning season is drawing near, the spawning schools begin to gather schooling and to migrate toward the middle and upper course spawning grounds. At that time, the gonads of the broodfish have, in a great majority of cases, reached Stage IV while the gonads of the male fish have reached Stage V. If the ecological conditions in the spawning grounds are suitable for reproduction, they will proceed to spawn. As for the main cultivated fishes in China, the spawning time in different river systems varies with the climatic conditions, but all in the summer. In Changjiang River drainage, Silver carp and Grass carp generally start spawning in late April to early May and Bighead in mid or late May, whereas in Pearl River Drainage, the spawning season begins in mid or late April, a little later for Bighead. As a rule, the North is later than the South by 1---2 months. After July, the fry production is apparently reducing. During this period, the matured brood fish are ready to spawn

in the spawning places when the water level of rivers rises and the temperature goes above 18C below 30C. Anyhow, the optimum temperature for spawning is 22C---28C. As a subtropic species, Mud carp need a little higher temperature for spawning with the optimum temperature of 26C---30C, starting from late May through August and September. Under the stimulation of proper ecological conditions (generally for about 20 hours). Spawning behaviours could be seen when the spawning schools of Silver carp and Grass carp arrive in spawning grounds. There are two common forms ------ on water surface and under water. Spawning on water surface is termed floating spawning and the latter muffled spawning. In floating spawning, the estrus could be seen that males chase females excitedly, often bumping against the abdomen of the female with their head in swift swimming, jumping out of the water, then splashing in waves. Sometimes, the male and female would float on their backs with their pectoral fins vibrating violently. When it reaches the climax of the estrus, the female & male discharge eggs and milt respectively. The eggs will be fertilized in the water. As for muffled spawning, the action would take place under the water. Occasionally waves aroused by chasing could be seen on the surface. More often than not, the male fish are the overwelming majority in spawning schools (Table 1---3). For Silver carp the male are 93.7% on average and for Grass carp 77.5%. Table 1---3. Sex composition of Silver carp and Grass carp in spawning schools
Drainage Sex ratio Species Silver carp Grass carp 149 112 Changjiang River number (ind.) (%) (%) Xijiang River number (ind.) 33 40 Songhuajiang River number (ind.) 172 (%) 96 80* (%) 4 20* average (%) 93.7 (%) 6.3

(%) (%) 88 75 12 25

97.2 2.8 77.7 3.3

77.5* 22.5*

The age and body weight of spawning schools vary with regions: In Pearl River drainage, smaller in size; earlier in maturity, generally, one year earlier than in Changjiang River drainage. and in Heilongjiang River 1---2 years later than in Changjiang River. (Table 1---4). Table 1---4. Age and size of spawning schools of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp, Black carp (in Changjiang) and Mud carp (in Pearl River)
Species Sex item age body weight (kg) 4 714 3 513 310 925 37 721 4 519 3 413 415 1530 310 1025 3 0.53 2 Silver carp Bighead Grass carp Black carp Mud carp

The brood amount of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp is great and the measurement is usually done by way of sampling. It consists of the absolute and the relative brood amounts. The former refers to the total quantity of eggs borne by a fish in one spawning

season, while the latter means the quantity of eggs per gram of female body weight in one spawning season. There is no relation-ship between eggs/g of ovary and fish size. Table 1---5. Brood amount of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp (Changjiang River)
Item Average body Species weight (g) Silver carp 7,900 Average ovary weight (g) 1,190 2,710 1,310 2,520 Average Average Average relative brood Eggs/ovary maturity absolute brood amount (g) coefficient amount (piece) (piece) (%) 1,035,000 1,925,000 830,000 2,131,000 131.0 96.7 90.2 93.1 869.7 710.3 633.4 845.1 15.1 13.6 14.2 11.0

Bighead 19,900 Grass carp Black carp 9,200 22,900

The eggs of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp, Black carp and Mud carp are separated and nonadhesive, The discharged eggs expand by absorbing the water through egg membrane and become plump, transparent and elastic. With a bigger specific gravity than water, they will sink to the bottom in still water and yet, they are semibuoyant in the currents, floating in the water till the fry come into being. The incubation of eggs requires about the same temperature as needed in the spawning of brooders, between 18c and 30c with the optimum temperature of 22---28c. The speed of embryonic development is in positive proportion with water temperature. (2) Propagation of Common carp and Crucian carp With the wide distribution, Common carp and Crucian carp do not require strict environmental conditions in the development of gonads and in the process of reproduction; therefore, their natural propagation can be easily found in the still or running waters of the South and the North. Their spawning season generally comes at the end of March to early April in the southern part of China, April---May in the northern part of China, and June in the northeast part of China; however, it begins as early as in late December in Pearl River basin. Although the spawning season makes its start at different times, the demand for water temperature is identical, 18c above for Common carp and 20C above for Crucian carp. As the eggs of Common carp and Crucian carp are adhesive, the fundamental condition for spawning is the materials (aquatic plants or resemblances) for the eggs to adhere to. The spawning is in full flourish from midnight till dawn. But it's possible that they could spawn in the whole day if environmental conditions are favourable. In estrus, two to three, males chase

one female, and the male will hit their head against the female's belly time and again so as to make the female lying on its side towards the aquatic plants. In a minute, the female spawns while the male discharges milt. The action of spawning repeats so many times, that the matured eggs could be discharged in large amounts. And then the eggs could stick to the aquatic plants in water. The age of individual fish's sexual maturity and its body size vary with different environments and climates. In Changjiang and Yellow River basins, Common carp and Crucian carp generally reach maturity at the age of 2 full years. In northeastern part of China, it takes more than 2 years with bigger size. The brood amount is related with fish size. The average brood amount of Common carp, is 244,000 pieces for 3-year old fish of 44---48 cm in body length and 1.9---2.75 kg in body weight, 447,000 eggs for a 5-year old fish of 54 cm in body length and 3.5 kg in body weight. That of Crucian carp is 200,000---300,000 eggs for a fish of 0.5---1 kg in body weight. At 20c, the fertilized egg of Common carp takes 101---104 hour to incubate into fry; at 25c, 49--53 hours; at 30c, 47---50 hours. 5) Habitus (1) Water layer for habitat Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp, Black carp, Common carp, Crucian carp and Mud carp live in different water layers. It's due to their different feeding habits. Silver carp and Bighead chiefly feed on planktons. They dwell mostly in the upper layer where there is abundant plankton. Grass carp and Wuchang fish like to search for their food in the upper and middle layers, or near the river bank, lake side or pond dikes, Grass carp, Common carp, Crucian carp and Mud carp, like to stay in the bottom layer, because they are all benthos-feeders. (2) Water temperature To a great extent, fish are poikilothermal or cold-blooded animals. The metabolism of fish is controlled by temperature. The appetite of the above mentioned fish is obviously diminishing when the temperature drops below 15c and they stop eating below 5---7c. As a whole, these fish except Mud carp have a wide-ranged adaptation to temperature. They can live in the temperature between 0.5---38c with the optimum of 25--- 32c and yet, the optimum for food intake and growth is 25---32C (30--- 32c for Mud carp). Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp, Black carp and Wuchang fish begin to die when the temperature is below 0.5c or above 40c. Mud carp, T. nilotica and T. mossanbica will often freeze to death below 7c, 8c, 12c respectively. (3) Water quality Silver carp, Bighead, Mud carp and Tilapia, feed on plankton and habituate themselves to the fertile water where there is plenty of plankton. Grass carp and Wuchang fish feed on grasses. Since Black carp feed on molluscs they'd like to stay in sheer water. Common carp and Crucian carp can live in all kinds of waters with their strong adaptation. (4) pH value and dissolved oxygen

The four main Chinese carp require certain amount of pH value in the water, generally 7.5---8.5 pH, with light alkalinity as optimum. Living in the water of 6.0---10.0 pH for a long time will retard the growth of a fish. In addition, a fish must carry out normal gas exchange in water and demands a certain amount of dessolved oxygen in water. The higher the D.O, content the greater the feeding intensity. With D.O. above 4---5 mg/L, the feeding intensity of these fish is great, the growth fast, food conversion coefficient low. With D.O. below 2 mg/L, the fish lose their appetite, and below 1 mg/L, the fish will stop feeding and will gasp for air, and when the oxygen level drops further to below 0.5 mg/L, it will normally cause suffocation and death. 2. Biology of Artificial Propagation The artificial propagation means a series of processes from sexual maturity, ovulation, spawning upto incubation of fry under control by man. Gonads are also termed genital glands. The gonad of female fish is ovary, that of male fish testis. The eggs and sperms develop into maturity respectively in ovaries and testes when fish get to the age of sexual maturity. The gonads have cyclic variance in development, and in the process of it, they are controlled by internal endocrine and nervous systems and external ecological conditions. The two factors are associated and restricted each other. 1) Structure of ovary and ovum, stage division of ovary (1) structure of ovary The ovaries are in pairs, symmetric and sac-like. Their walls are formed by connective tissues and smooth muscles. The inner wall of ovary protrudes above septum, named as ovumproducing plate, where ova are turned out. Following maturity, the ova break follicular membranes and drop into the ovary cavity, the end of which adjoins a short oviduct with an opening to the exterior of body. There are blood vessels and nerve branches on the ovary tissue. (2) structure of ovum Just like other animals' eggs, fish's ova possess the common features of body cells, consisting of cytoplasm (ovum cytoplasm), cell nucleus (ovum nucleus) and cell membrane (egg membrane). At the initial stage of development, the sphere-shaped egg cells only have nucleus and cytoplasm. In further development, the egg will accumulate egg yolk materials by and by. The amount of egg yolk is much larger than that of egg cytoplasm. Polarization appears in their distribution, thus the egg is called polarized yolk egg thereby. The egg is topped by the socalled animal pole. Except for the yolk, most of the egg constituents such as cytoplasm and nucleus are concentrated near this pole. The yolk concentration increases toward the opposite, vegetal pole because of its larger granule and specific gravity. After fertilization, the first mitotic division of the cell cytoplasm and nucleus will take place and embryonic development will begin. Egg yolk neither takes part in nor hinders the process of mitotic division. Egg yolk contains

protein, fat, glycogen and vitamin etc., which are the nutritional materials for embryonic development. The nucleus consists of nuclear membrane, nucleole, nuclear fluid and chromosome. The nucleus is sphere-shaped but often leaf-shaped. Its function is to maintain genetic materials (DNA) and cell metabolism, passing the genetic material on to one generation after another. The cell membrane is a membrane structure covering the exterior of egg cell, that can be divided into 3 kinds in accordance with the materials. Primary cell membrane or yolk membrane is made of cell's own plasm, with lots of radiant ductlike pores, so-called radiant belt, which are helpful for the absorption of nutrients and the discharge of metabolic wastes. Secondary cell membrane or chorion is secreted by follicle cells in ovary. The secondary cell membrane of fish is normally adhesive. It is very common in adhesive eggs of Common carp, Crucian carp and Wuchang fish etc.. Tertiary cell membrane is composed of the secretion from glands in oviduct, such as gummy cell membranes of frog and cuttlefish. Fish do not have all the three above-mentioned membranes. Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp have just the primary cell membrane and Common carp, Crucian carp and Wuchang fish primary and secondary membranes. (3) The development stages of the ovary The development stages of ovary maturity can be judged by visual observation or histologic survey. The development of fish gonad may be generally divided into six stages according to its appearance, colour, size, weight, and the distribution of blood vessels and the maturity of ova. Nowadays, the classification of the development stages of ovary adopted by each country is not identical. Five stages are admitted in India, Japan and the United Stages of America. Several countries prefer seven stages, whereas China does six. Set Silver carp as an example: Stage I ovary By visual observation, the gonads are located at the lower part of air bladder, closely attached to the coelomic membrane, lineal in shape, transparent, flesh-white in colour and it's impossible to distinguish them into different sexes by the naked eye. Tissue slice: cells tiny, diameter 12--22 um; nucleus rather big, occupying more than half of oocyte's diameter; very few nucleoli in the center of the nucleus. (Fig. 1--14)

Fig. 1--14 Tissue slice of Stage I ovary of Silver carp Stage II ovary By visual observation, ribbon-shaped, flesh-white in colour and semitransparent. It is impossible to distinguish ova one after another by the naked eye, and yet small eggs are visible when examined under a magnifyingglass; petaline-shaped when in fixation. It is possible to distinguish sexes. The maturity coefficient is about 1--2%. Tissue slice: cell in multiangular shape or sphere-shape with a diameter of 90--300 um. A thin layer of ribbon-shaped follicles surrounds cell membrane surface. The nucleoli closely attach to the nuclear membrane (Fig. 1--15).

Fig. 1--15 Tissue slice of Stage II ovary of Silver carp Stage III ovary By visual observation, the capacity of the ovary has become conspicuously enlarged. It is due to the appearance of melanotic pigment so that it turns greenish grey in colour. Eggs are visible

with the naked eye but not easily separable. The distribution of blood vessels is clear. The maturity coefficient of ovary is 3--6%. Tissue slice: The follicular membrane in oocyte is bilayer. The egg yolk begins to form. One or two layers of vacuoles appear on the edge of the cell. The cell is 250--500um in diameter. The nucleus in the centre is irregular or oval-shaped. Greater part of nucleoli are distributed on the edge of nuclear membrane and small part scattered in the center. The gonads of matured brooders are generally at stage III in winter. (Fig. 1--16)

Fig. 1--16 Tissue slice of Stage III ovary of silver carp Stage IV ovary By visual observation, it is long and sac-lake, occupying 1/3---1/2 of coelomic cavity. Eggs are plump and greenish grey or light yellow in colour and easy to separate. Ovary is fully distributed with blood vessels. The maturity coefficient is 12---22%. Tissue slice: egg yolk granules fill almost all the space outside nucleus with only a little cytoplasm spreading around nucleus and near egg membrane. The egg is enlarged to 800--1580 um in diameter. Nucleus edge looks like waves in shape with a few nucleoli inserted in the troughs and most of nucleoli moving to the centre. This stage can be further separated into 3 stages in the light of occyte's diameter and nucleus location. Early stage IV: egg diameter about 800 um, nucleus in the centre; middle stageIV: egg diameter about 1000 um nucleus in the centre or inclined to move to animal pole; late stage IV: egg diameter about 1580 um, nucleus having moved to animal pole, which is so-called polarized phenomenon. Lots of experiments and practices have proved that no matured eggs can be obtained by inducement as the oocytes of silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp are at early stage IV. Only in case of middle and late stage IV when the nucleus is eccentric or polarized, matured eggs can be acquired, and then the artificial estrualization will succeed. These stages could last as long as 1---2 months, even 3 months for some cases, providing that proper ecological conditions for spawning are not available during that period of time or no artificial propagation is performed. (Fig. 1---17)

Fig. 1--17 Tissue slice of Stage IV, ovary of Silver carp Stage V ovary By visual ovservation quantities of oocytes come out from follicular membranes into ovary cavity, and eggs are in a state of flowing. The ovary and the belly are very soft. The eggs would flow out from cloacal opening by way of a slight pressure upon belly. Tissue slice: the yolk granules start to fuse into a lump. The cytoplasm and the nucleus have already moved to animal pole. The nucleoli concentre in the centre of the nucleus, whereas the nuclear membrane has dissolved through perforation. The nucleus looks transparent. When oocytes proceed to their maturity, the epithelial cells of follicles secrete a sort of substance which can dissolve and absorb tissues between the follicular and the egg membranes; thus the eggs can easily be released out from follicles thereby. The eggs are in a state of flowing in the saclike. ovary. This process is called ovulation. The eggs, which are in a state of flowing, are released from the fish body, this process is termed spawning. The oocytes proceed very fast from stage IV to maturity (stage V). In nature, the process may be fulfilled in 20---40 hours after the rising of water in the rivers. Under artificial estrualization, it can generally be fulfilled within 10 to 20 hours or even in several hours. If the follicles discharged inmatured eggs ahead of time, the rate of fertilization would be affected. In another case, if the follicles could not release matured eggs in time, the eggs might be suffocated or degenerate by virtue of overripe and the rate of fertilization would be certainly affected too. Even if part of these eggs might become fertilized, the embryos could not develop normally. In other words, the success of either natural spawning or artificial insemination depends upon knowing exactly the maturity stage and the spawning time of a fish.

If the matured eggs missed the chance of being released, the oocytes would degenerate and be absorbed.

Fig. 1--18 Tissue slice of Stage V egg of Silver carp Stage VI ovary By visual observation, the major portion of eggs has already been laid. There are still some phase-4 oocytes which have remained in the ovary. The ovary is slack and its size has been reduced conspicuously. Blood vessels have become enlarged with lump-shaped extravasated blood. Tissue slice: After ovulation, there are lots of follicular membranes and undischarged mature eggs in ovary. The undischarged eggs will soon degenerate and be absorbed, forming a semitransparent and irregular structure, orangeyellow in colour. Besides there are still many interim oocytes in it. (Fig. 1--19)

Fig. 1--19 Tissue slice of Stage VI ovary of Silver carp After spawning 2) The structure of the testes and sperm and the development stage of the testes (1) The structure of the testes The testes are paired and tubular. They are situated on both sides of the air bladder, attached to the ceolomic wall. Mature testes are white in colour. There are a lot of ampullae arranged irregularly inside. The spaces between ampullae are full of connective tissues. The ampullae are composed of many spores or seminal vesicle sacs (spermatangium spermatogonia). Spore sacs are separated by a thin layer of follicular cells. In one spore sac there is plenty of synchronously-developing germ cells, and in different spores sacs, germ cells vary in developmental stages. The centre of the ampullae forms a hollow cavity. After the formation of sperms, spore sacs dissolve and the sperms enter the cavity of the ampullae. The terminal end of the testis is connected to a short seminal duct with an opening to the exterior of the body. (2) the structure of sperm A sperm cell of Chinese carps consists of a head, a neck and a tail. The sperm head of Silver carp is almost spherical, 2.2--2.5 um in diameter, consisting of an apex and a nucleus. The apex is situated at the front part of the head. It is also called penetrator for its function of penetrating into egg. The neck is very short and is situated between the head and the tail. The sperm neck of Silver carp is about 1.1 um in length. The tail, narrow and long, is many times more than the head in length. The sperm tail of Silver carp is about 35um in length. The tail is the metabolic centre and motor organ. Mature sperms congregate in ampullae cavities because of the disintegration of spore sacs. Sperms will mix with the fluid secreted by the interstitial cells in sperms and the testis, forming so-called milt. The milt may be exuded or pressed out of body at the climax of brooders' estrus. 1 ml of Silver carp's milt holds approximately 48 million sperms. The total amount of milt could reach 30--40 ml. (Fig. 1--20)

1. apex 2. nucleus 3. neck 4. middle part 5. end-ring 6. spindle filament 7. plasm sheath 8. knots (front & rear) 9. flagellum

Fig. 1--20 Structure of a sperm (3) The development stages of the testis Just as the ovary, the development of the testes may be divided into six stages according to its appearance and tissue slice observation. Stage I testes: Testes are lineal in shape, transparent, attached closely to ceolomic wall. It is impossible to distinguish sexes. On the tissue slice, scattered spermatogonia, 16um in diameter may be observed. The nucleus is big and round, 9 um in diameter. Ampulli and seminal vesicles are still under formation; therefore, there is no clear fixed arrangement of sperm cells. Stage II testes: Testes are lace-like, transparent or non-transparent. Blood vessels are not clear. Histologic characteristics of this stage are multiplication of spermatogonia, formation of seminal vesicles which are arrayed in bundles. At this stage, ampulli are solid and separated by connective tissues. Stage III testes: Testes are rod-shaped, pink or yellowish, elastic on surface with clear distribution of blood vessels. On the tissue slice, a hollow cavity may appear in the middle of solid ampullae with one or several layers of seminal vesicles on ampullar walls. Stage IV testes: Testes are milky white in colour with a clear distribution of blood vessels on the surface. It is impossible to squeeze out milt at early stage, but possible at late stage. On the tissue slice, some larger primary spermatocytes, some smaller secondary spermatocytes and the smallest spermation can be observed. All these above-mentioned cells congregate on the walls of seminal vesicles with a small number of sperms.

Stage V testes: Testes are white in colour and full of milt. The milt will flow out through cloacal opening if a male fish's head is taken up and its belly slightly pressed. A large number of sperms and sperm cells in different stages could be seen inside ampulli on tissue slice. Stage VI testes: The capacity of the testis has greatly decreased after milt exudation, yellowishwhite or pink in colour on tissue slice. Only spermatogo nia, a little primary spermatocytes and connective tissues remain in seminal vesicles. After exudation, the testies of the male fish is turning back to stage III and will develop on. 3) Sexual cycle and maturity age of fish There is a certain sexual cycle in the development and maturity of the gonads of fish. When fish reach the maturity age and have their first spawning or milt discharging, their gonads will develop cyclically on without ceas in the light of season changes which is termed sexual cycle. In pond culture, the sexual cycle of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp, Black carp and Mud carp are basically the same. But, in nature, they spawn once a year, so the sexual cycle is one year. In the southern part of China, the climate is rather warm. Through intensive culture, pond-reared spawners after spawning in spring can again reach maturity in the same year and be induced to spawn 23 times a year. The sexual maturity and the gonad development of fish are tightly associated with environmental conditions that is water temperature, feeds, oxygen etc. Accordingly, there is a variance of fish sexual cycle in different regions. Even in the same region, the gonad development could not be totally the same owing to various conditions. (1) Cyclic variance of ovary development (gonad development of pond-reared Silver carp in Zhejiang Province) In winter (November--next January), the ovary is at stages I---III with average maturity coefficient 5---6%. Huge amount of lipid in fish body occupies about 3.5% of the body weight. Eggs of old generation are at the stage of degeneration and absorption, some of them have already been absorbed. The new oocytes begin to accumulate egg yolk. In spring (February---April); the ovary is at stages III---IV with the maturity coefficient 5---10%. The lipid content of fish body decreases gradually while the new oocytes continuously accumulate egg yolk. From early April, egg cells begin to grow fast with the fish belly expanded. The ovary enters stage IV. In summer (May---July), the ovary grows fast with obvious increase of weight, having passed through stage IV------maturity stage with maturity coefficient 17---20%. The lipid content of fish body reduce sharply; the belly is soft and expanded. If water temperature is favourable, inducement may be conducted. In autumn (August---October), already after ovulation, the ovary is in atrophy with the maturity coefficient around 10%. The majority of those ovaries that have not ovulated show apparent degeneration, returning quickly from stage IV to stage II. In winter, ovaries will develop again from stage II or stage III. The nutritive materials such as lipid will be gradually accumulated for the next sexual cycle. As Mud carp are subtropical fish, the gonad development requires higher temperature. The gonad develops slowly in winter when ovary is at stage II. Upto next April

(water temperature 26C in the southern part of China), the gonad develops quickly into stage IV. (Fig. 1---21)

Fig. 1--21 Annual variation of the development of the ovary of Silver carp cultured in ponds (2) Cyclic variance of testis development The development of male fish's testis is earlier than that of female's ovary. Generally speaking, it has already reached stage III in water and could exude a little milt under pressure in early spring and before reproduction season. In autumn, after milt-discharging, the sperms remaining in testis will be absorbed through degeneration. The spermatocytes of a new generation begin to grow. The testis takes another new sexual cycle. (Fig. 1---22)

Fig. 1--22 Annual variation of the development of the testis of Silver carp cultured in ponds

(3). Maturity age Under different geographical and ecological conditions, the maturity age of the same species is widely different. The maturity age of Silver carp, Bighead and Grass carp in the southern part of China is 1---2 years earlier than that in the northern part of China both for the male and female. (Table 1---7). And yet, even in the same region, it differs more or less under variant ecological conditions, for instance, in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces, the maturing age for female Silver carp is 4 years, for Grass carp and Bighead 5 years, Black carp 7 years. If ecological conditions are suitable, the maturing age could be one year in advance. The males generally mature 1 year earlier than the females. Table 1--- 7. Maturity age of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp reared in pond (year)
area species Silver carp Bighead Grass carp Black carp South China 2--3 3--4 3--4 Central China & East North China China 3--4 5 4--5 5--7 3--4 5--6 5--6 7--8 North eastern China 5--6 6--7 6--7 above 8

4) Fecundity It refers to the number of mature eggs of a female fish before spawning or individual fecundity. The assessment of the fecundity of fish is based on maturing age, sexual cycle, brood amount, effective production of eggs and the survival rate of fry, etc. Emphasis here is laid on the brood amount and spawning amount of pondreared Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Mud carp. (1) Chinese carps bear a great number of eggs and in many ways the eggs have similar features, for example, their maturity coefficient of ovaries is generally between 15---20%. The relative number of eggs is about 110---140 pieces. The brood amount does not apparently relate to regions, but to culture management (mainly nutrients) (Table 1---8)
item species Silver carp average body wt. (g) 4,461 average ovary wt. (g) 896.6 1,540 1,079 average absolute amount (piece) 627,620 1,078,000 755,300 average relative amount (piece) 141 124 120 maturity coefficient (%) 20.1 17.8 17.1

Bighead 8,640 Grass carp 6,310

Black carp Mud carp

21,950 850

3,446 136

2,412,500 204,000

114 240

15.6 16

(2) Production of eggs: Under artificial propagation, the average egg production of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp is 50 pieces per gram of body weight. The highest is 100 pieces/g. The average amount of Mud carp is a bit higher because the eggs of Mud carp are much smaller. (Table 1---9). Table 1---9. Egg production of Black carp under artificial peopagation
Item species Silver carp Bighead Grass carp Black carp highest amount per gram of body weight 75.4 77.6 103.0 125 211 average amount per gram of body weight 51.8 58.8 47.7 49.3 77.9

statistical 50 29 76 27

Mud carp -

5) Relationship between endocrine system and gonad development Just like other vertebrates, all physiological activities inside the body will be regulated and controlled principally by nervous system and endocrine system, of which the pituitary gland or hypophysis, gonad and thyroid are closely associated with the gonad development of fish. (1) Structure and function of hypophysis The hypophysis of fish is located below on the ventral side of the thalamencephalon and attached to the hypothalamus. It's divided into two parts: the neuro hypophysis and the adenohypophysis. the neuro hypophysis is directly connected to hypothalamus with its nervous fibres and blood vessels planted deep into the adenohypophysis. The adenohypophysis could be divided into anterior lobe (pro-adenohypophysis), the transitional lobe (mesoadenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (mota-adenohypophysis). The anterior lobe is situated nearest to the thalamencephalon where there is a little distribution of nervous branches and blood vessels. The transitional lobe is situated at the lower front of the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe is situated at the lower front of the transitional lobe. (Fig. 1--23)

1. mesoadenohypophysis 2. pro-adenohypophysis 3. mota-adenohypophysis 4. neurohypophysis

Fig 1--23 Illustrated vertical section of Grass carp's hypophysis The meso-adenohypophysis of the hypophysis of fish contains a sort of basophils which can secrete sexual hormone, i.e. FSH (Follicle stimulating Hormone). These agents can stimulate the growth, development, maturity and ovulation of eggs. They can either promote the synthesis secretion or estrogen or the formation of sperm and the secretion of antrogen. The sex stimulating hormone of the hypophysis of fish varies with the ages and seasons. As a rule, the secreted amount of hormone by mature fish is great er than by immature fish and higher before spawning than after spawning. Not only the hypophysis of the same species can be used for estrualization but also that of the same genus can be basically applied to one another and the hypophysis of most of the same family can be adopted reciprocally. For example Common carp and Silver carp do not belong to the same genus but do to the same family. If the hypophysis of Common carp is used to induce Silver carp for spawning, it is effective and vice versa. (2) Gonad: The gonads of fish produce germ cells --sperm cells and eggs and secrete sexual hormone as well. The male sex hormone secreted by the testes is called antrogen. The female sex hormone secreted by the ovary is called estrogen. The hormone causes the development of subsidiary sexual organs and secondary sexual character and the appearance of sexual behaviour. Other endocrine glands affect the development of gonads directly or indirectly, e.g. the thyroid gland secretes thyroxine which can provide the indispensable energy for spawning under low temperature; adrenal cortex (internal tissue) secretes adrenal cortex hormone which can regulate the metabolism of carbonhydrates and also function in the control of salt and water balance. 6) Function of nervous system in propagation

Propagation of fish is a rather complicated process, which demands that a living organism have a continuous balance between the internal make-up and the external ecological conditions, only by which can the organism survive. The realization of this balance relies upon the coordination of nervous system and body fluid regulatory system and their mutual restriction. The whole process of the gonad development of fish is to a great extent, con trolled by the hypophysis, whereas the secretion of the hypophysis is in turn controlled by the external factors through nervous system. In nature, the spawning of Silver carp, Bighead, Grass carp and Black carp from the relative stage IV to spawning stage V is fundamentally controlled by the external ecological conditions during the natural reproduction process It is easy to understand by the following block diagram. (Figure 1--24)

Fig. 1--24 Sketch of fundamentals of natural propagation for Chinese carps It shows that when certain ecological conditions-- light intensity, water temperature, running water and opposite sex stimulate the external sense organs--skin, lateral, senses of sight & hearing, the nerves of these organs will give impulses immediately, which will be conveyed into

the central nervous system and they will in turn, urge hypothalamus to release a hormone or polypeptide, i.e. LRH. This hormone stimulates through the portal vein or the hypophysis, the basophilous cells in the hypophysis to release (LH) leutinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), then these hormones flow into the gonad through blood circulation, promoting the growth and development of gonads. Meanwhile, gonads also secrete a sort of sexual hormone, which can affect the hypothalamus and the hypophysis in return making the spawners and the milters perform sexual activities of chasing each other an estrus, natural courtship, spawning or releasing milt. 7) Influence of ecological conditions on gonad development Owing to their continuous adaptation to external environments over their long period of evolution, fish have formed their respective demands for different ecological conditions. Fish will demonstrate a fine growth and development if ecological conditions are favourable. If the relevant ecological conditions are lacking, the growth and development will, to some extent, be restricted; if the conditions are excessively unfavourable, fish will die. The principle ecological requirements are nutritions, temperature, current, dissolved oxygen and light intensity etc. These conditions lay a constant and comprehensice effect on the growth of fish and the development of gonads. (1) Nutrition Only under a rational nutritional condition can the gonads of fish develop well; hence, at the early developmental stage (stages II & III) of the ovary, the maturity coefficient is generally 5-6%. The nutrient substance, the egg yolk starts to accumulate, therefore, fish obtain protein and fat from outside for the development of gonads and convert the excessive surplus energy to fat for storage. As a result, fish are quite fat at that time. In late spring i.e. late April or early May with the rising of temperature, the ovary grows quickly the maturity coefficient rapidly increases to 12--20%. The fish have accumulated large amount of nutrient substance for the egg yolk and continue to absorb nutrition from outside for maintaining normal living activities, then they transform the stored nutritional fat into egg yolk nutrients for the growing & development of gonads. The facts above-mentioned show that if the broodfish have good rearing conditions and are able to accumulate sufficient nutrient substance in autumn after spawning season, furthermore, the nutrition level and good conditions are maintained in spring, the gonad of fish would mature earlier and the broodamount would be great; if not, the development of the gonads of fish might be restricted or even the gonads could not reach maturity. Among the nutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamin and minerals, the most needed for the development of the gonads is vitamin E. On the basis of practices, better results come from the supplies of feeds full of vitamin E in early spring, like wheat sprouts, rice sprouts, lettuce leaves and Lactuca Indica etc. (Table 1--10) Table 1--10 Relationship between feeds and the fecundity of Grass carp
fine feeds g/day/ind green feeds statistical nr egg production per kg of body

g/day/ind corn, ricebran wheat sprout rice sprout soybean peanut dreg rice rice minced barnyard grass seed rice rice minced barnyard grass seed rice bran 125 45 57 105 577 800 260 240 51 22 52 65

wt. 38,214 57,500 20,446 27,236

However, the blind offering of abundant feeds with a neglect of other living conditions will make the fish rather fat, while the development of the gonads will be restrained; therefore, the nutrition is not the only factor. It must be combined with other conditions so that the gonads can have a better development and reach maturity. (2) Water temperature Water temperature is a significant factor affecting the metabolic rate of fish. The maturing age of fish is also closely with water temperature. It also affects the developmental rate of the gonads of fish. Table 1--11 shows such relationship. Table 1--11 Relationship between maturity age and water temperature and total heat
Province Item growth period (month) Average water temperature (C) Total heat degree/day Maturity age Total heat maturity period degree/day Average total heat maturity period degree/day 12 27.2 9.792 2 19.584 11 25 8.250 23 16.500 24.750 20.625 8 24.1 5.780 34 17.340 -23.120 20.230 5.5 20.0 3.333 56 16.665 -19.998 18.315 Guangxi Guangdong Jiangsu Heilongjiang

19.584

Remarks: 1. The growth period is counted when the monthly average water temperature is above 15C. 2. Total heat during the growth period, the formula is as follows: Total heat = average water temperature during the growth period days

3. The formula : Total heat during the maturity period = total heat during the growth period maturity age Owing to diferrent water temperatures and the growth periods in South China and North China, Silver carp have different maturity ages; anyhow, the total heat needed for maturity is basically identical, about 18,00020,000 degree/day. This shows a positive relationship between the gonad developmental rate and the water temperature (heat). To raise the water temperature is an effective measure to mature the gonad and to get early estrualization during the broodfish culture period in the North. (3) Running water The letting-in of fresh water into broodfish rearing ponds at definite or indefinite time can keep water quality good which makes fish comfortable and is benefitial to the growth of fish. At the same time it can regulate the composition of the natural feed, in order to make it more reasonable and to raise the nutritional level of the broodfish. The stimulation of running water has a marvelous effects on the development of the gonads, especially when the germ cells develop to stage IV. It will accelerate the process of metabolism and the process of transformation from stored nutrients to the gonads. Furthermore, according to experiments, it may stimulate hypothamamus to synthesize and release large amounts of LRH, which will further stimulate hypophysis to release sex stimulating hormone, then the spawners are induced to estrualize and lay eggs. (Table 1--12) Table 1--12 Effects of running water on spawning and fertilization of spawner's eggs
Item species Silver carp Ditto Ditto Grass carp Ditto Ditto

Total body wt. of spawner (kg) 121 215 169 101.5 108.5 60

egg amount (piece/kg) 10.9 13.0 6.7 10.1 11.6 6

spawning rate (%) 90 100 85 100 100 91

fertilization (%) 82 82 50 89 88 30

lettingin of freshwater before spawning slight all year no slight all year before spawning no

Slight running water all year round is very effective to Silver carp. Slight running water all year round and letting-in of fresh water before spawning have the same effects on Grass carp, but no running water is not so good for spawning of Silver carp and Grass carp and fertilization of eggs. 4) Dissolved oxygen:

Oxygen is one of the most elementary living factors for fish. It guarantees the metabolism of fish through their respiration. When the dissolved oxygen content is 2 mg/L in ponds, the normal physioligical activities are sharply affected with fish gasping for air. The excessive consumption of energy inside fish body will harm the development and maturity of the gonads of spawners. In such case, most of the induced brood fish fail to spawn properly. Especially as spring comes, the demand for oxygen is becoming urgent, usually above 4--5 mg D.O./L. If the water is clear with rich D.O.C., the brooders spawn normally. In brood fish culture, due attention must be paid to manuring, feeding amount, stocking density and the timely letting-in of fresh water and continuous improvement of fish living conditions. Besides the aforementioned ecological factors--nutrients, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, which promote the development and maturity of the gonads of fish, there are also light intensity, salanity, and the presence of opposite sex etc. Each of these is part of comprehensive factors which control the progress of the sexual cycle of fish.

CHAPTER II. ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF BLACK CARP, GRASS CARP, SILVER CARP AND BIGHEAD
In about 460 B.C., Fan Li wrote The Treatise of Pisciculture, the earliest monograph on fresh water fish culture in the world. He summed up the method of Common carp culture in ponds in China and therefore, the earliest practice of pond fish culture in China is Common carp culture. So far as the most popular polyculture of Black carp, Grass carp, Silver carp and Bighead is concerned, it began in Tang Dynasty (618 904 A.D.). Why is the per-unit yield of pond culture in China so high? One of the reasons is that these species have many merits; however, the production cycle in ponds did not last more than three years in general; thus the gonads of fish in ponds could not develop well. Moreover, it was believed that Grass carp, Black carp, Silver carp and Bighead could not propagate in ponds; therefore, no one thought of stimulating farm fish in ponds to propagate. The fry source relied on natural resources in the Changjiang River and the pearl River, etc. for a long time. Collecting the fry in rivers and transporting part of them to the distant places called for much exertion and increased the cost of production. The mortality of fry was high. Furthermore, they were mixed with the fry of wild fish. This is the reason why people have been inclined to get the fry through artificial propagation so far.

In 1958, aquaculture researchers of Guangdong Province first obtained the fry by injecting the hypophysis of Common carp into the brood fish of Silver carp and Bighead cultured in ponds. In autumn of the same year, researchers of Zhejiang Province also succeeded in induced spawning of Silver carp and Bighead by applying Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG). In 1960, artificial propagation of Grass carp succeeded too. In 1963, the fry of Black carp were obtained by artificial propagation. It was only within 6 years that artificial propagation of all four cultured carps was carried out successfully and has been used for production so far. In recent years, most of the fingerlings nurtured in ponds come from the fry gained through artificial propagation, which plays an important role in developing aquaculture. In 1974, the experiment of synthetic Luteinizing Release Hormone (LRH) proved its effectiveness. In 1975, the high effective Luteinizing Release Hormoneanalogue (LRH-A) was synthesized. It was widely applied in practice. It solved the problem of inadequate supply of estrualizing agents. The effect of estrualization was raised while the cost of production was reduced. Artificial propagation of Chinese carps is developing more rapidly than ever. 1. Rearing of brood fish Brood fish here means the male and female fish which are used for artificial propagation. Only after they reach sexual maturity through culture in ponds, can they be induced to spawn; therefore, whether they are reared well or not will directly affect the results of induced spawning. Rearing of brood fish is a very important link in a chain of artificial propagation of cultured fish. 1) Collection of brood fish (1) Differentiation between the male and the female fish It is necessary to control the ratio of the male and the female parent fish when they are cultured in ponds and induced to spawn. Consequently, the correct differentiation between two sexes is important. The method of distinguishing the sex of carps is generally the same. The sex is mainly identified in accordance with the characteristics of the pectoral fins. The secondary characteristics of both sexes of Chinese carps are shown in Table 2-1. Table 21 Comparison between the secondary characteristics of both sexes of the Chinese carps
species Characteristics of the female There is a row of fine bony ctenoid serration on several foremost fin rays of the pectoral fin. Coarse and thorny if touched with hand. These ctenoid serration won't disappear for life. Edges of the upper rims of several foremost pectoral fin rays are slanting backward. Cutting if touched with hand forward. 1. The pectoral fin rays are thick and long, extending freely like sharp knives. Characteristics of the male

Silver carp

Pectoral fin is smooth.

Bighead

Pectoral fin is smooth.

Grass carp

1.

The pectoral fin rays are thin and short, spreading

out spontaneously like a fan. In reproductive season, pearl organs appear on the pectoral fins and gill covers of mature fish; course if touched with hand. The same as Grass carp

2.

2.

No Pearl organ appears.

Black carp

The same as Grass carp

(2) Selection and transportation of parent fish Parent fish for artificial propagation may be captured from rivers, lakes and reservoirs or reared in ponds from fry, fingerling up to adult. The most common way in China is to catch mature Grass carp, Black carp, Silver carp and Bighead from great water bodies as parent fish and rear them in ponds for a short period of time for inducement. By this way, the time is shorter than that of rearing them from fry to parent fish in ponds. Seasons of collecting parent fish: The most proper time is in autumn and winter when the water temperature is rather low, about 10C. At that time, the activeness of fish is rather weak. So there will be no serious injury to fish, no shortage of dissolved oxygen for fish and it is convenient to transport the fish. After selection, the parent fish are reared in ponds for propagation season to come. Fish whose gonads do not develop well can be reared in ponds as reserve parent fish for the next spawning season. During capture and selection of parent fish, choose the male or the female fish from different water bodies or different drainage systems if possible, for different blood relations will improve the vitality of the next generation. A few kinds of methods of transportation for parent fish are as follows: i. Transportation with canvas tub or wooden barrel: Generally, it is suitable for short range transportation by truck or by train, etc. In 100 litres of water, put one parent fish of about 10 kg in body weight. The quantity of fish in transportation is determined according to water, temperature, size of fish and time limitation. It is necessary to change water if the water quality deteriorates on the way. It is better to contain each fish in a perforated plastic bag which is about 30 cm longer than the fish itself, bind the openings of the bag and put the fish and the bag into the barrel together. That will prevent the fish from injury. Transportation in oxygenated plastic water bags: generally, one plastic bag which is made of vinyle-film cylinder 3035 cm in diameter and 50 cm longer than the fish body can contain one parent fish after being filled with some water. The water level is as high as fish body. Fish and water occupy of the bag capacity. Bind tightly the openings of the bag after oxygenation, put it in a paper box for transportation by truck. Long distance transportation needs some spare bags filled with oxygen as well as some empty bags for fear that there should be some urgent needs. Transportation with a perforated boat: If there is a water way, it is more convenient to use a perforated boat. As the water can come in and out through the holes of the hull of the boat, the density of fish can be higher than the other. Transportation after tranquillization: Fish tranquilized with drugs are in a state of unconsciousness. They can not swim or jump. The breath frequency of fish decreases and the metabolic rate reduces. This can avoid injuring fish body and reducing consumption of oxygen as well. For example, put a fish in sodium barbital solution at a

ii.

iii.

iv.

concentration of 13.3ppm, within a short period of time, the fish will be in a coma with its abdomen up and its breath slow. The fish now can not swim. When water temperature is at 10C, fish can be traquilized for more than 10 hours. Being put back in ponds for 510 minutes, the fish is able to revive. 2) Parent fish rearing pond (1) Site selection for parent fish rearing pond The location of rearing ponds should be near the water source so as to facilitate drainage and irrigation. If possible, rearing ponds should be next to the spawning pond and the incubation pool. The proper size of the pond is 34 mu and the water depth, 1.5 m. The flat bottom of the pond is easy for catching and management. If the area of the pond is too large and there are too many parent fish in it, it is impossible to estrualize at one time. Several hauls in one pond can affect the gonad development of parent fish and even cause the fish gonads to degrade. In the pond for rearing Silver carp and Bighead, the bottom should be choice loam with some humus of about 10 cm thick. No leakage is allowed so as to save manure and keep pond water fertile. In the pond for rearing Grass carp and Black carp, no humus is needed in the bottom and no fertile water as well in order to keep water clear with high oxygen content. There is no problem with a little leakage if it's convenient to irrigate the pond. (2) Pond clearing Pond clearing has to be done without neglect in rearing parent fish. It should be carried out at the end of artificial propagation each year. Pond clearing is of great significance in preventing diseases and improving water quality. In one year of rearing parent fish, the pond deposited much leftover, manure dregs and silt at its bottom. If they are not cleared, they will dissolve and produce poisonous substances, such as H2S, CH4, etc. which will contaminate the pond water and retard the growth and the gonad development of fish. If the pollution is serious, the fish might suffer from suffocation and also, these rotten organic substances will easily cause fish diseases. When pond clearing is ocnducted, the surplus humus can be dug out after draining the water away from the pond. Drugs for pond clearing can help to kill pathogens, bacteria and wildfish. Some drugs for instance, quicklime, can help improve bottom quality. At the same time, pond dikes, the outlet, the inlet, etc. can be easily repaired after draining the water away. 3) Stocking of parent fish (1) Monoculture and polyculture parent fish can be cultured in either monoculture or polyculture. Polyculture means to stock one kind of fish in one pond as the major species and to mix with several other species for full utilization of natural food and adjustment of water quality. For example, Grass carp and Black carp would like clear and fresh water but their excreta can proliferate large quantity of plankton and then, water will become fertile soon, causing Grass carp and Black carp to lose their appetite or even to have no appetite. This will affect the gonad development. Therefore, Grass carp or Black carp which are cultured as major species in one pond should be mixed with some Silver carp or Bighead in it. Polyculture not only can control reproduction of plankton and adjust water quality, but also can fully utilize natural food in the pond; thus the major and minor species can benefit each other; however, there exists certain demerits in polyculture too. For example, catching one species for estrualization will interfere the normal life of the other; frequent

catching not only might injure the fish body, but also cause the gonads to stop developing, even to retrograde. But some measures could be taken to reduce bad effects to some extent. Before estrualizing period, separate the minor species from the major species or adopt polyculture with either reserve parent fish or commercial fish to avoid all these demerits. (2) Sex ratio Sex ratio of the major species stocked in one pond should be the same as that of the fish for estrualizing, that is, 1 : 1 or 1 : 1.5 for the male and the female fish, it is convenient for grouping when estrualizing. (3) The amount of stocking Generally, the stocking weight of the major species is 150kg/mu with 50 kg of minor species. The total amount is about 150200 kg. Stocking density varies with the conditions of the pond and the techniques of rearing management, etc. The Grass carp or Black carp rearing pond mainly is supplied with artificial feeds, It is possible that the stocking density can be raised a little if the food is sufficient and the pond is easy to drain and irrigate. The stocking density of Bighead should be lower, because zooplankton grow more slowly than phytoplankton. In a pond with Silver carp brooders as the major species, the stocking weight of Silver carp is 120kg/mu, accompanied with 25 kg of Bighead and 25 kg of Grass carp. In a pond with Bighead brooders as the major species, the stocking weight of Bighead is 100 kg/mu, accompanied with 3040 kg of Grass carp. In Bighead brooder rearing pond, we do not stock Silver carp, because they will compete with Bighead so vigourously for food that the growth of Bighead will be hindered. In a pond with Grass carp brooders as the major species, the stocking weight is 150 kg/mu, accompanied with 40 kg of Silver carp and 10 kg of Bighead. In a pond with Black carp brooders as the major species, the stocking weight is 150 kg/mu, accompanied with 40 kg of Silver carp and 10 kg of Bighead. In Black carp rearing pond, we do not stock Grass carp because they compete with Black carp for fine food, affecting the growth of Black carp. 4) Rearing Silver carp and Bighead brooders Silver carp and Bighead chiefly feed on natural food, plankton. By means of fertilization, a large quantity of plankton will be produced so that the parent fish may have sufficient food supply. Therefore, fertilization in accordance with the water colour is the key to the success of rearing Silver carp and Bighead brooders. In Silver carp rearing pond, human faeces are used as principal manure which generally occupies 70% with 30% animal manure. By virtue of quick effectiveness, large amount of phytoplankton will come into bloom while in Bighead rearing pond, the general amount is 70% with 30% human excreta. Cow manure is suitable for reproduction of zooplankton. Base manure should be applied before stocking of brooders. The general amount is 300400 kg/mu. After stocking, additional manure should be applied in accordance with the actual conditions of the pond and seasonal changes. The principle of applying additional manure is In less amount but with more frequencies and by observing water colour. Usually, an average of 7001000 kg of manure is applied each month. Some commercial feeds such as bean cake, wheat bran, rice bran could be supplemented in winter or before spawning. The amount of commercial food for each individual Bighead is 20 kg each year; Silver carp, 15 kg. Daily quantity is 12% of fish body weight.

Culture after spawning: After spawning, the weather is getting hot. The brooders need convalescence. They can not stand shortage of oxygen; therefore, mortality from suffocation often happens. They should be looked after by special persons. Special attention should be paid to weather, water colour and water quality. Fertilization should be conducted in accordance with water quality. It should be done frequently, sparsely, with small quantities. At the same time, input fresh water at short intervals so as to prevent the water from deterioration. Autumn and winter cultivation: Before winter comes, manures should be heavily applied in order to make the water fertile. During winter time, small amounts of manure are applied and supplemented with certain feeds. There is no need to add fresh water in winter. Spring cultivation: When spring is coming, pond water depth should be controlled at about one meter in order to raise water temperature and that is easier for the water to get fertile. The amount of manure applied can be increased gradually. The compost heaped at the corner of a pond combines with animal wastes, which are spread into the pond. manure spreading is carried out every other day or every other 2 days. Some fine feeds are needed. In half a month before spawning, no manure is needed. In early spring, fresh water is poured 12 times each month, which stimulates the development of the gonads. 5) Rearing Grass carp and Black carp brooders Reasonable feeding is the key to the success of rearing Grass carp and Black carp brooders. Rearing Grass carp brooders: Combination of commercial feeds and green grass and regular fresh water filling are the effective methods of rearing Grass carp brooders. kinds of commercial food are barley, wheat, wheat sprout, bean cake, peanut cake, etc. Kinds of green grass are English rye grass (Lolium sp.), clover, lettuce leaves, aquatic and terrestrial plants, etc. When water temperature rises up to 10C, Grass carp start feeding. Their appetite is stimulated by the rise of temperature. When water temperature is over 20C, the fish show good appetite; however, upon the maturity of the goands, fish will lose appetite obviously. But it is improving shortly after spawning. When the water temperature is over 30C in July-August, they will lose their appetite again. When the water temperature comes down to some degree in late autumn, they lose their appetite too. When it is down to about 7C, they get into over-wintering period and stop eating. Rearing after spawning: After spawning, special care should be taken at once in rearing because water temperature is quite suitable at this time. Grass carp have the best appetite. Green fodder is supplied at 9-10 o'clock a.m. each day (equivalent to 3040% of body weight. The principle is to give them sufficient food, but never let fodder to be left over. 100 grams of commercial food is supplied for each parent fish in the afternoon everyday.

Rearing in autumn and winter: Grass carp will lose their appetite when the temperature goes down. Besides, sources of grass shrink day by day. It is time to feed them with commercial food. When the temperature is below 10C, feeding is not needed. Rearing in spring: At the beginning of spring, drain half of the pond water away and add some fresh water so as to keep the water depth at about 1 meter. From early March, 50100 g of wheat sprout or bean cake should be fed to each individual fish. The staple food is green fodder, which must be supplied as early as possible. The supplemental food is commercial food, but it should not be the sole food, because overfatness will have some bad effects on spawning. Green fodder is provided by about 4050% of body weight. Shortly before spawning, Grass carp obviously reduce food intake or stop feeding. It shows that the gonads have been fully mature. They are ready for spawning. Each of Grass carp brooders needs 500 kg of green fodder and 20kg of commercial food per annum. In Grass carp brooder rearing pond, huge amount of feeds, leftover and Grass carp faeces easily make the pond water overfertile which causes the fish to lose appetite. During the culturing period, water filling must be conducted at regular intervals according to the change of seasons and the fertility of water in order to keep water clear and fresh. The water temperature is lower in winter, filling times can be reduced to once or twice in a month; but 34 times in 12 months before spawning with slight flow lasting 3-4 hours each time and with the water level rising 10 cm. Half a month before spawning, it is better to add fresh water day in and day out to keep water clear and fresh. This is one of the important measures in promoting the development of the gonads of Grass carp parent fish. Rearing Black carp parent fish Black carp are mainly fed with snails and clams and fresh water mussel flesh. Daily amount of feeding is about 20% of body weight, supplemented with small amount of bean cake. Food is spread into the flat bottom of the pond, one meter from the surface, 2-3 meters from the dike. Food is supplied in all seasons. It is better to feed sufficient food, but without any leftover. The remaining dregs must be removed out in time. Each of Black carp needs 500 kg of snails and clams and about 15 kg of bean cake per annum. Black carp favour clear and fresh water; therefore, water filling at regular intervals are needed, but the times of water filling could be less than that in Grass carp rearing pond. 2. Induced Spawning Induced spawning also means estrualizing. That is to say, the mature parent fish are injected with estrualizing agents to reach estrus and spawning. The gonads of Chinese carps can mature after rearing, but they can not spawn naturally in ponds. So long as they are injected with estrualizaing agents, they are able to spawn. 1) The fundamental principle of induced spawning The natural spawning of Chinese carps in rivers is controlled by certain factors of external environment. That is to say, when certain ecological condition stimulates the external sensing

organs, the nerves of these external sensing organs produce impulses which are immediately sent to the nerve center to make the hypothalamus /ill/ secrete lutenizing release hormone(LRH). When the pituitary gland has been excited by LRH, it answers or reacts by secreting gonadotrophic hormone--luteinizing hormone(LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). These hormones are transmitted by body fluids through blood circulation. When the hormones reach the gonads, the gonads in turn become stimulated and begin rapidly to develop and mature from stage IV to stage V. After the dissolution of the membrane of the follicle cell ovulation begins, and a sex hormone is secreted simultaneously. The sex hormone acts in coordination with the gonadotrophic hormones, and this arouses sexual desire in the brood fish. Thus the fish engage in active sexual activities--laying eggs and exuding milt. The basic principle of the artificial estrualization rests on the general biological principle of the natural propagation of fish. Because the ecological conditions in fish ponds can not satisfy the propagation requirements of the brood fish, the fish are injected with extraneous harmaones. Some extraneous hormaones (PG or HCG) can take the place of the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland of the parent fish and could directly stimulates the gonads. Other extraneous hormones (LRH-A) only stimulates the hypophysis of parent fish to accerate secretion-activities of gonadotrophin which will induce the parent fish to spawn or discharge milt. 2) Estrualizing agents (1) Kinds of estrualizing agents At present, three kinds of estrualizing agents are mainly employed in practice: luteinizing release hormone-analogue (LRH-A), the pituitary gland of fish (PG) and human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG). (i) LRH-A: As mentioned above, the secretion activities of hypophysis of fish are directly controlled by the hypothalamus which secretes luteinizing release hormone. In China, it was refined out from the hyphthalamus of sheep in 1971. Through analysis it is found that that it is a polypeptide which is constructed of 10 amino acids. They are Pyroglutamic acid, Histisine, Tryptophan, Serine, Tyrosine, Glutamic acid, leucine, Arginine, Proline and Glycine amide. Molecular weight is 1182. Artificial LRH synthesized in terms of that molecular structure has very high biological activity. for cow, sheep and human. When it is used in estrualizing carps, the dose must be 100 times higher than that for mammals because LRH is easy to be destroyed by the protease in fish body. In 1975, China synthesized LRH-A, a nine peptide hormone which is constructed of 9 amino acids. They are Pyroglutamic acid, Histidine, Tryptophan, Serine, Tyrosine, D-Alanine, Leucine, Arginine, Proline and acetyl amine. Its molecular weight is 1167. The sixth glutamic acid and the tenth glycine amide are replaced by D-Alanine and acetyl amine. The biological activeness of LRH-A is about 100 times higher than LRH to fish. It is a high effective estrualizing agent. LRH-A is a white powder. The LRH-A available in the market is often added with mannite as a filler, that is 10 times as much as its weight. It easily dissolves in water. So it should be kept in dry and shady place under airtight condition. (ii) Common carp pituitary gland The pituitary gland or the hypophysis lies beneath the diencephalon, connecting with the hypothalamus. When the fish's brain is lifted upside down, it is easy to separate it from the

hypothalamus. It is buried in the sphenoid. The hypophysis secretes the gonadotropin. There are two kinds of gonadotrophins, i.e. luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulates ovulation function and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) which promotes the development and maturity of eggs and stimulates, the development and maturity of follicle. A. Method of collection and preservation of the hypophysis: Hypophysis could be collected from both sexes of the matured Common carp of more than 0.5 kg by weight. It can also be collected from the dead but unspoiled fish. The quality of the hypophysis of the Common carp which have never spawned is the best. Collection: First, cut off the head of a fish, set the head on its cut surface with the snout facing upward, use a knife to cut from the nostrils to the upper edge of the eyes to remove the frontparietal bone, and then turn the whole brain upside down with a pair of forceps, and the hypophysis can be seen. Tear off the membrane around it with a pair of forceps carefully and the hypophysis can be taken out. B. Preservation : If fresh hypophysis is used, it should be ground before used. It can also be dehydrated and defatted by pure acetone or absolute alcohol (the volume is about 1520 times that of the hypophysis). It can be preserved for future use after the acetone or alcohol is renewed twice (immersed 12 hours each time). Two methods may be adopted for preservation. One is to dry the dehydrated hypophsis on a piece of filter paper for 15 20 minutes, then put it into a small brown bottle and seal it tightly. A label of species and the collection date is stuck on the bottle. The other is to preserve the hypophysis in the second immersion liquid and seal it tightly in a small brown bottle. Both methods mentioned above bring forth good results. Generally, the hypophysis still remains effective in two years' preservation. (iii) Human chorionic gonadotropin: The human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is an protein hormone. Its molecular weight is 36000. It is similar to LH and FSH of mammal in physiological function. It promotes the ovulation, the development of the gonads and the secretion of sex hormone. HCG is refined from the urine of women who is pregnant for 24 months. It is a hormone which is secreted from the chorionic membrane of placenta. The HCG is more effective to silver carp and Bighead than to Grass carp. At present, the ready made material available in the market in our country is the veterinary gonadotropin. It is in the form of white power and easily dissolves in water. It must be preserved under airtight condition in cool, shady and dry place. (2) Dose (i) LRH-A: This agent has obvious estrualizing effect on all species of Chinese carps. For Silver carp and Bighead, the injection dose is 10 g per kg in body weight. (omitted thereafter) (lg= 1000g). The effect of two injections is better, 12 g/kg for the first injection and 89 g/kg for the second injection after an 810 hours' interval. If LRH-A is used in combination with HCG, the dose of LRH-A is 2 g/kg for the first injection and after an 812 hours' interval, the dose of LRH-A, 8g/kg and the dose of HCG, 200 IU/kg for the second injection. This can mature the ova or promote the polarization of cells. The estrualizing rate is high and steady.

For the male fish, the dose should be reduced by half. It receives only one injection when the female gets the second injection. Grass carp is more sensitive to LRH-A with better effects. They need only one injection. The dose of LRH-A is 510g/kg. For the male fish, the dose should be reduced by half. For Black carp, LRH-A is used in combination with PG. The dose of LRH-A is 15g/kg and the dose of PG is lmg/kg. They are given in three injections: LRH-A, 5g/kg for the first injection; 15 days later, the same amount for the second injection and after 12 hours, LRH-A, 10g/kg and PG, 1mg/kg for the last injection. For the male fish, the dose should be reduced by half. Just one injection is given at the same time as the female receives the last injection. If the maturity of the male fish is not desirable, that is, the sperm can not be squeezed out, the double injection may be adopted. The dose of the first injection for the male is the same as the one for the female at the same time i.e. 15 days in advance. The second injection of the male is synchronized with the third injection of the female. (ii) PG of Common carp The estrualizing effect of this agent is obvious when applied to any species of Chinese carps. The dose to be used is 4mg (dry weight) per kg of body weight. For the male fish, the dose should be reduced by half. For comparison, the PG of Common carp of about 0.5 kg by weight is only about 1mg after dehydration by pure acetone. (3) HCG: For both Silver carp and Bighead, the dose 45mg/kg or 800 1000IU/kg. 3) Injection (1) Preparation of injection suspension fluid The preparation of PG suspension fluid: according to total body weight of parent fish, calculate the required number of PG. First, put the PG (if the PG is preserved in liquid, dry it on the filter paper for 15 minutes) into a mortar and grind them thoroughly, then add normal saline to make suspension fluid. The dose of injection suspension is controlled in 23 mg for each parent fish. When HCG and LRH-A are used, the dose required must mix with the normal saline at a concentration of 0.7 %. when the powder dissolves, it is ready for use. It should be prepared impromptu so as to prevent the suspension fluid from becoming ineffective. (2) The method of injection The coelomic injection is commonly adopted. During injection, a brood fish is placed in a cloth clamp. Let the fish lie laterally in water. Hold the upper half of the fish above the surface. Wipe off the water at the inner side of the basal part of the pectoral fins. Point the syringe needle towards the head at an angle of 45o to the body's longitudinal axis, insert the needle through to a depth of about 1.5 cm, inject the fluid slowly. (3) Frequency and time of injection

Frequency of injection: The frequency is of two kinds, i.e. the single injection and double injection. For the single injection, the predetermined dose is completely injected into the fish body. For the double injection, the predetermined dose is divided into two and injected twice. The amount of the first injection is usually 1020% of the total dose, the rest is for the second injection. For milters, only the single injection is adopted. The injection is given to the milter when the spawner receives the second injection. Both the single injection and the double injection adopted at present give satisfactory results. In respect of the double injection, especially to those less matured parent fish, it can accelerate the eggs to reach maturity. Time of injection: The time of injection depends upon water temperature and convenience of working condition. The brooders are usually controlled to spawn in midnight or dawn. If the single injection is adopted, the injection is carried out in the afternoon or at dusk in order to allow the brooders to spawn at dawn. If double injection is adopted, the first injection is carried out in the morning. The interval between two injections is 812 hours. If water temperature is high, it's better to control the brooders to spawn at midnight. It can enhance the fertilization rate and the hatching rate. 4) Season of estrualization To choose the most suitable season to estrualize is one of the key links in a chain of artificial propagation of Chinese carps. The optimum period is dependent on the weather and the gonad development of fish. The initial propagation period in Guangdong Province is early May, while that in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces is from the middle of May to the middle of June. The optimum temperature is 22 28C. The sequence for estrualization is Grass carp the first, Silver carp and Bighead the second, Black carp the last. 5) Selection of parent fish Usually we choose the female fish with its abdomen bulging out, especially the part around genital opening being swollen, soft and elastic. If Silver carp and Bighead are held out of water, ribs are faintly seen on the abdomen. If the tail is raised, the contour of the ovary is moving forward. As for the male fish, if the abdomen is slightly pressed, the milt will flow out and spread in water at once. These parent fish are matured ones. If the abdomen of the female Silver carp or Bighead brooders is exceedingly expanded, less elastic, this is the phenomenon of over maturation of parent fish, which can not be chosen for estrualization. Feeding should be stopped two days before choosing Grass carp. If the female Grass carp is placed belly up, the contour of the ovary is seen downwards on both sides of the abdomen. If the middle of abdomen is in shape of dented shrinkage, and the abdomen portion feels soft, it can be chosen. It can also be done by an egg collecting spoon to determine the maturity degree of the eggs. Collect a small amount of eggs from the cloacal opening, fix it in the tranparent liquid (85ml of a solution at a concentration of 95 % alcohol, 10ml of formalin at a concentration of 40 %

formaldehyde, 5ml of frozen acetic are mixed together) for 23 minutes. If the transparency of cytoplasm and yolk is in the center, it's an unmatured egg, which will have a little effect for estrualizing. If the nucleus is eccentric, it is a matured one, ready for spawning. If the egg nucleus is vague or is not seen, it is an over-matureed one or a degraded one, which will have no effect for estrualizing. 3. Spawning 1) Under normal conditons it will take a while after the last injection that parent fish appear to be in a state of estrus. This period of time is called the response time. The response time varies slightly depending on water temperature, kinds of estrualizing agents, the frequency of injection and species of parent fish. When water temperature rises 1C, the response time is shorter by 12 hours. In case of the double injection, the response time counted from the second injection is shorter than that of single injection. For example, when water temperature is 2425C, using PG to Silver carp for the single injection, the response time is 1214 hours, whereas for the double injection, (counted from the second injection), it is 78 hours. The response time also varies with different hormones used. The response time to PG injection is shorter by one or two hours than that to HCG injection, while the response time for LRH-A injection is longer than that of PG injection. In addition, given the same hormone and the same dosage in the same season, the response time of various species are similar with some slight differences. Generally, Grass carp have the shortest response time of the three, Bighead a little longer, and the response time of Silver carp is the longest. 2) Natural spawning & fertilization: After having been injected with estrualizing agent, the parent fish are stocked into the spawning pond to spawn or exude milt to complete fertilization process. This is called natural spawning and fertilization. (1) Spawning pond: Spawning pond is also called estrualizing pond. After having been injected with estrualizing agents, the parent fish need a pond with suitable ecological conditions in which they can perform estrus and spawning. It is also convenient to collect fertilized eggs. A spawning pond is usually made of bricks with covered with concrete. There are two common ponds, i.e. circular and elliptical pond. Circular spawning pond: (fig. 2--1)

The inlet of the pond is set at a 40o angle tangent with the pond wall. The rim of the bottom is higher than the center. An outlet is usually installed in the center of the bottom which serves as a passage for collection of eggs. The pipe which is hidden underground passes to the eggcollecting pond. There is an egg-collecting cage in that pond to collect eggs, which can be transferred to incubation ponds or the pipe can directly go to incubation ponds for hatching. Elliptical spawning pond: The inlet and the outlet are on the same straight line. Water is 1 meter deep. The bottom of the pond inclines to the outlet. Outside, there is an egg collecting pond in which there is an egg collecting cage that is connected with the outlet of the spawning pond. (see Fig 2--2)

2) Estrus and spawning: After they have received the estrualization treatment, and if they react normally to the hormones used, brood fish will generally begin chasing each other excitedly. This phenomenon is called estrus. At the beginning, some irregular ripples appear on the water surface. They are caused by the parent fish beginning to chase each other underwater. If the chasing continues, sometimes, emerging on the surface of the water or forming sprays, it is regarded as a normal estrus. At the climax of estrus, the male hits female's abdomen with its head. The female lies on its side on the surface of water (or underwater). Its abdomen and tail become intensely constricted, and then, eggs flow out. At the same time, the male nestles closely up to the female's abdomen, discharging milt. Sometimes, the male and the female are entangled together and swing their pectoral fins to spawn or discharge milt. 3) Methods of collecting fertilized eggs: There are two methods of collecting fertilized eggs. One is to fill the pond with water one to two hours before the fish begin to estrualize. (This has a stimulating function to the parent fish). During estrus, slowly-flowing water is better because it can bring the gametes together so as to raise the fertilization rate. At the end of spawning, take the brood fish out, then flush the eggs with a great current in order to collect eggs. Eggs consecutively flow into the egg collecting cage by flushing. Eggs are collected and counted, then put into hatching boxes to hatch. Another method is to pour water into the pond at the end of spawning and to flush the fertilized eggs which sink down to the bottom to flow into egg collecting cage in great force. This is so called still-water spawning.

The effect of these two methods are related to the ecological factors of artificial estrualizing. There are no identical views at present. Some people believe that under artificial propagation conditions, the extraneous hormones have produced the decisive effects on egg maturation and ovulation and water flowing is of no importance. Others consider that the ecological conditions are still necessary and that the physiological activities of endocrine system keep going and their requirements for ecological conditions still exist although the estrualizing agent can make the fish spawn; therefore, water-flowing stimulation will raise egg-laying rate and fertilization rate. Method of counting eggs: Volumetric method can be adopted to calculate eggs. First of all, the capacity of a container is measured, take out 10 or 20ml of eggs and count the number of eggs and then, calculate the total number according to the capacity of the container and the times of ladling. The concentration of eggs in each ladling must be uniform for accuracy. There are about 1000 eggs in 100ml of eggs of Grass carp and Silver carp after absorbing water, and 800 eggs for Bighead, i.e. eggs of Chinese carps after absorbing water are about 8000--10000 eggs per litre. 3. Artificial insemination: When the brood fish are in estrus and begin to spawn, they are captured immediately. Eggcollection and milt collection are done so as to bring the matured . The eggs must be proper mature so that after fertilization, they may develop normally. Under the water temperature of about 28C, the normal fertilization time of Chinese carps eggs (from separating from follicles to being released) is only 1--2 hours; therefore, when we perform artificial insemination, the time of egg-collection and milt-collection is dependent on various estrualizing agents, different species and water temperature, etc. This is the key to the success of artificial insemination. The experiments show when temperature is at 23C, eggs of silver carp from early maturation to proper maturation needs 40 minutes, from proper maturation to slight overmaturation lasts 1.5--2 hours. Only proper-matured eggs are able to develop normally, immatured or over-matured eggs develop abnormally because of their low fertilization rate. Most of the eggs from ovulation will not immediately lose their fertilization ability in 10 minutes when they stay in ooplasm and more than half of them may maintain this ability for over 20 minutes, however they will soon lose their fertilization ability in one minute if they come into fresh water. Eggs in saline solution at the concentration of 0.7% can survive for 10 minutes. The sperm of Chinese carps in semen or in spermary are not active. After they come into water, they start moving. The sperm in fresh water can survive for one minute. The time when the sperm has higher fertilization ability is only 20--30 seconds in fresh water. The sperm in normal saline can survive for 2--3 minutes. Methods of artificial insemination of Chinese carps: Two methods are usually adopted, i.e. dry method and semi-dry method. Dry method: About 15 minutes after the beginning of estrus, capture out brood fish and gently squeeze the brooder's belly to let the eggs flow into a basin (each basin should not contain more than 500000 eggs), and then, either directly squeeze the semen on to the eggs or suck

the semen with a pipette and drop it on the eggs. Stir the mixture gently with a hand or a featner for about 1 minute, then add a little clean water and stir again for one minute, leave the mixture along for one minute and finally pour out the dirty water. After the eggs have been washed in this way for 3 times, they may be removed to a hatcher for incubation. sometimes, it is according to the response time that the brooder fish should be captured to be examined for fear that we miss the chance because some of the brood fish have no obvious estrus. Semi-dry method: With a pipette, suck out the semen and dilute it with a little normal saline and then pour it onto the eggs. Therefore, proceed in the same way as mentioned above in dry method. There are also two methods of counting eggs for artificial insemination: Weight method: Weight the eggs before absorbing water, count the number per unit weight and then the total egg quantity can be calculated. (generally 700--750 eggs per gramme for Silver carp and Grass carp, 650--700 eggs for Bighead) or it can be counted out according to the difference between the weight of a brooder before and after spawning. Volumetric method: Measure the volume of eggs before absorbing water, multiply it by the egg numbers per unit volume and then the total egg quantity can be calculated. (650--700 eggs per ml for Silver carp and Grass carp, and 600--650 eggs for Bighead). 4. Incubation Incubation means the whole course of fertilized eggs from embryonic development to hatching of fry. But in production the implied meaning of the word is broader. It includes all the management work from hatching to stocking. The eggs of Chinese carps are semi-buoyant, After the eggs have been fertilized and have absorbed water, the egg membrane expands at once up to about 5--6mm in diameter. They sink to the bottom in stagnant water but will float with a little running water. In rivers and streams, fertilized eggs will float and hatch. As the result of a long period of adaptation, the fish population have formed their unique demands for the environmental conditions of incubation: adequate oxygen, appropriate water temperature and certain current. 1) Hatching temperature and dissolved oxygen The range of water temperature for the embryonic development of Chinese carps is 17C--30C, with the proper range of 22C--28C, and the optimum 25C--27C; if the temperature is lower than 17C or higher than 30C, it will cause stoppage or abnormality of embryonic development. Hatching occurs with a certain temperature range. The relation between the speed of embryonic development and water temperature are in positive correlation, that is, if the temperature is high, the development is quick. Take the embryo development of Silver carp as an example, when the water temperature is 18C, the incubating process takes 61 hours; when the water temperature is 28C, only 18 hours are needed. The relation between the hatching time and water temperature is as follows (see table 2--1). Table 2--1 Relation between hatching time and water temperature of Silver carp

water temperature hatching time (hour)

18 61

20 50

22 33

24 31

25 24

26 21

27 19

28 18

28.5 17

30 16

Dissolved oxygen content in pond water should not be lower than 4--5mg/l. Below 2mg O2/L, the embryo can not develop normally. Running-water type hatching jars and circulators are all designed in accordance with the characteristics of Chinese carps eggs. 2) Hatching instruments and operational management (1) Hatching jar (earthen ware vats): Hatching jar (Fig 2--3) is made of tinplate or plastics. Hatching vats are generally earthenware vats reformed (Fig 2--4). The proper volume of a container is 250kl. Every kl of water may admit 1000 eggs. The hood of hatching jars (vats) is made of nilon net with 50 meshes. The water flows in at the bottom of hatching jar (vats), and over-flows out from the upper rim of the jar through the net hood. The operational management of the hatching jar (vat) is firstly to regualte the flowing speed of water so as to get the fertilized eggs to float to the surface and Secondly, to brush the dirty matter and egg shell off the hood in order to get the water to flow freely and to prevent the newly-hatched fry from escaping with over-flowing water. During the whole hatching process, it must allow free flow of water. (2) Hatching circulator: Hatching circulator (Fig. 2-5) is ring-shaped lanes of cement and brick. There are two kinds of circulators, i.e. single and double. The circular course is 1 meter wide, 0.9 meter deep and the pond is 4 meters in diameter. It may hold 8 m3 of water and admit 8 million pieces of eggs. (Every cubic meter of water may admit 1 millon pieces of eggs). The water must be exchanged every half an hour. The management work of circulator is similar to that of hatching jar. 3) Calculating fertilization rate, hatching rate and fry producing rate: When fish eggs have developed to the middle gastrula stage (after 6-8 hours of fertilization), collect about 100 eggs with small net at random, put them into a white dish, and give up the eggs such as turbid eggs, white eggs, empty eggs and rotten eggs with naked eyes. Calculate the fertilized eggs by percentage.

Method of calculating hatching rate:

But in production, it is trouble-some to obtain the accurate figures of the actual hatching rate, therefore, it is usual to calculate the fry producing rate in production.

As soon as the air bladders of fry have been filled with air, the yolk sacs have basically disappeared and the fry can take food actively (about 45 days after hatching), they may be transferred for pond stocking.

Fig 2--3

Fig 2--4

Fig 2--5

Chapter III Pond fertilization and fish feeds

I. Pond fertilization 1) Significance of fertilization in pond China has a long history of pond fertilization for fish culture ages ago. The farmers adopted the methods of manuring to rear fry. For instance, Dacao (green manure) has been applied in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces and night soil has been used as manures in Jiangxi and Human Provinces so as to nurture fry into summer fingerlings. Rich experience has been accumulated. In fingerling rearing ponds and table-fish rearing ponds, fertilization is aimed at developing natural food and saving artificial feeds. This method has been widely adopted in China.

Phytoplankton, elementary producers in ponds take in all essential inorganic materials from the water and conduct phytosynthesis with sunlight, producing organic nourishment needed for their own growth and reproduction. Fertilization means to supply phytoplankton with nutrients for phytosynthesis and to promote the growth of phytoplankton, by which zooplankton and other aquatic animals are fed on for their growth and propagation. Fish feed on plankton and other hydrobios. Pond fertilization lies in cultivation of various food organisms and their propagation in large quantities in fish ponds to provide fish with abundant natural feeds, by which they can grow faster. The yield of fish pond may be raised thereby. Among the fish food organisms in ponds, there are a series of interrelations between the predator and the prey. The biological term is food chain. Fish is the last link of the food chain of hydrobios in ponds. e.g. phytoplanktonSilver carp phytoplanktonzooplanktonBighead aquatic plantGrass carp planktonbenthosBlack carp Usually, animals could use only 520% energy of both animal and plant feeds. Utilization of energy is related to the length of food chain. The shorter the food chain is, the higher the rate of energy transfer will be, in other words, the higher the utilization rate of energy transfer is, the higher the fish production will be. The hydrobios in ponds are in a constant progress of growth and death. The dead bodies of organsims will turn from complex organic materials into simple inorganic materials through decomposition by bacteria, then dissolve in water, which can again be utilized by phytoplankton to produce new individuals. Hence, the materials in ponds are in a constant state of circulation mainly through the food relationship between living organisms. This kind of circulation is called pond material circulation. The relationship may be illustrated with Fig. 3---1

Fig 3---1 A diagram of material circulation in ponds The process of pond material circulation is just that of the production of fish and their food organisms in ponds. The circulation originates from the soluble minerals in water. Under certain conditions of light and heat, the propagation of phytoplankton depends upon the amount of nutrients in water. In turn, the production of all food organisms depends upon the proliferation of phytoplankton. Fertilization is just to enhance the quantity of nutrients and to nurture food organisms in ponds so as to create favourable conditions for raising fish yield. 2) Kinds of organic manures and methods of application Organic manures mainly refer to excrements of farm animals. It is a general term of manures containing organic matter. Nowadays, manures applied in fish ponds in China are mainly organic manures. In production, the following are often used, faeces and urine of livestock and poultry, night soil, green manure, compost and silkworm faeces etc.. Only through decomposition by microorganisms, organic manures may be converted to nutrients, which plants can absorb, and then, organic manures are full of nutritional elements with long effects. (1) Kinds of organic manures (i) Faeces and urine of livestock and poultry A. Pig manure

Composition and characteristics: pig manure includes much organic matter and other nutritional elements like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and is a kind of fine, complete manure. Pig faeces are delicate, containing more nitrogen with a c/n proportion of 14/1, smaller than that of other livestock faeces, so they are easy to rot. The major portion in pig urine is nitrogen in urea form. It is easy to decompose. See Table 3--1 about pig faeces elements. Table 3---1 Nutritional elements in pig manure
elements kind faeces urine 85 97 15 2.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.7 moisture organic matter N p 2O5 K2O

excretory amount: The excretory amount of pig is greatly associated with its body weight and food intake. From the measurements, a pig of 50 kg in body weight discharges about 10 kg per day, about 20% of body weight. A pig offers 1000 kg of faeces, 1200 kg of urine in the culturing period of 8 months from pigling to the adult Pig's daily excretory amount is less than cow's or horse's. But, pigs have the merits of faster growth, shorter fattening period, and suitableness for pen culture, whereas the scale of pig raising is much larger; so it is more beneficial to collect their manure. B. Cattle manure Composition and characteristics: The elements are similar to those in pig manure, but cattle are ruminants and the food-stuffs are repeatedly masticated, so that the excrement is delicate. There is less nitrogen in the composition of cattle manure. The C/N proportion is 25:1. The cattle urine contains more nitrogenous element in hippuric acid form, (C6H5CONHCH2COOH), so that cattle excreta are slow to decompose. See Table 3---2 about the nutritional elements in cattle excrement. Table 3--2 Nutritional elements in cattle excrement (%)
element Item

moisture

organic matter

nitrogen

P2O5

K2O

CHAPTER VI Rearing of Fry and Fingerlings

Rearing fry and fingerlings is to nurture 3 or 4-day-old postlarvae, which start to eat food, into fingerlings for stocking in grow-out ponds. It is generally divided into two stages: at the first

stage, fry are cultured for 1825 days to a body length of 3 cm, usually known as summerlings. At the second stage, summerlings are reared for another 3--5 months to fingerlings with a body length of 8--20 cm. Most of the grow-out ponds are stocked with fingerlings, but sometimes with some two-year-old fingerlings. At fry and fingerling stage, especially at fry stage, fish are not only delicate and small, but their power of movement and their ability to feed are weak. Their diet is restricted to a number of items and they have very low adaptive power to changes in environmental conditions and have little power to escape from enemies. They, on the other hand, have a high metabolism. Careful management should therefore be performed to raise the survival rate of fry and fingerlings and to produce healthy and desirable-sized fingerlings. 1. Biology of Fry and Fingerlings Fish have a fast growth during fry and fingerling stage and their biological characteristics are different from that of the adults, especially in feeding habits, growth and habitus. 1) Food intake The changes of their feeding organs, feeding patterns and food composition of fry and fingerlings are already mentioned in the previous chapters. All in all, animal feedstuff is considered to be of great importance for fry and fingerlings. They have a higher metabolic intensity, faster growth and greater food intake, but all these are relatively declining with the increase of their body weight. The amount of their food intake varies with kinds of food and water temperature, etc. at different developmental stages. Under the optimum temperature, the maximum daily food intake of Grass carp fingerlings comes to 49.9% of its body weight, but only 16.8% and 16.4% for Silver carp and Bighead respectively. It is reported that the daily food intake of juvenile Grass carp is 32--71% and the diurnal variation of food intake is as follows: juvenile Grass carp have a maximum food intake at 8:00 and 16:00 and it increases in the evening while the maximum food intake of Silver carp and Bighead fingerlings is between 12:00-20:00 and it declines after 20:00. Silver carp and Bighead stop eating between 24:00 and 06:00 and the intensity of food intake is rising obviously after 08:00. The retention time of food in the gut of fry and fingerlings is related to the water temperature. It is shown by the experiment that rotifera and Daphnia Bosmina longirostris fed to Grass carp fry and fingerlings remain in the qut for an hour and a half to three hours and twenty minutes at water temperature of 2022C. When the water temperature reaches to 3032C, foods are digested in less than one hour. The food in Silver carp's gut is digested in one hour and twenty minutes at water temperature of 22 26C and even within one hour when the water temperature is 30C. 2) Growth rate Fry and fingerlings of various species have different growth rates. Even the same species also have different growth rates at different developmental stages. At fry and fingerling stage, Black carp, Grass carp, Silver carp and Bighead all have a high growth rate, but from fry to summerlings, their relative growth rate is at its maximum, which is the peak in their life span. Particularly, the relative growth rate is much higher between 3 and 10 days after stocking and the daily growth rate is 15--25% in length and 30 57% in weight. Based on the measurement, within 10 days after being stocked in ponds, the body weight of fry would be double 6 times for Silver carp and 5 times for Bighead. On an average, it is double the previous weight every two days. But fish during this period are small in size and therefore, the absolute increase of their

body weight is rather low. The average daily increase in body weight is only between 10 and 20 mg and the average daily increase in body length is 0.71 mm for Bighead and 1.2 mm for Silver carp. (see Table 4--1) Table 4--1 Growth Rate of Silver carp and Bighead Fry
Species Age 2 4 6 8 10 12 Bighead Body length 8.1 8.5 11.6 11.8 13.0 15.2 Body weight 4 12 27 54 90 134 Silver carp Body length 7.2 8.1 10.7 13.3 18.8 19.2 Body weight 3 10 21 40 94 188

Note: Dacao is used as manure for fish ponds and the stocking density is 140000 ind/mu At the fingerling stage, the relative growth rate conspicuously decreases, compared with the fry stage. Within the rearing period of 100 days, the body weight of fish is double 9--10 times. On an average, it doubles every 10 days, which is 5--6 times less than that at the fry stage. However, the absolute increase in weight is remarkable. (see Table 4--2) Table 4--2 Growth Rate of Silver carp, Bighead and Grass carp Fingerlings

Specie s

Silver carp Average daily increment Body weig ht

Bighead

Grass carp Average daily Total increment body lengt Body Body h lengt weigh Average daily increment

Age (day)

Total body lengt h

Body weigh t Body lengt

Total body lengt h

Body weigh t

Body weigh t Body Body lengt weigh

h 20 27 60 74 120 134 318 420 376 633 173 55.3 2.4 6.78 242 47 1.08 3.1 1.4 435 0.9

h 5.0

t 5.16 57 1.48

3.4

3.8

207.5 2.3

7.1 216 157 2.6 8.4

372

661

In accordance with the observation during the cultivation, the fry of four species collected from rivers and polycultured in a manured pond have different growth rates. after being stocked for 1-4 days, the growth of Grass carp is the fastest; Silver carp and Bighead the second. However, after the 8th day of rearing, Silver carp always come in first; Bighead the second; Grass carp the third and Black carp always the last. This remains until the fry reach to summer fingerlings. The growth curves of the four species of fish are shown in Figure 4--1.

CHAPTER 5 POND CULTURE OF FOOD FISH

The intensive pond culture of food fish is mainly conducted in a small man-made water body with an area of several mu to tens of mu for a water depth of 1--2.5 m. Fish in ponds are fed with commercial food and stocked at high density so as to achieve a high and stable production. In the intensive pond fish culture, the Chinese fish farmers have summerized their rich experience accumulated through thousand years of practices into eight main points: (1) water, (2) seeds, (3) feeds, (4) polyculture, (5) high density, (6) rotation, (7) prevention and (8) management. These eight principles for intensive pond fish culture are a scientific summary in theory, which has effectively accelerated the development of pond fish culture in China. In 1983, the total freshwater fishery production in China was 1,840,700 tons, of which 1,428,100 tons were produced from cultivation. The total area for fresh water cultivation was 46,239,700 mu, of which pond area was 14,473,900 mu occupying 31.3% of the total cultivated area, the total fish production from ponds was 1,030,000 tons, making up 72.1% of the total fresh water fishery production from cultivation. It shows that pond fish culture plays a very important role in fresh water fisheries in China. Rearing period: The rearing period of pond fish farming refers to the production period of raising fish from fingerlings to the edible-sized through a fattening process. In China, the rearing period of fish farming in most places is determined by local climate, culturing methods and demands of the market. Based on the experience, Silver carp and Bighead increase greatly in weight in the second year. By using proper culture techniques, Silver carp and Bighead fingerlings with a body weight of 50 g can reach 1--1.5kg in next autumn; Black carp and Grass carp have a rapid

growth in the third year; the 2-year-old Grass carp fingerlings with a body weight of 0.5--1kg can grow up to 3.5--5kg in the following year. Therefore, the rearing period of Chinese carp in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Hunan and Hubei Provinces now is two years for Silver carp, Bighead, Wuchang fish, Tilapia and Crucian carp, and 3 years for Black carp and Grass carp. Such traditional fish rearing period is much longer than that in livestock and poultry production, so the economic benefit is comparatively lower. Now productive experiments and reforms are conducted to shorten the fish rearing period in different places. 1. Requirements and renovations of ponds Whether pond conditions are good or not greatly affects the fish growth and fish yields. If the conditions are favourable, the yield may be doubled or even several times higher than that of ponds with unfavourable conditons. Therefore, the good conditons of fish ponds should be ensured so as to achieve high and stable yields. 1) Requirements of Grow-out pond A fish pond is not only for fish to live in, but also for natural organisms to propagate. All the measures for increasing fish yields can only function through ponds. Certain requirements of grow-out ponds must be satisfied; otherwise, they will have great influence on fish output and managerial operation. (1) Moderate area The pond area of 7--10 mu is considered to be an optimal size for intensive culture of food fish. In such a pond, the fish have a larger space for activities and the water is often convected through the wind action, resulting in an increase of D.O.C. and an adjustment of water temperature. Besides, the decomposition of manure and the propagation of plankton can be promoted. (2) Water supply and water quality Fish can not live without water; water supply must be adequate. The pond should be filled with fresh water at regular intervals so as to adjust water depth, control water quality and alleviate the serious surfacing of fish. The best thing to do is to take the water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs and other large water bodies as a water source for fish ponds, because in natural water bodies, D.O.C., pH value, water quality and water temperature are more stable and suitable for fish to grow. On the contrary, the waste water discharged from factories and mines usually contains harmful chemical substance, which is not suitable for fish farming. (3) Depth of the pond The effective water depth for pond fish culture varies from place to place in accordance with geography, climate, species and culturing method. In order to fully utilize the water body and expand the capacity of the pond, within limits the depth should be as great as possible. An increase in water depth increases the volume of water and would prevent abrupt changes in water temperature and help to stabilize the water quality. Thus, it is beneficial to the fish growth and the polyculture of various species can be realized. In Xihu village in the suburbs of Henyang, Hunan Province and Helei village in the suburbs of Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, the common depth of ponds practised is around 3 meters. But the water is kept shallow in winter

whereas deep in summer so that the pond dykes can be used for fodder crop production in winter and spring. Water depth is gradually increased over 2 m when summer comes. In general, the optimum water depth is about 2 meters all the year round. (4) Bottom soil Loamy soil is the best bottom for fish ponds because such a bottom has the moderate ability to maintain water level and fertility. Pond water may not easily get too turbid. The bottom silt won't be too thick. Besides, it is good for natural organisms to grow and it is convenient for operation and management. Clay soil is good for maintaining water level and water fertility by virtue of its low permeability, but pond water easily becomes turbid because of the minute soil particles. The bottom silt is often too thick and has a strong absorbability. A lot of nutritive salts are absorbed in pond silt and they can not be used by plankton. Therefore, clay soil is not favourable for the propagation of natural organisms and not convenient for operation and management either. (5) Shape of the pond and its environment It is preferable to have fish ponds in rectangular shape and pond dykes in good trim. Pond bottom should be flat with an even depth, thus, it is convenient for rearing management and netting operation. Planting mulberry trees and crops on pond dykes can not only produce food for fish, but it also can protect the pond dikes from rain wash. There must be no big trees and buildings around fish ponds for fear that they should shade the sunlight and block the blowing of the winds. It's beneficial to the raising of water temperature of fish ponds and the growth of plankton and the improvement of D.O. conditions. 2) Pond renovations Good pond conditions are regarded as one of the key factors in achieving high and stable yields. You can judge whether the pond conditons are good or not according to the pond depth of a pond, the area of pond water, the height of pond dikes, with or without inlet and outlet, etc. In the past, the traditional fish ponds in Jiangsu and Zhejiang were small, shallow with low dikes and poor water quality. Such ponds are subject to natural disasters and with low productivity, for instance, in early 1950s, the yield of grow-out ponds was only 300 kg/mu, which was considered as the high-yield ponds at that time. With the development of fish farming, the experience of fish farmers proves that the traditional fish ponds are not suitable for achieving high and stable yields. The old ponds should therefore, undergo the following four renovations: (1) Small ponds are combined to form a larger pond There is a saying by fish farmers The broader a water body is, the larger the size of fish in it. Big ponds could provide larger space for fish to live in and satisfy their ecological requirements. All the environmental conditions are also comparatively stable in a larger pond. In the past, people believed that the optimum area of grow-out ponds was 4--5 mu. Through consecutive practices it is found that in small ponds the quality is difficult to control and the oxygen consumption rate is high and fish easily come to surface under the condition of polyculture of various species at high density; in larger ponds, the surface is wider, so is the area the wind blows over. It is apparent that wind drift causes surface waves and increases the D.O.C. in

water bodies. Thus, the old ponds of 4--5mu are now combined to form a large pond of 7-10mu, even 15 mu as grow-out ponds. (2) Shallow ponds are dug up to become deeper ponds Practices have proved that the depth of ponds directly affects the yield of food fish. When the water depth is kept between 2--2.5m, the increase of water volume in per-unit area creates a favourable condition for conducting polyculture of different species at high density. In deeper ponds, water will not be turbid during the harvest, still keeping fresh and clear. In addition, water temperature and quality are more stable without any sudden change. It's beneficial to the growth of fish. However, beyond the limit the surface water and the bottom water can not easily convect. Toxic gases will be produced in the bottom because of low D.O.C. If ponds are too deep, it is not so good for fish to grow and for natural organisms to propagate and the fish yield will be low. The water depth of a fish pond should be agreeable to its area. Normally, the optimum water depth is kept around 2 meters (between 1.7--2.5m) all the year round. (3) Change inaccessible and stagnant water ponds into free-exchanging ponds In order to facilitate irrigation and drainage systems and adjust water quality, it is suggested that the stagnant water pond, which is difficult of access and where there are some difficulties in irrigation and drainage should be turned into free exchanging water ponds by combining some fish ponds and connecting the ponds with the water supply. There is a fish farmer's proverb in Wuxi area: Pond water should be first properly managed if you want culture fish well. That is to say, we should keep a favourable living environment for fish through management in order to obtain a high fish yield in intensive fish culture. (4) Change low-dike ponds into high-dike ponds In order to prevent floods, it is necessary to heighten pond dikes. At the same time, the widened pond dikes could be used for crop plantation. Through the four renovations, the conditions for fish farming are totally changed and the fish output can be increased step be step in the intensive fish culture. For example, in Zhangzhuang village Huang-qiao township, Wu County of Suzhou city, which is a traditional fish farming place, the average yield was 200--250 kg/mu during 20 years after liberation. Since 1973, they have renovated their old fish ponds in every winter resulting in average yield of 500 kg/mu in 1979, 700 kg/mu in 1982 and 750 kg/mu in 1983. In Helei Fishery village in the suburbs of Wuxi, they have combined 345 smaller ponds into 172 larger ponds since 1975. Now, the yield is up to 1000 kg/mu. At present, the general criteria for grow-out ponds with a high and stable yield in China are as follows: i. ii. iii. iv. Moderate area of about 10 mu, Water depth of 2--2.5 m, Good water supply and easy to fill or drain, Ponds are in good order with high and wide dikes, free from floods and easy for operation. Some space of pond dikes may be left for crop production and animal farming. (See Figure 5--1)

2. Stocking and Polyculture of Fingerlings 1) Stocking of Fingerlings The stocking of fingerlings is an important link in a chain of food fish culture because fingerlings are the material basis of fish farming. The production of food fish culture demands that fingerlings should be of a complete variety of species, in adequate quantities, in appropriate sizes and of no injury and diseases. (1) Pond clearing One or two years' culture of food fish often deposits a layer of silt and organic matters on the bottom of grow-out pond and various harmful bacteria and wild fish exist in the water body. All these things are harmful to the growth of fish. Fish ponds should therefore, be cleared once a year so as to improve the living environment for fish. Pond clearing is normally done in winter. Part of silt is removed out of ponds. Not only it can improve the living environment for fish and enlarge the capacity of the pond but it also can provide a lot of manure of good quality for agriculture. After removing the excessive silt, the pond bottom is open to the air for sunning and freezing, and then drugs can be used to eradicate all the wild fish, pathogen and parasites, etc. After pond clearing, fresh water and manure can be introduced about one week before the stocking of fingerlings. (2) Manure application and water filling Manure application is to enrich nutrition elements and to promote the proper proliferation of natural food organisms in the pond water. This is one of the important measures to solve the problem of food supply and to increase fish yields. After pond clearing, base manure should be applied as early and adequately as possible so that it can propagate enough natural food for fish to feed on at early stage. The general dosage of animal manure, compost or fermented

green manure is 5001000 kg/mu. Manure is spread evenly on the pond bottom or beside the remaining water and exposed to the sun for several days. Manure also could be mixed with pond silt so that it can keep the water fertile a little longer. After the application of base manure, the pond can be filled with fresh water in several times, the initial water filling is about 1 meter. When pond water becomes fertile, fresh water could be added in again. And the pond could also be filled with fresh water in line with the raising of the temperature and the increase of fish body. (3) Selection of fingerlings The selection of good quality fingerlings is one of the important links in ensuring high fish yields. The large-sized fingelrings of good quality have many merits--strong adaptability, high survival rate, fast growth, short culture period, high marketing rate and economic returns, etc. The criteria for selecting and purchasing fingerlings are as follows: Physique: Choose strong and healthy fingerlings without abnormal shape but with plump muscles at the dorsal and peduncle part. Fingerlings should have complete scales and fin rays and smooth skin with bright colour. If not, they are of poor quality. Size: The fingerlings of the same age should be of uniform size without much difference in either body length or body weight. If the size of fingerlings are not the same and much different from the standardized sizes (Table 5--1), they are also of poor quality. Movement: Healthy fingerlings will jump violently in hand while poor fingerlings will not; when healthy fingerlings are put in a plate, they jump unceasingly without opening their gill covers, but poor fingerlings only jump slightly with their gill covers open; when healthy fingerlings are placed in a net cage, they swim actively in groups with their heads downward and caudal fins upward. Only their caudal fins can be observed on the water surface, but those swimming slowly or lonely are of poor quality. (4) Disinfection of fingerlings before stocking Disinfection of fingerlings should be conducted before stocking. (It's mentioned in Chapter 6 Fish diseases). (5) Stocking time Fingerlings should be stocked as early as possible, which is regarded as one of the experience in achieving high fish yields. In Changjiang River basin, fingerlings are usually stocked in early February when the air and water temperature are comparatively low in a year. At that time, fish are weak in moving so that they will not be easily injured during the process of netting and stocking. The occurence of fish diseases and mortality could be minimized. In the meantime, the earlier stocking means earlier feeding & a longer growth period. The stocking of fingerlings should be carried out in fine days, but not in rainy, snowy or cold days so as to avoid the possible frostbite of fingerlings during netting and transportation. Table 5--1 Body Length and Body Weight of Yearlings

Silver carp Length Weight (cm) (g/ind) 16.50 16.17 15.84 15.51 15.18 14.85 14.52 14.19 13.86 45.4 41.6 38.4 35.6 34.4 31.3 29.4 27.8 26.6 No./kg 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38

Bighead Length Weight (cm) (g/ind) 16.50 16.17 15.84 15.51 15.18 14.85 14.52 14.19 13.86 49.4 44.4 40.6 37.5 35.6 32.2 31.3 20.4 27.8 No./kg 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 38

Grass carp Length (cm) 19.47 19.14 18.81 17.49 17.17 16.17 14.85 14.52 14.19 Weight (g/ind) 88.8 82.8 80.0 34.1 56.3 45.3 32.8 31.3 29.4 No./kg Length Weight (cm) (g/ind) 4 0 23.9 21.9 17.2 14.4 12.8 12.2 11.3 10.0 4 2 4 6 5 8 7 0 7 6 8 2 8 8 9 6 1 0 6

11.6 13.20 12.2 12.87 12.6 12.54 16 18 22 30 32 34 12.21 11.88 11.55 11.22 10.89 10.56

13.53

25.0

40

13.53

26.6

38

13.86

27.2

36.8 10.23

9.4

13.20 9.90

22.8 9.6

44 104

13.20 9.90

25.9 10.3

42 98

13.20 9.90

20.9 9.30

48 108

9.90

1 8.30 2 0

2) Polyculture Polyculture of various fish species developed by Chinese fish farmers through years of practice is one of prominant farming techniques in Chinese fresh water fish farming. Polyculture in China has a long history resulting in higher output and better efficiency in comparison with other countries. It dates back to the Tang Dynasty (618--907). Since then, polyculture of Grass carp, Black carp, Silver carp and Bighead has been conducted. During the whole process of fish farming, polyculture is performed at every rearing stage such as brood fish, fingerling and food fish production. But more species of fish are introduced in polyculture system with the development of fish culture. Now grow-out ponds might be stocked with a mixture of 8--19 species in different combination of sizes and ages. (1) Advantages of polyculture (i) To fully utilize natural food organisms in pond water

There are three kinds of natural organisms ie. plankton, benthos and epiphytic algae, and organic detritus in still water ponds. Fish production can be greatly increased through polyculture of various species with different feeding habits, such as Silver carp and Bighead feeding on plankton; Grass carp, Parabramis pekinensis and Megalobrama on grasses; Black carp on snails and other benthos; Common carp and Crucian carp on benthos and some organic detritus; Mud carp and the Xenocypris on organic detritus and benthic algae and tilapia on all the food because they are omnivora. When they are mixed together, the natural food organisms in fish ponds can be fully utilized and the potential of production can be brought into full play. (ii) To fully utilize the available space in the water body of ponds The major cultivated carps have different habitats in the ponds. Compared with monoculture, polyculture can increase the stocking amount per unit area and increase fish output therewith. (iii) To utilize the beneficial interactions between compatible species cultured in the same pond. Under reasonable polyculture, all the fish are of mutual benefit. Thus, the production of each species would be increased. Grass carp, Black carp, Common carp and Wuchang fish are regarded as feeds-eater or Food-feeder while Silver carp, Bighead and Tilapia are known as plankton-feeder. When monoculture of Grass carp is carried out the pond water easily get fertile because Grass carp eat more and discharge more. Unfortunately it's unsuitable for Grass carp to live in because they prefer clear water; nevertheless, Silver carp and Bighead can utilize the natural organisms propagated by the manure of Grass carp when they are mixed in one pond. Therefore, the fertility of pond water can be decreased by filteration of Silver carp and Bighead, which is more conducive for Grass carp to grow. Through the beneficial interactions between different species, one kind of food can be double utilized. It's said in production that One Grass carp can provide enough food for three Silver carp through proliferating natural organisms., which shows the significance of polyculture. (iv) To raise the utilization rate of artificial feeds Different species in various sizes will feed on different sizes of feeds. During feeding and food intake of fish, it's unavoidable to scatter some feeds in the water. A part of feeds might be wasted when monoculture of one species or one size is practised. However, polyculture of different species and sizes can maximize the utilization of artificial feeds. It also improves water quality for a better growth of fish. (2) Stocking density in reason The reasonable stocking density refers to the optimum stocking rate of fingerlings with which the maximum yields of marketable-sized fish can be achieved through people's efforts and the full utilization of objective conditions. (i) Importance of reasonable stocking density Stocking density, known as per-unit stocking amount or stocking rate refers to the quantity of fry or fingerlings stocked in per unit water body. It is usually expressed by number of tails or weight

of fish per mu. In high intensive fish farming system (such as industrialized fish farming, fish farming in flowing water, fish culture in net cage), stocking density is expressed by number of tails or weight of fish per unit area or water volume (m2 or m3) because of high stocking density and high utilization rate of water body. The stocking density must be reasonable, because stocking density is inversely proportional to the quality of marketable fish under the same pond conditions and culturing measures. The fish in stocking density beyond the limit cannot reach the marketable size and moreover, fish yields cannot be raised. If the stocking density is too low, the per unit area production is comparatively low, though fish grow faster and reach a larger marketable size and higher plumpness. Under certain conditions, the reasonable stocking density can ensure the desirable size and good quality of fish products. (See Table 5--2) (ii) Factors determining stocking density Pond conditions, seed supply, availability of fish species, sizes of fish, feeds and operating techniques, etc. should be taken into consideration in determining how much should be reasonably stocked. The data in the previous year, such as sizes, yields, survival rate, marketing rate, food conversion rate, etc. are taken as factors determining stocking density for the following year. Generally speaking, if fish grow well and the food conversion rate is not higher than the average one and no serious surfacing occurs during the culture period and all the species of fish reach the marketable size at the end of production, the stocking density could be considered as optimum one. On the contrary, some species of fish can not reach the marketable size and the food conversion rate is high, which shows the stocking density is too high. It should be reduced to some extent. stocking density varies correspondingly with the development of production, science and technology. Therefore, the stocking density should be determined by local conditions in order to obtain bumper harvest. (iii) Correlation between stocking density and D.O.C. Apart from feeds and water space, water quality (D.O.C. in particular) is the major factor affecting the stocking density. The D.O.C. in pond water is closely related to the growth and survival rate of fish. Under certain water temperature, the oxygen demand of fish varies with different species, ages and sizes. Chinese carps can sustain their normal lives when dissolved oxygen content is above 3mg/l. The optimum D.O.C. is about 5.5mg/l. The respiratory rate of cyprinids increases when D.O.C. is below 2mg/L. If it continues lowering, the fish will come to the surface gasping for air. Asphyxiation will occur when D.O.C. is lower than 0.7-l.Omg/l. The limits of dissolved oxygen content for the major cultured fish is shown in Table 5-3. Table 5--3. The D.O.C. Requirements of the Major Cultured Fish Unit: mg/l
Species Limits Asphysia point minimum 2 Black carp 0.6 2 Grass carp 0.4 2 Silver carp 0.8 2 Common carp 0.3 2 1 Crucian carp 0.1 2 Wuchang fish 0.6 Mud carp 0.2 2

Bighead 0.4

Tilapia 0.4 1.5

normal

5.5

5.5

3.5

Dissolved oxygen content is not only related to the respiration of fish, but also directly affects their feeding amount. Under the normal conditions, the higher the dissolved oxygen content the greater the feeding amount of fish, the lower the food conversion rate, the faster the growth of fish. They are in direct proportion. In China, an experiment on Grass carp shows that the food conversion rate declined 4.2 times while the body weight increment increased by 9.8 times when dissolved oxygen content rose from 2.73mg/L to 5.56mg/L. The similar experiment was also conducted outside China on rainbow trout. It also shows that the higher the dissolved oxygen content, the better the growth of fish, the lower the food conversion rate. (See Table 5-4) Table 5--4. The Correlation between D.O.C. and Food Conversion Rate on Rainbow trout
Dissolved O2 (mg/l) 12.43 6.36 2.65 Body weight increment (g) 11.6 5.3 1.4 Food conversion rate 2.3 5.6 8.4

It is clear that the dissolved oxygen content is closely related to the respiration, ingestion, growth and survival of fish. In static fish ponds, dissolved oxygen mainly results from photosynthesis of phytoplankton and the diffusion of the air against water surface. The former is more important than the latter. In daytime, D.O.C. in the upper layer of water bodies usually becomes saturated when photosynthesis is high. Nevertheless, the saturated oxygen will easily escape from the water surface into air. In a fish pond, the respiration of fish itself is not the leading factor in oxygen consumption. The oxygen consumption of fish is only 5--15% of the total consumption round the clock. The oxygen consumption of natural food organisms, e.g. zooplankton occupies less than 4.5% even at the higher biomass; benthos, 0.2%; the oxidative decomposition of manure applied and pond silt, about 8%; and the decomposition of artificial food and fish faeces, about 32%; microbacteria (including the respiration of phytoplankton) and decomposed or suspended organic matters, about 50%, which are the biggest oxygen consumers. Therefore, how to increase the D.O.C. by various measures is the guarantee of high and stable fish yields. (iv) Models and examples of polyculture at high density China has a vast territory. Because of the different history of fish culture, climate, food sources and consuming habits, the different fish farming systems which are practical in line with the local conditions have been formed in various places through years of practices. Even in one place, there exist different polyculture farming systems with different fish yields. Generally speaking, five to six, even eight to nine species of fish are polycultured in one grow-out pond. However, among the species cultured, one or two species are taken as major species which are stocked more in number and weight while the rest are considered as minor species. Because the minor

species are full of variety, their rearing can result in high yields, low cost, high economic return; therefore, both the major and the minor species play an important role in total output. The factors determining what kinds of fish are taken as major species and their stocking ratio depend on the availability of fingerlings, feeds and manures, farming techniques, pond conditions and market demand. In view of the fact that the real fish farming conditions differ from place to place, it is difficult so far to work out a standardized stocking model. Here are some practical examples for reference, which are not perfect. However, under a certain rearing management, a desirable result and economic return could be obtained by following these models. Table 5--5. Stocking model using aquatic grasses as the main food
Stocking density (mu) species size G.C W.F. S.C. B.H. C.C. Cr.C Total 0.250.5Kg 13 cm 13 cm 13 cm 10 cm 5.5 cm number (ind.) 100 160 200 50 40 100 650 weight (kg) 38.7 3.5 5 1.25 1.0 0.5 50 per-mu yield (kg) gross yield 110 30 100 30 20 10 300 net yield 71.3 26.5 95 28.7 19 9.5 250

survival rate (%)

time or weight increase

80% 90% 95% 90% 90% 70% 87%

2.84 8.57 20 24 20 20 6

3. Harvesting and Stocking in Rotation 1) Significance Harvesting and stocking in rotation is a procedure whereby fingerlings of different sizes are stocked into the pond at the same time. With the growth of fish, the pond becomes overcrowded. Consequently, marketable-sized fish are caught in batches and are replaced by an appropriate amount of smaller fish to maintain an optimal stocking density during the whole culturing period so as to increase fish yields of per unit area. In the past fingerlings were stocked at the beginning of a year and harvested at the end of a year. Part of water bodies was wasted at the initial stage of rearing period and the growth of fish was retarded at the late stage, but this has been changed by using harvesting and stocking in rotation. In a nutshell, rotary harvesting and stocking is an operating procedure, that is to stock fingerlings of different sizes at the same time, harvest by stages, catch the edible-sized and leave or restock the smaller ones. 2) Advantages (1) To balance the carrying capacity of ponds in accordance with the growth of fish

At present, the measure of high density stocking is commonly practised to obtain high yields. In high yield fish ponds, the amount of stocking is up to 150 kg/mu; some 250300 kg/mu or even higher, with 810 different species in more than 10 different sizes. The pond becomes more crowded when the fish are fattened after a period of time. As a result, the space fish occupies shrinks correspondingly. With a limited living space the growth of fish will be in turn impaired. What is more, the growth of fish is gradually getting slow when they reach a certain body weight. Based on the observation in Guangdong, the body weight of Silver carp could be increased by 0.40.6kg/ind/mth. When the total weight of fish is less than 3040kg/mu. If the total weight is over 3040kg/mu, the body weight increment of Silver carp is only 0.0250.15 kg/ind/mth. It is similar to Bighead when the total weight is less than 125160kg/mu, they grow faster. If it is over that total weight, the growth of Bighead will be retarded. This method can decrease the density in time and maintain a reasonable rate of the pond carrying capacity so as to fully utilize the availability of water bodies and feeds. Table 5--6 STOCKING MODEL USING TERRESTRIAL GRASSES AS THE MAIN FOOD
per-mu stocking Species Size 2-year old G.C. yearling Wuchang fish yearling S.C. Summerling Yearling B.H. Summerling Common carp Crucian carp Tilapia Total 3.3 cm 10 cm 6.6 cm 3.35 cm 50 30 100 400 0.025 0.5 0.5 0.375 85 80 80 9 15 10 40 312.5 9 15 10 39.6 250 360 30 20 106.6 5 3.3cm 0.150.25kg 180 35 0.1 7 85 95 28.5 20 28.4 13 285 2.86 13 cm 13 cm 0.150.25kg 100 140 140 2.5 3.5 28 80 85 95 20 25 75 17.5 21.5 47 7 6.13 2.7 0.25kg No. (ind) 80 Weight (kg) 20 survival rate (%) 90 per-mu yield Gross (kg) 70 Net (kg) 50 Times of weight increase 3.5

1255 62.5

Table 5--7 STOCKING MODEL APPLYING ORGANIC MANURES

per-mu Stocking Species size (cm) 13 cm 13 cm 16 cm No. (ind) 300 60 50 Wt. (kg) 7.5 1.5 2.5 Survival rate (%) 95 95 75 Per-mu yield Gross (kg) 165 35 27.5 Net (kg) 157.5 33.5 25 Times of weight increase 22 23.3 11

S.C. B.H. G.C.

W.F. C.C Cr.C. Total

13 cm 10 cm 6.6

100 30 120 660

2.5 0.5 0.5 15

90 80 80

15 12.5 10 265

12.5 12 9.5 250

6 25 20 16.67

Table 5--8 STOCKING MODEL USING AQUATIC & TERRESTRIAL GRASSES AS THE MAIN FOOD
Species Per-mu stocking Size 2 year old B.C. Yearling Wuchang fish 2 year old S.C. Summerling 3.3 cm 300 Yearling B.H. Summerling 3.3 cm Common carp Crucian carp Tilapia Total 13 cm 80 30 0.05 0.8 0.5 0.25 100 85 80 80 10 12.5 10 50 500 9.95 11.7 9.5 49.5 400 200 15.63 20 200 5 0.15kg 65 0.15 9.75 85 98 37.5 35 37.35 25.25 250 3.59 13 cm 13 cm 140 300 3.5 7.5 37.5 75 80 98 40 40 140 36.5 32.5 102.5 11.43 5.33 3.73 0.4 kg Number 100 Weight (kg) 40 Survival rate (%) 90 Per-mu yield (kg) Gross wt. 125 Net wt. 85 Times of weight increase 3.13

0.15kg 250

6.6 cm 100 3.3 cm 500 1865

Table 5--9 STOCKING MODEL USING TERRESTRIAL GRASSES AS THE MAIN FOOD
Per-mu stocking Species Size (cm) 0.5kg 13 cm 13 13 11 Number (ind) 160 300 320 80 40 Weight (kg) 80 7.5 8 2 1 Survival rate (%) 85 80 98 95 90 Per-mu yield (kg) Gross (kg) 250 45 180 45 20 Net (kg) 170 35 172 43 19 Times of weight increase 3.13 6 22.5 20 20

G.C. W.F. S.C. B.H. C.C.

Cr.C. Tilapia Total

6.6 6

100 400 1400

0.5 1 100

70

10 50 600

9.5 49 500

50 5 5

Table 5--10 STOCKING MODEL USING GREEN MANURE, ANIMAL MANURES & DOMESTIC SEWAGE
Species Per-mu stocking Size Stocked in Jan. S.C Stocked in May --Aug Stocked in Jan B.H. Stocked in May --Aug Grass carp Wuchang fish Common carp Xenocypris Crucian carp Tilapia Total 0.05kg 0.125kg 13 cm 10 cm 10 cm 6.6 cm 4 cm 60 100 50 50 1000 100 500 2500 3 12.5 1 1 14 0.5 0.5 120 98 80 80 80 80 15 60 10 25 100 10 50 620 12 5 4.8 10 25 7.14 20 100 5.17 0.2kg 0.05kg 0.2 0.25kg Survival rate Per-mu yield Times of weight Gross Net increase (kg) (kg) 225 75 50 165 60 3.75 5 4

Number Weight (%) (ind) (kg) 300 300 60 60 15 12.5 98 98 98

37.5

47.5 9 24 86 9.5 49.5 500

(2) To maximum the utilization of grow-out pond for interfarming fingerlings, which can lay the foundation of maintaining high and stable fish yields It is a prerequisite for achieving high yields of food fish farming to rear fingerlings in adequate quantity, complete species, reasonable sizes and good health. With the development of food fish farming, shortage of fingerling supply becomes a major problem because the stocking amount of fingerlings is increasing so the fingerlings cultured only in fry or fingerling nursery ponds can not meet the stocking demand of grow-out ponds. In grow-out ponds, thru the method of harvesting bigger fish and leaving or replenishing smaller ones or interfarming fingerlings the potential of the pond and fish feeds can be fully utilized. Not only the yields in grow-out ponds can be increased but also fingerlings for restocking next year can be basically provided from grow-out ponds. Thus, the high and stable fish yields can be ensured. (3) To reduce seasonal variation in fresh fish supply to the market and to speed up capital return

During June to Oct., a lot of fresh fish can be monthly harvested for marketing, which hastens capital return and is beneficial to expanding reproduction. 3) Methods (1) To stock fingerlings of different sizes at the same time, to harvest by stages and in groups, to catch the edible-sized and leave the smaller ones. This is the primary method which is more adaptive to the rural area because this method does not need special fingerling storage ponds. Fingerlings of different sizes are stocked at the same time in winter or early spring and harvested by stages and in groups because large fish grow fast and smaller ones grow slow. Rotary harvesting can be conducted 23 times every year. The mid-term catchings often occupy 30% of total annual output. (2) To stock fingerlings several times to harvest by stages, to catch the edible-sized and to supplement the smaller ones This method is commonly practised in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Hunan and Guanglong Provinces. The times of harvesting and stocking differ in accordance with the concrete production consitions in different fish farms. Besides, this method needs special nursary ponds to rear fingerlings. The times of harvesting mainly depend on the growing period and the extent of intensive farming. In Hunan and Guangdong Provinces, rotary harvesting can be carried put 68 times every year owing to the longer growing period, but 45 times in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces. A batch of fingerlings must be restocked soon after the first two or three harvestings. The supplementary quantity of fingerlings is determined by the production target. 4) Caution Rotary harvesting is usually conducted in summer and autumn. At high water temperature, fish have a high feeding intensity and active movement, so they are not able to tolerate the long period of operation and crowd. Rotary harvesting should be done when it is cool and there occurs no surfacing of fish. On the contrary, catching should not be conducted when it is stifling with upcoming thunder storm or there occurs surfacing of fish. In addition to that, fish should be less fed one day before rotary harvesting so as to avoid mortality of fish which will jump violently at jamming during the operation. And the dirty drifts should be removed before harvesting. When the fish have been rounded up in a net cage formed by two boats, the boats should be moving around the pond. However, the operation must be done quickly and gently as possible. While the boats are moving, the running water can wash away mucus on fish skin and mud on fish gills so as to prevent the fish from asphyxiation caused by overcrowding. The fish which are under the marketable size should be returned to the pond as soon as possible. During harvesting, fish consume more oxygen because of violent movement and the pond water gets turbid by turning up the silt at the bottom, it is necessary to turn on aerators and fill the pond with fresh water for preventing fish from serious surfacing. 4. Multiple grade conveyor culture and shortening the rearing period 1) Multiple-grade conveyor culture Multiple-grade conveyor culture is a special farming technique practised by fish farmers in Guangdong Province. This method is different from the rotary harvesting and stocking. The rotational culture is usually carried out in one pond by stages, catching the edible-sized, restocking or eplenishing the smaller ones, whereas multiple-grade conveyer culture is to rear

fingerlings of different sizes in separate ponds based on the growth of fish, with which they are transferred in sequence into other ponds. Therefore, ponds are usually divided into five grades. Each grade is for one size of fish. When the marketable-sized fish are harvested, the larger fingerlings from each grade pond are upgraded in sequence into next grade pond for further culture to the desired size. Hence, a number of ponds are needed as fish are upgraded. The reason for this farming technique which can increase fish yields is that the stocking density of fish can be more reasonable during fingerling rearing period. With the same condition and time, more fingerlings of larger size can be produced from every fingerling rearing pond, therefore, the times of culturing in grow-out pond increased and the size of the adults enlarged accordingly, and then fish yields and its economic efficiency are raised. Basic measures in multiple-grade conveyor culture are as follows: (i) To practise the reasonable polyculture by taking Grass carp and Bighead as the major species Multiple-grade conveyor culture is based on polyculture. In Guangdong area, Grass carp, Bighead, Silver carp and Mud carp are usually taken as the major species for polyculture. In recent years, many measures are taken, to increase Grass carp output because Grass carp have higher potential yield and economic value. Bighead are regarded as the major species in traditional polyculture because Bighead have a faster growth than Silver carp and can reach a marketable size in shorter period of time so that several batches of marketable-sized fish supply can be guaranteed every year. Besides, Bighead do not jump and they will not be easily injured during netting, therefore, this species is more suitable for such a farming technique which needs more netting and transferring. In addition to the species mentioned above, a small amount of Common carp, Crucian carp, Black carp and Tilapia are polycultured in grow-out ponds are shown in Table 5--11 Table 5-11 Stocking in Grow-out Pond (Grade 5)
Species Bighead Grass carp Mud carp Silver carp Stocking size (kg/ind) 0.5 0.250.5 0.0560.063 0.250.6 Desired size (kg/ind) 11.5 1.31.5 0.130.17 0.7--1 Stocking rate (kg/ind) 22 40--80 950 20--40 Duration (day) 40 60--180 180 90180

Others: Common carp 20 ind/mu. Tilapia 5001000ind/mu Wuchang fish 50 ing/mu. In polyculture, it is necessary to avoid the competition between competitors which have the similar feeding habits, such as Silver carp and Bighead, Silver carp and Mud carp, Grass carp and Parabramis pekinensis. At fingerling stage, polyculture of Silver carp, Bighead and Mud carp is hardly practised. At adult stage, the stocking proportional of minor species should be controlled in order to ensure the growth of major species. (ii) To control the pond carrying capacity by the timely transferring of fish into other ponds The rationale of multiple-grade conveyor culture is to maintain an optimal carrying capacity of fish ponds by the regular netting and transferring or harvesting. With the optimal carrying capacity, fish will have maximum growth, whereas fish growth will be retarded if the carrying

capacity is beyond its limit. In terms of observation, the body weight increment of Bighead is 0.40.6 kg/ind/month when the total weight of fish is lower than 3040 kg per mu. If the total weight of Bighead is over 3040 kg/mu, the body weight increment is decreased to 0.050.3 kg/ind/month. Similarly, Mud carp grow faster when its total weight of fish is lower than 125160 kg/mu and they grow slow when the total weight of fish is higher than that. Based on the natural conditions and update technical standard of Guangdong, the optimum stocking rate and maximum carrying capacity are shown in Table 512. Table 512 Control Figures of Total Weight of Various Species in Multiple grade Conveyor Culture System
Species Bighead Mud carp Grass carp Silver carp Initial stocking amount (kg/mu) 10.5---20 44---80 32---50 7---13 Carrying capacity at late stage (kg/mu) 30---40 125---160 90---100 20---30

Note 1 : Initial stocking amount: This is the minimum stocking density so as not to waste the potential of a water body.

(iii) Reasonable arrangement must be made to dovetail the grades of the ponds Fish ponds are divided into grades. The proportion of each grade pond area should be well allocated so that fingerlings produced from one grade pond can meet the demand of the next one. Avoiding the restraint of fish growth caused by too many fingerlings in certain grade pond or the disjointed production caused by insufficient number of fingerlings in certain grade pond. In every fish farm, the allocation of the pond area of each grade should be worked out based on the total pond area, number of grades, culturing period of each grade, stocking rate and the target production. From experience, grow-out ponds normally account for 65% of the total area, large-sized fingerling ponds 23%, medium-sized fingerling ponds 7%, small-sized fingerling ponds 3%, and holding ponds 2%. As for the stocking size, transferring size, stocking density and culturing period of each species, examples of Grass carp, Bighead and Mud carp farming are shown in Table 513, 514, 515. Table 5--13 Multiple-grade Conveyor Culture System for Grass carp
Stocking rate (ind/mu) 150,000 8,500 800 200260 7080 Duration (day) 20--25 35--45 30--50 60150 130150

Grade 1st grade fry pond 2nd grade smaller sized 3rd grade medium-sized 4th grade large-sized 5th grade grow-out pond

stocking size---Transferring size Fry 2.5 cm/ind

2.5 cm----------7.5 cm/ind 7.5 cm----------1020 cm/ind 1020cm--------0.050.5kg/ind 0.250.5 kg---11.5 kg/inf

Table 5--14 Multiple-grade Conveyor Culture System for Bighead

Stocking------Transferring size size Fry 2.5 cm/ind Stocking rate (ind/mu) 150,000--200,000 4,000 800 200250 7090 2733 Duration (day) 1025 20 40 40 40 40

Grade 1st grade fry pond 2nd grade small-sized 3rd grade mediumsized 4th grade large-sized 5th grade large-sized 6th grade grow-out pond

2.5 cm------8.5 cm 8.5 cm------16 cm 16.5cm------0.20.25 kg/ind 0.20.25----0.50.6kg/ind 0.50.6kg---1-1.25kg/ind

Table 5--15 Multiple-grade Conveyor Culture System for Mud carp

Stocking rate (ind/mu) 400,000 30,000 5,000--9000 2,000--3,000 900--1,100 Duration (day) 35 150180 150180 180 150180

Grade 1st grade fry pond 2nd grade small-sized 3rd grade medium-sized 4th grade large-sized 5th grade grow-out pond

Stocking size----------Transferring size Fry----------2.5cm/ind. 2.5cm--------160200 tails/kg 160200 tails/kg--- 4060 tails/kg 4060 tails/kg---16-8 tails/kg 1618 tails/kg----6--8 tails/kg

2) Reforming the traditional fish farming system and shortening the fish rearing period In China, Changjiang River and Pearl River basins and Taihu District in Jiangsu Province are known as the traditional fish farming places. Fish farmers over thousand years of farming practices have developed a traditional fish farming system, which was adaptive to the state of the art in the past and it is still valuable to fish farming now. However, it must be understood that the traditional fish farming system was restricted by the social system, natural conditions, economic structure, farming techniques and other objective factors in history. Now, science and technology are progressing every day and are widely applied in agriculture and animal husbandry. All the fishery scientists have recognized that the traditional fish farming system can not meet the demand of the development of production so far. The old system needs the timely reformation. The traditional one usually takes 23 years to rear fry into food fish, even 4 years for Black carp. The old fish farming system has a long culturing period with great demand of seeds for stocking. The stocking rate is high whereas the fish growth is slow; similarly, the longer the period of culture the more the energy is consumed to maintain the basic metabolism of fish, the higher the food coefficient. The old fish farming system has many links in a chain of

production and has the susceptibility to natural disasters. The expenditure for maintenance increases whereas return on the investments comes slow. Finally, its economic efficiency is comparatively poor. However, like other productive system, the fish culture system has formed a fixed conservative idea when once it has been set up. Therefore, the old system is still practised in pond fish culture in China even if it's not reasonable. Now it's being renovated. In practices, it is found that Silver carp and Bighead fingerlings and Common carp summerlings can reach a body weight of more than 0.5kg/ind in Nov. when they are polycultured at a low stocking density in Black carp yearling pond. Similarly, they can also approach that body weight when they live in lakes, reservoirs and rivers as long as there are abundant natural food. Silver carp and Bighead are artificially controlled to reach a body weight of 10100g/ind. in the traditional fish farming system so that the culturing period is prolonged to two years and even more. When shortening the culturing period the potential of the growth of fish can be put in full play, so it is totally feasible to reform the traditional fish farming system. In recent ten years, experiments on shortening the culturing period are widely carried out in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Hubei, Liaoning, Beijing, etc. The new methods are applied in some places leading to good results in production. Generally, there are two patterns to shorten the culturing period: (1) To culture fry into food fish in the same year If the target fish yield is expected to be 350400 kg/mu, the reared size of Bighead, Silver carp, Common carp and Grass carp is 0.5 kg/ind. At the end of a year and that of Wuchang fish, Carassius carassius and Tilapia are above 125 g/ind., the stocking rate of Silver carp is 150 ind. /mu,Bighead 100 ind./mu, Grass carp 300 ind./mu, Megalobrama amblycephala 120 ind/mu, Carassius carassius 120 ind./mu, Common carp 80 ind/mu and Tilapia 500 ind/mu. They are all summerlings with a body weight of about 0.5g/ind. The total stocking number is about 1400 ind/mu and the total stocking weight is around 600800 g/mu. Farming techniques: The pond area is 110 mu with a water depth of 1.52.5 m. Ponds are drained in mid or late April and cleared thoroughly. The stable manure should be applied at a rate of 1,000kg/mu 15 days before stocking. Then seeds of Wolffia arrhiza are planted in ponds at a rate of 1520 kg/mu 45 days after water filling. Wolffia should be framed at one corner of the pond and let it propagate naturally. After the plantation of Wolffia seeds, it is necessary to turn over the manure and splash water upon Wolffia. When Wolffia and zooplankton propagate in large quantities up to meeting the demand of fingerlings, ponds could be stocked in late May and early June with healthy, uniform-sized summerlings which have undergone several times of conditioning. In order to rear fry into food fish in the same year, measures should be taken to maximize the rapid growth of fish at this stage under the optimal climate. The most important thing is to plant Wolffia well, because Wolffia is the most palatable food for juvenile fish. When summerlings are stocked for one month and a half, it is an optimal season for Wolffia to grow. During this period, the speed of increase of Wolffia will surpass the speed of the consumption of fish ingestion if Wolffia is cultured well. Besides, feeding platforms for fish should be set up in ponds after stocking in order to let fish get used to feeding at a fixed position. It's getting hot in July and it is not suitable for Wolffia to grow. At that time, the body weight of Grass carp will be about 75 g/ind., Wuchang fish about 13g/ind., aquatic and terrestrial grasses can be applied instead of Wolffia. However, some amount of fine feeds should be also supplemented on the feeding platforms. If Wolffia is not cultured, it is necessary to apply more fine feeds or collect wild Wolffia arrhiza and Lemna minor for fish. The desirable sizes of fish at each developmental stage are shown in Table 516. Table 5--16 The Desired Sizes of Various Species at Differental Stages

Species month

Silver carp

Bighead 0.5 65 315 550 600 690

Grass carp 1.4 40 195 495 570 585

Wuchang fish 0.5 15 40 75 110 125

Crucian carp 0.5 7.5 25 100 135 165

Tilapia 0.2 7 57.5 80 165 165

Initial 0.6 stocking size Late Jun. Early Aug. Mid Sept. Mid Oct. Mid Nov. 27 180 400 470 520

Based on the desired sizes of each species at different developmental stages, sampling of fish should be regularly conducted so as to learn the growth of fish and to adjust the amount of feeding and manuring. The water colour of fish ponds should be kept oil green or yellowish brown and the transparency is between 2535 cm. Fill the pond with fresh water to raise the water level by 1020 cm every 1015 days to maintain good water quality. After mid July, fish will have a good appetite so sufficient grass and fine feeds should be supplied. Green grasses are usually supplied in the morning and should be consumed before dusk when the water temperature is higher in mid summer. The feeding rate of green grass is 50% of the total body weight of Grass carp and Wuchang fish. Fine feeds are supplied after grass. The feeding amount of fine feeds is about 2% of the total weight of fish in the pond. Food for fish should be fresh and palatable in size. The feeding quantity depends on weather, water quality and fish's appetite. The details of feeding and manuring in a pond with a net yield of 350400kg/mu are shown in Table 517. Table 517 The Details of Feeding and Manuring in a Pond with a Net Fish Yield of 350400 kg/mu
Septembe r kg % Tot al

Month Type Pig & cow manure Gre en fodd er Wolffia terrestri al grass Bean, barley,r ape seed cake, and rice or wheat

April kg 100 0 % 4 0

May kg 75 0 % 3 0

June kg 75 0 % 3 0 kg

July %

August kg %

October kg %

250 0

Before mid July, wolffia produced in the same pond is the main food for fry 50 0 14. 3 100 0 28. 57 125 0 35. 71 75 0 21. 42 350 0

Fine feed s

2. 5

10

30

15

50

25

65

32. 5

40

20

200

bran account for 1/4 each

With sufficient base manure, the additive manure could be applied in small amount at regular intervals according to the fertility of pond water. Generally speaking, organic manure can be applied at a rate of about 25 kg mu-1 day-1 or inorganic fertilizer once every 36 days by 12 kg of ammonium sulphate or ammonium bicarbonate and 0.51 kg of calcium superphosphate. In order to culture fry into food fish in the same year, the stocking density should be low so that the food in the pond is rich, the fish growth is fast and the survival rate is high. The general fish yield is 450 kg/mu. The increase of fish yield is illustrated in Figure 2. Figure 2: A. Comparison of the amounts of output increment in a pond

B. Body weight increment of different species in the experimental pond Body weight increment

The survival rates of Bighead, Silver carp, Common carp, Wuchang fish and Carassius carassius are all above 90%. The survival rate of Grass carp is generally about 70%. The hemorrhagic disease is the common one for grass carp. So certain measures should be taken to prevent fish diseases in order to raise the survival rate. Every 10 days after mid July, supplementary feeds soaked in 35% salt solution should be supplied for 3 consecutive days, and every 15 days, bleaching powder is used to sterilize the feeding platforms at a rate of 0.25 kg/mu, and every 20 days, quicklime emulsion made out of 15 kg of quicklime per mu is spreed all over the pond. Every 20 days, after mid August, medicated food for enteritis is given for one course of treatment (about one week). There are altogether 3 courses during culturing period. In short, the prevention and treatment of fish diseases are the guarantee to obtain a high yield. (2) To rear fry into food fish in a whole year The first type mentioned above is to stock summer-lings in late May and to harvest edible-sized fish in early November. Fish ponds are seldom used from November to next May. At the initial stocking stage, fish ponds are not fully utilized because summer-lings are small-sized and the stocking density is low. In order to increase fish yield fish farms might rear fingerlings into edible-sized fish in a whole year if conditions are available. The method is as follows: One set comprises three fish ponds in similar size, with which, food fish can be produced from November to next May and July. In pond A, fish are harvested in early May and then, the pond is drained and cleared to culture Wolffia arrhiza first. In late May, summerlings are stocked in. The stocking density of Silver carp is 750 ind/mu- Bighead 500 ind/mu and Grass carp 900 ind/mu. In pond B & C marketale-sized fish of Silver carp, Bighead and Grass carp are not harvested until early July. After that, the two ponds are stocked with large-sized fingerlings of Silver carp and Bighead and Grass carp from pond A. But the stocking rate of Silver carp and Bighead should be resonable so that they can reach the marketable size in the same year, while the stocking rate of Grass carp could be higher because they are reared into larger-sized

fingerlings for next restocking. At the end of the year, the marketable-sized fish in those 3 ponds are harvested, but the three portions of Silver carp and Bighead and one portion of Grass carp in pond A and Grass carp in pond B and C, which are all under the marketable size, are used as seeds for restocking in next May---July. In this way, the total fish yield can be remarketably increased. The stocking details are shown in Table 518 and 519. Table 518 Stocking and Harvesting in Pond A
Speci es Before early May of the same year per-mu stocking Time Siz Num e ber 25 0g Wei ght per-mu harvesting Ti Siz Wei me e ght 55 0g After late May of the same year per-mu stocking Ti Size me Num ber Per-mu harvesting Ti Siz Num me e ber 75 Jul. g No 25 v. 0g 75 Jul. g No 25 v. 0g 75 Jul. g No 50 v. 0g No v. No v. No v. No v. 50 0g 15 0g 15 0g 15 0g 300 400 Wei ght 27.5 kg 100

Silver carp

80

20

40

750

Bighe ad

25 0g

40

10 Th e firs t 10 da ys in Ma y

60 0

20.5

500 Th e thir 900 d 10 Summerfinge da rlings ys in 80 Ma y 120

200 260

15 65

Grass carp

Befor 50 e the 0g end of Febru Crucia ary n carp hybrid Crucia n carp Wuch ang fish Tilapia Total 25 0g

100

50

90

600 250

45 125

75

37.5

110

16.5

60

4.5

15 0g

120

110

16.5

500 280 84.5 159. 5

77 520

Note: The net food fish yield in this pond is only 75100kg/mu in early May. It can also be used as a spawning pond for Common carp, Crucian carp and Wuchang fish or used for fodder plantation instead of food fish farming.

Table 519 Stocking and Harvesting in pond B and C

Specie Before early July of the same year After late July of the same year

Per-mu stocking siz e (g) Numbe r (ind) wt. (kg) 37.5 25 125 0.05 0.07 5 0.07 5 0.30 188

Per-mu harvesting Tim e size (g) 550 The 1st 600 10 days 115 0 in July wt. (kg ) 75

Per-mu stocking Tim e siz e (g) 75 Numbe wt. r (ind) (kg) 150 100 300 11.2 5 7.5 22.5

Per-mu harvesting Tim e siz e (g) wt. (kg)

Time

S.C. B.H. G.C. C.C. hy brid Cr.C. W.F. Tilapia Total The secon d 10 days in May

250 150 Before 250 100 the end of 500 250 Feb. 80 120 120 500

Nov. 550 75 Nov. 600 55 Nov. 500 125 Nov. 500 37 Nov. 150 Nov. 150 16. 5 16. 5

The 50 1st 75 10 250 days 75 in July

Nov. 150 75 400

With this farming method, 5 batches of food fish and 4 batches of large-sized fingerlings can be produced that is, in pond A. one batch of edible-sized fish is produced in May and Silver carp, Bighead and Grass carp fingerlings with a body weight of 75g produced in July are used for the stocking of pond B and C. At the end of the year, Pond A also produces Silver carp, Bighead fingerlings of 250g in body weight and Grass carp fingerlings of 500g in body weight for restocking of three ponds. In the other two ponds, one batch of edible-sized fish is produced in July, and at the end of the year, they will produce another batch of edible-sized fish and some amount of Grass carp fingerlings for restocking next year. Such a farming technique is the combination of mutliple grade conveyor culture in Guangdong and harvesting and restocking in rotation practised in Jiangsu. In order to get the desired size and number of fish from the three ponds and to make them well dovetailed, careful management should be carried out during the whole culturing period. Particularly, Wolffia must be cultured well at the initial stage in the first pond so as to ensure the quality and quantity of fingerlings for restocking. If the other two ponds. The details of feeding and manuring for the three ponds are shown in Table 520, 521. Table 520 The Details of Feeding and Manuring in Pond A
Food fish culture Type Feb & Mar 380 oil cake Ap r 27 6 Ma y 1st batch of fingerlings Tota May Jun l 656 133 0 106 0 Jul . Ttl 239 0 Jul y 2nd batch of fingerlings Aug. Sept Oct No . . v 119 6 8 713 Tota l 190 9 8 495 5 8 Tota l

Manur e Artifici al

feeds

rice & wheat bran Wolffi a Lemn a minor Terre s trial grass 45 30 0 23 7 300 22 79 4 113 6 81 8

23

54

76

153

153

Green

22 105 0 13 3 267 6 411 2

fodder

114

328

410

265

344 626

36

36

662

Remarks: Before May, the net yield of food fish is 87.35 kg/mu. After the 2nd 10 days in May, the first batch of fingerlings is 72.13 kg/mu; the second batch of fingerlings 404.7 kg/mu. The total production is 564.18 kg/mu. Table 521 The Details of Feeding and Manuring in Pond B & C Unit: kg/mu
1st batch of food fish culture Type Feb Mar Apr Jun May Jul. Ttl . . . . 688 300 250 310 375 1923 2nd batch of food fish culture Jul. Aug Sept Oct. . . 162 5 337 Tota Nov Tota l . l 196 2 12 388 5 12

Manur e Artificia oil cake l food rice & wheat bran Wolffia & Lemna Terrestri al grass

50

60

28 20 0

138 132 5

34

73 135 0 35

84 122 5

191 487 5 58

329 556 0 220 7

Green fodder

485 90 904 100 0 155

685 214 9

850 23

125

Remarks: The net yield of edible sized fish in the first batch is 215 kg/mu and the 2nd batch 397 kg/mu. The total net fish yield is 612 kg/mu. 5. The mangement of rearing food fish I) Feeding and Manuring (1) Feeding In high density polycultured ponds, each fish only gets a small amount of natural food. Therefore, the supplemental feeds and manures are essential to ensure the normal growth of fish and to obtain a high fish yield.

Feeding is the major measure for intensive pond fish culture and it is also the main daily work of the management for grow-out ponds. Normally, the expenditure of feeds account for more than 50% of the total production cost. So the selection and processing of fish feeds and feeding technique will surely affect the output, production cost and economic efficiency of fish farming. (i) Plan and allocation of fish feeds In fish farming, it is necessary to work out a feeding plan. First of all, the total amount of food demand for one year production should be figured out based on the target fish production, the expected body weight increment of each species and food conversion rate and monthly demand according to the water temperature and fish growth in each month. Under the climatic conditions in Jiangsu Province, the monthly feed and manure demand is shown in Table 522. Table 522 Feeds and manures demanded in Grow-out ponds
Month Ave. water temperature (C) Manure (%) Aquatic & terrestrial grasses Snails & clams No. of times % No. of times % Feb. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Total March below 12 35 10 2 10 2 10 15 4 15 4 16 10 20 10 20 7 23 7 28 14 22 8 26 5 30 18 28 15 31 5 30 22 28 20 32 14 27 17 30 24 26 10 25 10 22 15 20 4 10 3 10 5 12 100 195 100 185 100

Based on the allocation combined with local potentiality the total amount of feeds and manures for a month can be worked out. In turn, it's possible to plan and arrange the one-year fish production and to determine the quantity of various sp. in terms of the local availability of feeds and manure. (ii) Feeding techniques If we know the feeding habits of different species, feeds could be supplied in a proper way. On one hand, we must achieve high yield and good quantity of fish and on the other hand we should save feeds as much as possible; therefore feeds should be supplied by the following guidelines: A. Feeds are supplied according to the status of season change, weather variations, fish growth ingestion and water quality. It's so called four observations. Seasons: Fish have different appetite in seasons. More feeds should be provided during June to October when the air temperature is comparatively high, but less for the other month. Fish have a good appetite and grow rapidly when the air temperature reaches about 28C. It is a common

saying that fish grow skeleton during April to June and they gain weight during July to September (referring to the lunar calendar). This is also the growing season for aquatic weeds, terrestrial grasses and molluscs. The feeding quantity of fish during these months occupies about 80% of the total amount of a year, nevertheless, small amount of food should be supplied shortly after initial stocking in early spring when air temperature is low and fish have a poor appetite, so it is necessary to provide some supplementary feeds in order to increase the feeding efficiency of fish, feeds could be reduced after late autumn when the air temperature is below 10. The feeding efficiency and feeding ability of fish are gradually declining from late Oct. up to the end of a year when fish usually are harvested. In order to maintain the normal ingestion of fish, feeds given should be easily taken by fish resulting in fattening. Weather: More feeds should be provided in fine days when the D.O.C. is high and fish have a good appetite. On the contrary feeds should be reduced or should not be supplied in a stifling weather when the D.O.C. is low and fish lose their appetite. Feeding should be conducted after foggy weather clears up because of low air pressure. Fish status: Generally speaking, feeds could be all eaten up in 78 hours after feeding if fish have a normal ingestion. Then, a little more food can be added. If feeds can not be all eaten up within 78 hours, it shows fish have an abnormal ingestion status and the feeding quantity should be decreased. Water quality: If the pond water is fertile and fish have a good appetite more foods could be applied. If the pond water is sheer, the feeding quantity should be also in-reased, but the amount of feeds should be decreased when the pond water is over fertile. B. Four Fix means fixed quality, fixed quantity, fixed time and fixed position of feeding and place. Fixed quality: Feeds should be fresh and palatable with a nutritive value as high as possible. Spoiled foods can not be used in order to prevent the occurence of fish diseases. Fixed quantity: Fish should be provided with a fixed amount of food every day. With uneven feeding such as sometimes being well fed sometimes being underfed fish will have poor digestion and bad absorption, and slow growth. The daily feeding amount is mainly dependent on the ingestion status of fish. Fixed time: Feeding is usually done before 10:00 every morning. In order to raise the food utilization rate, fish should be fed under the conditions of high D.O.C. Fixed position: Feeds such as molluscs, pellet and fine feeds should be supplied at a fixed position (or on a fixed feeding platform), Just for an easier examination. The floating feeds may be supplied in a floating framework. (2) Manuring Like fry and fingerling ponds, grow-out ponds need fertilization Heavy base manure should be put into newly dug ponds because these ponds have less or even no silt and it is difficult to get the water fertile. Therefore, in order to improve the quality of pond bottom, organic manures, such as animal manure, green manure and stable manure, are better to be used at a rate of 400500kg/mu as base manure. After the decomposition and mineralization of base manure for 34 days through exposure to the sunlight, the pond can be filled with freshwater.

And fingerlings could be stocked after another 78 days. The rationale of applying additional manure is timely, evenly and frequently, but in small amounts in order to keep the propagation of natural food organisms going for fish. In short, feeding & manuring are the fundamental prerequisites for high yields of fish. Feeding should be kept even, good and sufficient, the pond water can be kept fertile, active and crisp with manuring and water filling. It can lessen the infection of fish diseases. Thus the high yield in grow-out pond can be obtained. 2) Daily routine of pond management With the material basis such as ponds, fingerlings, feeds and manures, high and stable fish yield can only be ensured through the daily routine of pond management, which should be done carefully, diligently and unremittingly. The work must be done well during the whole rearing period. (1) To inspect ponds frequently in order to prevent fish from serious surious surfacing Pond inspection should be carried out twice or three times every day to examine whether fish surface or not at dawn, to observe the food intake of fish in the afternoon, to know the daily ingestion status of fish at sunset, and also to learn whether fish will gasp for air. In late spring and early summer, when the weather changes rapidly or in hot summer, when the weather changes suddenly pond patrolling should be conducted around midnight to prevent fish from the serious surfacing. Surfacing takes place often. It is due to high water temperature, intense decomposition of organic materials, stopping of photosynthesis of phytoplankton at night, and oxygen consumption of respiration of aquatic life. (i) Forecast the surfacing of fish When the weather is hot with high water temperature or the water quality is fertile, surfacing will happen at dawn or around midnight. Although fish are not infected with any diseases, they lose their appetite suddenly which shows that the pond water lacks dissolved oxygen When pond water is overfertile with low transparency or when there's a sudden deterioration of water quality caused by weather change, the decomposition of large amount of dead bodies of plankton, not only consumes D.O. in the pond water but produces some toxic substances like hydrogen sulphide (H2S) ammonia which will cause serious surfacing. (ii) Diagnosis of the degree of surfacing The degree of seriousness of fish surfacing is judged by the time when surfacing happens place where surfacing happens, the sequence in which surfacing of various species takes place and the fish response during surfacing. Surfacing time: Surfacing occuring before dawn is considered slight: With light being gradually available, photosynthesis of phytoplankton which releases oxygen can increase D.O.C. in pond

water and can easily alleviate the hypoxic condition. If surfacing begins in the evening around midnight it will become more severe. As hypoxic condition is further aggravated by the respiration of plants all night, the surfacing of fish will be getting more and more serious. Surfacing place: It is slight when surfacing happens at the centre of a pond. But it is serious when surfacing takes place all over the pond. Response of fish: Fish scurrying into deeper water when they are scared indicates slight surfacing. If they make no response and appear to be in a coma when frightened, it is serious because the dissolved oxygen in pond water is depleted. Sequence in which surfacing of various species takes place: It's due to different oxygen consumption rates and asphxiation points that surfacing of various species takes place in sequence, by which we judge the degree of seriousness It is slight when only Wuchang fish surface because they are the least tolerant to low D.O.C.; it is moderate when Silver carp and Bighead come to surface; it is serious when Grass carp and Black carp gasp for air at water surface. And it is severe when Common carp and Crucian carp come to surface. In that case, a mass mortality of fish will happen. (iii) Remedies for the surfacing of fish When there is a symptom of hypoxia, timely measures should be taken to increase the dissolved oxygen content of pond water (fresh water is to be introduced immediately into the pond by using water pumps or aerators). As pumps are used, the outlet of pump should be placed as flat as possible in order to keep fresh water coming out in a straight way. All the fish gasping for air will be attracted to the fresh water area where the D.O.C. is higher. (2) To control water quality according to water color Water quality is closely related to fish growth and fish yields. In production, water color is taken as an indicator for adjusting water quality. And various measures are taken to control and improve water quality. From experience, water of fish ponds should be kept fertile active and crisp. Fertile water means that fish ponds have a fast material recycling and a great biomass of plankton, which are abandunt as natural food for fish. Active water means the colour of pond water is always changeable. There are daily variations and monthly. A common saying of fish farmers, brown in the morning and green at night, indicates the alternative appearance of the dominant species of phytoplankton which are in good quality and great amount. Crisp water means pond water is fertile, but not turbid. And it has a moderate transparency and a high D.O.C. The change of water color in fish ponds is rather complicated. It is usually divided into four types: fertile water, sterile water, water bloom and deteriorated water. Based on the change of water colour and routine management, water quality could be improved by an effective feeding and manuring, rational application of aerators, timely water filling and ferquent turnover of pond silt.

(3) Aeration and its effects At present, impeller aerators are commonly used in China. It has three functions: namely, oxygenation, water-stirring and gas exposure. (i) Rational application of aerator's The aerator in not required to be turned on for the whole day and it is only used for a period of time at one or two critical moments. Therefore, we should properly arrange the time and time period of operation according to the functions of aerators and diurnal change of pond water in order to maximize its utilization and effects, but with the minimum energy consumption. There are two main purposes to use aerators in stagnant fish ponds, one is to break the metalimnion of water surface in the day so as to avoid the loss of saturated oxygen to the atmosphere and to prevent the depletion of oxygen at bottom water layer. Another is to directly increase the D.O.C. in fish ponds when oxygen declines to its minimum limit. From experience, it is suggested that aerators be or not be used according to the following guidelines. Aerators are operated at noon in fine days. The purpose is to break the metalimnion to maximize the utilization of saturated oxygen. The operation time should not be too long. It is enough so long as the pond water is vertically mixed. It shows by experiments that it's long enough to turn on a 3 kilo watts impeller aerator for 30 minutes in a pond of 35 mu, but it takes an hour when the operating load is 710 mu of water surface. If it's a cloudy day, aerators should be put on next early morning. The aim is to increase oxygen directly, because the photosynthesis is rather weak in a cloudly day and dissolved oxygen content is low. After one night, the D.O.C in pond water will decline to its minimum limit. So aerators should be put on from 3:005:00 a.m. to the sunrise. Aerators are often put on at midnight in drizzly days before posible surfacing because the D.O.C is rather low. However, aerators are not put on at duck or in daytime when the weather is drizzly, because photosynthesis is very weak in cloudy and drizzly days, and the dissolved oxygen C. is not over saturated at the upper layer. So there is no point in stirring water at that time. (ii) Effects of aerators on fish production When an aerator is rationally used, it can lessen or basically control the degree of seriousness of fish surfacing and it can also prevent the asphyxiation of fish in ponds. In addition, the material recycling in fish ponds can be accelerated. The uneven distribution of D.O.C in pond water improved, and the metabolic intensity of fish can be promoted so as to decrease the food coefficient, to purify the pond water, to stabilize water quality and to avoid the occurence of fish diseases.

CHAPTER VI MAIN FISH DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL

1. The significance and principles of fish disease control in China 1) Significance The purpose of preventing fish disease is entirely for bettering fishery industry, improving farming production and the proliferation of fish resources. As fish live in water, which is a complicated environment, so they are susceptible to infections of virus, bacteria, fungus or invasions of parasites, etc. If fish is sick, a malaise will affect their normal growth and development while a serious case can cause mortality, which will jeopardize the regular aquaculture and threaten the expected increase of fish yields. So the control of fish disease is one of the most vital steps towards fish culture. 2) The principles of fish disease control in China The principles of fish disease control in China are all-round prophylaxis and positive treatment, prevention is better than treatment and the positive methods practised are prevention during diseasefree, timely treatment upon early stage. Because of aquatic ambience, it is not easy to get aware of the activities of fish. It is difficult to conduct a correct diagnosis and timely treatment after an affection. This is because the drugs for oral administration can only be effective through ingestion of fish. In other words, if fish fall ill and have lost the feeding ability, and then no medicine can help. Of course, we can conduct a parenteral administration instead, but dip treatments are confined to small containers or spread measures to fish ponds. It is not practical for large lakes, rivers or reservoirs; therefore, prevention is always more important than treatment in the control of fish diseases. 2. Major types of fish diseases From different pathogenesis, fish diseases are simply classified into infectious diseases, invasive diseases and the diseases caused by other factors. 1) Infectious disease This type of disease is mainly caused by the pathogens of virus, bacteria, fungi or unicellular algae, that is also called ichthyoml crobial disease. For instance, bacterial enteritis, bacterial gill rot and bacterial erytherma.

The loss of fish production from infectious diseases accounts for 60% of all diseased . It indicates that such a disease ranks a noticeable place among the other diseases. For this reason, the study of infectious disease is of primary significance to the development of aquaculture. (1) Characteristics of infectious disease i. Infectious disease can be divided into acute, subacute and chronic forms based on clinic picture, e.g. if enteritis of Grass carp or Black carp occurs in an acute form; it develops rapidly and soon reaches the high peak of mortality. It also goes off quickly. On the contrary, chronic enteritis kills only a few fish per day, but it lasts a long time. Bacterial pathogens of infectious diseases are not strictly parasitic microorganisms. If the condition for parasitism is unsuitable, it will lead a saprophytic life. These pathogens have a high adaptability to the changes of environmental conditions, e.g. the pathogen of enteritis of Grass carp and Black carp will not cause any diseases if water temperature is below 20C; whereas the temperature between 20C and 25C will enhance the virulence remarkably. That's why its main epidemic season begins from late spring to early summer, so zoospores of Saprolegnia often attach to intact fish skin and do not bring disease to fish unless the host has injured parts where the zoospore will rapidly grow and multiply, and finally fish will be infected. Most pathogens of infectious diseases show a preference for certain spp. some fish and to certain organs (organotropism), e.g. bacteria of enteritis only affect Grass carp and Black carp, not Silver carp or Bighead; likewise, branchiomyces parasitize the gill instead of other parts of a fish body.

ii.

iii.

(2) The course and forms of infectious diseases Throughout the whole course there is a latent period, a symptomatic period and in attacking period. The infectious diseases can be divided into two forms: pure infection (a fish infected by one kind of causative agent) and mixed infection (infection with over two kinds of pathogens on a single fish): e.g. a sick Grass carp suffering both from saprolegniasis and gill rot; or a Black carp with a complication of enteritis and red skin disease. (3) The origin of infectious diseases and the mode of infection Regarding the origin, there are two kinds of sources: primary source and secondary source. Most sick fish as primary infective source are the carriers of pathogens of variant infectious diseases in natural world. The pathogen infects intact fish school by virtue of direct contact or the discharge of morbific agents into ambient water. Sometimes healthy fish themselves in pond are the carriers, the outbreak of fish disease will happen if conditions are favourable. Disease-free pond could be polluted by contact with the pond water, coming from diseased ponds, with contaminated feeds, gears, etc. resulting in an occurance of disease. These are so called secondary source. Pathogens are widely spread through these approaches. (4) Resistance of fish against infectious diseases:

Infectious diseases normally attack fish body through tissues and organs, such as skin, gill, intestine tract or excretory organ but fish have their own resistance against pathogenic microbes. Such a surface texture of skin and mucous membrane of fish functions as a screen to keep the infectious microorganisms out of it. Besides, the lysozyme which organs have can kill the bacteria. So a complete skin and membrane are the first protective screen. The pathogenic microbes entering digestive tract will be under the influence of high disinfecting secretions from the organs of digestive tract. White blood cell, lymphoid tissue cell, and reticuloendothelial cells of spleen, foreign body can not only catch pathogenic microbes but also pathogenic microorganisms. In addition, blood of fish contains bactericidin which can eradicate all kinds of pathogenic bacteria. 2) Invasive diseases Such diseases are caused by animal parasites, like trichodinasis, ichthyphthiriasis, lernaesis, argulusis, etc. Fish carrying parasites or corpse of diseased fish are the direct sources of invasive disease. It is called the primary source. And objects accompanied with direct source, such as contaminated feeds, gears, pond water and silt, etc. are called indirect source, or secondary source. For examples matured oocysts of Eimeria or matured myxosporidia may enter water in large numbers together with fish, and precipitate onto the pond bottom, so the pond silt is the secondary source. The occurance and spreading of infectious and invasive diseases often appear in different seasons, because the pathogens and fish are influenced by outside factors (such as place, climate, physicochemical property of water and farming skills, etc.) and inner factors (such as growth and physiological status), e.g. Saprolegnia may spread in winter and spring but may not in summer or autumn. Besides, pathogens often show their special selectivity, e.g. Cryptobia only attacks Grass carp, nor Black carp, Silver carp or Bighead in the same pond; Lernae polymorpha parasitizes Silver carp, Bighead and Wuchang fish while Lernaea ctenopharyngodontis parasitizes Grass carp. 3) Diseases caused by other factors Physical and chemical influence or other organism within the pond may retard the growth or even kill the fish, e.g. gasping and suffocation due to anoxia may direct lead to inbalance of physiological function inside fish body, or lead to mass mortality if it is serious. The harmfulness is no less than that of pathogens. 3) General knowledge of fish disease control 1) Prevention of fish diseases (1) Special importance of prophylaxis Prevention is better than treatment has been a radical theory in medical science. Fish are schooling animals in water which brings up difficulties in observation, diagnosis and treatment. Apart from this, some effective drugs and measres to cure certain fish diseases are still unknown up to now, e.g. diplostomulumsis. Therefore, perfect preventive measures must be taken since it is a key point to the control.

(2) General practices for control (i) Clearing and repairing Regulating pond is an effective measure to improve the pond environmental condition, to prevent diseases and raise fish yields. It includes two aspects: one is the pond trimming, the other is pond disinfection (see chapter 4 nurture of fry and fingerlings for details). (ii) To better the rearing management A. A special person should be assigned to take charge of daily management such as stocking, feeding, manuring, and disease prevention, etc. B. Performing the four fix feeding which is a positive procedure both for fish farming and disease prevention. (see chapters of nurture of fry and fingerlings and food fish culture). C. To improve environment of water body Carefully observe the variations of water quality. According to the observation, timely apply the fertilizers or fill the pond with fresh water or even change water all over. Not only does it minimize or avoid the disease outbreaks, but also benefits fish growth. D. To strengthen the daily management work Pond inspection is strictly required once in the morning, particularly in dismal weather or mornings after torrential rain during the epidemic season from May to September. Besides, it is necessary to remove the weeds along the pond sides, clear the feeding platforms so as to prevent disease occurance. E. Operation should be handled tenderly during netting, transferring and transporting. (iii) Conduct medical prophylaxis yearly during the epidemic seasons from May to September. A. Fingerling disinfection: It is helpful to the prevention of diseases to disinfect fingerlings for transference or just before restocking into larger water bodies. This performance can be done in a boat, cabin, jar, pail, cage, etc. in line with local conditions whatever possible. Feeding platform disinfection: Hang small bamboo baskets with bleaching powder or cloth bag with mixture of copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate (ratio:5:2) placed round the feeding place or platform. When fish come to the place or platform for feeding, their skin will be automatically disinfected. Method of bleaching powder hanging basket: the purpose of this is to prevent bacterial diseases of the fish such as Grass carp that mainly feeds on buoyant foods. Starting from the beginning of feeding in spring every year, put a triangular or square bamboo frame at shallow corner of the pond against the wind. Along the frame, hang 3--6 small bamboo baskets with the opening 3 cm out of water to prevent the chemicals from floating away, then put a small stone as a sinker inside each basket to make it standing vertically in the water. Put 100150g of bleaching powder into each container every day,

but the container ought to be cleaned before the following day's medication. After hanging the containers each time, put some duck weed or tender grasses onto the place to attract fish (see figure 6--1).

Fig. 6--1 Demonstration of bleaching powder container to control bacterial red skin and gill rot diseases. To prevent bacterial diseases of Black carp, the containers with bleaching powder should be put in line, attached to a bamboo rod, sinking under the water but 15--18cm above the bottom near the feeding place. Each container is covered with a lid to keep the bleaching powder (see fig. 6--2).

Fig. 6--2 Bleaching powder container to control bacterial red skin disease of Black carp The method of hanging bag (mixture of copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate) are similar to that of bleaching powder container. The chemicals ooze out of the bag of fine cloth slowly (the best duration of drug dissolving is 3--4 hours in the bag), hang the bags once a day. The numbers of bags and the chemical amount in them depend greatly on depth of water and the size of feeding place, e.g. if a triangular frame is three meter long on each side and 33cm in water depth, normally with 2 bags on each side, 100g of copper sulphate and 40g of ferrous sulphate each bag. If water depth is 49cm, then apply 150g copper sulphate, and 60g ferrous sulphate; with water depth of 66cm, use 200g copper sulphate and 80g ferrous sulphate or use 250g copper sulphate and 100g ferrous

sulphate at water depth of 83cm. For the first time of hanging bags, whether or not the fish come to eat should be closely watched one hour later. If fish refuse to appear, it shows an overdose of chemicals, and then, it's better to take away some bags close to the center of the pond until fish would come before the chemicals fully dissolve. (Fig. 6-3)

Fig. 6--3 The method of hanging bags with copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate to control parasitic gill disease of Grass carp Some drugs used in the disinfection of fingerlings are listed just for reference only. (table 6--1). B. Disinfections of feeds, feeding platforms and gears Feeding dirty or spoiled feeds may bring in pathogenic bacteria to the pond. If the leftover of feeds decompose in water, they are good for the pathogenic bacteria to multiply rapidly, which will lead fish diseases to spread rapidly in pond. For this reason, feeds and manures must be disinfected before application; animal foods such as snails need to be washed and supplied when they are fresh and alive. As for application of plant feeds, bleaching powder solution at a concentration of 6 ppm is used to immerse the aquatic grass for 20--30 minutes before supplying, (not necessary for land grass); as for organic manures, blend 120g bleaching powder with 500kg manure before application. Apart from the above mentioned method (of hanging basket or bag) for feeding place disinfection, during the epidemic season the feeding places need to be cleaned frequently by spreading the solution (ratio, 250g bleaching powder : 12kg water) once or twice a month. Gear disinfection: to avoid the spread of fish disease, the nets, pails and dip nets, etc. that are once used during epidemic season need to be disinfected before using them again. Huge nets can be exposed to sunlight for 1--2 days and wooden pails can be sterilized by immersing in quick lime solution or 10 ppm copper sulphate solution for 5 minutes.

C. Pond treatment: Spreading the whole-pond with drugs is one of the most common practices to prevent diseases. Before or shortly after stocking fry, diluted 1g of 2.5% dipterex should be sprayed all over the pond. It is more particularly needed for those ponds with weeds. Three months later, treat the pond again with 0.7 ppm solution of copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate (ratio, 5:2). After June, spray bleaching powder to make the pond water at a concentration of 1 ppm once or twice a month. To improve the deteriorated pond water, it is recommended that 2025 kg quick lime be used mu for a water depth of one meter. Such method can better the water quality and prevent diseases. The procedure is to liquefy quick lime chunks with a little water in a container, after it is fully dissolved, add more water and stir it, and then spray it evenly over the pond. D. Prevention with medicated feeds: during epidemic season of Grass carp enteritis, medicated feed is more helpful. Use 12 kg garlic per 100 kg of fish once a day for six consecutive days. Pulp and blend the garlic with fish feeds for feeding, preventive result would be better if 40g of table salt is added for every 5kg of food. For adult fish, mix the pulped garlic with some adhesive, and spread onto tender grass which can be applied after it is dry, or medicated feed may be given in pellet form. Table 1. Some medical solutions for fingerling's immersion
water immersing Dosage temp duration objects ppm (C) (min) 10 15 15 20 10 15 Copper sulphate 8 2030 1520 2030 Cryptobiosis, Costiasis Trichodinosis, Chilodonelliosis bacterial skin & gill diseases

Chemical

cautions immersing duration is based on the fish 1. health and water temp. Chlorine concentration must be above 10%, then, bleaching powder can 2. be used, and the preparation of solution is done just before using it. dissolve two chemicals thorouphly 3. in separate tanks before mixing them up.

Bleaching powder

10

15 20

1520

8 Mixture of copper sulphate and bleaching 10 powder

10 15

2030

KMnO4 10 20

bacterial gill rot, redskin, cryptobiosis, Costiasis, Trichodinasis Chilodonellasis and Trichophryiosis, etc. Gyrodactyliosis, dactylogyriosis, Trichodinosis Chilodonelliosis Lernaesis

2030 1520 22.5hrs.

Potassium permanganate (KMnO4)

20 20

20 25 10 20

1. same as above 1.

2.

prepare solution on spot

10 Malachite green 10 sodium chloride 30000 -50000 2500 Dipterex (90% of crystal) -2000

25 30

22.5hrs. 2030 5 dermatomycosis dermatomycosis

avoid immersing 3. operation from directly sunlight. concentration can be rationally increased on the basis of fish health and water temperature stock fish and solution into pond right after fish appearing irritated by moving their heads in immersion tanks

315

prevent gill rot, red skin, and enteritis

(iv) Application of Chinese medicine for disease control Controlling diseases by using Chinese herbal medicines has many advantages, such as broad source, good effect, cheapness and easy to learn by the masses. In their production activities, farmers of different farms have been using many kinds of Chinese herbal medicines to control diseases and achieve good results, e.g. in Zhejiang province, euphorbia humifusa and acalypha australis are utilized for enteritis and in Guangdong province, Thysanospermum diffusum is used to cure bacterial skin disease, gill rot, enteritis. Hubei Hydrobiological Research Institute reports a promising result of application of Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum) with Chinese rhubarb (rheum officinale) for white-head-and-white-mouth disease and bacterial gill rot disease. With a constant practice and summarizing, the control with Chinese herbal medicines will surely make some contribution to freshwater fisheries in China. (v) Implement the quarantine regulations and prohibit the travelling of diseased fish. As China possesses a vast area, the geographic and, climatic conditions vary from place to place. This produces some epidemic diseases within some regions, e.g. The disease of Grass carp yearling caused by Bothriocephalus gowkongensis and branchiomycosis of Mud carp used to occur in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces only; likewise, oodiniosis was in Jiangxi Province and Liang country, Guangdong Province; Ichthyophthiriasis in Hunan and Hubei Provinces. Recently as the freshwater farming industry develops rapidly, allocation and transportation of fry and fingerlings between the regions are quite frequent. Attention must be paid to the quarantine before the allocation and transportation. Diseased fish are strictly prohibited to transport just to avoid the spread of epidemic diseases. 2) Diagnosis Diagnosis of disease is the first step for effective treatment. (1) Cautions before diagnosis i. Diagnosis requires objects alive or newly dead diseased fish, and better to keep the body damp.

ii. iii. iv. v.

Try to keep the dissected organs as complete as possible. Keep the instruments for autopsy clean to avoid intercontamination of pathogens among the organs. Use distilled water for microscopic observation of the skin and use 0.85% normal saline for microscopic observation of internal organs. Reserve the samples for further identification if there is a doubt about pathogens and clinic signs.

(2) Methods and steps i. Survey on spot: make an overall investigation on the diseased pond. A. Make sure whether the water source is seriously polluted or not. B. Notice whether there is an effluent from industrial sewage or an inlet of water contaminated by agricultural chemicals in water supply. C. Observe the behaviour of the diseased fish. D. To understand the rearing status, e.g. pond clearing, stocking density, feeding, preventive methods and mortality, etc. Examination of diseased fish

ii.

A. Observation with naked eye: mainly examine the skin, gill and internal organs. A. Body: put diseased fish in an enamelware plate, closely observe it with naked eye from head down to eyes, gill cover, scale, fin, etc. to look for visible pathogens: such as Nematodes, Argulus, Glochidium, Saprolegnia, it is also possible to see the pathogens of bacterial erythrodermatitis, albinoderm, stigmatosis, furunculosis, etc. B. Gill: inspect gill with an emphasis on gill filaments; observe the colour of gill lemella, quantity of mucus, congestion and putridity of filament tips after an opercular incision is done. C. Internal organs: mainly check the intestines. Start to observe abdominal hydrops and visible parasite, e.g. Ichthyoxenus, Nematodes, cysts of Myxosporidia, Liqulos), then observe the appearance of other internal organs. And then extract the internal organs with a knife and scissors and separate liver, gall bladder, airbladder, etc. Finally open the intestine to search any pathological changes. B. Microscopic exam (with a microscope) This is a further step to examine the focus determined by naked eye examination. For normal cases, only the skin, gill, intestine, eye and brain are to be microscopically observed. Skin: scrape a little tissue and mucus from skin in question and put them on a slide, with a drop of distilled water, and observe it under a microscope after slightly pressing it with a coverslip. One should always start with low power objectives. Normally, at least three tissues from different points of the same organ is to be inspected. Common parasites on skin are Trichodina, Ichthyophthirius, Chilodonella, Costia, Glochidium. and Myxosporidia, etc. Gill: Tweezer some gill filaments and mucus onto the slide. Through microscopic observation, the following parasites are often found: Dactylogyrus, Gyrodactylus, Cryptobia and Myxosporidia.

Intestine: transfer a little mucus from anterior intestinal wall to the slide and observe whether there is Nematode, Eimeria, Myxosporidia. Eye: press the entire ocular bulb or crystalline body on the slide. The existance of the cyst of Diplostomulums can be recognized as diplostomulumsis. Brain: open the cerebral cavity of whirling disease fish, white cysts of Myxosporidia in lymphatic fluid beside the brain can be noticed. And then, tweezer them out onto the slide and we can see a number of spores after being crashed beneath the coverslip. During the diagnosis, if complications are discovered, try to find out the primary and secondary cases and give an anticipatory treatment one after another or synchronous treatment. 4. Control of some major diseases 1) Infectious diseases (1) Hemorrhagic septicemia (Fig. 6--4) Pathogen: reovirus. The particle or this virus presents a spheric or hexangular shape, measuring 60--70 nm (nano meter 10-9) with an average diameter of 69 nm. The nucleus of high electron density in the middle of the particle has a diameter of 32 nm on average. The nucleus is enveloped with a membrane which is 20 nm or so in width. Besides, there is a kind of viral particle without membrane, but with an even electron distribution. The particle has a diameter of 4660 nm and 52 nm on average, which exists in the inclusion bodies in nucleus or cytoplasm. The viral particles observed always appear in sanguifacient tissues of kidney, and not in red cells or granular white cells. The virus is sensitive to ether, acid and alkali, but not sensitive to drugs of tetracycline family, and it shows a high resistance to heat. Have the virus treated for 18 hours at 41C or 1 hr. at 55C and then, infect the fish with the virus. As a result, the mortality is still 100%; accordingly, 3 hr. at 60C, mortality 10% 1 hr. at 65C, no death. So the last method just mentioned is an available way to destroy it. Symptom and pathological changes: The main symptom of this disease is congestion. External appearance is usually dark and slight red. If you observe juvenile fingerling against light, you can see hypodermic hyperemia. Some fish show congestion around the mouth, lower jaw, skull or orbit, and even exophthalmos, congestion of operculum and fin base are visible, by peeling away the skin of the sick fish, its musculature presents punctiform or lump congestion. In serious case, entire musculature gives a colour of bright red and white gill or bright red patch congestion appear on operculum, but some diseased fish has no symptom on gill. As for the clinic picture of internal organs, intestinal congestion is common. The whole or part of the intestine is red due to congestion. Mesentery and its peripheral fat is often accompanied with punctiform congestion. In a few cases, the liver, spleen and kidney are pale or locally congested. The wall of airbladder and gallbladder are often bloodshot.

Entire musculature congestion

Musculature punctiform congestion

Red patch congestion on operculum Fig. 6--4 Grass carp with symtoms of Hemorrhagic septicaemia The disease can be classified into three types based on its symptom and the pathological changes: i. Red-muscle type: Though no evident or only slight hemorrhagic symptom on skin, the muscles is heavily congested, usually all muscles are red, and gill la'mellae are white because of loss of blood. Such a phenomenon is common among fingerlings of Grass carp of 7--10cm in body length. Red-fin-red-operculum type: Congestion on operculum, base of fins, skull, orbit, and in mouth cavity, are obvious, even beneath the scale, but not distinct in muscles except some spotted congestion. This happens among Grass carp fingerlings of over 13cm in body length. Enteritis type: instead of the skin or muscles, the intestine is seriously congested. The whole or part of the intestine is bright red. Sometimes, there are some punctiform congestion in mesentery, fat and wall of swim-bladder. Such case can be seen among either large or small fingerlings of Grass carp. The above mentioned three types can't be definitely separated; more often they are mixed up. Epidemic situation: It is one of most common and harmful viral diseases during the fingerling nurturing period. The epidemic season lasts long, with a high incidence, often bringing about mass mortality to Grass carp fingerlings. Grass carp and Black carp are both susceptable to this disease, but with the former as the main victim. This disease is widely spread in many places in China, with a distinctive epidemic season from June to

ii.

iii.

September every year. That is to say, the occurance reaches its high peak in Aug. when water temperature is over 27C, and it is going to gradually diminish after mid-Sept. when water temperature lowers to 25C. Control measures: A. Inoculate the fingerling with deactivated vaccine to produce a strong special protective capability which may last 14 months in function. B. Decoct or immerse 250--500g pulverised Chinese rhubarb or maple leaves over night and after blending it with fish food, start feeding for 5 consecutive days and then, the pond is sprayed with Dyrene to make the pond water to a concentration of 0.6 ppm or 0,7 ppm or either one of copper sulphate or copper acetate or copper chloride to a concentration of 0.7 ppm. If copper sulphate is used, 2 days of medication is needed for a course, and two courses are conducted, if needed, to achieve a good result. C. Minimize the possible occurance of hemorrhagic septicemia by improving the farming techniques through seed, food and management. (2) Erythroderma Pathogen: Pseudomonas fluorescens. It has the shape of short rods with round ends; it measures 0.7--0.75 0.4--0.45 micron; existing either single or in pairs. It has a motile, single polar flagellum, but no gemma. Gram negative; agar colonies are circular in shape, semiopaque and greyish white, producing yellowish green pigment after 24 hours incubation. Symptom and pathological changes: Inflammation, bleeding from skin, loss of scale, particularly on the sides of the abdomen; blood shot on fin base; necrosis of terminal of fins; red blotches around the upper & lower jaws; and occasionally, congestion and inflammation along the intestines (Fig. 6--5)

Epidemic situation: erythroderma is one of the important diseases of Grass carp and Black carp, and widely spread on all farming sites. The mechanical lesions in the process of stocking or netting make it possible for the pathogenic bacteria possible to invade the injured fish. Frostbites in severe winter can also be infected. Besides, fish, rubbing against solid objects in water may get wounds which induce the disease. That's why the disease happens all the year round. Control: A. Prevention: it is helpful to do the pond clearing and disinfection thoroughly, and a delicate operation is required to avoid any injures in netting, carrying or stocking. Apart from these methods, another promising way is to dip fingerling with bleaching powder solution at a concentration of 5--10 ppm for 30 minutes before stocking or inoculate the fingerlings with vaccine.

B. Treatment: as the pathogenic bacterium not only causes pathological changes in the skin and the muscle, but also invades the blood. Medicine should be therefore, administered both internally and externally. Internally, Sulphathiazole (ST) should be taken orally, once a day for 6 consecutive days. The dose for the first day should be 1 gram per 100 kg of fish, and the dose for the remaining five days is cut in half. The medicine is mixed with feeds by rational adhesive for feeding. Externally, spreading all over the pond with bleaching powder (containing 30% of available chlorine) to bring the pond water to a concentration of 1 ppm, or scattering the Chinese gall Galla Chinesis to reach a concentration of 2--4 ppm. (3) Enteritis Pathogen: It is still an issue. Some people believe that it is Aeromonas punctata f. intestinalis, which is short-rod-shaped with two round ends; 0.4--0.5 1--1.3 micron in size; existing mostly in pairs. Its polar monoflagelum has motile force; no gemma; Grame-negative; agar colony is round, and semiopaque brownish pigment is produced around the colony one or two days later. The bacterium is one of pathogen caused by certain conditions. The pathogen is more likely to bring about the disease when water temperature is suitable, water quality worsens, air pressure is too low, and fish are overfed. Symptoms and pathological changes: the diseased fish shows an expanding abdomen on which red blotches are seen, fins are congested and decayed, the anus is red and swollen through which yellow mucus may be released out if a light pressure is applied on the abdomen. By dissecting the abdomen, we can see ascites. The hyperaemia and inflammation are found on the intestinal walls. Cells of mucous membrane ulcerate and drop off, becoming bloody mucus to block the intestine. The illed fish loses appetite and swims slowly in solitude and soon dies.

Fig. 6--6 Grass carp infected with enteritis Epidemic situation: the disease is very common among Grass carp and Black carp, with few cases in Bighead & Common carp. Under yearlings of Grass carp and yearling of Grass carp and Black carp are more apt to catch such a disease with a high mortality, commonly ranging from 50 to 90%. So enteritis is one of the most harmful ones to the cultivated species in China. It can be found everywhere in farming sites. The season of prevalence and the degree of incidence in different places differs a little in terms of different climate and rearing management. Generally speaking there are two distinct epidemic seasons annually: May to June is the season

for 1--2 years old Grass carp and Black carp, while the period from August to September is a terrible time for underyearlings of Grass carp. More often, the disease is complicated with bacterial gill rot disease. Control: A. Prevention: To keep a good water quality and strict performance of four disinfection and four fix (note) is a vital step to avoid the disease. During the prevalance, it is recommended to limit the feeding amount and conduct medical prophylaxis regularly. B. Treatment: integrate the oral administration with external administration. Externally, bleaching powder is sprayed into the pond to make the pond water at a concentration of, 1 ppm or quicklime in a dose of 15--25 kg/1mu/1 meter water depth should be scattered over the pond. The following medicines can be selected to be mixed into medicated feeds. a. Sulphaguanidine (SG): for the first day, use the medicine in a dose of 1g for every 10 kg fish, and the dose for the next five days is reducd by half.
Note: four disinfection four fix disinfection of feeding platforms, fingerlings, feeds and tools. fixed quality, fixed quantity, fixed time and fixed position.

b. When enteritis and gill rot diseases come out at the same time, spray the of the Chinese gall over the pond, making the pond water at a concentration of 2--3 ppm. Meanwhile, feed the fish with furazolidone for six days with a dose of 1g/100kg fish, or double this dosage for a serious case in the first treatment. c. Treatment with garlic: use 1--2kg of garlic per 100kg of fish once a day for six consecutive days. d. Treatment with Euphorbia humifusa: use 500g dry herb or 2500g fresh herb for 100kg of fish once a day for 3 consecutive days. e. Treatment with Acalypha australis: use 500g dry herb or 2000g fresh herb per 100kg of fish once a day for 3 consecutive days. f. Treatment with water Polygonum hydropiper: use 500g dry herb or 2000g fresh herb for 100kg of fish once a day for 3 consecutive days. It is also effective to use two or three kinds of the herbs in (d), (e), (f), making a compound one. g. Treatment with creat Andrographis paniculata: use 2kg dry herb or 3kg fresh herb for 100kg of fish daily for 5--7 consecutive days. h. Fortifying the resistance against disease by inoculating vaccine before stocking fingerlings. (4) Bacterial gill rot Pathogen: Myxococcus piscicolus: It is slender in shape, soft and easy to coil. The length of the bacterium varies greatly, normally 2--37 micron Gram-negative. The colony on peptone agar diffused to pseudomycorrhiza, about 3 mm in diameter. The growth stops after five day's culture.

Symptom and pathological changes: Fish are black in appearance, especially the head. The gill filaments which often attached with mud and mucus are putrid and pale. In serious case, hyperemia and inflammation are found on the inside and outside opercula, the epidermis of which often rots away, leaving a transparent spot there. Studies were made on histological pathology of bacterial gill rot of Grass carp. It was found that its pathological development can be divided into chronic and acute types. Chronic course lasts long with as its main character, and acute course is short, mainly with inflammatory dropsy or necrosis of the cell (Fig. 6--7)

Fig. 67 Head of Grass carp affected with gill rot (left operculum is removed) Epidemic situation: This disease affects Grass carp, Black carp, Bighead, Common carp and other fishes as well, but chiefly affects Grass carp. It is one of the most serious diseases of Grass carp, occurring on all fish farms all the year round. It seldom appears when water temperature is below 15C and begins to occur when water temperature is over 20C. The optimum temperature for the prevalence is 2835C. Therefore, it is more popular in spring, summer and autumm than in winter. Such disease is concurrently accompanied by enteritis. Control: A. In the prevalent season, disinfect pond water along the pond sides once a week with dissolved bleaching powder at a rate of 0.25kg/mu. At early outbreak, bleaching powder can be hanged around the feeding platforms for prevention purpose, or bleaching powder can be spread to make the pond water at a concentration of 1 ppm in worse case. B. Treatment with dry powder of Chinese tallow tree Sapium sebiferum leaves: the amount involved is to make the pond water at a concentration of 6.25 ppm. If the fresh leaves are used, the dosage should be four time as much as the dry amount. Usage: immerse the leave powder with 2% quick lime solution, the quantity of which is 20 times that of leave powder for 612 hours. Then boil it for 10 minutes to keep pH value upto 12 plus prior to spraying C. Pond treatment with Chinese rhubarb Rheum officinale to bring the pond at a concentration of 2.53.7 ppm. Usage: immerse the rhubarb with 0.3% ammonia water, the quantity of which is 20 times rhubarb, for 12 hours before spraying.

D. Spray the pond with the erythromycin for poultry use to make the pond water at a concentration of 0.3 ppm. And again mix the medicine with fish feeds for feeding from the next day for six consecutive days. Apply 4g of the medicine for 100kg of fish for the first day and cut the dosage in half for the remaining five days. E. Do a pond treatment with pulverized Chinese gall to make the pond water at a concentration of 24 ppm. F. Spread the pond with maple leave solution. Usage: add water to 20kg of pulped maple leaves per mu before application. G. Make the pond water at a concentration of 20 ppm by spraying quick lime. H. Enhance the immunity by inoculating vaccine to Grass carp fingerlings before transferring or stocking. (5) Verticle scale disease Pathogen: It is preliminarily recognized as Pseudomonas punctata. In terms of Japanese data, the disease is caused by Aeromonas sp. or bacterial infection by such genus. Symptom and pathological changes: the diseased fish looks rather rough on skin, and some scales (especially on posterior part of fish body) stretch out, resembling pinecone, so it is also named pinecone disease. The scale capsule contains semiopaque or sanguineous exudate which makes scale verticle. Therefore, it is called verticle scale disease. If the scale is lightly pressed, the esudate will eject out from the scale base and the scales will drop immediately. Other symptoms are congestion on fin bases; mild bleeding and inflammation on skin; reddish ulceration on information (loss & scale) exophthalmos and abdominal distension, etc. As the case develops, the morbid fish shows slow swimming movement, dyspnea, and abdomen turning upwards and then the fish dies 23 days later.

Fig. 68 Common carp affected with vertical scale disease (after diagnostic guide of fish disease) Epidemic situation: It mainly injures Common carp, Crucian carp, Grass carp, Silver carp and occasionally goldfish (Cyprinus auratus) It usually occurs in the places of northeast, central and eastern part of China. Such disease has two prevalences. One is in spawning time of Common carp; and the other is in overwintering period of Common carp. Normally, the disease starts its prevalence from late April to early July. According to some data collected on fish farms,

mortality of parent fish, resulting from this disease reaches 45%, the maximum mortality 85%. And the mortality rate of yearling Common carp accounts for over 50%. The outbreak of the disease is related with injured skin, contaminated pond water and poor disease resistance. Control: A. Save fish from injures during netting, transferring or stocking. B. Drain and fix the spawning pond of parent Common carp in winter, and disinfect the pond with quick lime or bleaching powder. C. Make pellet food by mixing the impure aureomycin or terramycin in a dose of 5% of the feeding amount. D. Give an injection to abdominal cavity with 36mg chloromycetin. (6) Saprolegniasis Pathogen: They belong to Family Saprolegniaceae, Class Phycomycetes. The common genera are Saprolegnia and Achlya. Mould is a coenocytic mycelium without cell wall wall. One end of the mould resembling root attaches to the wounded part of fish body. It has many branches that penetrate into skin and muscle, which is called mycelia, sucking nutrition from its host. The rest of the mould tufting outside fish body is called hyphae, which may be 3cm long and looks like white floccule. The mould on a dead fish can spread and cover the whole body within 1224 hours. Symptoms and pathological changes: no abnormal sign could be seen in the initial stage of the infection. When it is visible, it indicates that the mould has already penetrated and stretched on the lesions. Mycelia go deep into muscles, permeating into the fissure of tissue cells, and branching out heavily. Hyphae grow into grey flocky substance. A certain kind of ferment secreted from the mould is able to decompose the tissues of the host and fish secretes a great deal of mucus because of the irritation. The diseased fish suffers from the fidget, shows an abnormal behaviour, and rubs itself against some solid materials. As the fish is overloaded, morbid muscle will rot fish will loose its appetite and will move slowly and eventually will die (Fig. 69)

Fig. 69 Bighead affected with Saprolegniasis Epidemic situation: It is common in all farming areas in four seasons. It can affect fish from egg to any other stages of all farming species. Mould takes advantage of invading the wounded part

caused by netting, transporting and cause the disease, particularly in over-wintering pond with high stocking density. Control: A. To minimize the possible outbreak, disinfect the pond with quick lime. B. To prevent the disease, try to avoid any lesions caused by catching, carrying or stocking. C. Select healthy fish as parent fish instead of injured fish. Smear the parent fish with 1% malachite green ointment or sulfa ointment. D. If the disease occurs in an eel culturing pond, sprinkle the infected pond with malachite green solution or methylene blue solution to make the pond water to a concentration of 0.150.2 ppm and 23 ppm respectively. If the effect is not apparent, do a sprinkling again with the same dosage 34 days after the first application. E. Prevention of saprolegniasis of eggs: First, manage to raise the rate of fertilization. Choose fine days to conduct artificial spawning, and put egg nests indoors for indoors hatching by showering water to increase hatchability. F. Disinfect viscid eggs by immersing them with malachite green solution of 7 ppm for 10 15 minutes for two consecutive days. Afterwards, sprinkle the hatching shelf twice a day, in the morning and evening respectively with 1015kg of malachite green solution at a concentration of 70100 ppm until fry is hatched out. G. Apply malachite green solution to the circular incubation tank to make the water light green at an intervals of 68 hours. Repeat this proceudre until hatchlings are out. This method helps to diminish the mould infection and improve the hatchability. H. It is helpful to prevent the infection by immersing the egg nests for 23 minutes with 3 5% formalin solution or 13% table sult solution for 20 minutes. 2) Invasive diseases (1) Cryptobiosis branchialis Pathogen: Cryptobia branchialis is a flattened creature with a wide anterior end and a narrow posterior end like a willow leaf. The body length measures 7.710.8 microns. Two flagella with different length grow out from the anterior end. One that is stretching forward is named anterior flagellum. The other is called posterior flagellum which forms an undulating membrane along the surface of the body and stretches to the posterior. In the middle of the body there is a round nucleus, in front of which exists an avoid kinetonucleus. Around the nucleus there are chromatin granules. Endosoma is in the center of nucleus. The live parasite attaches itself to the gill of its host by penetrating its posterior flagellum into epidermal tissue of the host's gill. When leaving the host, it keeps wagging its anterior flagellum and undulating membrane so as to move its body forward (Fig. 610)

Fig. 6--10 Cryptobia brabchialis Symptoms and the pathological changes: the parasite generally fixes on the gill of host, destroying the epithelia on gill lamella and producing thrombus that blocks the blood vessels of gill lamella. The inflammation of branchial organs retards the normal blood circulation. Meanwhile, much mucus secreted by irritation will cover the intact part of gill. Thus, the respiration is impeded. If the case worsens, fish will show dyspnea and die of suffocation. Epidemic situation: this parasite has no particular selectivity to host. That's to say, it can invade any fresh water fish, especially pond fish. It can cause disease and bring mass mortality, mainly to Grass carp summer fingerlings. It is reported on all fish farms across the country. The epidemic season is from May to Oct. with a high peak from July to September often in accute form. Control: A. Bathe fingerlings with copper sulphate solution at a concentration of 8 ppm for 2030 minutes before stocking. B. Disinfect the feeding place with mixture of copper sulphate and ferrous sulpate by hanging method during the prevalence. C. The infected pond can be treated with mixture of copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate to make the pond water at a concentration of 0.7 ppm. D. It is effective to bathe fish with 23% table salt solution for 5 minutes. (2) Myxosporidiasis Pathogen: Many species belong to the order of Myxospor; the class, of Sporoza. Such parasites have the ability to parasitize any organs or tissues of all kinds of fish. Up to now, over 100 species which can parasitize the freshwater fishes have been found in China. Some species will cause harmful epidemic. A spore of myxosporidia is formed by two Chitin shells of same size and thickness, holding the character of plasmodium. The line that two shells joins is called sutural line. The sutural line, because of thickness or protuberance, shows the ridge texture, which called sutural ridge. The side with sutural ridge is called sutural side (or lateral side). The side without sutural ridge is

called shell side, (or front side). The spore contains polar capsules and sporoplasm. The amount of polar capsules that a spore has is not the same because of different species, generally from one to four. Each polar capsule has a polar filament that curls spirally. The number of nuclei inside the sporoplasm may differ in different developmental stages of the spore. Some species contain a iodinophilous vacuole which can be stained in brown with Lugol's solution (Fig. 6--12).

A shell view of the spore

A sutural view of the spore

A top view of the spore 1. Anterior end 3. sporoshell 5. polar capsule and its nucleus 7. cytoplasm 2. polar capsule pore 4. polar filament 6. embryonic nucleus

8. iodiophilous vacuole 10. intercapsular 9. posterior plication appandix 11. sutural line and sutural 12. pore of polar ridge filament

Myxosporidia parasitize host generally in the form of cytocyst. The most dangerous Myxosporidia that parasitize fish skin are Myxobolus koi, Myxobolus ellipsoides, Thelohanellus rohitae, etc. (Fig. 6--12) Myxosporidia parasitizing fish gills are Sphearospora amurensis, Myxobolus dispar (Fig. 6--13). Myxosporidia attacking intestine are Myxosoma lieni, M. artus (Fig. 6--14). A great amount of Myxobolus lieni (Fig. 6--15) that parasitize the central nerves and sensory organs of Silver carp and Bighead will lead to whirling disease.

Fig. 6--12 Common Myxosporidia on the skin of cultivated fishes (after PATHOGENIC FAUNAGRAPHY OF FISH DISEASE IN HUBEI PROVINCE)
1--2 Myxobolus koi 5. Thelohanellus 8--9 Henneguya sinensis 3--4 Myxobolus ellipsoides 6--7 Thelohanellus fuhrmanni

Fig. 6--13 Myxosporidia commonly seen on gills of cultured fishes (after PATHOGENIC FAUNAGRAPHY OF FISH DISEASE IN HUBEI PROVINCE)
1--3 Sphaeropsora amurensis 6--7 Myxobolus dispar 10--11 Muxosoma varius 4--5 Myxobolus musculi 8--9 M. abitus

Fig. 6--14 Myxosporidia easily found in the intestines of cultured fish (after the PATHOGENIC FAUNAGRAPHY OF FISH DISEASE IN HUBEI PROVINCE)
1--2 Myxosoma sinensis 5--6 Myxobolus symetricus 9--11 Myxobolus artus 3--4 Myxosoma lieni 7--8 Myxobolus lomi

Fig. 6--15 Myxobolus lieni in the brain of Silver carp (after the PATHOGENIC FAUNAGRAPHY OF FISH DISEASE IN HUBEI PROVINCE)
1--3 A shell view of the spore 4. A sutural view of the spore

Control: A. Eradicate the spore inside the pond silt by sterilizing the pond with 100kg of nitro lime (CaN2) /mu or 125kg of quick lime/mu. In the fry and fingerling stages of Silver carp (June-Sept.), sprinkle dipterex powder to make the pond water at a concentration of 5 ppm twice a month so as to prevent whirling disease of Silver carp. B. Bathe Mud carp with 1% crystal dipterex (of 90% effective element) for 3--10 minutes, and at the same time, sprinkle the pond with crystal dipterex to make the pond water at a concentration of 0.2--0.3 ppm. It is effective to control Myxosporidiasis of Mud carp. C. Feed every 10000 fry with 2g of paludrine 5 days after fry nursing for six consecutive days to control the Myxobolus artus. (3) Ichthyophythiriasis Pathogen: Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. Its bodily form and size differ much in different developmental stages (Fig. 6--16)

Fig. 6--16 Ichthyophthirius multifiliis

A. Matured stage 1. cytostome 3. macronucleus 5. food granule 1. driller 3. macronucleus 5. cytostome 2. cilia 4. ciliary yarn 6. contractile vacuole 2. micronucleus 4. reflecting body 6. caudal cilia

B. Larval stage

Syptoms and pathological changes: the skin, fin rays operculum are covered with many white protuberant pustules, for this reason, it is also named white dot disease. If a fish is seriously sick, its skin is smeared with a layer of white membrane. The sick fish is slow in swimming and

in response, floating on surface. Occasionally, they are running around the pond in groups. The sick fish keeps rubbing itself against other objects, or jumping out of water surface. This disease will cause mass mortality. The white dot on the skin is formed by the proliferation of epidermal cells together with enormous mucus secreted due to irritation which is caused by the drilling of parasites on the epidermis. Because of the damage caused by parasites and secondary bacterial infection, epidermal phlogosis happens; local necrosis appears; scales are easily . Fin rays are rotten and split open. The presence of parasite on branchial tissues destroys the gill lamella, and stimulates the secretion of mucus. The branchial epithelia around the parasites proliferate. The congestion of gill vein or histological anemia of local gills are caused. The invasion of parasite into cornea of fish may cause phlogosis and blindness. The diseased fish will die due to dyspnea and no appetite. Epidemic situation: It is widely spreaded across the country, and it is one of the major protozoa diseases. Freshwarer fishes of all developmental stages are apt to the infection with fingerlings as a main victim. Ornamental fish in aquarium or petty cement tanks also die of this disease. The optimum water temperature for the proliferation of the parasite is 15--25C. So early winter and late spring is its prevalent season. The fish in high-density-overwintering ponds is more susceptable to the disease. Control: A. Prevent the transmission of Ich. by disinfecting the pond with quick lime, rearing with a rational density and conducting quarantine and sterilization of fingerlings before stocking. B. According to reports, bathe fingerlings with a mixed solution of malachite green at a concentration of 0.05 ppm and formalin at a concentration of 25 ppm twice a day. It is not to be used for food fish. C. It is effective to immerse fingerlings with malachite green solution at a concentration of 0.2--0.4 ppm for 2 hours. This method was used by Beijing Fishery Research Institute. D. In Europe, some people deal the disease with methylene blue or prevent the white dot disease by treating fish with sea water (salinity is over 1%). (4) Trichodinasis & Trichodinelliasis Pathogen: A number of species of the genus Trichodina and the genus Trichodinella. Lateral view of the parasite looks like a hat, and in aboral view, it resembles a round plate. It moves like a rolling wheel. The convex part of the parasite is called adoral end. And the opposite of adoral end is called aboral end on which there is counterclockwise adoral groove stretching to the cytostome. On each side of the adoral groove there is a line of cilia, forming an oral zone that extends to vestibule. The cytostome is linked with cytopharynx and in the proximity of cytopharynx there is a contractile vacuole. The shape of macronucleus varies in species: some, horseshoe-shaped; some, sausage-shaped, etc. Micronucleus is rod-shaped or sphere-shaped, generally in the proximity of outer margin of the macronucleus end. On the aboral and there is a posterior girdle of cilia. There are two lines of rather short cilia, one called upper marginal cilia and the other called lower marginal cilia. Some species have a thin and transparent membrane called border membrane, behind the lower marginal cilia. The aboral end is concave and its most apparent structure is denticulating ring and chitin striated ring. The denticulating ring is formed by many denticles that join together. The number and shape of denticules and the

number of radiant rays on each denticle differ in species. A live parasite attaches to the skin or gill of host with its adhesive disc. Sometimes it contracts its border membrane, moves its posterior girdle of cilia and keeps sliding on the skin and gill. When swimming freely after leaving its host, the parasite spins like a wheel with its aboral end forward. The reproduction includes asexual longitudinal division and sexual reproduction by conjugation. The optimum temperature for reproduction of Trichodina is 20--28C (Fig. 6--17).

Fig. 6--17 Structure of Trichodina (lateral view)

1. adoral groove and oral cilia 2. cytostome zone 3. cytopharynx 4. macronucleus 6. Contractile 5. micromucleus vacuole 7. denticulating ring 8. Striate 10. upper marginal 9. posterior girdle of cilia cilia 12. border 11. lower marginal cilia membrane

Symptoms and pathological changes: Trichodina can cause infection to fish of any developmental stages, but mainly jeapodise juvenile fish, especially the juvenile fish of merely 5 cm in body length and the infestation will cause severe mortality. Generally, the parasite do not harm adult fish too much. Trichodina of larger species mainly invade the skin of juvenile fish and live on the tissue cells of fish and destroy the delicate fish skin. Trichodinella chiefly parasitize the gill, and concentrate along the branchial periphery or between the gaps of gill filaments to destroy the gill tissues. When it is serious, the gill tissue rots and the cartilage exposed. The respiratory function of fish is thus seriously impeded and finally the fish is bound to die. Epidemic situation: Trichodinasis is one of the rather dangerous diseases during fry and fingerlings stage. It is prevalent in all fish culture places of our country, especially on farms along Yangtze River Valley and the West River Valley. Every year from May to August when fry is nurtured to summer fingerlings, serious trichodinasis often occurs and causes high mortality to fry and fingerlings. The disease is more apt to occur in small ponds with shallow water, poor water quality, high density and continuous rain. Control:

A. Disinfect fingerlings with copper sulphate solution at a concentration of 8 ppm for 20--30 minutes or with table salt water 1--2% for 2--10 minutes. B. Inhibit the reproduction of Trichodina by soaking 15--20kg Chinaberry Melia azederach tree leaves per mu and renew the leaves once a week. And it is also effective to sprinkle the pond with 25--30 kg of decoction of fresh branch and leaves of China berry. C. It is promising to treat the pond with mixture of copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate at a concentration of 0.7 ppm (ratio 5:2) D. It is reported in Japan that formalin solution at a concentration of 30 ppm can kill the Trichodina on juvenile eel gill, but it brings in a disadvantage of deteriorating water quality and affecting the appetite. (5) Dactylogyrosis Pathogen: many species of the genus Dactylogyrus. The pathogenic species parasitizing the cultured fish in China are as follows: A. D. lamellatus, parasitizing the gill, skin and fin of Grass carp. The shape of its body is flat, 0.1920.529mm long, 0.0720.136 mm wide. (Figure 619) B. D. aristichthys, parasitizing the gill of Bighead. C. D. hypophthalmichthys, parasitizing gill filaments of Silver carp. D. D. vastator, parasitizing the gill filaments of Common carp, Crucian carp and pet fish.

Fig. 618 D. lamellatus. Symptoms and pathological changes: the infestation of parasites makes the morbid fish secrete more mucus with local or entire gill pale, operculum open, dyspnea, evident dropsy of gills (more distinct on Bighead). The morbid fish swims slowly and shows anaemia. The number of monocyte and coenocytic leukocyte increases. Epidemic situation: it is one of the common diseases, prevalent in late spring and early summer. The optimum temperature of the parasitism is about 2025C. Such a disease mainly endangers Silver carp, Bighead and Grass carp. Control: A. Before stocking, bathe fingerlings with potassium permanganate at a concentration of 20 ppm for 1530 minutes to kill the Dactylogyrus parasitizing fingerlings. B. Spread 90% crystal dipterex to the pond to make the pond water at a concentration of 0.20.3 ppm at the water temperature of 2030C. C. Treat the pond with 2.5% dipterex powder to make the pond water at a concentration of 12 ppm. D. Sprinkle the pond with the mixture of dipterex and sodium carbonate (ratio 1:0.6) to make the pond water at a concentration of 0.10.24ppm. (6) Sinergasilusis Pathogen: Some species of female parasites belonging to the genus Sinergasilus which parasitize fish gill and cause disease (Fig. 619). Three common species of the Sinergasilus that parasitize the cultivated fishes are as follows: A. S. polycolpus, parasitizing the interior side of the gill filament tips of Silver carp and Bighead, and gill rakers of Silver carp. B. S. undulatus, parasitizing the interior side of gill filament tips of Common carp and Crucian carp. C. S. major, parasitizing the interior side of the gill filament tips of Grass carp, Black carp, Cat fish, Trout and freshwater salmon. The adult female: the body is slim in cylindric shape, consisting of three parts: head, thorax and abdomen. The whole body is obviously segmented and the head appears slightly triangleshaped. It has five pairs of appendages among which the second pair of antenna has been specialized into slim big hook which is capable to hook gill filament tissues. The width of the segments equals the length for the first four thoracic segments or the width is somewhat longer than the length. The fifth thoracic segment is comparatively smaller. The sixth thoracic segment is a narrow genital segment on which a pair of ovisacs are seen, hanging down during the breeding season. Five pairs of swimmeret on the thorax are in biramous type. There are three segments on the abdomen with a short pseudosegment between the first and the second and between the second and the third segment respectively. And a pair of caudal furca exist on the tail end. The male: it is in a shape of cyclopida, leading a free life. It is many times smaller than the female. A pair of maxilliped exists on the head to embrace the female in mating.

Fig. 6--19 Sinergasilus major, S. polycolpus and S. undulatus 12 S. major and its second antenna 34 S. polycolpus and its second antenna 56 S. undulatus and its second antenna Symptoms and pathological changes: S. major is more harmful than the other two. It usually invades Grass carp which are over two years old, occasionally parasitizes gill filaments of rather big underyearling of Grass carp. The female parasite clutches the gill with its big hook of the second antenna to destroy the gill tissues, making so many wounds that the local inflammation and festering for gill filament, occur and even the tips of gill filament curves and deforms. What's more, as the Sinergasilus eats food, its mouth secretes a kind of enzyme to dissolve the tissues of the host, breaking the branchial epidermis, loosing the cells, damaging the nearby capillaries, and causing anemia to some part of gill tissues. Diseased fish often jumps in water by uneasiness that affects the appetite and health. Complications of other disease may accelerate the death (Fig. 6--20).

Fig. 6--20 Gill of two-year-old Grass carp invaded by Sinergasilus major Epidemic situation: it is widely spreaded in China. The reproduction period is from April to November every year along Yangtze River valley. The main epidemic season is from May to September. S. major mainly harms Grass carp which are over two years old, and S. polycolpus basically endangers Silver carp and Bighead which are over two years old. Serious case can cause mortality. Control A. Prevent the occurance by rotary farming system, because the pathogen has a strict selectivity to certain hosts. B. Before stocking. Bathe fingerlings with mixture of copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate (ratio 5:2) at a concentration of 7 ppm for 30 minutes. C. It is effective to spray the pond with the mixture of copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate (5:2) to bring the pond water to a concentration of 0.7 ppm. D. Treat the pond with mixture of 2.5% dipterex powder and ferrous sulphate (ratio 1.2 : 0.2) to keep the pond water at a concentration of 1.4 ppm. (7) Lernaesis (anchor worm) Pathogen: some species of genus Lernaea. The most important three species in China are as follows: A. Lernaea polymorpha, parasitizing Silver carp, Bighead and Wuchang fish. B. L. cyprinacea, parasitizing Common carp, Crucian carp, Silver carp and Bighead. C. L. Ctenopharyngodontis, parasitizing Grass carp. The appearance of the female parasite is slim, like a needle. The body measures 6--12.4mm in length, consisting of head, thorax and abdomen. There is no distinctive demarcation between the three sections. On the head, there is a pair of dorsal horns and a pair of abdominal horns. They are like anchors that enable the parasite to fix itself into the host musculature. So it is also named anchor worm. The shapes of the cephalic horns differ in species. Thoracic region is long like a tube. The anterior part is narrow but it gets broad towards the posterior end. There is

a pair of genital pores on the abdomen of the terminal part. In the reproduction season, there is a pair of long ovisacs measuring 2--3mm in length, hanging down from the genital pore. The thoracic region of the female parasite has five pairs of swimming legs. After obtaining abundant nutrition, the thorax is expanding and extending. These make the five pairs of swimmeret degenerate and split apart. (Fig. 6--21). The male parasite is small, resembling cyclopida, living a free life, but it occasionally lives on fish for a short time.
1. Ventral horn 2. Head lobe 3. Dorsal horn 4. First swimming leg 5. Second swimming leg 6. Third swimming leg 7. Fourth swimming leg. 8. Fifth swimming leg 9. The front part of genital segment is protuberant. 10. Ovulation pore 11. Caudal furca

12. Egg sac

Fig. 6--21 Structure of female Lernaea After living on fish, the female parasite develops into three phases: baby parasite, matured parasite and old parasite. The baby parasite looks like fine white hair, without ovisac. The matured parasite has a transparent body. The moving of intestine inside the body is visible, and there is a pair of green ovisacs near the genital pore. Touching with your hand, the parasite will erect. The body of old parasite is rather turbid and soft, and carries many protozoans that live a free life such as Epistylis, showing an old sight. Such parasite will die soon and fall off the fish. Symptoms and pathological changes: in an initial stage, the sick fish shows uneasy, poor appetite, thin body and slow movement. The surrounding parts where Lernaea penetrates are inflammated and swollen, and tissues are necrosing. The wounds are often invaded by Saprolegnia. 45 individual Lernaea on a juvenile fish of 6--9cm can cause death. 12 parasites on a young fish are even able to retard the growth or deform the host.

Epidemic situation: It is widely spread in Guangdong, Guangxi Fujian Provinces. The incidence is high and its intensity is great. Prevalent season is long. The disease is one of the major diseases in these places. The epidemic season along the Yangtzs River Valley is from April to October (when water temperature is 1533C) that's the right season for Lernaea to reproduce, especially in Autumn. Control: A. Bathe the fingerling attacked by Lernaea with potassium permanganate solution at a concentration of 1020 ppm for 1.5--2 hours before stocking. B. Spray the pond with 90% crystal dipterex to make the pond water at a concentration of 0.30.5 ppm for 34 times at an interval of 34 days. C. Treatment with potassium permanganate: for the diseased Grass carp, bathe the fish for 1.52 hours with solution at a concentration of 20 ppm at water temperature of 1520C, or 10 ppm/2130C. And as for the diseased Silver carp and Bighead, the procedure is as follows: immersion in potassium permanganate solution at a concentration of 33 ppm below 10C; 20 ppm 1020C; 12.5 ppm between 2030C; 10 ppm over 30C. The baby and matured Lernaea can be eliminated by using above-mentioned solution after one hour. D. Immunity: since the Lernaea has a strict selectivity to certain hosts, we can prevent the disease by adopting the method of culturing in rotation or immunizing fingerlings. Thus, the immunized fish will gain a resistance over one year, and stocking such fish into large water area will not cause Lernaelasis. E. Change the water quality suddenly, e.g. apply 400kg of fermented cow dung or pig manure, or 100150kg of distiller's dregs/mu/1m water depth. 3) Control of other diseases and fish enemies Undersirable water temperature, water quality, mechanical lesions, insuffieient feeding, chemical substances may cause diseases, even mortality, such as gas bubble disease, horserunning disease and deformality (Fig. 6--22).

Fig. 6--22 Gas bubble disease, horse-running disease and deformality In the fry nurturing stage, we often find some fish diseases caused by lower plant. e.g. Filamentous green algae (Fig. 6--23) and the disease caused by animals. e.g. water centipede, amd fish killers Kirkaldyia deyrollei. Frog is also a dangerous predator of fry and fingerlings.

Fig. 6--23 Filamentous green algae

1. Spirogyra 2. Zygnema 3. Mougeotia

Fig. 6--24 Water centipede and fish killers

1. water centipede nymph of Cybister sp. 2. fish killers

References Science of the culture of Freshwater fish species in China Huang Chiyian, Tang Silian Fish pathology 4, 1983. Zhou Wengong, Chen Hinfu Handbook of common fish disease control 10, 1981. Handbook of fish disease control Handbook of fish disease investigation Pond fish culture in China 7, 1983.

CHAPTER VII INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE INTEGRATED FISH FARMING AND ITS MAJOR MODELS
Section 1. Introduction of Integrated Fish Farming Chinese integrated fish farming system is so broad in scale with so many models that there is no comparative in the world, and it has developed its own characteristics as well. This technology attracts the world's attention. Perhaps, the reason for this is that it can fully develop and utilize local natural resources and it can produce more materials for the people and it can satisfy the needs of the world economic development on many aspects. 1. The advantages of integrated fish farming 1) Establishment of a man-made ecosystem without any wastes In developed countries, the more their industry develops, the more intensive their farming is, and the larger the scale of chicken and pig raising factory farms is, the more the wastes accumulate, e.g. in Japan, only the excreta of cattle, pig and chicken reach more than 70 million metric tons per annum. If this great amount of excreta is not disposed of, it must pollute the environment. The annual output of animal manures is considerably high ---10.411.8 tons per black-and-white cow; 4.14.7 tons per pig; 0.040.07 tons per duck. The decomposition of so much excreta produces gaseous ammonia, etc. The odour pervades everywhere. As a result, the water, the land and the air are all polluted and it will jeopardize the people's health. In fact, the manures of livestock and poultry are good organic fertilizers for fish farming. About 4050 kg of organic manures can be converted into one kg of fresh fish. If the farm combines fish farming with mulberry cultivation, sericulture and silk extraction from the cocoons, the pupae will be a fine feed for fish while the worm faeces and waste water obtained at the processing factory are used as pond fertilizers. In an integrated fish farm, the manures of livestock and poultry and the dregs, lees and waste water obtained from starch processing and wine brewing are all used for fish farming. The pond silt can be used as fertilizers for terrestrial fodder crops which can in turn be used to raise livestock and poultry or directly for fish farming. Thus, it forms a recycling ecosystem, which utilizes various wastes and afterwards, an agricultural ecosystem can be set up without any wastes. (see Fig. 1) 2) Increasing the food supply for the mankind

Short supply of food and protein is a serious problem that we are now facing. Therefore, merely using the pelleted feeds of grains and animal protein as fish feeds is not economical and often makes the food for the mankind more insufficient. If the grains such as wheat are used in fish culture, the output could be up to 48159750 kg/ha. But the average Food Conversion Rate of grain is 3, i.e. 3 kg of grains in dry weight could converted into 1 kg of fresh fish. This kind of fish culture is not suitable for the countries which want for food. However, the natural food organisms cultured in fish ponds by using organic manures could totally take the place of pelleted feeds or grains. The quality of fish will not be changed by using animal manures as fertilizers in fish culture. The daily output could reach 1532.25 kg/ha or even higher. E.g. Helei Fish Farm in Wuxi has not only built fish ponds with an area of 69.4 ha but also a dairy with 100 cows and pigsties with 1000 pigs and duck yards producing 10,000 eggs per day. It has become a subsidiary food production base, which is an integration of aquaculture industry and commerce. So far as aquaculture is concerned, they combine fish farming with livestock and poultry raising, however, putting fish farming first. In 1981, it supplied not only large amount of fertilizers to produce 600,000 kg of fish for market but also supplied 490,000 kg of pork, etc. The scope of integration in an integrated fish farm could be considerably wide. Apart from fish cultured in the water body, the water surface can be used for goose and duck raising, pond dikes for fruit tree and mulberry cultivation or for setting up pig-sties, slopes for fodder crops. The products from an integrated fish farm are not only fish but also meat, milk, eggs, fruit, vegetables, etc. It is apparent that integrated fish farming can fully utilize the water body, the water surface, the land and the pond silt, etc. to increase the food supply for people. 3) More job offer In unitary fish farm, the labour force cannot be reasonably employed while the integrated fish farm may offer more jobs, for example, in Helei Fish Farm, the occupations except fish culture offer 149 jobs, among which there are 48 persons for duck raising, 19 for cow farming, 14 for pig raising. 4) Reducing the cost, raising the output and increasing economic benefits Nowadays, the problem that the aquaculture in developed countries is facing is that the cost of pelleted feeds is too high. It is related to energy crisis and protein shortage also. The integrated fish farm produces feeds and fertilizers for itself, savrer energy and reducing. expenditure considerably, e.g. in 1981, Helei Fish Farm produced 5.5 million kg of pig manure, 1.85 million kg of cow dung, 1 million kg of duck manure, 9.5 million kg of waste water from silk extracting workshop. The total amount of organic fertilizers was 17.65 million kg. Outflow of animal excreta by gravity could reduce the production cost by about 97 year each mu of fish pond. In 1976, Helei Fish Farm began to put duck, cow and pig raising into integrated fish farming system, food processing industry in 1979 and commerce in 1980. During the period of 1977 1981, the yield of fresh fish increased from 115,000 kg to 600,000 kg (the same area) while the yields of livestock and poultry increased from 135,000 kg to 490,000 kg. In 1981, average income per capita increased by 120. over the year of the establishment of the fish farm in 1966 (See Fig. 2). The annual net fish production of integrated fish farms, only by using organic manures. 2. The characteristics of Chinese integrated fish farming

1) The integrated fish farming practices have developed into a complicated structural network in line with the local conditions. China is a vast country with a large population and varied natural environments. The agricultural structure and the economic conditions of each locality are also different. Therefore, various integrated fish farming systems in line with the local conditions have developed into a complicated structural network. The Pearl River Delta is located to the south of the Tropic of Cancer. Its annual solar irradiation is 110 kcal/cm2 but averaging 60 Kcal/cm2. Average temperature is about 22C; 23 days of frost a year; more rain and high temperature in summer with maximum temperature of about 37C and relative humidity 7685%; annual sunshine time between 2000 and 2500 hours. Such geographic and climatic conditions are very conducive to the cultivation of mulberry trees, sericulture and fish farming. Hence, the farmers in the Pearl River Delta through production practices have been able to take advantage of local natural resources by integrating mulberry cultivation and sericulture with fish farming, which leads to the establishment of a complete, scientific mulberry plot-fish pond man-made ecosystem. Even in the same geographical zone, the items of integration by various production units are different. Helei Fish Farm, Xinan Fish Farm, Helei First Fishery Brigade, Wangzhuang Fish Farm as well as the Municipal Fish Culture Farm in Wuxi practise different items of integration. (See Fig. 3, 4, 5 and 6). Liutan village has recently incorporated agriculture, sideline occupations, aquaculture and commerce into its integrated system. The integrated fish farm was established in 1980. The farm site was earlier a water-logged paddy field of 17.33 ha, subject to annual flooding and with low yield of agricultural crops. Based on the topography of the low land, the farmers restructured the land into fish ponds of 10.67 ha. in the winter of 1979 and the spring of 1980. The farm consists of 15 grow-out ponds (8 ha), 11 fingerling ponds (2.67 ha). Apart from pig raising, green fodder planting is the major item of the integrated management. It has 1.33 ha of pond dykes for the cultivation of English rye grass (Lolium pereme), sow thistle (Lactuca indica), etc. They utilized water cane shoots field to cultivate duckweed with average yield of 37,500 45,000 kg/ha. With sufficient supply of green fodder, Grass carp and Wuchang fish (Megalobrama spp.) become the dominant cultured species, with the yield of 5250 kg/ha, that is 45% of the total pond fish production. It indicates that the maximal efficiency of the integrated fish farming system can be obtained only through maximal utilization of natural conditions and the agricultural characteristics of the regions concerned. The socio-economic conditions should be taken into consideration in developing integrated fish farming. The fact is that the diversified economy develops in the harmonious interaction among the socioeconomic conditions, agricultural production, and natural conditions on the basis of regional climatical differences. Since the development of integrated fish farming is site-specific and the conditions of each site are different and complicated either from the macro or micro view points, the linkage between the trades of integrated fish farms in China become a complex matrix. Simple modele involving mono-integration of fish-cum-animal husbandry, fish-cumpoultry or fish-cum-crops are now getting fewer and fewer in China with the exception of smallscale individual farms. 2) Utilising wastes by various ways of recycling

The integrated system of fish farming is rather complicates involving various forms of integrations and methods in utilization of organic wastes. The animal excreta alone can be effectively utilized through employing various methods and techniques. 1. Fresh animal manure can be applied directly to the fish ponds. pigsties, poultry coops and pens for ducks and geese can be constructed on the dikes or above the ponds. Fresh manure thus enter the ponds directly, avoiding energy losses due to processing of manure and transportation. The feedstuff of livestock are not fully digested and then can be directly utilized by fish. Therefore, the number of animals should be compatible with unit water surface. 2. The residues and liquid part after anaerobic fermentation to produce biogas are used for fertilizing fish ponds. Compost after aerobic fermentation can also be used for fish culture. 3. Animal manure can be used indirectly through one or two trophic levels in a food chain such as growing fodder crop to feed herbivorous fish, producing earthworms or other animal-feedstuff for carnivorous fish directly or used as part of the composition of pelleted feeds. 4. Poultry manure can be used to feed pigs and pig manure can in turn be used as fertilizers for fish pond. 3. Further development and Research needs The prosperity of agricultural economy and the application of new technology stimulated and improved the production of integrated fish farming, e.g. the use of aerators and the mechanization, to certain extent, raised production efficiency of the classical mode of Chinese fish culture. Although integrated fish farming has long been practised in China and rich experience has been gained through years of improvement and considerably high yields have been achieved, the scientific basis for some of the existing techniques are still awaiting clarification. In order to raise the efficiency of integrated fish farming considerably, the biological basis of integrated fish farming must be studied, finding out the rule and developing aquaculture technology. In theory, two ecosystems must be clarified: First, the integrated fish-livestock-crop land-and-water ecosytem research should be carried out on its structure and functions so as to set up an optimal and harmoneous ecosystem on a perfect structure and with sound functions; second, the pond ecosystem. The structural research concerns the biological interaction among fish, livestock and crops and their matched proportion. Material cycle and energy flow should be measured to elucidate the biological relationship and exact proportion of quantity among these production links. So far as the land-and-water structural ecosystem of integration is concerned, crops are producers; livestock and fish are consumers; aquatic organisms and soil organisms are decomposers. It is a rather complete ecosystem. In this system, benign circulation demands that there be no wastes in any link of this structure and the production be not hindered by lack of sufficient energy. For this reason, it needs a thorough research on fish pond ecosystem. Manureloaded pond is a semi-closed man-made ecosystem. Being put into fish ponds, animal manures begin to enter into the process of decomposition by bacteria. It's a complex process of pond dynamics in which animal manures will be converted into fish protein. It involves many factors such as

physical or chemical parameters or biological factors in food chains. In order to investigate the rule of variation and intricate relationship between biology and non-biology, the research needs cooperation and common efforts of different scientists and specialists from multidisciplines such as aquaculture, ecology, botany, microbiology and chemistry. Integrated fish farming is a low energy consumptive but high efficient aquaculture system. It's a right way to develop fresh water fish culture and also it's a strategic measure of developing Chinese aquaculture. Integrated fish farming will play a promising role in solving the problem of hard to get fish.

Fig. 1. Diagram on substance recycling of ecosystem in wall-managed integrated fish farm

Fig. 2. (a) Income from 1977 to 1981

(b) Average production volume dra wage from 1977 to 1981

Fig. 3. Xinan Fish Farm, 14 Yuan People's

Fig.4. Fishery Team Number:

Fig 5. Wang Chauan people Commune fish farm Fig. 6

Section 2 Integrated Management of Fish and Crop Farming Fish-cum-crop integration is the most ancient and popular pattern of integrated fish farming. 1. The necessity and the feasibility of fish-cum-crop integration Why can we combine fish farming with crop cultivation? It's due to the demand of fish feeds and the excessive pond silt. On one hand, abundant silt deteriorates the pond water and yet on the other hand, it is one of high quality manures for agriculture to plant fodder crops which can in turn be used as feeds for fish. Therefore, pond silt is a link between fish and crops in this integration. 1) Formation and function of pond silt Large amount of feeds and manures are put into fish ponds year after year. There is a considerable amount of residues and manures which often sink to the bottom. Moreover, the excrements of fish and aquatic animals, the corpse of the aquatic, and alluvial soil incessantly

descend to the bottom too. The sedimentary organic material decomposed by bacteria forms a great deal of humus, which in turn combines with sludge on the surface of the pond bottom to form silt. The thickness of silt varies greatly with many factors. Even in the same pond, the thickness in different locations is different. The mean thickness formed in a high-yielding earthen pond with target yield of 500 kg/mu and with no slope protection is about 1020 cm, which is about 5095 m3/mu/year or 100190 tons in wet weight. The proper amount of silt is beneficial to fertilize the pond water whereas the excessive amount is not so good to fish. Microbes propagate rapidly when large amount of feeds and manures are applied. The pH value will decline, the BOD will increase, and gases such as nitrites NH3, H2S, CH4, PH3, etc. and surplus nitrites will do harm to fish. The median tolerated limit (TLm) value of Silver carp and Bighead fry in 24 hours at the temperature of 25C is 0.91 mg/l and 0.46 mg/l respectively. Grass carp is more susceptible (Lei Xingzhi Et al 1983). Surplus nitrites will easily induce hemorrhagic septicemia of fish. Silt contains a lot of ichthyopathogen parasites and other harmful creatures. The more the thickness of silt, the more the deterioration of the pond water. It directly affects fish yields and thus, the excessive silt should be removed after the pond is drained. On the other side of the coin, silt is a manure of high quality which contains several nutritive elements. In Pearl River Delta and Taihu Lake basin, the pond silt is often removed 3 to 6 times every year. The nutritive content of the pond silt is shown in Table 7-2-1 and 7-2-2. Table 7-2-1 Nutritive Content of Various Silt
organic substance (%) 2.45 2.10 Ttl P Ttl N (%) (%) P2O5 0.20 0.16 Ttl K N in K2O ammonium (%) form 1.00 273 N in nitrate form 6 Quick Quick acting P acting K (ppm) (ppm) 97 245

Kind Pond silt Silt in pigmanured pond

0.201 0.234 2.39 0.21 0.29 0.27 0.36 1.82 1.25 1.4 22.5 2.8 562.2 17.5

Silt in ponds with composite feeds 3.23 and manures River silt 5.28

Table 7-2-2 Equivalent Weight of Fertilizers to Silt

Equivalent wt.

Silt nutritive

Total N,P,K

Quick Acting N,P,K

Fertilizers nutritive N 21% ammonium sulphate 46% urin P P2O5 16% calcium super phosphate K K2O 60% potassium oxide Ttl

100kg dry silt 0.962 0.435 1.0 1.667 3.629

dry silt/mu /year 481 217 500 834 1815

100kg dry silt 0.134 0.061 0.061 0.041 0.236

dry silt/mu/yr 67 31 31 21 119

The nitrogen content of pond silt/mu/year is equal to 481 kg of ammonium sulphate. Furthermore, as pond silt is quite complete in nutrition, it contains not only nitrogen but also phosphorus and potassium. Generally, of silt is removed per mu per year and that is equal to 1.2 tons of N.P.K. fertilizers. The quick-acting component of silt is equal to 119 kg of fertilizers, which can also serve as additional manure besides the basal one. Silt could increase the thickness of cultivation layer, improve the soil particle structure and strengthen its ability to absorb ions of N.P.K. and the ability to keep the water. It is beneficial to the prevention of fish diseases. Since it is also a slow-acting fertilizer which is beneficial to late crops. In terms of mass's experience, the quick-acting component of 100 kg of silt in dry weight can increase 1 kg of rice. If we only use silt as fertilizer, 100 kg of silt in dry weight can produce 10 kg of rye grass. Provided that 50 m3 of silt is removed from each mu of fish ponds, all the silt can be used to cultivate 6 mu of rice, and then it could increase about 500 kg of rice; if it is used to cultivate rye grass, the output can reach over 6000 kg/mu. The yield can be increased by 2.5 times. From investigation data, the yield of per-unit paddy field by using 1015 tons of silt composted with green grasses is near to the one by using 5 tons of animal manures composted. The cost of digging silt in China is cheaper than the one of purchasing animal manures from outside the fish farm. 2) The demand of feeds in fish farming The demand of both commercial feeds and natural food organisms is great in fish farming alone. The feeds and foods sometimes are hard to get and the great amount of supply also affects the balance of the market and ecology. Besides, the cost of transportation and energy consumption is surprising. The fish pond with the target net yield of 250 kg including 100 kg of herbivorous fish, 100 kg of planktoneater, 50 kg of omnivorous fish needs 1500 kg of aquatic grass, 1000 kg of vegetables, 150 kg of grains apart from manures. In order to meet the demand of feeds and foods in fish farming and to reduce the cost, it's necessary to combine fish farming with crop cultivation. 3) The feasibility of fish-cum-crop integration Aquaculture can provide large amount of silt and fertile water for agriculture. There still exists a potentiality of land on fish farms. E.g. the mean pond dyke is three meters wide, the gradient of a slope is 1:1.53. The mean area of a fish pond is 10 mu. The arable area of pond dyke and slope and the area of the water surface is in the ratio of one to five. The arable land might be greater before May with shallow water in the pond. With extra 0.3 mu of forage field attached to one mu of fish pond plus all the areas available, the average forage field for one mu of fish pond could amount to 0.5 mu or even higher which can provide fodder crops for herbivorous fish and

proportionable filter-feeding fish in one-mu fish pond with net target yield of 400 kg. What's more, it's possible to plant aquatic plants on scattered unused surface. In short, it is necessary and feasible to integrate fish farming with crop production so as to fully utilize pond silt, arable land and water surface. As a result of that, the needs of fish feeds could be satisfied wholly or partially. 2. Major patterns of fish-cum-crop integration According to crop variety and various cultivation systems, fishcum-crop integration can be divided into four patterns: fish farming integrated with terrestrial crop production; cultivating crops in ponds first, fish farming next; fish farming combined with aquatic plant cultivation and dyke-pond system. 1) Fish-cum-terrestrial crops integration All or most part of crops planted in the fodder crop field and corner plots on pond dykes and slopes are used as green fodder for fish and as fertilizers for ponds. This is the most popular pattern in fish-cum-crop integration. (1) Crop variety Choose crop variety which are palatable to fish, rich in nutrition, strong in resistance to diseases, easy to manage and has features such as well-developed root, which protects the slope, etc. If it serves as straw manure, it should be easy to decompose. (See Table 7-2-3) Besides, the average yield of some leguminous plants such as Trifolium repens, T.pratense, Medicago sativa, Astragaluo sinicus can reach 50007500 kg/mu. These grasses serve as both feeds and fertilizers. The average yield of some gramineous plants such as Pennisetum purpureum, Phalarosarundinacea, Pennisetum alopecuroidescross, P. purpureum can reach over 10,000 kg/mu. The seeds and young crops of other grains such as barley, wheat, maize and rice are also palatable foods of fish. The tender and juicy vines and leaves of sweet potatoes Ipomoea batatas and squash Cucurbita are pulverized as fish feeds for Grass carp in Wuxi area. The tuber and squash, etc. are cooked to feed feed-eaters. (2) Collocation of fish farming and crop cultivation (i) Collocation of production period The ingestive variation of fish is caused by the growth of fish and environmental conditions. Among the environmental conditions, the seasonal change of water temperature is the main factor. The production period, therefore, has to be collocated with this variation of fish ingestion so as to synchronize the daily production of fodder grass with the daily ingestion of fish. The period of the lowest ingestion amount of cultivated fish in Changjiang Drainage is between Feb. and Mar. and between Nov. and Dec. in a year. The peak is between Jun. and Sept. accounting for 50% of the annual total amount. (See Fig. 7-2-1) The production mode of English Ryegrass and Sudan grass nowadays coincides with the demand of fish feeds. (See Fig. 7-2-2)

Ryegrass is sowed in Sept. every year and transplanted in Oct. and mowed in Dec. in Changjiang Drainage. It reaches the peak production between Apr. and May. The integrated fish farm can supply itself sufficiently by the production of Ryegrass. Sudan grass is sowed in mid Apr. and mowed for the first time when it grows to 50 cm high just before the withering of rye grass. It reaches the peak production between June and Sept. The daily output is about 100 kg/mu. Based on the experiments the annual production of 2 grasses can reach about 15,000 kg/mu if it's well managed. The other ways of collocation are as follows: A. To intercrop gramineous grasses: Ryegrass, Sudan grass and leguminous fodder grasses. The unit area output of two families of fodder grass can be increased and the quality can be improved. B. To adopt ensiling method if there is a surplus of ryegrass or to pelletize ryegrass with other materials, so as to be supplied during crop change in June as supplements. C. To adopt sowing and transplanting by stages and to mow the grass in turn. (See Fig. 72-3) In Changjiang Drainage the seeds of Sudan grass are sowed by stages in April ahead of the usual time and can be mowed in mid May. In order to maintain the fertility of the land, pond silt must be fully utilized with some additional organic fertilizers apart from planting leguminous grass, and at last, the grasses should be harvested with stubble remaining in the field. (ii) The ratio of water surface and crop field The ratio of water surface and crop fields means the total area of crop fields collocated with one mu of water surface of fish farming. The following factors must be taken into consideration: a. Source of feeds and fertilizers and their prices. b. The abundance of land. c. The yield & the proportion of various spp. Because the result of grasses is better than the one of grains to feed fish, grass cultivation is more preferable on fish farms. If so, please reference to the following equation:

R = the ratio of one mu of actual water surface and the area of crop fields Y1 = net output of herbivorous fish (kg/mu) f1 = average food coefficient of green fodder p1 = average yield of green fodder (kg/mu)

(iii) Stocking models of fish in fish-cum-crop integration The main or only source of feeds and fertilizers is the pasture grasses cultivated on the farm. The spp. stocked should be grass carp and Wuchang fish megalobrama spp. as major spp. which occupy 6070%. Silver carp & Bighead as minor spp. which occupy about 2030% assorted with a few of omnivorous fish which occupy about 10%. The omnivorous fish can not only utilize residues and detritus but also can clean the fish pond for herbivorous fish but the ratio should be limited within 10%. In order to get natural food organism ready for Silver carp and Bighead after stocking, it is necessary to mow the grass and make a compost to fertilize the pond water or stock Silver carp and Bighead half a month later after stocking of Grass carp. If the farm produces more compost, the proportion of omnivorous fish may be increased a little. (3) The use of pond silt in fish-cum-crop integration There are 2 methods to use pond silt in accordance with crop strains and cropping system: a. Pond silt is directly used as base manure for Ryegrass, etc. The silt should be harrowed and smoothed after it dries a little and then the seeds can be sowed. If it's a transplantation, there's no need to harrow. The seedlings could be interpolated, economizing on much labour and time. If the silt is used as additional manure, it should be topdressed to the roots of the plant. In summer, silt will be bailed with water to the fields. This method is beneficial for the silt to release or diffuse nutrient elements and detritus. It also benefits increasing of dissolved oxygen in the bottom layer of water. b. Making compost with pond silt and grass Usually, there's a surplus of pond silt in winter whereas there's a shortage of pond silt in summer. Therefore dig out a pit, 5 meters square with a depth of 1 m near the crop field and then put in pond silt and grass (straw manure and stable matted grass are better) to make compost and cover the pit with mud. After fermentation, the effectiveness of manure is increased. The compost is usually used as base manure, sometimes mixed with water as topdressing. It's safer to use pond silt as manure. The applying amount is not necessarily limited, with an average rate of 515 tons/mu or even a thickness of 35 cm on the soil. (4) Economic efficiency of fish-cum-crop integration i. To increase sources of feeds and fertilizers This pattern of integration could provide a considerable amount of feeds for fish farming. The source of feeds is stable. They are much cheaper and of high quality. The cost could be reduced by one third. To save energy The energy consumption of transportation of purchasing feeds and fertilizers could be reduced.

ii.

To rationally utilize the labour Fish farming is a seasonal work. The input of labour varies greatly. The labour in slack season can be used for crop production. Part time worker can be fully utilized. This offers more jobs and increases the income

iii.

To set up reasonable ecological system Pond silt is used to plant fodder crops which in turn are used to feed fish. Large amount of fish could be produced and pond silt is accumulated again. It's a cycle which can fully utilize the sunlight, land, pond silt and fertile pond water and can improve the ecological condition of a pond. According to some data, grass planting on pond dyke can reduce the erosion of soils by 57%. Fish-cum-crop integration in line with the local conditions means to combine the Chinese traditional aquaculture with modern technology.

2) Rotation of fish and grass Owing to the non-continuity of fish farming production, most of nursery ponds and grow-out ponds have been left fallow for a certain period of time, e.g. a yearling rearing pond has half a year of fallow from Nov. to June next year. During this period, fish ponds can be used to plant green fodder or green manure crops and then to culture fish. This could lead to the full utilization of fish ponds. (1) The method of rotation of fish and grass The rotation of fish and grass can be divided into single pond rotation and multi-pond rotation. (i) Single pond rotation That means the rotation of fish and grass in the same pond. This method is usually adopted after transferring fingerlings to other ponds. Drain the pond, expose its bottom to the sun, trim the pond dyke, smooth the bottom, dig a ditch for drainage and then sow seeds of rye grass or barnyard grass or rice, etc. on the bottom and the slope. The seeds of rye grass are broadcasted in Nov. at a rate of about 2 kg/mu while the seeds of barnyard and rice are generally sowed in late Apr. or early May in Jiangsu Province. In order to extend the growing period germinated seeds could be sowed in the 1st 10 days of Apr. at a rate of 56 kg/mu. After sowing, get rid of birds and control the water depth and adopt different field management towards different plants. Rye grass is a dry crop which can't endure waterlogging. Barnyard grass seedlings like to grow in shallow water with a depth of about 56 cm. During their growth period, they can be mowed as green fodder crops. Ryegrass can be mowed four times, with the yield of 30005000 kg/mu; barnyard grass and rice can be mowed once with the yield of about 2000 kg/mu. The last ratooning plant of the green fodder or green manure crops should be submerged for fermentation as manure. But the amount of grass per square meter should be controlled within 45 kg. Then add water to about 2 meters high. In this way, it won't cause lack of oxygen in the pond water. 1115 days later summerlings are stocked. After stocking, keep close watch over the water quality and fill the pond with fresh water or change the pond water in time accordingly.

Barnyard and rice can be mowed and submerged by stages on the basis of their growth and then different summerlings can be stocked by groups. (ii) Multi-pond rotation It needs a set of fish ponds, of which, a few are used to grow grass or green manure crops. Here are two ways. Because of short period of fallow of grow-out ponds, a few of fish ponds are drained first and planted with grass as early as possible but stocked with fish later than the other ponds, thus, extending the growing period of the grass; the rest are drained later but stocked with fish first. The fish ponds are rotated to do this each year. If there is a food constraint for fish, one or two fish ponds could be used to grow crops to provide feedstuff for fish in the other fish ponds. The fish ponds are rotated to grow grass each year. (Table 7-2-4) (2) The effects of rotation of fish and grass The system of rotation of fish and grass can fully utilize the productivity of fish ponds to provide both green fodder crops for fish and green manure crops for fish ponds to propagate large amount of natural food organisms. According to the practices of Suzhou Municipal Fish Farm, the phytoplankton can reach 3108 ind/1 at the peak time. The growth of summerlings can reach 1.82.5 mm/day in the initial month. If the yield of barnyard grass in a pond is 5000kg, 40kg of grass can be transformed into 1 kg of fingerlings averagely. It can save 0.50.8 kg of marketable feeds and reduce 10% of the cost. In this system, crops utilize the nutrients of pond silt, whereas crop nutrients, which return back to the pond after submergence, not only improve the water quality but also increase the soil fertility. Practices prove that the fish yield increases after submergence of crops, e.g. Suzhou Municipal Fish Farm has adopted this method to nurture fingerlings since 1979. In 1982, the average yield increased from 150 kg/mu to 391 kg/mu, increasing by 1.6 times. 3) Fish farming integrated with aquatic plant culture In a network of rivers like lower reaches of Changjiang River, a fish farm is often near lakes, rivers or water-logging area or in the vicinity of inlet and outlet of irrigation canal. These water bodies are rich in nutrients, esp. effluents from cities and fish farms. In order to utilize these water resources, fish farmers in the southern part of China often culture aquatic plants in these water bodies. The principal aquatic plants are water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes, water lettuce Pistia stratistes and water peanut or alligator weed Alternanthera philoxeroides, socalled three Ap's; the secondary are duckweed such as (Spirodela polyrhiza) and Wolffia arrhiza and Lemuna minor. (1) The ways of utilization of aquatic macrophytes The output of aquatic macrophytes is the highest among the green fodder crops for fish. The yield could be about 15 ton/mu, even above 25 ton/mu. The aquatic macrophytes grow too fast and it causes a lot of trouble in the Tropics and sub-Tropics. However, the nutrients of aquatic macrophytes are higher. (See Table 7-2-4)

Water hyacinth is called King of Aquatic Plants. So far as protein produced from per unit area is concerned, it is 610 times that of soy bean. Aquatic macrophytes are easy to manage with less labour and lower cost. It's said that one labour can manage 50 mu of 3 aquatic plants and can produce 13.1 ton of crude protein in half a year. The cost of one ton of three aquatic plants (including wages) is only about 1 yuan. The methods of utilization (i) Three Ap's directly serve as fish feeds Three Ap's are processed in different ways to turn into different sized feeds for a variety of fish spp. in different size. To nurture fry, 3 Ap's should be mashed into grass paste, and the residues of leaves must be filtered out; then the paste can be sprinkled to the whole nursery pond. Table salt, 2--5% of the weight of the plant should be added to the water hyacinth paste to decrease the toxicity of saponin. The equivalent ratio of three Ap's and soy bean in fish farming is 17.5--25 : 1. It needs 5 kg of soy bean to nurture 10,000 ind of summerlings. We can use 87.5--125 kg of 3 Ap's instead. The cost of soy bean is 1318 times that of three Ap's. Fry will grow fast with higher survivability if three Ap's are used as fish feeds. For example, Zhuang Aquaculture Brigade, Wuxian Country stocked 80,000 fry in 1977. After 16 days of nurturing, the transferred size was 3,33 cm, with 94.5% survivability from the pond fed with water hyacinth paste while the transferred size was 2.93 cm with 92.8% survivability from the pond fed with soybean milk. To rear fingerlings three Ap's are esp. good for Silver carp and Bighead. 3 Ap's should be mashed into grass paste too but it's not necessary to remove the residues. To rear adult fish, with herbivorous fish of different spp. in different sizes as major spp. three Ap's are often pulverized by green fodder crops pulverizer and then fed to the fish. According to the experiments, about 45 kg of three Ap's could be converted into 1 kg of fish. The macrophytes per-mu can be converted into more than 400 kg of fish. If rice and wheat brans are used as feeds, it will need 1600 kg of brans to produce the same amount of fish. The cost of three Ap's is about 10% of that of brans, but three Ap's are less effective if they are not process. Moreover, since the contents of N.P. and K in three Ap's are , the grass paste could serve as manure in fish ponds also. (ii) Three Ap's - livestock, poultry-fish Three Ap's are also palatable food for various animals in integrated fish farms. They do not need processing or just a simple processing, so the rate of utilization is very high. 900--1000 kg of three Ap's can rear one piglet to an adult with a body weight of 6070 kg with a little amount of wheat and rice brans. The excreta of one pig can be converted into more than 40 kg of fish. In Helei Fish Farm, water hyacinth is fed to ducks at a rate of 150 g/duck/day with a little amount of wheat and rice brans. This can save 10,000 Yuan in feeding 22,000 ducks in half a year. The average excrement of each duck is about 52 kg and can be converted into 3 kg of fish. Thus, three Ap's become fish yield through two trophic levels (i.e. feeding levels). 4) Dyke-oond system

This is a special pattern of fish-cum-crop integration. On some farms, much of the broad dykes is devoted to economic crops:mulberry bushes, sugarcane, fruit trees, tea and rape, etc, or crops, vegetables and grasses. With different crops, this system can be called mulberry plotfish pond; sugarcane dyke-fish pond; fruit tree dyke-fish pond rice paddy-fish pond, etc. Among these, mulberry plot-fish pond is more popular. Most of dyke-pond systems are distributed in Pearl River Delta and Taihu Lake basin. According to the historical records, mulberry cultivation and fish farming could be traced back to the 5th century B.C., but they did not form a well-linked dyke-pond system until the 16th century. The dyke-pond system in Taihu Lake basin is similar to that in Pearl River Delta, which is related to the common factors of the nature and the society. Take mulberry plot-fish pond system as an example: (1) Ecological structure of mulberry plot-fish pond system This system has a perfect ecological structure. (See table 7-2-5) It includes mulberry cultivation, sericulture, silk extraction, and fish farming with silkworm faece, pupae and waste water. Mulberry is the producer; silkworm is the first consumer; fish are the second ones land ecological system. In fish ponds, there are four ways of energy flow: i. ii. Silkworm faeces are directly taken in by fish and part of detritus can be filtered by filterfeeding fish. The inorganic nutrients in silkworm faces are utilized by phytoplankton & heterotrophic bacteria and the biomass of phytoplankton and bacteria in turn are eaten by filter-feeding fish directly or indirectly. The leftover of input and fish faces are decomposed by hydro microbes, releasing inorganic nutrients; and then, the same process occurs as in (ii). At the same time, pond silt which is composed of all kinds of sediments returns to the pond dyke and the new material cycle begins.

iii. iv.

2. The material link of mulberry plot-fish pond The link of energy flow in mulberry plot-fish pond system is pond silt and feeds. (1) Pond silt Pond silt is the main source of manure for crops on the pond dyke. Each mu of fish ponds can provide pond silt for 12 mu of plants on dyke, usually for direct application but making compost in paddy-fish ponds in Taihu Lake basin. In winter pond mud (much mud, less water) is removed from fish ponds after draining and applied between mulberry bush lines on pond dyke or bailed (with a little water) to pond dykes and spread evenly after dry. After that, winter crops are intercropped between mulberry bush Lines. In summer and autumn, liquid silt k nown as nihua (less mud, much water) is bailed to the pond dyke after mulberry leaves are picked 12 times, which is practised 23 times in Pearl River Delta and 56 times in Taihu Lake basin respectively every year to increase the soil fertility and when the base thickness of the soil of mulberry plants increase by 56 cm, it is beneficial to next crops. The mud on pond dykes are washed into fish ponds by rains; pond silt is supplied to pond dykes with nutrients. The process runs again and again. (2) Feeds and fertilizers Mulberry plots can supply feeds for fish directly or indirectly:

a. To provide feeds directly, including pasture grass, vegetables and mulberry leaves. On mulberry dykes, grass and vegetables can be planted after autumn leaves being picked; grasses and vegetables could be harvested at a rate of 3000 kg/mu and they can be converted into about 100 kg of herbivorous fish and 40 kg of other fish. b. To provide feeds indirectly. The first one is silkworm wastes which are a mixture of silkworm faeces, worm sloughs and mulberry leave residues. Silkworm wastes are rich in nutrients: organic material 87%; N 2.23.5%; P2O5 2.02.5%; K20 1.52% and several trace elements but with less moisture, so the nutritive contents of silkworm wastes is higher than that in any kind of livestock or poultry manures. They serve as both fertilizers and feeds. One mu of mulberry plot can produce 24002500 kg of mulberry leaves, even 5000 kg. 100 kg of mulberry leaves when fed to silkworm can produce about 3050 kg of silkworm wastes; therefore, 1250 kg of silkworm wastes can be obtained from sericulture with the mulberry leaves from one mu of mulberry plots. The conventional FCC of silkworm wastes in fish ponds of polyculture is 8. Hence, 1250 kg of silkworm wastes can be converted into over 150 kg of fish. The next one is pupae, which are by-products of silk extraction of cocoons. The protein content of pupae holds 55.8%, crude fat 29.1%. Pupae therefore are good feedstuff for feed-eaters. Its FCC is 1.52. In Pearl River Delta, the production of cocoons from one mu of mulberry field is between 160 and 175 kg out of which about 130 kg of pupae can be obtained, and used as fish feeds, producing 90 kg of feed-eater spp. and their assorted spp. The third one is waste water with large amount of protein detritus and soluable protein, which is obtained when the cocoons are steamed and processed at the factory. According to practices of the masses, 200 kg of waste water can be transformed into 1 kg of fish. More than 2500 kg of waste water can be obtained from the processing of cocoons which are gained from sericulture with mulberry leaves of one mu. Thus, 15 kg of fish can be produced. When the ratio of dyke and pond is 1:1, the total products (except pupae) from dyke can meet the demand of feedstuff for the fish pond with net fish yield of 300 kg. Table 7-2-3 Main Terrestrial Fodder Crops & Straw Manure
yield kg/mu 5000 10,000 sow (mon) harvesting period (mon) 126 food coefficient

variety Rye grass Lolium perenne Sudan grass Sorghum sudanese Lactuca indica Symphytum peregrinum

seed

sowing type

use

89

spreading 22.5 drilling transplanting drilling spreading dibbling transplanting drilling spreading transplanting

stalk as feeds

1723

7500 13,000 5000 7500 7500 12500

510

stalk as feeds leaves as feeds leaven as feeds

1928

38 34

1 2500 ind

59 510

3035 4045

Chinese cabbage Cabbage Broad bean young crop

2000 3000 2000 4000 3000 7500

45 0.75 spreading batches 3 transplanting 34 0.75 spreading batches 2 transplanting 1011 10 15 dibbling

45 batches 34 batches 1,4 cutting

leaves as feeds leaves as feeds stalk as strew manure bean milk as feeds 3 bear, cake as

4045 4045

40

Soy bean

30130 34; 6

67.5 dibbling

7; 10

Table 7-2-4 Nutritive Contents of 3 Aquatic Plants

dry matter % 9.2 4.6 7.3 crude protein % 2.18 1.07 1.9 crude fat % 0.18 0.26 0.25 nonnitrogen extract % 2.49 1.63 2.21

nutrients kind Water peanut Water lectuce water hycinth

crudefibre ash % 1.19 1.1 1.11 %

Ca %

P% %

Output Ton/mu

1.25 0.232 0.028 1525 1.3 1.33 0.11 0.03 1020 1016

Fig. 7-2-1 Curve of variations in ingestion & daily output of rye grass & sudan grass
* * rye grass & sudan grass

food intake of fish in Shanghai area . . food intake of fish in Linhu food intake of fish in Wuxi area

Fig. 7-2-2 Allocation block of sudan grass and rye grass production

(a) Fig. 7-2-3 rotational operation in fodder crop plots

(b) (a) fodder crop plots 1,2,3 initial mowing areas (b) pond dyke

Fig. 7-2-4 multi-pond rotation

rotational order by years

Fig. 7-2-5(a) Network of Dyke-Pond System in Pearl River Delta

Note: *1 Silt; *2 Silkworm dregs; *3 by products and the wastes from sugar refining and silk extracting; dash line means out of the unit.

Fig. 7-2-5(b) Network of Dyke-Pond System in Taihu Lake Basin Note: *1 silt; *2 silkworm dregs; *3 pupae and waste water from pupae; *4 rapeseed cake; *5 soyabean milk; dash line means out of the unit. Section 3 Integrated Management of Fish-Livestock-Poultry Farming 1. Fish-Cum-Duck Integration The model of fish-cum-duck integration is rather common in China. Both land and water surface are the habitats of ducks. Fish-cum-duck integration is to utilize the biological relationship between fish and duck, which is of mutual benefit. It's not only beneficial to the fattening of ducks but also beneficial to the fish farming by providing more organic manures to fish. Thus, the fish yields can be increased. It's apparent that fish-cum-duck integration could result in good economic efficiency of fish farms.

1) The history and status quo of fish-cum-duck integration Duck raising in fish ponds is an ancient practice in Asia and Europe and this has long been practised in China too. The ancient farmers probably didn't know the advantageous effects of duck raising on fish culture. It's more likely that this integrated production pattern was formed incidentally on the basis of swimming propensity of ducks. In 1934, the German scientist Probst conducted scientific experiments of integrated fish-cumduck farming for the first time. He raised ducks in Common carp fish ponds and found that 0.9 1.7 kg of fish could be increased by raising one duck. Since the original output of fish in the experimental fish pond was rather low at that time, the increment of fish yields was conspicuous after ducks were raised in the pond; however, the outbreak of World War II kept the results unemployed. After World War II, the food was in shortage, especially animal protein. The short supply of animal protein urged the development of the intensive commercial fish farming. Hungary, Czechoslovakia, GDR began to conduct integrated management experiments of fishcum-duck in large scale early or late from 1952 to 1955. So far, integrated management pattern of fish-cum-duck has chiefly been practised in China, Hungary, GDR, Poland and Soviet Union. Fish-cum-duck integration has developed into a fixed model of integrated fish farming. In recent years, this model either on the scale aspect or on the managerial aspect has been developing very rapidly, especially in the area of a network of rivers like Jiangsu and Zhejing Provinces. 2) Beneficial interactions in fish-cum-duck polyculture From biological standpoint, a fish pond is a semi-closed biological unit. In fish ponds, there are many aquatic animals and plants, most of which could be used as natural food organisms of fish; some are predators of fry and fingerlings or detrimental to fish but can be utilized by ducks. If duck raising is conducted in fish ponds, the water surface can also be put in full utilization. Fish ponds provide ducks with an excellent environment, which prevents them from infection of any parasitic and other diseases. Ducks like to eat juvenile frog, tadpole, larvae of dragonfly. That means to eradicate predators for fry and fingerlings. Furthermore, the protein content of these natural food organisms of ducks is high. Therefore, duck raising in fish ponds can appropriately reduce the demand for protein in duck feeds. For ducks raised in pens, the digestable protein content in duck feeds must be 1618%, even higher up to 20% while for ducks raised in fish ponds, the digestable protein content might be reduced to 1314%. This can save 200300g available protein each duck, an equivalent to 23% of duck feeds. If the water surface is employed to raise ducks, the droppings of ducks directly go into water bodies providing C, N and P elements frequently. Thus, the biomass of natural food organisms in fish ponds can be increased. Here are two merits: First, the droppings of ducks go directly into the pond water so that the availability of manure will not be lost at all; second, the manuring conducted by ducks on the surface is more homogeneous without any heaping of duck droppings. For this reason, duck raising in fish ponds can promote the growth of fish and increase the fish yields; in the meantime, it can naturally eliminate a series of problems which might be caused by pollution of duck excreta in duck pen. Duck droppings are good organic manures in pond fish culture. The organic substance content in duck droppings are 35 times that of human excreta, inorganic substance such as N, 1.52.2 times; K2O, 2.63.1 times. It shows that the quality of duck excreta is higher than that of human excreta. However, the quality and quantity of duck excreta are determined by duck species,

feeds given, culturing management as well as climatical conditions, etc. In Europe, the stocking rate of ducks is generally 300500 ducks/ha in summer and each duck produces about 7 kg of droppings during the fattening period of 36 days. If 500 ducks are raised, the total duck excreta would reach 30003500 kg in that period. The moisture content in duck excreta holds 56.6%; organic substance, 26.2%; C,10%; P2O5, 1.4%;N,1%; K2O, 0.62%; Ca, 1.8% and some other elements. The annual excreta of each egg-laying duck is 7.510 kg in dry weight, about 70 kg in wet weight. Each egg-laying duck raised in Helei fish farm, Wuxi, produces 4045 kg of manure in wet weight per annum. Besides the above mentioned, fish-cum-duck integration is beneficial to fish farming: 1. It can fully utilize the uneaten feeds because 1020% of feeds are spilt by ducks to the ground. Based on the investigation, the fine feeds lost is 2330g per duck per day or even higher. These spilt feeds and leftover falling directly into the pond water or flushed into fish ponds are utilized as fine feeds for fish resulting in achieving relevant fish yields. Furthermore, it reduces the wasting of duck feeds. 2. It can promote the recycling of nutrients in pond ecological system. The water surface is usually the duck's habitat. In shallow places, a duck often puts its head into the pond bottom and turns the silt to search for benthos. By virtue of this digging action, the nutritional elements deposited in the pond humus will diffuse. It's beneficial to the material recycling in the pond. 3. Ducks are the volunteer aerators. The swimming, playing and chasing of ducks in a pond more or less play a role in aeration, disturbing the smooth surface of the pond in reality. Barash et al (1982) carried out an experiment on fish-cum-duck integration, rearing Common carp, Tilapia, Silver carp and Grass carp in an experimental pond of 400 m2. Ducks were fed with nutrient-balanced feed pellet. At the beginning of the test, duck manure was applied at a rate of about 85 kg/ha in dry weight. At the end of the test, at a rate of 95 kg/ha in conformity with the growth of ducks. There was no other input of manures and feeds except duck excreta and spilt feeds. (See Table 7-3-1) Compared with the duck raising in pens, the growth rate, feed efficiency and vitality and cleanness of eiderdowns and skin of the ducks raised in fish ponds are better than that in duck pens. Daily fish yield reached 38.5 kg/ha. (Table 7-3-2). Duck raising in fish ponds compared with duck raising in duck pens has three advantages based on table 7-3-2: 1. The feed efficiency and the body weight of each duck increased. The higher feed efficiency also implies the spilt feeds uneaten by duck could be utilized by fish. Thus, the food conversion rate of fish-cum-duck integration was reduced from 3.84 to 2.64. 2. The survival rate of duck raising in fish ponds increased by 3.3% because fish ponds provided a clean environmental conditions for ducks. 3. Without any other feeds, only the droppings and leftover of ducks made the daily fish output of 36.5 kg/ha. However, someone thinks that if fish and ducks are raised together in the same pond, ducks will eat small fish. Based on many years practices in Helei fish farm and the introduction of duck raising experts, it's easy for ducks to swallow a fish with a body weight below 4 g. Fish with a body weight above 5g have a strong ability to swim and can get away from ducks. In Helei Fish Farm, the recovery rate does not decline when Silver carp summerlings are stocked in fish-cum-duck ponds. Of course, the fry ponds and yearling ponds are not suitable to raise ducks because fish are too

small and in high stocking density. Duck raising is generally practised in fingerling ponds or grow-out ponds. Table 7--3--1 Amounts of duck excreta and spilt feeds as input in fish ponds
Duck Spilt feeds Consumed excreta Duration feeds Percentage Wet Dry in feeds % (day) g/per Percentage g/day duck/day wt. wt. in feeds % (g) (g) 2130 3140 4150 194 227 248 127 68 35.1 248 74 32.6 420 73 29.4 29 34 37 15 15 13

Duck excreta may generally count up to 30% of the feed amount while spilt feeds may generally count up to 15%. Table 7--3--2 Comparison between duck raising in fish ponds and duck pens
Year Food conversion rate Increment of body wt. g/each duck Survival rate Daily fish output kg/ha Fish-cum-duck food conversion rate 1977 1978 Average 1977 1978 Average 3.58 4.01 3.84 2162 1780 1935 96.7 99.0 97.8 39.1 33.9 36.5 2.73 2.55 2.64 3.74 4.13 3.93 1962 1638 1801 95.0 93.7 94.3 43.4 29.5 36.5 -

CHAPTER VII INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE INTEGRATED FISH FARMING AND ITS MAJOR MODELS (Cont.)
3) The ratio of fish-cum-duck integration

In fish-cum-duck integration, the result of fish farming has much to do with how to raise ducks. There are three types of farming practices: 1. Raising large groups of ducks in open water This is grazing type of duck raising. Average number of a group in grazing is about 1000 ducks by one worker. The ducks are generally let loose to go grazing in rivers, lakes and reservoirs during the day, utilizing natural food organisms, but are kept in pens at night. This method is advantageous to large water bodies for promoting fish proliferation and can be considered as an integrated management model for large water bodies, such as lakes and reservoirs, etc. As for those fish pond farms, this method of integration can not effectively utilize the duck manures except the increment of economic benefit from duck raising. 2. Raising ducks on pond shore A relatively large duck shed including a workshop for the administration is constructed in the vicinity of fish ponds with cemented area of dry and wet runs outside. The average stocking rate is about 4 ducks/m2. The dry and wet runs are being cleaned once a day. During cleaning, the sluice of the wet run is opened to allow organic manure to be flushed into fish ponds through a manure ditch. After this, the sluice is closed and the wet run is filled with fresh water. This method has the advantages for centralized management and adopting mechanisms, but is unable to fully utilize leftover and undigested feedstuff in duck excreta. The effects of leftover and the direct value of feeds more or less are lost. It's also unable to take advantage of the symbiosis of duck and fish. 3. Raising ducks in fish ponds This is the common method of integrated fish-cum-duck farming. The dikes of grow-out or 2-year-old fingerling ponds are partly fenced to form a dry run and part of the water area or a corner of the pond is fenced with used material to form a wet run. The net pen is installed by 4050 cm above and below the water surface respectively in order to save the net material. In this way, fish can enter the wet run for food while ducks can not escape under the net. In a large pond, a small island is constructed at the center of the pond for installation of demand feeding facilities. The stocking density currently practised in China is higher than that practised in other countries, averaging 4.5 individual/m2 of pen shed including the dry run and 3--4 ind/m2 for the wet run. In the early phase of integrated management of fish-cum-duck, ducks went everywhere in fish ponds to get food; now this pattern has already been improved. The duck raising area has been set up to connect the duck shed, the dry run and the wet run. Whether fish-cum-duck integration succeeds or not primarily depends on technical measures of duck raising. Both meat ducks and egg laying ducks can be raised in fish ponds. In summer, the 14-day ducklings are accustomed to the life on the water surface. Meat ducks grow fast. The good stock can reach to the marketable size of 2 kg in fish ponds within 48--52 days; the stocks which grow slowly can reach to the marketable size within 55--56 days. Ducks should be on the market as soon as they reach the marketable size or they will lose their feathers, resulting in decrease of food efficiency, body weight and commodity value.

The number of ducks to be raised in this type of polyculture depends on the quantity of duck excreta which in turn are determined by the duck species, quality of feeds given as well as the method of raising them. In raising Beijing ducks, about 7 kg of duck excreta per duck can be obtained during 36-days fattening period. The egg laying Shaoxin ducks raised in Wuxi produce 42.5--47.5 kg of manure per duck per annum, while the hybrids of Shaoxin and Khaki-Combell ducks produce more than 50 kg per duck. The stocking rate of ducks also depends on the climatical conditions and the stocking ratio and density of the various fish species polycultured in the pond. In Europe, the stocking rate is generally 500ind/ha. As a result, the increment of fish yield will be 90 kg/ha. In tropic and sub-tropic zone, Woynarovich (1980) recommended that the stocking rate should be 2250 ind/ha. In Hongkong, the optimum stocking rate is 2505--3450 ind/ha. In Wuxi, 2000 ind/ha. If the meat ducks are raised in fish ponds, the number should be reduced in view of larger quantity of excreta. In Taihu district, polyculture of 7--8 species of fish is practised in fish ponds, in which the stocking ratio of various species of fish remains unchanged when ducks are raised. If the number of ducks exceeds 3000 ind/ha, then the filterfeeding fish and omnivorous fish could be increased and herbivorous fish could be reduced. The stacking of organic materials won't take place in this type of integration so long as the stocking rate of ducks is proper and the excreta amount does not exceed the transforming power of a fish pond. Ducks swim loosely in the wet run to search for food, their excreta drop evenly into the wet run and the effects of fertilization of duck droppings expand to the whole pond through winds and waves. 4) Economic efficiency The integrated management of fish-cum-duck farming especially raising ducks on the surface of fish ponds is an economically efficient farming practice. In 1980, Helei Fish Farm conducted a comparative test between pond no. 13 and pond no. 21. Two ponds were adjacent with the same size about one ha. There were pigsties set up on the dyke between the two ponds. Pond no. 13 was stocked with 2207.5 kg of fingerlings and 1900 egg laying ducks without any input of manure; Pond no. 21 was stocked with 2188.5 kg of fingerlings only. The species and size of fish and the feeds given in Pond No. 21 were the same as those in Pond No. 13 but with input of manure at a rate of 20,000 kg/ha/year. The output of Pond No. 13 was 12,234 kg while Pond No. 21 was 10,464 kg. From the above mentioned comparative test, if the stocking rate of egg laying ducks is 1830-1920 ducks/ha, apart from economizing input of 300000 kg of manure, per ha fish yields can be increased by about 17% over ponds without duck integration. Based on the data and calculation, the average rearing period of ducks is 10 months in a year and about 2.5-5.5 kg of fish might be produced by raising one duck. According to the test in Helei Fish Farm, about 2.5 kg of fish could be produced besides about 200 eggs, (260--300 eggs for the hybrids) by raising one duck in fish pond. Helei Fish Farm raise 20000 ducks every year, providing 850000 kg of duck manure. In 1980, the farm got a net profit of 42000 yuan from duck raising. There were 48 farmers in the farm. The average income was 881.25 yuan per capita. It's impossible to get an accurate economic analysis on fish-cum-duck integration because the investment, production cost and the yields of duck and fish varies in different countries; even in the same district, fish and duck species, stocking densities, quality and efficiency of feeds, rearing management and climatical conditions differ in thousand ways. It can be explained by an example:

In 1981, Helei Fish Farm raised 22000 ducks. Apart from providing 1,000,000 kg of duck manure and large amount of leftover to fish ponds, it harvested 212,695.9 kg of duck eggs, 6059 kg of duck meat, thus providing the market with 24315 kg of available animal protein which is equivalent to 215560 kg of Grass carp protein. The total annual income was 57740 yuan including 10800 yuan from ducks, 42000 yuan from duck eggs, 4940 yuan from duck excreta for fish farming and it holds 24.62% of total profit of the farm. From the view point of input-output relationship, integrated fish farming with ducks is considered to be the best model in integration of fish, livestocks and poultry. The economic efficiency of fish-cum-pig integration from micro-economic stand point is generally not so high and its profit is low. In the case of integrated fish farming with poultry, fish-cum-chicken integration lacks symbiotic relationship, which exists in the case of integrated fish-cum-geese farming, but the egg-laying rate of geese and the market demand are rather low. By comparing the protein input and output in integrated fish-cum-duck farming, it's found that the production of 1g of egg protein from Shaoxin ducks requires 5.53 g of feed protein whilst 1g of dairy protein from cows needs 5.55g of feed protein. They are similar in weight; however, it is relatively easier to raise ducks than cow and the economic efficiency and income of fish-cum-duck far exceeds that of fish-cum-cow, e.g. in 1981, a worker in Helei Fish Farm produced 292.6 kg of protein from cows while his counterpart produced 506.6 kg of protein from ducks which is 73% higher. The net profit per capita in fish-cum-cow farming is 1067.9 yuan and 1427.08 yuan in fish-cum-duck farming, which is 33.6% higher. Integrated management of fish-cum-duck farming can be further developed to achieve higher economic efficiency by utilizing the natural water body to cultivate high-yield aquatic plants as vegetable feeds of ducks and by utilizing the wastes of integrated fish farming and from city proper to grow earthworm as animal-based feeds for ducks. At the output end, the products such as fish, ducks and eggs could be further processed before marketing, thus, the economic efficiency and income can be considerably raised either from the angle of energy and nutrient source or economy. 2. Fish-Cum-Pig Integration Fish culture combined with pig raising is a traditional integrated fish farming model in China. Now, a few of other countries are also engaged in fish-cum-pig integration. Since 1974, Dr. Buck has conducted experiments on utilization of pig manure in fish farming. In 1977, he polycultured Cyprinidae in the test pond with Silver carp as major species. The output was 4585 kg/ha. From economic view point, pig-raising can be divided into three situations: loss, balance and profit. If it combines with duck raising and fish farming, not only the economic efficiency could be increased but also the social efficiency and ecological efficiency could be raised. The pig food are often leftover and residues from the kitchen, aquatic plants and agricultural products and their wastes. The pig excreta is in turn used as organic manure in fish ponds. It might keep the environment clean. Pork is the indespensable subsidiary food. Pig manure is of high quality by virtue of nutritional completeness. That's why farmers usually combine fish farming with pig raising and it becomes a common pattern of integration in China's rural area. 1) Methods of pig manure application

There are two types of pig sty in China. One is the simple pig shed constructed on the pond dyke or over the water surface; the other is centralized hog house. Both types have their own merits and demerits. The cost of the simple one is lower and moreover, it's easy to apply the manure to fish ponds. Therefore, this type is more suitable to household or small-scaled farms of fish-cum-pig integration. The excreta of pig can automatically flow or be flushed into the pond. It can save much labour. If the area of a fish pond is less than 8 mu, a pig sty can be set up on the pond dyke and then, pig wastes after flowing into the pond, can diffuse to the whole pond by virtue of winds and waves. If more than 30 pigs are raised in the same spot, the method of flowing by gravity is not suitable because the more the pigs, the more the pig manure. More often than not the place near the pigsty will be heaped up with manure and the water quality will be partially deteriorated. If pig manure sinks to the bottom too much or flows into the pond too much through the pipe, it will also cause fish surfacing. In order to fully utilize the effectiveness of manure, it's necessary to pay attention to the method of applying. The manure from the centralized hog house is easy to be concentrated to a storage pond or a sedimentation basin. The amount of application can be controlled by various means. Centralized hog house is fit to be built in large-scaled integrated fish farms. The manure after dilution can be spread along the pond dyke by manual labour or by small boat in small fish ponds. If the fish pond is large, it's better to use boat and mechanic apparatus so as to spread the manure evenly. Here are two methods: 1. To use stern-thruster boat (outboard motor boat) for fertilization Hang the iron cage loaded with manures alongside the boat. The space between grids is about 2.0--2.5 cm. The capacity of the cage differs with the amount of fertilizers needed. The cage loaded with manure must be hanged 10--20 cm below the surface. When the engine starts, the current formed by the thruster will rush against the manure in the cage and as a result, it can be spread evenly. 2. To install a pump in a boat The manure should be diluted in a cabin through a funnel and then be spread into the whole pond. The large quantity of liquid manure in sedimentation basin of largescaled integrated fish farm can be introduced through a pipe or a hose to the pond side and then be sprayed through a nozzle. The average rate is 200 litres/min each nozzle. The nozzle should be fixed 0.5--1.0 m above the surface, in this way, the liquid manure can be fully contacted with air. The nozzle will serve as an aerator if it works to spray water when the D.O.C. in pond water is low. In fish-cum-pig integration, two points must be especially noticed: one is lack of oxygen in the pond; the other is oligotrophic pond water. That's why the water quality should be monitored at any time. Besides, the production period of pig should match the demand of pig manure in fish farming. Integrated fish farms are chiefly engaged in raising hogs. The advantage is that the production periods of pig and fish farming match well. Hog can be raised for 2 periods a year. The duration of each period lasts for 5 to 6 months. 60% of the total amount of manures applied to fish ponds are given during the first half of a year. The peak of application is in Jan. and Feb. for base manure and in June and July for the additive manure. Usually, no manure is applied after the middle 10 days of Oct. Therefore, one pig production period is supposed to be from the middle

10 days of Feb. to the middle 10 days of Aug; the other is from the middle 10 days of July to the middle 10 days of Jan. The growth of the first batch of pigs peaks at the latter part of the production period and their excreta as well. It can just meet the fertilizer demand of fish farming. The excreta of pigs from Nov. to Jan. serve as base manure for fish farming next year. This collocation not only can meet the demand of pig manure during the whole period of fish farming but also satisfy the concentrated demand of pig manure in fish farming. 2) Rate of pig raised per unit area of fish ponds The actual rate of pig raised for per unit area of fish pond in integrated fish farms in different areas is from one to five per mu of fish pond. How much excreta of pigs can the given unit area of fish pond accept so as not to deteriorate the water quality of the pond but to maintain sufficient food for fish? It must be worked out through the productive experiments in line with the local conditions. In China, a fish pond is often given various kinds of organic manures such as pig manure, cow dung or other animal manures so the quantity of applying pig manure must be reduced correspondingly. The capacity of a fish pond to accept animal manures depends upon the techniques of application and the nature of manures. In Hungary, the growth period of fish is 150--180 days. If pig manure is applied by the method of stacking in a corner, the rate of application is 100--134 kg/mu of fish pond. If the method of so-called carbon manuring technique is adopted, that is to say, fresh pig manure mixed with pond water is spread to the whole pond frequently, the rate of application is 20--40 kg/mu/day. It's an equivalent to 10001500 kg of condensed liquid manure or 1.2--2.5m3 of solid wastes of commercial pigsty. In theory, the maximum capacity per mu to accept manures is 2 to 3 times the above mentioned figures. Why, it involves many facets such as environmental conditions of a fish pond, the quality of pig manure, the managerial techniques of fish ponds and so on. 3) Fish species cultured in fish-cum-pig integration The production efficiency of fish-cum-pig integration appears in the full utilization of food organisms by fish in pig manured pond. In 1950's, when Hungarian began to culture fish by using pig manure, two problems happened. (1) Water bloom of Aphanizomenon flosaquae and other blue algae appeared time and again because of non-control of manure application. It causes the disappearance of Daphnia spp. (2) Common carp can not utilize plankton directly, resulting in waste of primary productivity, The filtering species should be stocked in manured pond, and thus, it will avoid auto shading of phytoplankton and decreasing the products of photosysnthesis. For this reason, Hungarian have stocked certain kinds of Chinese carps since 1970. Silver carp and Bighead are the best species to control plankton. They have fine filtering organs and can filter and eat phytoplankton in size above 220. If the water temperature goes up to 22C, they can filter and eat more plankton and a great number of detritus and bacterial congregations in a given unit time. The feed basis formed after fertilization could be utilized more. In mono-pig-manured pond, a few Grass carp may be stocked to control Aphanizomenon flosaqae and submerged vegetation in the pond. In mono-culture of Common carp, 50 kg of pig manure can be converted into 1.251.5 kg of Common carp; in polyculture with Common carp as major species, 50 kg of pig manure can be converted into 1.752 kg of fish; in polyculture with Silver carp as major species, 50 kg of pig manure can be converted into 3 kg of fish. The feeding habit of Tilapia is wide in scope

and serves as cleaner in pig manured pond. This species fits the pigmanured pond. In Hubei Province, China, Silver carp, Bighead and Tilapia are the main species in pig manured polyculture, assorted with a few Grass carp, Common carp and Xeno cyprinus as minor species. (See table 7-3-3) 4) Economic efficiency of fish-cum-pig integration The economic efficiency is apparent if the wastes of pig raising can be utilized. In Hunan Province, one mu of fish pond matches with three pigs. In polyculture with Silver carp and Bighead as major species, the output could reach 150200 kg/mu. In tropic and sub-tropic zone, the temperature is higher and the biological process becomes quicker, more pig manure can be decomposed in the pond and moreover, with proper species in polyculture, the utilization rate of pig manure will perhaps be much higher. Fish-cum-pig integration can reduce the production cost. For example, in 1981. Xinan Fish Farm Wuxi gained 3388000 kg of pig manure including 50% flush water. It saved 14229.6 yuan of manure expenditure. The fish yield was 33880 kg. The profit of pig raising itself was not too much, nevertheless, the total revenues of integrated fish farm increased because the excreta of pig took the place of artificial feeds and inorganic fertilizers, which accounted for 58.8% of the cost of fish farming. However, the simple fish-cum-pig integration becomes less in China. This pattern is usually a part of fish-livestock-agriculture integration system which is a comlete man-made ecosystem. Table 7-3-3 The Proportion of Polycultured spp. in total output (%)
Species Site Honghu Fish Farm Linghy Fish Farm 60 S.C B.H TILAPIA Cr. C C.C. G.C. Xeno 60 10 21 6 4.9 10 7.6 8 6.5 6 Net yield (jin/mu) 899 864.7

3. Fish-Cum-Cow Integration Fish farming using cow manure has long been practiced in China. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, cow farming has developed rapidly. It promotes fish-cum-cow integration, which is one of the common modellings of integration in the southern part of China. On fish farms cow farming can save much fertilizers, cut down fish feeds and increase the income from milk while fish farming on cow farms can make it realized that the excreta of a cow can be converted into a thousand jin of fish. Moreover, cow manure can be disposed at hand resulting in saving much money, labour and energy and also it is good for the environment. If farmers use part time worker to conduct small scale integrated fish farming with cow raising, they can not only earn more money but also can supply both fish and milk to the market. 1) The material basis of fish-cum-cow integration In fish-cum-cow integration, cows are suppliers of the materials for fish farming. They can provide cow manure, leftover and matted grass of cow sheds, etc. (1) The biological basis of fish farming using cow manure

Among all the excreta of livestock, the amount of excreta of cows is the greatest and the most stable. If a cow is 460 kg in body weight, it can produce 0.081 kg of manure/kg of body weight per day and the annual amount of faeces can reach 13600 kg and that of urine about 9000 kg. The nutritive content of cow dung is a little less than that of pig faeces. (See Table 7-3-4). If 0.024 kg of fresh cow manure is applied to a water body of 1 cubic meter per day, inorganic N and P in fish ponds will be 0.897 mg/L and 0.024 mg/L respectively, which are close to the inorganic N, 0.97--2.06 mg/L (average 1.380.42 mg/L) and the inorganic P, 0.018--0.036 mg/L in high-yield fish ponds. The ratio of N/P will be 36.9, which is a little higher than the value of the ratio of N/P in phytoplankton. Apparently it will limit the large increment of phytoplankton in fish ponds. Nevertheless, the average amount of phytoplankton in manured pond can still reach 19.156.5 mg/L which is apparently higher than that in control ponds and close to the lower limit of optimum food density (20--100 mg/L) of Silver carp and Bighead. The average biomass of zooplankton will amount to 5.61 mg/L which is much higher than that in unmanured pond and the ratio between the biomass of zooplankton and phytoplankton is 1/3.4. Both the biomass of zooplankton and the ratio between the biomass of zooplankton and that of phytoplankton come to the level as much as in fertile water fish pond (that is to say, the biomass of zooplankton is between 5 and 30 mg/L and the ratio is between 1/4 and 1/3). The amount of organic detritus and total bacteria not only surpassed those in unmanured fish pond but also exceeded 22.6% and 8.7% than those in pig-manured pond. (see Table 735 and 736) Table 734 Comparison Between the Contents of Cow and Pig Excreta
Kind Milk cow dung Cow dung Pig manure Cow urine Pig urine moisture 85 8085 85 9295 97 Organic material 11.4 14.6 15 2.3 2.5 N 0.36 0.3 0.45 0.5 0.6 0.6 1.2 0.3 0.5 P2O5 0.32 0.15 0.25 0.45 0.6 trace 0.07 0.15 K2O 0.20 0.05 0.15 0.35 0.5 1.31.4 0.20.7 Source of data FFRC

Agricultural technical handbook

Table 735 Inorganic Salt Content in Cow-manured Fish Ponds

Kind of Pond Cow-manured pond Amount of manure (kg/m3/day) 0.024 in wet wt. 0.0037 in dry wt. Inorganic N (mg/l) 0.879 Inorganic P (P2O5) (mg/l) 0.024

High yield pond

0.97--2.06 (1.38)

0.003--0.17 (0.028)

Table 736 Quantity of Natural Food Organisms in Cow-manured Ponds

Kind of pond Cow-manured pond High yield pond 46.247.8 (46.8) 10.115.1 (12.7) 67.9111.2 Phytoplankton (mg/l) 19.156.5 Zooplankton (mg/l) 5.61 Bacteria ind/mg 5.18104 Organic detritus (mg/l) 64.44

It is the increase of natural food organisms, detritus and bacteria in fish ponds that enables the filtering and omnivorous fish to grow faster. According to the experiments of Chinese Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, the output of Silver carp, Bighead, Common carp and Japanese Crusian carp Carassius carassius in cow-manureed pond is 3.5 times, 2.8 times, 3.3 times, 2.2 times the output in unmanured pond respectively. (See Table 737) Table 737 Effects of Cow Manure on Fish Yields Duration of growth: 115 days Water volume: 53.4 m3
Pond Item Species Cow-manured pond Gross yields kg/mu Silver carp 54.5 11.0 Common carp Carassius carassius Total 17.9 33.8 117.2 Net yields kg/mu 36.2 6.8 14.6 12.8 70.4 Increase rate g/ind/day 0.71 0.55 0.92 0.37 Survival rate (%) 99 100 93 100 98 Control pond Gross yields kg/mu 15.5 3.9 5.5 15.7 40.6 Net yields kg/mu -3.0 -1.0 0.6 -2.8 -6.2 Increase rate g/ind/day 0.08 0.04 0.06 -0.29 Survival rate (%) 69 75 93 100 82

The conversion coefficient of cow manure is 3.15 in dry weight or 21 in wet weight at the average manuring rate of 0.17 kg/m3/week in filtering and omnivorous fish farming and it is 3.3 in dry weight or 26 in wet weight at the same input in Silver carp and Bighead culture. On the basis of the investigation data, about 200 kg of cow urine can be converted into 1 kg of Silver carp or Bighead.

(2) No risk in fish farming using cow manure Cows are ruminants. It is due to repeated grinding and digestive decomposition catalyzed by great amount of micro-organisms in rumina that cow manure is very fine. It can suspend longer in the water. The sinking speed of cow manure particles is 2.6 cm/min and that of pig manure particles 4.3 cm/min. If the same amount is applied, the sediment of pig manure is 33% higher than that of cow manure after 24 hours while the suspended organic detritus below 0.65u in size in cow-manured pond is 39.99 mg/L, which is 153.4% higher than that in pig-manured pond. And it occupies 54.6% in total amount of suspended particles, which is the highest percentage compared with that in pig, duck, or chicken-manured ponds. The suspensibility not only enables fish to get more feeds but also reduces oxygen consumption caused by manure stacking and avoids forming of harmful gases. The BOD of cow manure is lower than that of other livestock manures because the cow forage has already been decomposed by micro-organisms in cow's body. The BOD of 1 kg of cow manure in five days is 20.6g, 32% lower than that of pig manure which is 30.0g. The same tendency appears when they are in fish ponds. (See Table 738) In one week's consecutive measurement, the lowest dissolved oxygen content in cow-manured pond at 5:30 a.m. is 1.8 mg/L while that in pig-manured pond is 1.0 mg/L. The average dissolved oxygen content is 4 mg/L in cowmanured pond but only 3.3 mg/L in pig-manured pond. By virtue of suspensibility and low oxygen consumption of cow manure, fish farming using cow manure is more safe. Freshwater Fisheries Research Center conducted an experiment on different livestock manures in fish farming in 1983. It indicated that the survival rate of fish in cow-manured pond is 98%, second to none. (See Table 737) (3) Wasted food of cows for fish farming Cows feed chiefly on grass. During the grass growing season of about 7 months, the fresh fodder grass for each adult cow amount to 9000--11000 kg. But the leftover occupies 27.9%, around 3000 kg. However, that period of time happens to be the highest ingestion seasons of herbivorous fish, therefore, the wasted fodder of cow can be utilized as fish feeds. The results differ with different quality of grass. The food conversion coefficiency of terrestrial wild grass is about 4050. The matted grass in cow shed can only be used as compost of the pond but the leftover of fine fodder for cows can be used as fish feeds. 2) Management of fish-cum-cow integration (1) Disposition and proportion In the integrated fish farm, cow sheds should be built in the vicinity of fish ponds so as to utilize cow manure at hand. The faeces and urine are collected separately, the former transported by convyor or boat or car and spread evenly, the latter pumped into fish pond. If the floor of cow shed is higher than the pond dike, manuring ditch could be dug to collect faeces and urine together, then to flush them into fish ponds. It saves time and labour. But the above methods often cause stacking of manure and uneven fertilization. The best way is to mix up cow dung and urine and to pump them into fish ponds evenly. If the hose pipe has a spray nozzle, the result will be better. If the area of fish ponds is large, the boat dragging a stern manure bucket could be used. Then manure will be evenly spread by the waves caused by sailing. Proportion here means the area of fish pond matched with one milk cow. It depends on synergism of many factors, such as the amount of cow manure and wasted food; the species

ratio and target output of fish; the sediment of pond; the quality and quantity of pond humus; other manures and feeds applied. Supposing fish culture wholly depends upon cow manure and wasted food of cows with a net production target of 250 kg, among which 10% is herbivorous fish, the rest filtering and omnivorous fish, each milk cow can provide manure and feeds for fish in 2 mu of fish pond. If the proportion of feed-eater increases, the method of calculation of fishcow proportion is shown in the empirical equation related to manure demand and quantity of livestock and poultry in model plan. (2) Period and frequency of manuring stands on the transforming speed of cow manure and season change and the rule of the ebb and flow of natural food organisms in fish pond. In 1983, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center carried out an experiment on measuring the peak time of N and natural food organisms at different water temperature in a fish pond manured once a week. It showed all nutritive factors had two peaks in a week. The high peak appeared earlier when the water temperature rose. Therefore, the guidelines to determine period and frequency of manuring are as follows: In late winter and early spring, with sufficient base manure, a few times but in large quantities, that is once every 57 days; in spring and autumn, once every three days; in summer, once every day or every two days in small quantities and it's better to manure everyday and make some adjustment according to weather, water colour and fish growth. (3) Stocking pattern in fish farming by applying the waste in cow raising Cow dung and urine is beneficial to filtering and omnivorous fish culture. Therefore, Silver carp and Bighead are taken as major species assorted with omnivorous fish (Common carp as main minor species), and 15-20 % of herbivorous fish. If it's over that ratio, supplemented feeds must be applied. It's optimal that the output of herbivores occupies around 12% of total net output of the pond. 3) Economic benefits of fish-cum-cow integration 1. Both milk and fish harvests Each black-and-white milk cow after three births can produce around 5000 kg of milk annually, which contains 155 kg of protein. Except the milk for calves, each cow can not only supply the market with 4500 kg of milk, but also can provide feeds and manures for fish farming, which in turn can produce 500 kg of fish containing 55.8 kg of protein annually. Each cow can provide a total of 210.8 kg of protein that is 3700,000 kcal in calorie value annually. Fish-cum-cow integration can increase protein by 36 % and calorie value by 10.6 % above the unitary cow farming and it can increase protein by 2.7 times and calorie value by 9.5 times over those produced by unitary fish culture. 2. Increasing revenues, decreasing expenditure Fish-cum-cow integration can get more money from fish, milk and calves. The output value of each milk cow is averagely more than 3100 yuan. The excrements and leftover of one cow can be converted into 500 kg of fish without additional feeds and manure. Therefore, it can reduce half of the cost of fish farming. 3. Alleviating unemployment In fish farming, raising four cows can offer one opportunity of employment for people.

4. Saving energy Fish-cum-cow integration can provide feeds and manure for fish farming so that it can save a lot of energy for transportation. However, the investment of fish-cum-cow integration is much greater at one stroke. It needs about 2500 yuan RMB for each milk cow and attached facilities. On the basis of investigation, the profit rate of cow is higher, which is about 30%, that is to say, 100 yuan net profit can be gained from 300 yuan fixed capital. In term of net profits and cost saving in fish farming, the economic return of investment will cover less than three years. Table 738 Comparison of oxygen demands of different manures
Fish ponds Oxygen consumption Index BOD (mg/l-day) COD (mg/l-day) 3.66 13.7 5.48 14.01 6.27 14.51 cow manured pig manured chicken manured

Section 4 Models of Fish-Livestock-Crops Integration The model of fish-livestock-crop integration is the transverse combination of fish-cum-livestock and fish-cum-crop models, namely, to utilize animal manures and pond silt from fish-cumlivestock integration as agriculture manures and to utilize crop products from fish-cum-crop integration as feedstuff for fish and livestock. So far the most popular model is pig-grass (vegetables)-fish and vegetables-pig-fish integration, etc. The former develops more rapidly nowadays. In fish-cum-pig integration, all pig excreta are used to fertilize fish ponds with plankton-eater as major species whereas in pig-grassfish integration, part or the whole of pig excreta are used as manure for terrestrial and aquatic fodder plants with high-yielding pasture grasses as major crops. Green fodder crops are used to culture herbivorous fish and bring along rearing filterfeeding fish. No or just a little pig excreta go down directly to fish ponds. Finally, pond silt accumulated in fish farming returns to the land as crop fertilizer. (See Figure 741) The new nutrient cycles and energy flow is thus set up in pig-grass-fish integration. Both terrestrial and aquatic primary productivity is fully utilized. Therefore, its structure is more rational and more effective in comparison with fish-cum-pig integration. It can make up for insufficient manures in fish-cum-grass integration. 1. Ecological efficiency of pig-grass-fish integration 1) To raise utilization efficiency of light energy The products of photosynthesis depends on the amount of light that is the product of light intensity by sunshine time. Terrestrial pasture grasses can absorb light energy from the sun directly and can avoid shading each other under artificial control, e.g. mowing in time, so as to

reduce the reduction rate of radiant energy. The rate of reduction of radiant energy in water is higher than that on land because the water surface reflects and scatters light. When the sun rises high, the light intensity will be reduced 6% because of reflection of calm surface or 10% because of reflection of waving surface. When the sun rises or sets, most of light can not enter into water due to the shading of pond sykes, therefore, so far as the sun light is concerned, daylight in water is shorter than daylight on the land. If the gradient of a pond dyke is 30 degree the sunshine time of the pond water along the pond dyke is reduced by one third in comparison with that on top of pond dykes. The lower the water level and the smaller the pond area, the shorter the sunshine time. Since there is a large amount of suspended and dissolved substances in fish ponds and especially plankton propagate greatly, auto-shading occurs and it's hard to control. According to the experiments of Freshwater Fisheries Research Centre, the transparency and the amount of suspended substances are in inverse proportion. In a natural pond, the coefficient of correlativity r=-0.9083. The regression equation is as follows: Y = 247.692 - 2.840 x Y = transparency (cm) X = the amount of suspended substances (mg/L) Larcher (1980) realized that radiation intensity is in inverse proportion to the water depth, decreasing in the form of exponent (or index). When the sky is evenly clouded, the light intensity, according to synchronous measurements, on the soil surface with the depth of ryegrass of 40 cm, is 900 lx, which is 13.43% of that on the surface of grasses and that means its relative light intensity reaches 1.8% of 50 klx, the saturated point of net photosynthesis of land grasses; the light intensity at 40 cm below the water surface of a pond is 28 lx, the relative light intensity is only 0.42% of that on water surface. It only reaches 0.14% of 20 klx, the saturated point of net photosynthesis of phytoplankton. Moreover, 40 cm is the maximum height of ryegrasses to be mowed. In the growing or ratooning phase before mowing, the relative light intensity is much higher than the measured one while the relative light intensity in the pond cannot be increased artificially. Therefore, from the view point of light intensity and sunshine time net photosynthesis of phytoplankton cannot compare with that of terrestrial plants either in a specific time or in a period of time. Terrestrial grasses have greater ability to photosynthesize than phytoplankton. Under the normal supply of carbon dioxide and with an optimal light, temperature and water conditions, the uptake of carbon dioxide of sunplant herb is 2050 mg/dm2/hr. The intake of energy and the primary productivity of terrestrial grasses are higher than those of phytoplankton. Manured with pond silt alone, the yield of ryegrass can reach 4500 kg/mu in Apr. and May. The average daily output is 82 kg in May. The average daily yield of Sudan grass can reach more than 100 kg/mu. The net output of oxygen produced by phytoplankton in Wuxi or Xiamen is 810g o2/m2/day. So the net yield of phytoplankton is only 42.352.9/ma/day. (Le xing-zhi et al). From the measurement in Wuxi high yielding fish pond, the net yield of phytoplankton in peak period was 41 kg in wet weight per mu per day, only 50% of the net yield of rye grass, 41% of the net yield of Sudan grass per mu per day. After calculation, in accordance with the balanced equation of photosynthesis, 1 kg of O2 is equal to 6.1 kg of phytoplankton in wet weight while 1 kg of O2 means producing 3.51 Mcal of energy. Therefore, 1 kg of phytoplankton averagely holds 0.575 Mcal of energy. Daily output of

plankton from May to Aug. is 41 kg/mu, that is, 23.575 Mcal. 1 kg of ryegrass holds 1.035 Mcal. Daily output of ryegrass in May holds 84.87 Mcal, that is 3.6 times that of phytoplankton. 1 kg of Sudan grass holds 0.75 Mcal. Daily output from June to Sept. is 77.25 Mcal, which is 3.3 times that of phytoplankton. In the case of rye grass and Sudan grass. We can see that the primary productivity of terrectrial grasses is 2 to 4 times that of phytoplankton in high yielding fish ponds and the output of energy 3.33.6 times. The yield of terrestrial grasses can be further increased through cultivation and popularization of good varieties of seeds, rotation systems and intercropping with leguminous grasses and scientific management. On the contrary, how to increase the primary productivity of phytoplankton is a hard nut to crack so far. The utilization rates of primary productivity of phytoplankton and terrestrial grasses by fish are different. Furthermore, phytoplankton can continue their propagation only after part of seeds remain in a pond. He Zhi-hui (1983) calculated the consumption of phytoplankton in high yielding fish ponds in Wuxi. The direct phytoplankton consumption of Silver carp, Bighead, Tilapia and Crucian carp or through zoopalnkton accounted for 82% of the biomass of phytoplankton. (70% of the zooplankton are consumed by plankton-eater.); whereas the utilization rate of ryegrass with the height of 50 cm or Sudan grass below 1.2 meter by fish is 100%. 2) To utilize two primary productivity Compared with manuring the pond water, pig-grass- fish integration utilizes high effective primary productivity of terrestrial grasses and at the same time, it also uses the primary productivity in fish ponds. In this system, herbivorous fish are the major species, which are stocked according to the stocking pattern with net yield of 400 kg/mu. The mean capacity load of herbivorous spp. is 190 kg. The daily Sudan grass ingestion of herbivorous fish occupies 22.530% of the body weight of fish, average 25%. Thus, the ingestion of herbivorous fish is 48 kg/mu/day. The excreta of herbivorous fish are about half of its ingestion amount, so the daily amount of excreta are 24 kg. On the basis of analysis of South-Western Normal College in China (1977), the N and P contents of Grass carp excreta are 1.102% and 0.426% which are three times and two times those of pig excreta respectively. At least, the daily excreta of herbivorous fish are equal to 24 kg of net pig manure. During the 250 days of ingestion period, the amount of excreta of herbivorous fish are equal to 6000 kg of net pig manure or the amount of net excreta of 6 pigs. It's near to the total amount of manure application in the fish pond with Silver carp and Bighead as major spp. Thus, growing grass by using pig manure can provide sufficient fodder grasses to the herbivorous fish, the excreta of which, in turn, can supply nutritive salts enough for the fish pond so that the primary productivity of the fish pond can reach the mean level of the pig-manured pond. In Wuxian, Zhangzhuan Aquaculture Brigade which has adopted pig-grass-fish integration, all the pig manure are used to grow grasses. No additional manure is applied to the fish pond with herbivorous fish as major spp., which occupy 5572% of the total stocking amount. The water colour looks green and brownish green with transparency of 1035 cm. For example, in pond No. 33 with herbivorous fish occupying 72%, the average transparency is 17.5 cm. According to the regression equation of phytoplankton and transparency after He zhi-hui. Y = 153.69 - 3.06 x Y = the biomass of phytoplankton (mg/l) X = transparency (cm)

The biomass, of phytoplankton of that pond is about 100 mg/l. The biomass of phytoplankton of high yielding fish ponds in Wuxi is between 20 and 100 mg/l. It indicates that the excreta of herbivorous fish can fertilize the pond water and provide sufficient biomass of plankton demanded by plankton-eater. Pig-grass-fish integration can avoid certain ecological defects caused by direct application of pig manure in ponds. The direct application increases the BOD and lowers the dissolved oxygen levels esp. if stacking application of manure is adopted at ten-day intervals. The BOD5 = 29.09 30.75 g/kg. According to the experiments of Fresh water Fisheries Research Centre, the average BOD1 of fish ponds are 4.10 mg/l and 5.48/1 respectively when pig manure is spread evenly into the pond at the rate of 0.12 kg and 0.29 kg/m3/week. At 5:30 in the morning, the average D.O. is only 1.0 mg/l. Zhangzhuan Aquaculture Brigade adopted pig-grass-fish integration in 10 ponds, and supplement molluscs and fine feeds without any other manures in fish ponds. The carrying capacity of 9 ponds were from 779.3 to 1350.5 kg/mu except one pond with 475.3 kg/mu. All Dissolved oxygen levels were high. The minimum DOL was 2 mg/l and average 4.6 mg/l in Pond No. 10 with the highest carrying capacity. Because this system utilizes two primary productivity, avoiding some ecological defects, there is a greater potentiality of increasing fish yields. In terms of many reports from abroad, the fish yields of filterfeeding species and omnivorous species in a manured pond only reach 1531 kg/ha/day when they are monocultured or polycultured as major species. Generally speaking, the yield of plankton-eater is 300400 kg/mu. It's difficult to surpass this figures and moreover, the economic efficiency will be reduced when the yield increases. Nowadays, in most of fish ponds with the yield of 500 kg, the herbivorous fish are cultured as major species with grass as main food and without application of manure or with just a little manure. The excreta of 1 kg of herbivorous fish can fertilize the pond water and produce 0.20.5 kg of Silver carp and Bighead. The larger the size of fingerlings the more their ingestion, and the more the number of planktoneater that they bring along. In Grass carp rearing pond with gross yield of 110150 kg compared with Grass carp rearing pond with gross yield of 50100 kg, the net yield of plankton eater is 37.5 kg higher. In fish-pig link, filter-feeding fish and omnivorous fish feed on detritus and the bacteria on detritus. The relationship between the fish yield and both detritus and bacteria depend on their quality rather than on their quantity, therefore, it can not be overestimated just according to the amount of detritus in a water body. The experiment of Lin Wan-lian also proves on one aspect that it is a loss to use pig manure to grow grasses for fish farming so far as part of detritus, which can be utilized by fish, is concerned. Nevertheless, the good effects of pig-grass-fish integration can make up for the loss. What's more, the effects of detritus is not so good.

Fig. 741 Nutrient cycle and energy flow in pig-grass-fish integration

- - - fish-pig pig-grass-fish

2. The economic efficiency of pig-grass-fish integration On the basis of ecological principles and its good economic efficiency, the pig-grass-fish integration can get better economic efficiency than fish-cum-pig integration. In 1979, Zhangzhuan Aquaculture Brigade performed a productive test. 50 kg of pig exereta (pigsty effluent occupies 50%) or 50 kg of nightsoil can produce 56 kg of terrestrial grasses. 50 kg of net pig manure can produce 112 kg of grasses. The Food Conversion Coefficient of English rye grass and Sudan grass is 18.427.5, average 27. Thus, 100 kg of pig excreta through growing grass can be converted into 4.2 kg of herbivorous fish, bring along rearing 1.5 kg of filter-feeding and omnivorous fish, the total yield is 5.7 kg. According to the tests of Freshwater Fisheries Research Centre, 100 kg of pig excreta can be converted into 2.5 kg of fish, whereas 50 kg of net pig excreta through growing grass can produce 3.2 kg of fish, increasing 133 %. In piggrass-fish integration, the dominant species are herbivorous fish, which can meet the demand of the market and gain much profit. 100 kg of pig excreta are used to grow grass then to culture fish, resulting in the increment of 2.90 Yuan which is 1.34 times that of fish farming by applying pig excreta directly. 3. Allocation of pig-grass-fish In the combination of pig-grass link, the guide line is to facilitate grass planting and manure application. If grasses are planted on pond dykes only, the simple pig sty can be built near the pond; if there is a fodder field beside pond dyke, centralized pig shed near fodder field is taken into consideration. Firstly, the ratio of pig and grass depends on unit-area yield of pasture grasses. Below the critical level of high yield, the more the yield, the more the number of pigs. Secondly, the ratio also depends on the utilization of pond silt. The more pond silt is used, the fewer the number of pigs. Thirdly, it depends upon the quality of soil and pig manure and varieties of pasture grasses. On the basis of production test for ryegrass and sudan grass

grown all the year round, the best allocation is 56 pigs per mu. The combination of fish-grass link has already been introduced in fish-cum-crop integration. Section 5 Web of Integrated Management In order to raise the utilization efficiency of energy, to decrease cost, to increase products and income, several models could be interwoven to an integration web thru longitudinal and transverse nutrients cycles and energy flow in line with the local conditions. There are three kinds of integration web so far. 1. Multi-level comprehensive utilization web In the light of different utilization of nutrients by various specialized trader the trades can be connected in series with nutrient cycle and energy flow as a master line. An integration wed can be regarded as a number of connected nutrient cycles and energy flow. The popular form is recycling of animal manures.
E.g. chicken pig fish grass vegetables

fish chicken

That is to say, in recycling of chicken manure, the spilt and undigested chicken feeds can be fully utilized. Sgan Bei Livestock and Aquaculture Farm adopts this kind of integration web. Not only can chicken manure be fully utilized but also it can save about 25kg of fine feeds for pig. increasing net income by 47 yuan/pig. Furthermore, through simple deodorization and sterilization, chicken manure is mixed with fine feeds as composite pellets, which can be used to feed chicken again and then chicken manure can be fed to pig. In Zhejiang Province, there is a common multi-level comprehensive utilization model, that is, cow-mushroom-earthworm-duck-fish or cow-mushroombiogas-earthworm-duck-fish. Cow dung can be used to grow mushroom; cow urine for fish farming; mushroom soil for earthworm culture; and then, earthworm is fed to ducks, the excreta of which is applied to fish ponds. The levels can be rearranged in line with the local conditions. Thus, different constituents of cow excreta are utilized at different levels or the new constituent produced at the preceding level can be utilized by the next level. 2. Parallel-cennected web of multi-trades With fish farming as the center, there may be a parallel connection of multi-trades, such as fishlivestock-crop integration to create sources of feeds and fertilizers. The products and wastes are utilized reciprocally among all trades. Most of integrated fish farms adopt this kind of integration web. (See Fig. 751) E.g. in Xiang Yang Aquaculture Farm, fish farming is combined with pig, cow and geese raising. Animal manures which is self-supporting are used for fish farming and for crops such as pasture grasses, squash, sweet potatoes and soybean and at the same time for cultivation of aquatic plants such as water hyacinth, Spirodella spp. and Wolffia arrihza which are used as feedstuff for fish, pig and geese. Although soybean is planted on pond dyke in the latter part of a year, water hyacinth can offer 80% of green fodder for fish and pig. 3. Fish-livestock-crop and agriculture-industry-commerce web

On the basis of parallel connection of fish-livestock-crop integration, all trades develop on both input and output ends. On input end, feedstuff processing industries can be set up and food can be utilized at multilevels; on the output end, the products of all trades needs processing and marketing. The waste of processing factories is used to raise livestock and poultry. This is a combination, which can raise the level of comprehensive utilization of natural resources and the rate of utilization of energy and can increase the products of fish, livestock and poultry resulting in the increment of value, income and job opportunity. In 1970's, this type of integration web was set up in Dong Hu Fish Farm, Siang Yin County, Hunan Province ( See Fig. 752). In recent years, the management structure and the scale of this web have developed, further, e.g. Helei Fish Farm has developed into an aquaculture, industry and commerce combination. (See Fig. 753) On the axis of abscissae, they integrated fish farming with grass cultivation, pig, cow and duck. On the axis of ordinates, they process crops, pupae so as to provide green fodder, pupae waste water for fish, livestock and poultry at the end of input; at the end of output, they process the products of livestock. e.g. making preserved egg, slaughtering ducks. The waste of processing factories can be used as feeds for fish, livestock and poultry or fertilizers for fish ponds. The processed products go to market home and abroad. Thus, the economic efficiency can be raised greatly. For example, in 1982, the average net profit was 6.78 Yuan/duck. The people who are engaged in duck raising and egg processing occupy 17% of the personnel of the farm while the net profit accounted for 43%.

Fig. 7-5-1 Integrated Fish Farming Network in Xiang Yang Aquaculture Farm, Wuxi Note: *1 silt; *2 cow dung, pig manure; *3 milk and meat pig; dash line means out of the unit.

Fig. 7-5-2 Integrated Fish Farming Network of Donghu Fish Farm in Xiang County, Hunan Province Note: *1 silt; *2 by products and wastes; dash line means out of the unit.

Fig. 7-5-3 Integrated Fish Farming Network of Helei Fish Farm Note: *1 pig, cow excrement; *2 duck manure; *3 wastes from duck slaughtery; *4 pupae; *5 pupae, waste water from pupae and water hyacinth; *7 silt; dash line means out of the unit.

CHAPTER VIII. The Statistical Methods of Planning and Management On Integrated Fish farms
An integrated fish farm is a multi-trade integrated production complex. There are close ties among all the trades, all the management departments and between the fish farm and the outside of the farm. These ties display a series of proportional relationships. The main task of planning and management on an integrated fish farm is to adjust these proportions according to certain conditions and to get a comprehensive balance by quantitative analysis ao as to obtain maximum economic returns. For the sake of brevity and practicality, we just introduce the principal statistical methods, omitting the theoretical description. Besides, here is exe point we must emphasize, that is, owing to the complexity of integrated fish farming, some parameters have not been gained; some data are not so accurate; the proportional relationships mentioned in this chapter should be adjusted during execution of the programme. The following are the principal calculating methods of requirements of fish, livestock and crop based on the final produce of the farm. 1. Formulas of Relationships 1) Fish farming (1) Fish yields and stocking amount (i) Gross yield of grow-out pond

Where Ni : Si : Ti : Ri : Si:

Stocking quantity of each spp. in different sizes in polyculture (tail/mu) average weight of fish of each spp. in different sizes (kg/tail) times of gross weight gain of each spp. in different sizes survival rate of each spp. size of each spp. harvested

(ii)

S1: target size of a certain species at transference N : stocking quantity (tail/mu) R : survival rate (%)

(iii) Stocking quantity of a certain species (tail)

S: T:

stocking size (kg/tail) times of weight gain

from (a), the size of fingerlings can be known by

(iv)

The above-mentioned formulas can be applied to the yearling and 2 year-old fingerling ponds. In order to make stocking plans or forecast the yields, farmers not only should understand the relations between the items but also should understand the dove tail part of different sizes in different stages and general survival rate and weight gain of fish in different sizes. EX. 1 One fish farm has 100 mu of grow-out ponds, it practises polyculture of various species in different sizes. The target gross yields, sizes of Grass carp and Silver carp are formulated below. The survival rates of Grass carp and Silver carp according to the records are also listed in the table. The stocking quantity and stocking sizes of Grass carp and Silver carp fingerlings are calculated by

Table
species size gross yield survival times of gross (kg/tail) (kg) rate (%) weight gain 60 40 85 80 4 12 0.4

Grass carp 1.5

Silver carp 0.6 0.5

60 45

95 90

3.5 summer harvest 5

From

we can get total number of Grass carp and Silver carp (tail/mu). From

The calculated results are shown in the following table.

species Grass carp Silver carp size (kg/tail) 0.32 0.027 0.163 0.09 quantity (tail/mu) 47 125 105 100 weight (kg/mu) 15.04 3.38 17.10 9 total tail 4706 12500 10500 10000 amount in 100mu weight (kg) 1504 338 1710 900

With the same method, the yearling can also be calculated from 2-year-old fingerling and summerling from yearling. If the survival rate is 80%, the times of gross weight gain are 10 and 45 respectively. The quantity of yearlings = 4706 - 80% = 5883 tails. The size of yearlings = 1504 - 5883 = 0.026 kg/tail. The size of summerlings = 12500 - 80% = 15625 tails. The size of summerlings = 388 - 45 - 12625 = 0.5 10-3 kg/tail. (v) target quantity of fry (unit: 10,000)

where N': number of summerlings (unit: 10,000 fish) R : Survival rate of summerlings from fry

(vi) Target number of fertilized eggs (unit: 10,000 eggs)

where, N': target number of fry (unit: 10,000 tails) R : hatching rate

If you want to calculate the target spawning quantity, N' should be changed to target fertilized quantity, R changed to fertilizing rate.

(vii)

where, W: target body weight of female brooders (kg) N: target spawning quantity n: average spawning quantity per kg of female brooder

(2) Area of ponds The pond areas required for each stage from summerlings to grow-out are calculated as follows: the target gross yields (polyculture) are divided by per-unit gross yield (polyculture); from summerlings to yearlings, the number is calculated out on the basis of tails. Fry nurturing needs no special ponds. The area of brooder rearing pond can be obtained from the total weight of brooders divided by stocking amount per mu. (3) Fish feeds (i) Calculation standard In most cases, fish ponds in China are applied with whatever feeds available, a compound one. The formula of calculation is more complicated and it leads inconvenience to scientific management. In practice, a kind of feeds with common use and stable source often serves as a standard of calculation such as barley in southern part of Jiangsu Province or pelleted feeds in certain places. For green fodder, aquatic grass serves as a calculation standard. And then, on the basis of feed sources available and the needs of cultivated spp., the feed amount should be converted into the actual amount of feeds according to the equivalent ratio between actual amount and standard amount. EX.2 A farm expects 1000 T barley, the department of goods and materials can only provide 50% of it, the rest are substituted by 20% bean cakes, 20% brans and 10% pellets. Evalution: the exact quantity of each substitutes. Solve: According to the available informations, equivalent ratio between barley and the substitutes is 3/4 for bean cake, 2 for brans, for pellets. The quantity of bean cake = 1000 20% 3/4 = 150 T. The quantity of brans = 1000 20% 2 = 400 T. The quantity of pellets = 1000 10% = 50 T. (ii) Calculation method The total requirements of fine feeds are the sum of the fine feeds needed at each growth stage except hatching. The total requirements of green fodder is the sum of the green fodder needed

at each growth stage except the periods of hatching and post larva nurturing. The requirements of fine feeds and green fodder are calculated by using the following formula: A. The requirements of fine feeds at a certain stage

Where, Y: target net yields of each species at a certain stage. C: food coefficient of a calculation standard feed fed to each species of food-feeders. R: Utilization rate of the feed (%)

In actual production, R is within the food coefficient. To solve the requirements of fry nurturing stage, Y and C represent the number of fry(unit: 10,000) and feeds fed to 10,000 summerlings respectively. If the fine feeds are used mixing with the green fodder, the feeds have to be calculated as fine feeds and then the same method as EX.2 is used to calculate the quantity of green fodder. EX. 3: A farm expects to gain 2000 kg of Black carp, 6000 kg of herbivorous fish, 2000 kg of Common carp and Crucian carp. If barley is used as a standard feed, how much is required then? If the barley provided is only 50%, the rest come from rye grass and sudan grass, then how much of the grass? Solve: Based on the information, the barley's coefficient in rearing the above-mentioned species are 4, 3, 3.5 respectively. Total requirement of barley = 2000 4 + 6000 3 + 2000 3.5 = 33000 kg Suppose the annual output of rye grass and sudan grass has been averaged out; their coefficient for herbivorous fish is about 30; Their value equivalent to barley is about 10. Grass requirements = 33000 10 = 165000 kg B. The requirements of green fodder at a certain stage

Where, Yg:

The target net yields of herbivorous fish at a certain stage Cg: the food coefficient of a standard green fodder

R: utilization rate of this fodder

R can be omitted in production because it's within the food coefficient. When there is a shortage of green fodder, fine feeds are used as supplementary feeds. The deficient number should be converted into the number of fine feeds according to its equivalent ratio. for example, 1000kg of Sudan grass can be converted into 100 kg of barley. If it is used for herbivorous fish, its equivalent ratio is 10. 1000 kg (Sudan grass) 10 (equivalent value) = 100 kg (barley). (4) Manure for fish culture Total requirements of manures are the sum of manures needed at different stages. If manures applied come from different sources, a kind of manures with common use and stable source serves as calculation standard. The actual amount can be calculated out according to equivalent ratio. The target amount of manure at a certain stage, M is: M = (Y1-n Y2) C
Where, Y1: the target net yield of filtering fish Y2: the target gross yield of feed-eaters net yield of filtering fish which feed on the plankton produced out of excreta of the n: feed-eaters per unit gross yield.

However, the rate varies with the species and feeds and ecological factors. Generally, it ranges from 0.2 to 0.6; C: the manure conversion coefficient of a certain kind of manures to fish flesh In fact, this coefficient results from many ecological factors and will be obtained in the actual practice in each specific farm. The animal manure takes faeces as standard. The urine should be converted into faeces by certain ratio. EX. 4 A certain farm is expected to produce herbivorous fish and filtering fish of 15000 kg each in grow-out pond with terrestrial grass to feed herbivorous fish and with livestock manure to fertilize pond water. Now there is about 100,000 kg of pure pig excreta. If the rest is replaced by cowdung, how much will it be needed? Solve: Based on the experiment, the conversion coefficient of pig excreta and cowdung is 25 and 40 respectively. Suppose 0.5 kg of filtering fish can be raised by virtue of plankton produced by excreta of herbivorous fish. We use pig excreta as a standard. M = (15,000 0.5 15000) 25 = 187500 kg.

Subtract 100,000 kg of pig excreta; cowdung needed is as follows:

(5) The area of crop production Ref Chapter 7 section 2. Calculate grass planting area only because the economic returns of planting manure crop and fodder crop are poorer than that of planting grasses for fish farming. (6) The number of animals matched with fish farming and the construction area of animal shed. After total requirements of manures are worked out, the requirements of different kinds of manures can be allocated and calculated according to the local conditions and so the numbers of different animals can be calculated out. (i) Number of a certain animal raised in its production period.

Where,

M = m: c:

The requirement of a certain animal manure (kg) the amount of excreta of one animal during a production period (the urine should be converted into faece) periods of animal raising in one year (the time can be overlapped)

(ii) The construction area of animal houses

Where, N: total number of a certain animal raised in the whole year C: unoverlapped raising periods of a certain animal in one year. For example, fattening pigs need 56 months, so there will be 2 periods in one year. average construction area for one animal. If the quantity is not the same in different s: raising period, use the following formula:

S = Ns Where, N = the greatest number in a batch (See Fig. 841) 2) Drawing up the model diagram of plans (See Fig. 842)

2. Appraisal of Economic returns of Integrated Fish Farming 2.1. Appraising methods and procedures 1) Methods (1) The methods of material collection (i) Surveying method In term of scope, investigation can be divided into general surveying, sampling and typical surveying. In terms of form, live coverage and questionaire through correspondence. Investigation through various methods can get better results, nevertheless, general surveying combining with typical surveying are commonly practised. Before investigation, the objective, contents and targets ought to be fixed; the precis of investigation be designed; the table of investigation be drawn up and then the surveying can be conducted deeply and widely as planned. (ii) Experiment method Due to the weak points of investigation, the trial and error procedure should be performed for complement and verification. Experiment on the site should be held before any new decision on technical measurements is adopted. In order to give a correct appraisal, it's necessary to get technical and economic data as complete and accurate as possible. (2) Data analysis and processing There are several methods of data analysis: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Comparative analysis Cut and try marginal analysis regressional analysis linear analysis

(3) Selecting the best after the appraisal After the appraisal, the best plan can be selected in line with the local conditions and enterprise capabilities by using the abovementioned methods and overall & systemetical analysis. 2) Procedure The procedure of appraisal of economic returns of integrated fish farming technique is as follows: (See Fig. 843) 2.2. The main indicators of economic returns of integrated fish farming techniques

The indicators of economic returns of integrated fish farming techniques is a measurement of the farming management. Due to the complexity of integrated fish farming, any individual indicator can't represent the whole farming activities. Therefore, it is a must to introduce a series of indicators for the general analysis. The common indicators practised in both research and the actual production are as follows: 1) The indicators of economic analysis (1) Production indicators It mainly reflects the productivity and the level of technical and economic management. This production is the yield indicator in kind (material object). In an integrated fish farm, however, there are varieties of produce, but they can't be simply added one another & they must be changed into the protein production or energy output for easy calculation. There are 2 kinds of production: total production and per-unit yield. The total production refers to the total amount of one kind of products such as fish, milk or egg, etc. in a year. The per-unit area or volume yield refers to fish and crop yields in one unit land area or unit surface or unit water body while the yields of husbandry and poultry are calculated based upon the number of head. The formula is as follows:

The per-unit area yield indicates the effects of utilization of land or surface and the animal production capabilities. If the other factors do not change, the higher the per-unit area yield, the better the economic returns. For the per-unit area fish yield, the methods of calculation varies a great deal in many places. In general, the average per-unit area yield should be as follows: the total yield is divided by the whole pond area including fingerling rearing ponds or the yield can be calculated out as yield of grow out pond and yield of and fingerling pond. Pond area means the area of a fish pond excluding the pond dyke. In China, the pond fish culture employs the polyculture system. Different techniques are practised in different stocking models, the yields of each species differs, thus, resulting in different economic benefits. So in appraisal, per-unit area yield for each specific species is necessary for calculation. Production indicators also include commodity indicators. This refers to the products entering the circulation. The percentage of commodity in total yield is called commodity rate. These two indicators represent the contributions (in other wprds, social benefit) made by the labourer in an integrated fish farm. Total yield or per-unit area yield can be divided into gross and net yield too. The gross yield includes the input weight of fry or young animal while the net yield does not. So the net yield indicators can accurately represent the production level. (2) Output value and income indicators (i) There are 2 kinds of output value: total output value of the farm and that of any specific trade. The former is a total amount of the product value of all trades. The latter is a total amount of the value of each trade such as aquaculture or livestock output value. The total output value reflects measure of value for the final results of the farm management. The output value of a certain product equals product of the yields multiplied by its price. There are two kinds of prices which are used to calculate output value: current price & constant price. The current price is the local price of the year when the product is produced. The constant price indicates the fixed price in a certain year as the basis of output value calculation in a certain period which is also called comparative price. The constant price fixed in 1980 serves as a standard for appraisal of economic returns of integrated fish farming techniques. (ii) Total income It indicates the revenues which can offset the expenditures, wages in kind and in cash. It is different from the total output value because the latter includes weight gain of both fingerlings and young animals which are unsold while the revenues refer to the income of sold products. The total output value excludes non-productive income while the revenues include the interests and rent of non-productive income etc. The total output value is evaluated by using comparative price while the revenues by using actual price. (iii) The per-unit area output value and income The total output value and revenues of aquaculture, crop and animal husbandry are respectively divided by the stocking area, cultivated area and head of reared animals to obtain the accurate per-unit area output value and income of fish, crop and animal, per-unit animal output value and

income. If the other factors do not change, the higher the indicators, the greater the economic returns. (3) Cost indicator The production cost of integrated fish farming is the sum of embodied labour and living labour, that is, the sum of total expenses of production means and wages measured in value. It's a synthetic indicator of labour consumption. Production cost: There are 2 kinds-the total cost of the farm and the total cost of each trade. The total cost of aquaculture includes the costs of fingerlings and food fish. For comparison, the cost indicators are calculated according to the following formula: i. Per-unit area production cost of fish or crops

ii.

Per-unit product production cost of a certain product

iii.

Per-unit product output value cost

The three indicators of per-unit area, per-unit product and perunit output value cost can accurately reflect the farming consumption. They are important indicators in appraising the economic returns of integrated fish farming techniques. Therefore, the lower the cost, the greater the economic returns. (4) Net output value and net income indicators (i) Net output value It refers the new value created by the producers, that is, the total output value deducts all the value consumed in the operating process. The production results can be clearly shown. The net output value is calculated according to the constant price. It is a remainder of the revenues substracted by the total production cost. For state-owned fish farm; it includes tax and profit; for the collective or individual farms, the operating cost excludes the labour payment so it is actually an incomplete cost. Thus, the net income includes the taxes and gross profit which contains the

accumulation funds, welfare funds and bonus. Owing to the difference of the collective farm and individual farm, the net income can be calculated according to the same standard or compared directly with gross profit. The net output value and net income indicators are operating results and also it is a synthetic indicator which can accurately reflect economic benefits. The following three indicators are often adopted to appraise the net output value and net income. A. Net output value or net income per-unit area

B. Net output value of per-unitproduct

C. Net output value of cost (net income)

In the last formula, if the numerator and the denominator refer to the net output value and production cost of the farm or a trade or a product respectively, the percentage shows the net output value rate of cost respectively; if the numerator refers to the profit, the percentage will show profit rate of cost. The three indicators stated above are the important factors in appraising the farm activities and they can accurately reflect farming consumption and results and utilization rate of all kinds of the natural resources. The higher the data, the greater the economic benefits. (5) Labour productivity It refers to the produce and output value which per-unit living labour creates on an integrated fish farm. The formula is as follows:

There are four indicators commonly used for comparison between living labour consumption and farming achievements: (i) Net output value created by each labourer

This formula can be applied on a farm, a certain trade or a certain product. In the state-owned farm, the labourers are quite stable whole in the collective or individual farms, there is a great change for labbourers. In actual apprasial, 300 work days are generally considered to be one man-year. This accurately reflects the new contribution to the society by each labourer, excluding the effects of embodied labour on labour productivity. The higher the value, the greater the economic benefits. (ii) Net income created by each labourer

(iii) Profit made by each labour

These two indicators have the same functions with the net output value in appraisal. (iv) The commercial produce contributed by each labourer per annum

An integrated fish farm produces varieties of products, but they can't be simply added one another. In order to analyse the indicator of the whole farm, the measurement form of products should be uniformed e.g. protein. This indicator reflects the social contribution by the labourers (6) Investment analysis The following two indicators are commonly used for investment analysis. (i) Return of investment

If the investment is applied to enlarge the production scale or renovate the old facilities, the average profit per annum should be changed to the increment of average profit. (ii) Coefficient of returns in investment, which is a reciprocal of the indicator above, reflects the economic returns per-unit investment in quota turnover period. The shorter the turnover, the higher the coefficient, the better the economic returns. 2) Technical Analysis Indicators (1) The fish growth rate and daily weight gain of animals (i) The fish growth rate

(ii) Daily weight gain of animal

(2) Times of weight increment

From gross yields and net yields, we'll have gross and net weight increment. The formula: total fish yields of pond divided by the stocked quantity equals times of weight increment. The abovementioned three technical indicators reflect the growth rate of fish, livestock and fowl under the conditions of different technical measures. (3) Food coefficient

(4) Conversion rate of food

This indicator is called feed reward, that is, certain quantity of animals is gained out of per-unit quantity feeds. (5) Manure conversion coefficient

This indicator is new concept summerized out of the actual practices of integrated fish farming. This indicator varies with manure quantity, ecological conditions and technical management. The above-mentioned indicators represent the relationships between input of feeds and fertilizers and output of fish, livestock & fowl. (6) Protein or energy utilization rate

From another aspect, it represents the relationships between the input and output. Among this formula, manure has nothing to do with other factors except fish. Energy utilization rate is used in appraising the economic returns of integrated fish farming compound ecological system techniques. Thus, various embodied labour and living labour should be converted into energy. (7) Feed equivalent ratio It refers to the ratio between new feeds or substitutes coefficient and standard feeds coefficient. It indicates the effects of comprehensive utilization.

CHAPTER IX ANIMAL RAISING AND PLANT CULTIVATION ON AN INTEGRATED FISH FARM

Section 1. Animal raising on an integrated fish farm The Purpose of raising animals on an integrated fish farm is to develop integrated fish farming and fully utilize the limited feedstuffs. The multi-stage utilization of feedstuffs and fertilizers makes it possible to supply the community with more produce and to increase the income for the fish farm as well. such activity in China is practised in line with local conditions, that is to say, different natural resources and farm conditions decide different items of management and animal raising, e.g. various integration of fish - livestock - poultry or integrated management of aquaculture, agriculture, or a composite of animal husbandry, industry and commerce. 1. Sericulture Pond dykes, corner plots, etc. can be used to plant mulberry tree for sericulture on an integrated fish farm. The by-products of sericulture, dregs, which are comprised of the faeces and sloughs of silkworm and mulberry residues can be used as fertilizers for fish culture. On average, we can get 50 60 kg silkworm dregs out of 100 kg mulberry leaves after feeding silkworms. If they are used to feed fish, 1,000 kg of silkworm dregs can be converted into 100 kg of fish. By applying 5,000 kg of pond silt to mulberry plots, we can increase 250 kg of mulberry leaves, which can, in turn, raise the production of silkworm cocoon. Pupa occupies 80% of a wilkworm cocoon by weight, and 100 kg of raw silk and 600 kg of pupae can be obtained from every 700 800 kg of silkworm cocoon. Silkworm chrysalis is very rich in protein and fat, which are the good feedstuff for fish, livestock and poultry. Pupae have a special ordor, the feeding amount should be controlled. The nutritive components in silkworm drege and pupae are as follows (in percentage):
moisture faeces dry pupae 12.2 0 crude protein 15.4 46.74 crude fat 2.6 32.22 crude fibre 19.6 non-nitrogen extracts 36.2 4.5 4.5 minerals

The collection and utilization of by-products from sericulture: Silkworm dregs, mulberry residues could be collected at an early stage of silkworm breeding, but the amount is negligible. It is the right time to collect them after the dormant stage. Silkworm pupae are byproducts after reeling. There are two ways to collect above-mentioned by-products: 1. Sun-dry method: It is suitable for sunny days. Pulverize them after dry, and mix them with chicken feeds for broilers. The daily amount should not exceed 5% of the total feeds. This must be discontinued when the chicken are one month old, otherwise, the meat quality would be affected. The amount of pupae should not be over 10% of pigs' compound fodder. The pupae are allowed to feed sows, piglings, not hogs. 2. Water immersion method: It is for rainy days. As it is difficult to dry silkworm dregs and pupae, just stock these in big vats and fill the vats with water. The preserved ones can

be fed to piglings only, never for the fatteners because of the stronger odor of the wet pupae, which may influence the quality of pork. 2. Chicken farming The digestive tract of a chicken is very short, only 6 times of its own body length. Some of their feedstuffs are excreted out before being fully digested. From the research results, it is found that about 80% of the feedstuffs are utilized and digested by the poultry (count by dry material); Therefore, various animals on the integrated fish farm can use 20% undigested feedstuffs from the chicken manure. Besides, chicken has the habit of pecking foods, more than 1015 % of the feed are scattered over the ground these can also be reclaimed together with the chicken manure. The total protein contents of the dry chicken is as high as 2030%. In it is satisfactory if the protein contents of feedstuffs are over 18%. In the past chicken manure used to be fertilizer for the crops which, we consider, is a world of waste. a little slip will cost a big loss. It is very different from small scale family raising. 2) The utilization of good species and hybrid vigor of broilers that are suitable for an integrated fish farm: The most common species of broiler chicken in the world are hybrid offspring of White Cornish and White Rock. Some companies in the world are specifically engaged in chicken breeding. They have got some pure-bred for the hybrid experiments. From the results of their hybrid matching, they select the best combination of the hybrids. They have first generation hybrids (grandfather generation), and second generation hybrids (parent generation), and then produce broiler chickens for commercial production. Pure line reproduction (Great Grandfather) First Generation Hybrids (Grandfather generation) Second Generation Hybrids (Parent Generation) Produced Chickens (Commercial Generation)

The white feather broilers bred in China are Starbro System from Canada and Hybro System from Holland. We have established National Pure line Chicken Farm, selling grandfather generation to the first grade chicken farms, and the first grade chicken farms sell parent generations to the second grade chicken farms. The second grade chicken farms supplies double hybrid commercial chickens for the markets.

Chinese people prefer to eat yellow feather broiler chickens, therefore, most of the white feather broiler chickens are processed as fronen chicken for export. The live poultry for domestic market and , yellow feather chickens. They are New Pudong Chicken bred by the Institute of Rusbandary, Shanghai Academy of Agriculture. The meat of this species is better than Starbro chicken imported, but their growth is a little slower, their body weight reaches 1,500 grams after 10 weeks, a hen can lay 140 eggs per year. Their viability is . In recent years, some of the developed countries use processed chicken manure to feed animals and poultry. Chicken Manure Pelletining Production which becomes the Regenerative technology Industry of 80's is of very important economical value. In China, dry saw-dust and pulverised dry stalk of crops are used as bedding material for chicken coops. The bedding material and chicken excreta are used to feed fish. Part of them may be eaten directly by fish as feedstuffs while the rest will become the nutrients of the fish pond water. In this way, we still cannot fully utilize all the nutrients of chicken manure. For a change, the excreta together with the bedding material are used as the feedstuffs for cattle or pigs, especially for sows and beef cattle. Thus, the undigested and unabsorbed fine feeds in chicken excreta are well utilized again by sow and cow, promoting the development of the hog and cow husbandry. The excreta of pigs and cattle can also be used to feed fishes. Fishes can utilize the undigested nutrients in pig manure and cow dung. The utilization rate of feedstuffs is then greatly increased. Besides, animal manures serve as fertilizers in the water to produce abundant plankton, which is a good natural food for fish. If animal excreta are used to culture fish, they enrich the pond silt, which can be used as fertilizer for the mulberry plot or on the pond dyke for green fodders resulting in high yield. Thus, we can raise silkworm, also raising chicken, pig, cow and rearing fish at the same time. In this way, the utilization of the feedstuffs and fertilizers can reach its maximum, and aquaculture and animal raising can be carried out in a more comprehensive way. Commercial Broiler Production on an Integrated Fish Farm 1) Characteristics of broiler farming: The broiler farming has only developed for 20 years in China. Large flock and high density farming method is adopted. Broilers grow very quickly. In the feeding condition is favorable they can be sent to market after 8 weeks, usually not over 12 weeks. The average weight of the chicken is between 1,2501,600 grams. The feedstuffs of broilers should be compound feed with all the essential nutrients. Special attention must be paid to the temperature, and of the house. broiler farming, 3) Chicken House Construction and Main Equipment Farms From the economical point of view, the open-type house with natural lighting and ventilation for chicken is practiced or fish farms. Usually, it is a one-storeyed building with inverted V shape roof. Its length is about 68 meters. Its height from the ground to the caves is about 2.22.5 meters even 3 meters in the warmer area. Each room has an area of about 100 square meters, which can accomodate about 800 chickens. The width of the house should depend on the amount of chickens raised. Two workers can handle about 3,0004,000 chickens at one time. The chicken house should face the sun, the ratio of the windows and the ground area is usually 1:81:10. The windows in the south should be bigger and nearer to the ground while the windows on the north side should be smaller and farther to the ground in the northern hemisphere. It's better to have a concrete ground 30 cm higher than the ground outdoor so that it will be easier to keep it dry and sterilized. Main Equipment for Chicken Farming

i.

ii.

Thermafication: Thermoelectric umbrellas are commonly used. It is square in shape, about 11.1 meters on each side, about 0.7 meters in height, with 45 degrees inclination upward. Each umbrella has a 300 W. thermoelectric wires and a thermostat which can keep 250300 chicklings warm. In the cold winter, stoves with pipes should be installed in the house in order to keep the room warmer. (see Figure 1). Feeding Trough: There are 2 types of feeding systems, the manuel and the mechanical chain type. The feeding trough for chicken is made of wood plate or iron sheet. The size and height depend upon the growth period of chickens. Usually there are small, medium and large sizes. There is a special rod on the trough to prevent the spilling of the feedstuffs and the contauination from chicken manure. There should be a certain number of troughs to guarantee the chicken to be fed evenly. This kind of troughs can also hold wet feedstuffs (see Figure 2). Cylindric feeding trough can also be used (see Figure 3). Chain-driven feeding system: It is a trough made of iron sheet. At one end of the trough, attached a feedstuff box, with a chain in the trough moving transversely, which can deliver the feedstuffs to the whole length of the trough. It is easy to use and save manpower. (see Figure 4).

iii.

iv.

Waterer: For chicklings a big opening jar with an aluminum plate beneath can be used. They should be installed around the thermoumbrella in order that the chicklings can easily get water. As the chicken grows, automatic barrel-like plastic waterer can be used instead of jar. It contains clean water for about 100 chickens to drink per day. (see Figure 5). Some farms use long trough with running water and the results is also promising. Chicken Cage: The chick transportation cages are made of calciumplastic corrugated paper, which can hold 100 newly-hatched chickens (see Figure 6). For the chickens sent to market, they are usually kept in iron wire cage of 90 60 35 centimeters in size. Each cage can hold about 1520 live chickens weighing 1.5 kilograms each (see Figure 7).

(4) Standards and formula of broiler chicken feeds: In order to fully utilize the feedstuffs, to cut down the cost of the feed, to accelerate the growth and build up the health of the broiler chicken, we have to set the standards of the nutrition according to nutritional needs. The following nutritional requirements are adopted: Nutritional Standards for Broiler Chicken
05 weeks old Metabolic energy (cal/kg) Crude Protein(%) Ratio of Protein and energy (g/kilo cal) Calcium (%) 28003000 2022 72 0.9 Over 5 weeks old 30003200 1820 61 0.9

Phosphate (%) NaCl (%) Amino Acids (g/kilo cal)

0.65 0.37

0.65 0.37

2.66 Cysteine Lysine Tryptophan Arginine Leucine Isoleucine Phenylalanine Tyrosine Threonine Valine Histidine Glycine and /or Serine 1.24 3.91 0.72 4.38 5.00 2.69 4.68 2.18 2.50 3.13 1.44 3.59 1.09 3.44 0.63 3.75 4.38 2.34 4.06 1.88 2.19 2.66 1.25 3.13

Nutritional Standards of Vitamins and Minerals for Broiler Chicken

Chicken of 08 weeks old Vitamin A Active (I.U./kg) Vitamin D3 (Chicken I.U./kg) Vitamin E (mg/kg) Vitamin K1 (mg/kg) Vitamin B1 (Thiamine HCl) (mg/kg) Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) (mg/kg) Pantothenic Acid (mg/kg) Nicotinic Acid (mg/kg) Vitamine B6 (mg/kg) Biotin (mg/kg) Choline (mg/kg) Folic Acid (mg/kg) Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) Sodium (Na) (%) 1,500 200 10 0.53 1.8 3.6 10 27 3 0.09 1,300 0.55 0.009 0.15

Potasium (K) (%) Manganese (Mn) (mg/kg) Iodine (I) (mg/kg) Magnesium (Mg) (mg/kg) Iron (Fe) (mg/kg) Copper (Cu) (mg/kg) Zinc (Zn) (mg/kg) Selenium (Se) (mg/kg) 55 0.35 500 80 4 50 0.1

For easy preparation of the feed, there are vitamin compounds and trace elements additives for broiler chickens manufactured in our country. We can just add them to the feed according to a certain proportion. There are a number of feedstuff companies in the world, they prepare compound feed for broiler chickens. According to the requirements as well as local feed resources, the results are quite promising (See Table 911). The metabolic energy, crude protein, amino acils, calcium, phosphates, vitamins and mineral contents of the feedstuffs' formula can fulfil the nutritional requirements. Average Feeding Standards for Broiler Chicken
Age by days 15 610 1115 1620 2125 2630 Amount of feed (g) each chicken per day 10.0 20.0 32.0 44.0 58.0 70.0 Age by day 3135 640 4145 4650 5155 5660 Amount of feed (g) each chicken per day 80.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 115.0 100.0

Table 9-1-1 Formula of the Feedstuffs for broiler Chicken Produces by the Wuxi Feedstuffs Company
05 weeks old ratio Corn Highland Barley Soya Bean Cake Bran Cake 38 15 5 6 above 5 weeks ratio 48 10 5 8

Cotton-seed Cake Wheat Bran Low Grade Wheat Flour Fish meal Peptone Chinese Scholartree Leave Powder Bone Powder Calcium Carbonates Ferrous Sulphate Table Salt Trace element additives Multivitamin additives Metabolic Energy (Cal./kg) Crude Protein (%) Crude Celluose (%) Calcium (%) Phosphate (%)

5 6 5 9 4 4.5

5 5

9 2.5 5

1.5 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.2 5g. 3036 21.57 3.71 1.08 0.86

1.5 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.1 3 g. 3057 20.14 2.76 1.06 0.65

(5) Feeding and Management of Broiler Chicken: The most important thing in the Management of broiler chicken is the formula of the feed. The nutrient of the feed should be all-round. Second, the daily management of the poultry should be emphasized. Good environmental conditions are essential to the growth of the chicken. Better rewards could be obtained from the feedstuffs, if we follow the above-montioned criteria. Simultaneously in-and-out system: All chickens should start to feed at the same day and come to the market at the same day. After all the chickens are sold, complete cleaning and sterilization of the poultry farm should be carried out. Then rest for 714 days. This period of fallowness can break any cycle of any infectious disease. A clean start will be ready for the next batch of chickens, which can be prevented from the infectious diseases of the previous batch. As the growth speed of broiler chickens are not uniform, it is better to modify the simultaneously in-and-out system. Chicklings are received at the same time, but sold according to their body weight. For those growing slower, we keep them one to two weeks more, and sell them while their body weight reaches the requirements. Good Preparatory Work:

After all the chickens are sold, the poultry house and equipment should be completely sterilized and a layer of clean and dry bedding is laid on the floor. Before chicklings are coming, the temperature of chicken nursery should be kept above 80F, and the temperature beneath the nursing umbrella should be 9095F, lamps should be installed in the umbrella in order to attract chicklings to come under the umbrella to keep warm. The trough and waterers should be also installed around the umbrella. Protecting board is set up outside of the umbrella, thus keeping chicklings in the warm area of the umbrella. Waters and trough should be filled before the introduction of chicklings. Chicklings should come to the poultry house in the morning. In this way, they can learn to eat and drink in the day time. The lamps should be ligned on in the first two weeks Fresh food and water should be given and the daily consumption of the feedstuffs recorded. The temperature of the nursing umbrella should be checked in the night to prevent chicklings from crowding together if it is not warm enough. No light is needed all the night after 48 hours. The protective board of the nursing umbrella should extend and the temperature lowers one degree F daily. The air should be kept fresh, water and feedstuffs should be clean. The bedding of the chicken house should be dry and the environment quiet. As chicklings grow, the protective board can be removed on the 7th day to avoid too many chickens gathering together. The trough and waterers should also be changed to larger size as the chickens grow. The nursing umbrella should be gradually raised up in height. If feed is given all day long, the feed and water should not be interrupted. If artificial feeding is carried out, the feeding time should be fixed. Weaker chickens should be separated into groups for feeding. The bedding on the ground should be changed frequently and exposed to the sun as often as possible. The chicken house should be kept warm in winter and well ventilated and proper measures should be taken to lower the temperature in summer. Chicklings are fed with special diet during the first 5 weeks and then fed with fattening diet gradually. Prevention of diseases should be emphasized during the whole course of raising. When those chickens reach 10 weeks old, with body weight of 1.5 kg, they can be sold first. It is better to catch the chickens in the early morning and each cage can hold 15 chickens in the summer and 20 chickens in the winter. A layer of dry grass is laid on the base of the cage. Tender can during the catching can avoid injuries. (6) Prevention and Treatment of Common Disease: The raising time of broiler chickens is short, but the density is high. The prevention of disease should stress nursing management, cleanness and hygiene. The prevention program should be outlined ahead of raising. Medical treatment is carried out only hen the prevention fails. The common chicken diseases are Pullorum disease, coccidiosis avium, infectious bronchitis of chicken, chronic respiratory diseases, variola avium, Newcastle disease, cholera avium, Marek's disease, ascariasis avium and deficiency disease, e.g. lack of certain nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals. Some of the chicken diseases can be prevented by inoculation of vaccine or by medication. Some big manufacturers have produced mixed whole feedstuffs including vitamins, trace elements and drugs, thus, it can effectively prevent the occurrence of certain diseases. Some of drugs may produce resistance after long application, such as anti-coccidiosis medication. Therefore, the most helpful way to prevent the outbreak of chicken diseases is good nursing management, cleanness and hygeine as well as isolation and sterilization. Example of Preventive Project:

Marek's vaccine is given to chicklings within 48 hours after hatching. 0.01% furazolidonum is added into the drinking water for 17 dayold chicklings to prevent Pullorum disease. Nose drops of weak toxic Newcastle disease II vaccine are given to the 7 day-old chickens, and they are inoculated with variola avium vaccine at the same time. Robenidine of 30 ppm is added into the feed after 10 days old to prevent coccidiosis and discontinued one week before marketing. The beak should be cut in the middle with a beak cutter and hemostasic is done by cautery at 15 days old to prevent bad pecking habit. H120 vaccine of infectious bronchitis is given with the drinking water to 20 day-old chickens at the dilution of 1:5001000. The dosage is 510 ml per chicken. Subcutaneous inoculation or Newcastle disease vaccine at 45 days old. If ascarid is found, tetrametrasol is given. Control of coccidiosis: Coccidiosis is the most serious disease of broiler chickens and usually happens after the chickens are 8 weeks old. It is mainly transmitted through manure, especially in the hot and humid season. If the bedding material is thick, the transmission will be more serious because the wet bedding increases the chance of hatching of occyst. The most effective approach for preventing coccidiosis is to raise chicklings in cages above the ground. Thus, the chickens are isolated from their own excrement. If thick grass bedding is used, the most common approach is some anti-coccidiosic medication given with the feedstuffs right after initial feeding, and should be carried out through the whole period of growth. For instance, 125 ppm of sulfadimethoxine (SDM) or 30 ppm of chlorophenyl-quanide can be added into the feedstuffs. Dinitolmide (Zoalene) can also be added into the feed, up to the concentration of 0.0125%. Attention should be paid to that continuous application of anti-coccidiosis drugs for a period of time may bring about the drug-fast and drug-fast strain. As a result, coccidiosis could break out again then, the treatment of coccidiosis is only one of the approaches in the whole process of prevention. If the result of the first trial is not promising, other medications should be considered. Two kinds of medications can be applied alternatively. Besides the medical control of coccidiosis, cleanness and hygiene of the chicken house and the dryness of the ground bedding are also essential. The addition of vitamin A and K in the feed can increase the resistance of the chicken. (7) Collection and Utilization of Chicken Manure: Nutrient Constituents in Chicken Manure (Dry)
Cage Raising Moisture (%) Crude Protein (%) Crude Fat(%) 11.4 26.7 1.76 Ground Raising with saw dust bedding 12.3 21.0 1.7 2.3 Ground Raising with dry grass bedding 15.5

Non-nitrogen Extracts (%) Crude Cellulose (%) Minerals (%) Calcium (%) Phosphate (%)

30.6 13.04 16.9 7.8 2.2

30 17.2 16.9 1.95 1.26

27.1 18.7 14.1 2.3 0.42

Deodorizing of Chicken Manure: The chicken manure is fermented and decomposed a few hours after excretion, and a bad smell will occur. Animals instinctively refuse to eat chicken manure unless they are accustomed to it. It is better to deodorize the chicken manure before feeding. (i) Adding ferrous sulphate: Ferrous sulphate for industrial use (FeSO4 7H2O, green vitriol) has a mild bactericidal function. After mixing it with chicken manure, there will be no fermentation, no decomposition and no foul smell. But ferrous sulphate will absorb moisture, which makes the pulverization and spreading of the powder difficult. Therefore, the process of defouling is limited. Half amount of chimney dust can be added and mixed, then baked dry at 6080C, the mixture will not absorb moisture, and this makes the spreading easier. 7% of ferrous sulphate and 3.5% pulverized coal dust are blended with chicken manure. After drying, it will become odorless chicken manure, which can be tolerated by pig, cow, fish, even chicken itself. Their nutritional value are very high (see table below), and can be used up to 20% in the feedstuffs.
Moisture % 10.35 Protein % 21.9 Fat % 1.25 Non- Nitrogen Extracts % 21.33 Crude Cellulose % 7.13 Minerals % 30.04 Caloric cal/kg 2161

(ii) Fermentation Method: If dried grasses are used as bedding, the chicken manure and the dried and pulverised grass (about 14%) are put together into a fermontation pool with dimensions of 2 2 0.5 m and then, add in equal amount of dried and pulverized grass, silage, wheat bran and a small amount of table salt. The mixture will be filled with water, which occupies 70% and be sincked to 15 cm in height, fermenting for 4 hours in summer. If the temperature is over 40 degrees C, spread out the fermented material. It should be heaped up to 2030 cm in the spring and fall, let it ferment for about a day, and it should be stacked up to 40 50 cm in height in winter, and covered with a plastic sheet for about 34 days. This kind of formented feed has no foul smell at all, but with some wine flavor, good for taste, and pigs like it very much. Utilization of Fresh Chicken Manure: The nutritional value of the manure of less than 5-week-old chicken are very high; pigs like it even without any treatment. From the experiments, the manure of the egg-laying hens contains about 60% of the crude protein in the feedstuffs. There are 4 grams of digestible protein in the excreta of the egg-laying hen per day. The fresh chicken manure from the cage-cultured hens can be collected by the manure collector and mixed with the feed immediately for the pigs feed. If pigs are accustomed to such a kind of food, they can

be utilized more efficiently. It is better to feed sows, and should not be fed to fatteners, which may influence the quality of pork. Sterilization of Chicken Manure: The chicken manure collected contains latent pathogens, sterilization is needed so as to prevent other animals from chicken diseases. It is considered to be the most appropriate approach in the foreign countries to use methyl alcohol bromide (MeBr) to fumigate manures including bedding. Fumigation can be carried out in the storage basement of silage, or in the special designed tanks. Another method is to stir up the manure with formalin solution at a dose of 0.52% and to put it into use after air-dry. Chicken manure fed to cow and pig should be limited within 1030%. If 1525%, the results will be promising. C. Goose Production Both goose and duck are water fowl. Goose raising is mainly for human consumption. Goose is herbivorous animal, which can utilize some of the green scarse feeds. Not like ducks, geese don't have to use feeds of animal origin. Therefore the cost of the feeds for geese is much lower than that for ducks. The well known Chinese goose has strong ability to graze with early maturation and high output. The ratio of the feeds and meat, that is the reward of feed, is higher for the goose than for the duck. It is more economical to raise goose. Fishpond can also be used to raise goose. The goose droppings go directly into the fishpond, which can fertilize the pond water and can be fed to fish as well. If ducks are raised in the fishpond, they will take small fishes as their food. With geese in the pond is a good natural scenery, white feathers float on green water; Red palms pluck blue ripples. 1) Taihu Lake Goose is a Fine Species for an Integrated Fish Farm: Chinese goose is famous for its early maturity and high output. They can be divided into large and small body-types according to their size. Lion-head goose is the largest variety of Chinese goose, and also one of the largest varieties in the world. Matured goose weighs about 1012 kilograms, gosling grows very quickly, 7590 day-old meat goose can weigh about 57.5 kilograms. But their ability to seek food is poor and they need more feedstuffs, bringing forth only 2535 eggs per year. Taihu goose is famous for small body-type white goose in China, its size is not big, the matured goose only weighs about 3.54.5 kilograms. But they mature earlier and can lay about 80 eggs per year. High yield species can lay more than 100 eggs per year. They have a good ability to seek food and the consumption of foodstuffs is less; therefore, Taihu goose is better than others from the economical point of view. We take small size, early matured, high yield Taihu goose as maternal-line and large size lionhead goose as paternalline, through artificial insemination, cross matching and heterosis to produce meat gosling. 2) Grazing of Meat Gosling: Spring is the grazing season for the meat goslings. The weather in spring gradually becomes warm and grasses sprout. It's good time for the growth and grazing of the goslings. After wheat harvest, goslings can graze in the wheat field and they can seek the remaining wheats to fatten themselves, therefore, less feedstuffs are required. Only about one kilogram of feedstuffs is required for each gosling up to 70 days old.

The newly -born goslings are very timid and afraid of cold and like to get together, therefore, they should be kept warmer and divided into small groups. They have to be fed for at least six times per day at a fixed time, and midnight feeding is essential. Feedstuffs can be fragmentary rices, chopped green cabbages or green grass. After 4 or 5 days, they are allowed to graze and the distance of the grazing can increase gradually. After 15 days they can go out for camping. They should be kept in the hut for the night to prevent injuries from the wild animals. During the fattening stage, if the weather is hot, they are kept in the rivers, lakes and ponds for the night. Up to 70 days, the average weight reaches 2.5 kilograms, and then they can be marketed. 3) Management and Feeding of Breed Goose: Goose is a water fowl. Integrated fish farm can use fishpond to raise goose. A simple goose house can be erected on the bank of the fishpond. The goosehouse should face the south, the southern side is open or enclosed by low walls. There should be a dry run of at least 5 meters in width for feeding and resting. A slope of less than 30 degrees is to connect the dry run with the fish pond. The fishpond is enclosed with hedges about 60 centimeters in height. The ground of the goose-house is 20 centimeters higher than the outside and grass is used as bedding to keep the house dry. In one corner of the house, straws are stacked for laying eggs. Each square meter of the house can hold about 4 Taihu geese, but the water area should be as large as possible. In order to get high fertilization rate of seed egg, there should be 15 male geese matched with 100 female geese. Taihu goose can utilize green fodders; therefore, during nonegg laying season, raising breed geese depends on grazing with a small amount of blighted rices as supplementary food. The feedstuffs should be increased upon the egg-laying stage. With the increasing production of the eggs, the ratio of fine feeds should increase in proportion and special attention should be paid to the green feeds and minerals supplies. In order to promote the egg-laying of the breed geese, lamps should be put on in the night so as to prolong the lighting time from 12 hours to 15 hours. Grazing should be performed as much as possible. The feedstuffs ingradient and amount of feeding of the Taihu goose would be as follows: The ratio of Feeds for the Breed Goose
Daily feeding amount 150 250 250 200 175 feed ingradient (%) blighted rice 50 50 40 40 30 bran 50 20 20 15 15 20 20 15 15 20 20 10 20 30 bran cake Frag rice barnyard grass Metabolic energy (Cal/kg) 557 842 1346 1746 1748 crude protein (%) 3.78 7.34 9.75 9.75 10.28

Month

JunAug SeptNov Dec JanMar AprJun

In the above-mentioned ratio of the feedstuffs, the nutrients, especially the crude protein and metabolic energy are too low, but it is due to limitation of the food source and raising cost, this is the best ratio we can obtain. As Taihu geese have good propensity to graze and good ability to

utilize coarse feed, they can adjust their intake according to the requirements of the energy and protein. Thus, they can overcome the disadvantages in the formula. If we can improve the formula of feeding, the egg-laying rate can be raised. 4) Common Goose Diseases: Matured geese are rather strong and have good resistance against diseases and do not easily get sick. But the resistance of the goslings are very weak. If they are kept in large goosery with dense population, any little slip in the management, that is against the physiological requirements of the goslings will cause death. The best preventive approaches to the goose disease are good rearing management, sanitary environment and proper vaccination The common infectious diseases among the goosery are gosling pest, cholera avium and yolk peritonitis. Gosling pest vaccine is now available in China to prevent its occurrence. The mother goose should be inoculated with diluted 1:100 gosling pest vaccine one month before egg laying, once a year, and then the goslings hatched will have a strong immunity. Regular inoculation of cholera avium vaccine can prevent cholera of the geese. If the goosery is already infected, streptomycin should be injected at a dose of 100,000 IU for each goose at four-hour interval for three times, and the result is promising. Yolk peritonitis is usually occuring during the egg-laying season and there is no such vaccine for prevention now. However, streptomycin can be used for treatment, and the whole goosery should be fed with furazolidonum mixed with the feeds at a dose of 25 mg for each goose for 34 consecutive days. No matter what communicable disease is, besides medical control, other measures such as sterilization, isolation and deep bury of carcase ought to be taken timely to prevent the spreading of disease. 4. Duck Production Chinese people have a tradition of eating duck eggs and processing them into salted or preserved eggs. Raising of egg-laying duck needs less and simpler equipment. They mature earlier, produce more eggs, and the size of the egg is rather large. Ducks live in groups, and feed on natural feeds through grazing. Therefore, the raising of egg-laying duck is more profitable than that of egg-laying hen. On an integrated fish farm, grow-out pond can be used to raise egg-laying duck. Duck is an omnivorous water fowl which can use the by-products of the crops and animal feeds as well. Duck manure has higher nitrogen contents, which doubles that of goose manure, and the phosphate contents are nearly twice that of goose manure. 1. Shaoxing duck is one of the good egg-laying species in China: Its somatotype is rather small, the average weight of the matured duck is about 1.25 1.5 kilograms. Its ability to seek food is rather strong, so it needs less artificial feed. It matures earlier and usually lays eggs at the age of 120 days. 250300 eggs can be produced every year. High productive groups can give more than 300 eggs/duck per annum. Each egg weights about 5565 grams. We have introduced drake of Khaki-Compbell strains from Holland and crossed them with Shaoxing female duck. The hybrid vigor is rather obvious: the first generation hybrids start to lay eggs after 102 days, averagely producing 287.7 eggs per year. Each egg weighs about 64.5 grams. It can produce about 18.8 kilograms of eggs per annum. The economic benefit is about 50% higher than that of Shaoxing duck. 2. Maximum utilization of natural resources for grazing: Duck is an omnivorous water fowl. Their ability to seek food is very great; therefore, they should be raised by grazing as

much as possible. We can utilize the natural resources in the rice fields, lakes and marshes, trenches and ditches or river shoals. Egg-laying ducks usually hatch their ducklings in the early fall, the paddy field can be used for grazing. Ducklings eat grass, snails, small fishes and shrimps and injurious insects in the paddy field. After the rice grows up, transfer the ducks into the rivers, channels, ditches, lakes or marshes for grazing. After the harvest of rice crops, duck can be driven back to rice paddy fields where there must be some left-over rice, barnyard grass, snails and mole crickets. The natural feeds are seasonally available, duck raising must take advantage of natural resources so as to save artificial feeds. When grazing stops by November, ducks start to lay eggs. 3. Raising Ducks in Fishponds: Fishponds on an integrated fish farm can be used to raise ducks, but ducks eat small fishes, and they dive into water competing with black carp for snails. Therefore, we had better raise the ducks in grow-out ponds with much bigger water area, or within an enclosed section in a large fishpond. The construction of duck coops is similar to the construction of goose house, but egg-laying ducks are more sensitive to cold in comparison with geese. Lower temperature will affect the egg laying, so duck coops should be kept warm, there should be windows and doors on the southern wall to keep coops cool in summer and warm in winter. If there are some lakes, marshes, river shoals with plenty of natural feeds nearby the duck farm, grazing should be utilized to its utmost. Otherwise, they could be bred in suck shed, moving around in dryrun, wetrun and fishpond for food and rest, and all the egglaying ducks will live mainly on artificial feeds. Each Shaoxing duck has to be fed with 110120 grams of mixed feedstuffs, including blighted rices, barnyard grass, rice bran and fragmentary rices, and 50 grams of animal feeds, such as fresh fishes and pupae. Besides 100200 grams of green vegetables for each duck per day, snails and Corbicula spp. are often to be supplemented to meet their calcium needs. The green fodder should be chopped and fresh fishes should be cooked and then be mixed with green fodder. Feeds are given three times daily at set time. Shaoxing duck is rather nervous, easily to be disturbed, which may influence their egg-laying ability. Therefore, we should keep the environment very peaceful and quiet. Although egg-laying duck is a water fowl, they have to rest on land and thus, the duck house should be dry and grass bedding should be thick in winter in order to keep it warm and dry. 4. Prevention and Treatment of Common Diseases: The most important infectious diseases of egg-laying duck are duck pest and fowl cholera. We now have vaccine for preventive inoculation against the pest. The results are very promising, while the immunological effects of the fowl cholera is still unsatisfactory. To treat fowl cholera, each egg-laying duck is injected intramuscularly with 50,000 IU of streptomycin at an interval of 4 hours for three consecutive times, then followed by oral ingestion of 0.2 grams of sulfadimethoxinum daily for 3 consecutive days. Sterilization, isolation and deep bury of carcase should be taken to prevent the spreading of the disease. 5. Pig Farming Pig is an omnivorous animal, the length of pig's digestive tracts is 14 times of its body length. Feedstuffs are much better utilized by pig than by chicken. Chinese pigs can tolerate and fully utilize coarse fodder, even chicken excrement including the bedding.

After being accustomed to it, pigs can take a large amount of these fodders. Pig has become one of the main animals in the complete set of fish-livestock-poultry system on an integrated fish farm. 1. Pigsty on the pond dyke: Pigsties usually are built on pond dyke on an integrated fish farm, so that the excreta of pigs can be directly flushed into the pond. Because the pond dyke is not too wide, the pigsty is usually of single row, facing the south with inverted V -shaped roof. The depth of the pigsty from south to north is 4 meters, the width of every house 3 meters. There is a veranda about one meter in width on the southern side. Each house has an area of about 11 square meters and can hold 10 fattening hogs. The height from the ground to the eaves can be 22.2 meters. In order to reduce the expenses, no wall is needed on the southern side, but only a fence about 1.2 meters in height. The cement ground is a little higher in the northern side, and slightly sloping down toward the south. Thus, pigs' excreta can easily pass out directly into the fishpond through discharge ditches. This kind semi-open type pigsty has the advantage of less building cost, good ventilation, sufficient sun-light, cooler in summer and warmer in winter. The feeding trough is installed on the southern side and pigs sleep on the northern side. Thus, the ground can be kept dry and it is convenient for operation and management. 2. Utilization of Hybrid Vigor in Pig Farming: Taihu pig bred in the Wuxi district can copulate when it reaches 30 kilograms in weight at 5 months old. Each litter has about 15.5 piglets on average. Matured sow weighs about 125 kilograms. They mature earlier and give more piglets for each litter. The quality of the pork is good, less fodders are used and they can tolerate coarse fodder, but the growth rate for the fattening pig is not satisfactory. We use yorkshire stud pig for matching and use their first generation hybrid to produce fattening hogs with a good result. As people's living standard has been improving, more lean meat is required. Landrace hog for salted meat is being recommended for cross matching. In the district where fodders are abundant, the first generation hybrid sow from the Yorkshire stud pig and Taihu sow is intercrossed with Landrace stud pig. The offsprings of this kind of triple hybrids grow very rapidly, and their hybrid vigor is more evident. In order to fully utilize the good stock, artificial insemination is often adopted for matching. 3. Fodders of the Pig and Rearing Management: On an integrated fish farm, there are various kinds of fodders which can be used as pig feeds, but we should have reasonable arrangements in order to increase their nutritional value, and promote the growth and fattening of the hogs. In order to lower the cost of pig farming, local produce and by-products of the farm should be utilized to the maxium. The feeds should be complete in nutrition, including 5560% of corn, barley, wheat bran and rice bran, 5% of soya bean cake and cottonseed cake, 1525% of chicken manure, 1520% of wine lees and bean dregs, with an addition of 0.5% of table salt and 23% bone power and calcium carbonates. Green fodder is about 1530% of the total fodder. The following formula of the feed can be used in the area where is rich in fodder crops;

Weight of pig (kg) Item corn (%) Barley (%) Sorghum (%) Soya bean cake (%) Wheat bran (%) Fish meal (%) Chinese scholartree leave powder (%) Bone powder (%) Table salts (%) Total (%) Additive to each ton of fodder Sodium selenite (g) Zinc sulphate (g) Potassium iodide (g) Multivitamins (g) Digestive energy (Cal/kg) Crude protein (%) Daily amount for each pig (kg)

Piglet's fodder 520

Young pig's fodder 2050

Fattening fodder 5090

53 7.5 12 15 10 2 0.5 100

50.5 15 5 12 5 5 5 2 0.5 100

45.66 11 11 7 15 3 5 2 0.35 100

0.15 200 1 40 3,084 19.3 0.31.2 200 1 40

0.15 200 1 40

0.15

3,011 16.41 2.12.2

3,028 14.32 2.23

The piglets may be the ones reproduced from the sow of the same farm, but usually the piglets are bought from the breeding farm. Piglet fodder should be given to the newly bought piglings and young pig-fodder given after the body weight reaches over 20 kilograms. When the body weight reaches 30 kilograms or more, fattening fodders are maintained until the body weight is over 90 kilograms. The piglets should be trained right upon arrival in the pigsty. They are trained to eat, sleep and discharge at a fixed place. The feeding trough is usually placed on the southern side of the hogpen, and a small amount of manure is put near the corner of the manure exit on the southern side in order that the newly-arrived piglets smell the excreta, and then have a habit of discharging at that place. Clean grass bedding is stacked on higher place on the northern side for sleeping. Sometimes, piglets discharge every-where in the hogpen, the stockman should sweep the excreta into a fixed corner to keep the sleeping place clean. After several days, piglings could form a good habit and keep their sleeping place dry and clean. The piglets are fed three times a day with a fixed feeding time and amount. Hoghouse needs to be cleaned 23 times every day to make the piglings sleep and eat well.

4) Prevention and Treatment of Common disease: The resistance of pig is stronger than that of chicken. If we can take good care of their health, including proper management, sanitary environment and preventive measure, pigs are not easy to get sick. The common infectious diseases of pigs are: pig pest, pig erysipelas, pig pasteurellosis, piglet parathyphoid, and pig astheme. There are vaccines for the former four diseases, and triple vaccine for these three fulmingating infectious diseases, pig pest, pig erysipelas and pig pasteurellosis. It is convenient to use and very effective. There has been no vaccine for pig asthema so far. The main measures are quarantine, eliminating diseased pigs and raising healthy pigs. Intramuscular injection of kanamycin, 20,000 40,000 IU/kg of body weight once a day for 5 consecutive days or intramuscular injection of oxytetracycline, 2040 mg/kg of body weight once a day for 57 consecutive days will have certain curative effects. The sick pig should be isolated, sterilized and dead pigs should be deeply buried or burned in order to stop the spreading of the disease. 6. Milk Cow Production Cow is a herbivorous ruminant animal, and it can better utilize green forage, especially the chicken manure including grass bedding. Chicken manure contains a large amount of nonprotein nitrogen compounds which exist in a state of uric acid or amide and can not be effectively absorbed by the pigs, but milk cow as a ruminant animal, can well utilize them. That's why milk cow is one of animals raised in fish-livestock-and-poultry integration. The milk output of the cow is high, economic benefit great, and excreta considerable. The main approach of raising milk cow is grazing. So a pasture is needed and stall feeding is practised in winter. Because of lack of large pasture, intensive stall feeding is adopted for raising milk cow on fish farms. In front of double-rowed cowbarn, a play ground is enclosed for cows. They are fed and milked in the stall, and walk around in the play ground. All the forages needed by the milk cow are supplied during stall breeding. 1) Black and white cows suitable for fish farm to raise: Black and white cow is the highest milk yielding species. Most of the countries in the world raise this kind of milk cow, which originated in the Netherland, but they all had bred their own species named after their own countries such as, American black and white cow, Japanese black and white cow etc. Chinese black and white cow is one of the main species of our milk cows which can acclimate the natural conditions of the local district, and with high productivity of milk. The primiparous cow could yield 4,000 kilograms of milk during 305 days of lactation, and over 5,000 kilograms of milk can be expected after third pregnancies. The milk fat index is 3.2 3.5%. The Chinese black and white cow has high productivity, strong body and good adaptation, therefore, it is a good species for raising. 2) Establishing sound cow groups: Tuberculosis and brucellosis are common infectious diseases for both man and cow. The characteristics of tuberculosis is to cause caseous degeneration of the tubercle nodes on the lung and lymph nodes while brucellosis is to cause abortion, infertility and decrease of lactation of cow. These two diseases will influence both milk cow and human being, therefore, strict

quaratine : measures should be taken in case a fish farm wants to develop dairy enterprise. Newly-bought milk cow should be isolated for 3 months and tuberculin tests should be performed thrice, by both intradermal inoculation and intraocular instillation. They can not mix with other cows until we are sure that they are disease free. Quarantine test should be performed twice yearly for those cows without tuberculosis. If there is any cow getting tuberculosis, it should be either isolated immediately or checked out. In that case, all the other cows should be examined again 3045 days later until there is no positive case found for thrice. All the workers in the dairy should be regularly examined by X-ray. If any tuberculosis case is found, the patient should be transferred out from the dairy. If calf is born from a diseased cow, it should be fed separately. Enhance the breeding of healthy calf to replace diseased cow and thus, new healthy cow group can be established. Serum agglutination test can be used for the quarantine control of brucellosis of milk cow. It should be performed yearly. Healthy cow uses sheep type No. 5 brucellus bacillus (or pig type No. 2) attenuated vaccine for prevention, but they have some bad effect on the quarantine test.

CHAPTER IX ANIMAL RAISING AND PLANT CULTIVATION ON AN INTEGRATED FISH FARM (Cont.)
3) Forage and feeding of milk cow: Stall feeding is normally carried out in the dairy on fish farms. The feeding of milk cow should be performed on the scientific basis; therefore, the formula of daily feeds and feeding plan must be worked out according to the standard which includes nutrient components of the forage and nutritional requirements of the animal. These standards vary in different countries, each has its own general standard. For instance, U.S.A. has NRC system. Feeding Standard for Milk Cow (Daily)
Oat Unit Standard Body weight (kg) 350 400 450 500 550 Oat forage unit (kg) 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.6 4.9 Digestible crude protein (kg) 210 230 240 260 280 Ca (g) 18 20 23 25 28 P (g) 9 10 12 13 14

600 650

5.1 5.4

300 310

30 33

15 17

Milk Net Energy Unit Standard (NND)

Body weight (kg) 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 Dry materials (kg) 5.04 5.57 6.09 6.58 7.08 7.55 8.02 NND 9.17 Digestible crude protein (g) 227 Ca (g) 21 24 27 30 33 36 38 P (g) 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 Carotene (g) 37 42 48 53 53 64 69 Vitamin A (I.U.) 15 17 19 21 23 26 28

10.13 250 11.07 274 11.97 296 12.88 318 13.73 339 14.59 360

Rearing Standard (Daily Nutritional Requirements for the Production of 1 kg of milk)

Oat unit standard Milk fat Index (%) 3.03.2 3.33.4 3.53.7 3.84.0 Oat unit 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 Digestible crude protein (g) 42 44 46 48 Dry Ca P Materials (g) (g) (kg) 4 4 4 4 3.2 0.45 3.2 0.465 3.2 0.48 3.2 0.52 Milk net energy unit (NND) Digestible crude NND protein (g) 0.87 44 0.90 45.5 0.93 47 1.00 50 Ca (g) 3.9 P (g) 2.8

4.05 2.9 4.2 4.5 3.0 3.2

These are the minimum standards, and 1015% can be added in practice. As the body weight of the primiparous lactating cow is still increasing, their standard should be 20% higher. If the proposed milk production is over 6,000 kilograms, usually they are fed with the feed for the weaned multiparous cow with daily milk production of 15 kilograms. Daily portion of forage for the milk cow is given according to the milk production (the amount of milk produced and its fat content index). The feeding standard can be calculated out according to the nutritional requirements of daily milk production plus the average body weight of the milk cow (counted as 600 kilograms). Then take the nutritional requirements of the feeding standard for milk cow for reference, calculate out the total daily nutritional requirements. The physiological characteristics of different stages of the milk cow should also be considered in the calculation, e.g., pregnancy, etc. The price of the feeds and palatableness should also be considered. The forage of the milk cow is mainly green and coarse feeds. In winter or hay season, cows are fed on one kilogram of dry grass and stalk of the crops, 34 kilograms of silage or 57 kilograms of root tubers for every 100 kilograms of body weight. 810 kilograms of

green grass are given to every 100 kilograms of body weight in grass growing season. One kilograms of mixed fine forage is given for production of every 2.53 kilograms of milk. The ratio of fine forage mixture is 30% cake type feedstuffs (if chicken manure are used, only 15% can be added), grain feedstuffs (barley, corn) about 40%, bran 1015%, by-products of processing 10%, minerals, salts and fish meal 10%. The above ratio is only for reference. The nutritional components of different forages can be calculated from the nutrients table, and also the amount should be adjusted according to the needs of the milk cow. The production of mixed forage developed very quickly in the recent two decades. Forage manufacturers use computors to calculate the needs of the milk cow, and mix the feeds automatically. They can produce and supply mixed whole forage. Milk cow is fed three times daily with fixed amount at fixed time, adopting the method of small amount but frequent supply during feeding, usually fine forage given first, followed by fodders, and then water. The forage must be fresh. Iron nails and wires must be removed if there is any in it. Milk production can increase by 1015% if sufficient amount of water is drunk, by milk cow. They should have sufficient exercises. The whole body of the cow is brushed before milking, dry brushing in winter, and washing and brushing in summer. Cow shed should be cleansed frequently in order to keep the shed and playground clean and sanitary. Cow manure and urine are washed directly through manure ditches into fishponds. 520% bleaching powder emulsion or 5% cresol is used for the sterilization, which should be performed at least monthly. Within 45 days after parturition, the milk in the breast of the high yielding milk cow should not all be squeezed out, only 2 kg of milk each time. One third of milk is milked out on the second day and then the amount could gradually be increased. All milk could be squeezed out on the 4th day. Dry fine grass, not forage with much juice and fine food, are given to the weak cow as its main food within 3 days after delivery. The milk production gradually increases 1015 days after delivery, and reaches its peak of lactation. Fine quality grass, sufficient forage and sufficient amount of water should be guaranteed at this stage to meet the nutritional demands of lactation. The milk production gradually decreases 3 months after delivery, and weaning starts 60 days before next delivery. 10 days before weaning, reduce the amount of fine feeds, green fodders and juicy forage and times of milkings as well. Do milking every other day or every 34 days. Stop milking when the production drops to 45 kilograms. 4) Milking technique and storage of fresh milk: Milking can be conducted manually or electrically. Integrated fish farms usually don't have large numbers of milk cow, therefore, manual milking is preferred. Wash the udder with 50C warm water and then thoroughly massage the udder. Milking is performed by first massage of two nipples at a time. The first and second runs of milk are collected in a special container, and should not be mixed with normal milk in the milk pail. When a large part of the milk is milked out, the udder should be massaged again in all areas, and finally massage should be carried out the third time at the end of milking until all the milk is out. The milk collected by manual milking should be filtered by gauze to remove hairs, dust, fecal materials and other impurities. It is to be cooled quick ly and preserved in a cool place. The milk should be thoroughly sterilized and covered tightly and transported to milk-collecting station as quick as possible.

7. Artificial Breeding and Utilization of Earthworm Earthworm is good food for fowl and fish. Fresh earthworm contains 810% protein, while dry earthworm up to 5666%. Its effective energy is 2920 Cal. per kg. Its nutritional value is equal to that of fish meal. The reproductive ability of earthworm is very strong, and it can multiply 200 times within one year under normal conditions. If good care is taken it can multiply 1000 times. No special equipment and fodders are required for the breeding. The fermented cow dung, pig manure, weeds and rank grass from the integrated fish farm mixed with proper amount of silt are good fodders for the earthworm. Large-scale propagation of earthworm can not only improve the soil, but also increase the productivity of the crops and improve the environment. Artificial breeding of earthworm is now advocated and propagated in our country. Some of integrated fish farms take earthworm breeding as one of their animal raising. Earthworm can serve as protein feeds for both poultry and pigs or fish. The results are very promising in enhancing yields. Section 2. PLANT CULTIVATION ON AN INTEGRATED FISH FARM Fertilizers and feeds are considered to be two of the basic conditions to strive for a high yield of fish. All fertilizers are used primarily to propagate natural organisms for fish to eat. various kinds of forage grasses, beans, grains, melons and vegetables, aquatic plants, etc. are also good foods for fish. To establish an integrated fish farm needs certain amount of forage land and land for forestry, animal husbandry and side-line production as well, which are all directly beneficial to fish farming. Crop production on an integrated fish farm means the utilization of pond dykes, river banks, corner areas, etc. and the forage field. Cultivation of grains, beans, pasture grasses, melons and vegetables, fruit and mulberries should be rationally practised in accordance with the needs of fish and the growing seasons of different crops. Furthermore, water surface at the edge of rivers & lakes in the vicinity of the fish farm can be utilized to cultivate aquatic plants so that high quality forage will be available at every season of the year. This kind of forage and silage can directly be used not only for breeding fish, but for rearing domestic fowls and animals or fertilizing water to grow plankton for fish. 1. Pasture Grasses 1) Perennial ryograss (Lolium pereme) It is a perennial plant belonging to the Gramineae family. It has such features as quick growth, high yield, rich in nutrition, easy to cultivate, low cost and strong adaptability. Its yield may reach 510 tons per mu. It is a good food for Grass carp, Chinese bream and Wuchang fish. Ryegrass cultivation can provide fresh food for fish in early spring, thereby, enabling them to break their fast ahead of season. 1. Seeding and transplanting Ryegrass is a tardy plant which grows even in the shade and likes moisture. Seeding is usually done at the end of September. Land should be prepared by applying 1,000 1,250 kg/mu of human feces as the base manure, or splash a layer of river silt over it, and upturn the soil by deep tilling, and then pulverise and smooth the soil. The amount of seed for broadcast sowing is 22.5 kg/mu. If the weather is dry after sowing,

sprinkling is necessary and this should be continued till the complete emergence of seedlings. Then give another dressing of human feces of the same amount as the first application. Transplantation is usually conducted at the end of October and early November. When seedlings grow to a height of 1215 cm, they are pulled out to be transplanted in a field that has already been tilled and splashed with a layer of pond silt as base fertiliser. The leaves of seedlings should be cut half to ensure quick establishment. The spacing is 18 18 cm or 21 21 cm, and 67 seedlings are planted in one bunch. After transplanting, apply night soil in 1:3 dilution (night soil 1, water 3) to facilitate establishment and growth. 2. Field management Weeding: In order to enhance the growth of transplants, all weeds have to be eradicated. Weeding should be repeated now and then after transplanting. Watering: Seedling plots and transplant fields should be kept moist and watering is necessary in prolonged fine weather. Fertilizer treatment: Usually one application of nitrogenous fertilizers is given before the initial cropping. Later on, organic manures should be dressed at a rate of 250300 kg/mu after every harvest. The result is better if soil could be loosened and fertilizer applied the very day when it is mowed. Some inorganic fertilizers can also be used. 3. Harvesting When ryegrass grows to a height of 3060cm, cut them near the ground to serve as fish feeds. At this time, this grass is tender and so every bit of it is consumed. Thus, the utilization rate of feed is high. Besides, ryegrass grows fast and has a high power of tillering after cutting. Generally speaking, when air temperature is low from October to next Feb., the growth of ryegrass is retarded, and only one or two outtings could be performed. From March to May, harvesting can be done once every 20 days or so. Be sure that the second and third cuttings are made closely to the ground, leaving stubbles only 23 cm high so as to increase tillering, harvesting and promote its quality. 4. Reservation of seeds English ryegrass begins to shoot, bear ears, and flower in April, and seeds can be collected in early June. Since seeds do not ripen at the same time and will fall to the ground easily, so when the colour of the ears turns yellow, collection should be done in time to prevent seed loss. The yield is about 50 kg/mu. Plots reserved for seed production should not be cropped as green fodder. 2) Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanese) Sudan grass is an annual plant belonging to the genus Sorglum andropogon of the Graminese family. It can thrive in soils of different fertility; however, the fertile clayish soil is better. The yielding is about 10 tons per mu.

Sudan grass has such features as the ability to withstand dryness and fertileness, rapid regeneration, high reproductivity, strong adaptability, high yield, superior quality and easy cultivation. It is a high-yielding crop in summer and autumn and so is suitable for subsequent cultivation of ryegrass to provide high quality fresh food for Grass carp, Bream and Wuchang fish from spring right through autumn. 1. Seeding and transplanting Sudan grass likes damp environment but dreads frost. Seeding is usually done when soil temperature above 10C. The optimum temperature for germination is 2030C. Strip drilling is suitable for Sudan grass which is primarily out for green fodder. Row spacing is 2030 cm and the depth of seeding 34 cm. Then, it should be mulched with a layer of plant ash 1 cm thick. The amount of seeds used for dense drilling is about 2 kg/mu. Besides this, dibbling or nursery seeding can also be practised. Plant spacing for dibbles is 18 cm. Each bunch takes about 10 seeds. When young seedlings are 12 cm high, they are ready for transplanting. The plants are spaced at about 18 18 cm with 45 seedings each bunch. Prior to tilling and sowing, apply a layer of pond silt over the field as base fertilizer to be upturned into the soil, and then level and smooth the soil. 2. Field management Emergence of seedlings is completed 78 days after seeding. Budding takes place in about 7080 days, and flowering in 8090 days. The growth period is 100120 days. Weeding should be done regularly. In prolonged fine weather, sprinkling should be given, especially during the seedling period. It is better to loosen the soil and apply fertilizer after every cutting. The method of dressing and the amount of fertilizer used are the same as those for ryegrass. 3. Harvesting When Sudan grass grows to a height of 60 cm, harvesting is feasible. The cutting should leave a stubble of about 10 cm high, otherwise, tillering, regeneration and the yield will be affected. From mid May to Aug., harvesting can be done every 15 days or so. Growth slows down around September and death comes with the appearance of frost. 3) Bunch grass Symphytum peregroinum This species is a perennial plant belonging to the Borraginaceae family. The region of origin is Iran-Transcaucasic. It is usually set in early spring yielding 79 tons per mu in the first year to be followed by 1012 tons in the second year, and it may reach 15 tons. Fresh stems and leaves of this grass are tender and juicy, nutritious with high protein content. According to calculations from dry matter, it contains 2225% crude protein, 46% crude fat, 713% crude fibre and 3840% non-nitrogenous extracts. So it is an excellent green fodder rich in protein. This grass has a well-developed root system with vigorous growth, and has strong adaptability to environmental conditions. It is susceptible to few pests and is easy to grow and propagate

with a high survival rate. Its underground portion can withstand adverse temperature conditions ranging from -40C to 37.8C. Besides, it is resistant to draught and disease. 1. Seedling cultivation and setting The organs of this plant above the ground like leaves, pedicles, rhizome buds, and those under the soil like rhizomes and roots can all be used as asexual materials for seedling culture and propagation. The methods of propagation in practice are division of suckers, root cutting, longitudinal cutting of root necks, setting buds divided from root and setting of stalk cuttings, etc. The period for nursery bed breeding is 3040 days. When seedlings grow to a height of 1015 cm, they can be transplanted and set at a spacing of 45 45 cm with about 25002600 plants per mu. In poor soils, increasing the plant population to about 3000 per mu is advisable. In dibbling, bury the plant up to the neck of the root which is the proper depth of setting. After that it should be sufficiently watered. This grass is tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, but a thick layer of sandy soil with good drainage is considered to be the most suitable. Plants can be cultivated on spare spaces around a pigsty and on slopes of pond dykes. This would facilitato management. Land should be deeply tilled, harrowed, smoothed and levelled before setting the plants. It should also be well manured. It plays where is inconvenient broad ridgor with grcoves crossing each other will enable rain water to be drained off readily in rainy season. 2. Field management Dressing should be done once before the grass turns green in early spring. The amount of pig manure applied is roughly 2500 kg per mu. To the seedlings that are just set, measures should be taken to loosen soil and weed the field in time. After establishment, dress again to invigorate the settings and promote the development of roots. During the growing period, fertilise the soil each time after harvest, and also before overwintering. The last dressing will ensure stout plants to tide over the cold months. When the weather is dry and hot, sprinkling should be done timely while attention ought to be paid to draining in the rainy season. Water logging will cause the root to rot. This grass is quite resistant to pests and no serious case has been noted so far. However, in its seedling stage, cutworm attacks often occur and measures should be taken to control it. 3. Harvesting When this plant begins to bud and flower in early and mid may, harvesting can be done. Cut the stems above the ground, leaving stubbles of about 6 cm to germinate anew. After that, harvesting is done at intervals of about 35 days. Thus, a year gives about 5 or 6 cuttings. In general, one planting would do for 810 years. Upon arrival of autumn, this grass will no longer bud and flower. The proper time for harvesting depends on the amount and colour of the foliage. Usually, no more cropping is done towards late October so as to retain the year's final coat of leaves for over-wintering. The crop is highly resistant to cold, and growth ceases only with the coming of frost which makes it gradually wither and die. However, the roots under the soil can even survive severe winter temperature as low as -40C. In order to make a full use of land, inter-cropping can be done after auturn for other fodder crops.

2. Beans 1) Soybean (Blycine max) (G. soja) (Soja max) The soybean is an annual plant belonging to the sub-family Papilinaceae of the Leguminousae family, the native plant of China. The yield of soybean is generally 80130 kg/mu. Soybean seeds contain 3040% protein, 20 24% fat and about 30% carbohydrates. Besides these, there are several kinds of minerals and vitamins, and its nutritive value is very high. When ground and fed to fish fry, it forms an excellent food. From seeding to maturity, the life of a soybean plant undergoes a few growth stages like the germination-seedling stage, the third trueleaf stage. The whole growing period is about 120140 days. The length of time from germination to blossoming varies with variety. Generally speaking, that for the early ripening varieties is 3443 days, that for intermediate varieties 4060 days, that for late varieties 5060 days and that for very late varieties 6384 days. They are tolerant to a wide range of soil conditions but soil layers that are thick and rich in calcium and humus with good drainage (pH value 58) are more suitable. However, they will not grow in soils where pH value exceeds 9.6 or is below 3.9. 1. Seeding When the seed of soybean absorbs water of 100150% of its own dry weight, it will commence to germinate if air temperature is 1020C, and at the same time, there is sufficient supply of oxygen. Under suitable soil moisture conditions, the seed will absorb enough water within one day. Seedlings will grow rapidly when air temperature averages 2025C in the day time and not below 1517C at night. Seeding time for spring and summer soybeans is late March to early April and June 1 to 20 respectively. The amount of seeds required for seeding is 67.5 kg/mu. Seeds should be selected by winnowing, screening and choosing prior to seeding. The emergence of soybean cotyledons is relatively difficult, and so it is necessary to keep the soil loose. Besides, the germination of soybean requires ample moisture. Before seeding, the soil should be upturned and smoothed to preserve soil moisture and fertilizer. The method of seeding adopted is dibbling. Commonly, plant spacing used is 15 18 cm or 18 18 cm. One mu may have 15,00020,000 dibbles, each of which takes 23 seeds. After seeding, they are mulched with a thin layer of plant ash or fine soil to facilitate emergence. 2. Field management Fertilizer treatment: For every 50 kg of soybean produced, it is necessary to apply 2.8 kg of nitrogen, 5 kg of phosphoric acid, and 6.5 kg of potassium oxide. At the initial stage when nodules have not yet been formed at the root portion of the seedling or the action of the root nodules are rather weak, growth is slow. In order to raise soybean production, it is necessary to apply an appropriate amount of nitrogenous fertilizer and a large amount of phosphorus and potassium. In addition to applying sufficient base manure, seed-mulching manure is also feasible, i.e., to use a small amount of high quality fertilizer like decomposed barnyard manure, or high quality compost mixed with plant ash, or superphosphate to mulch the seeds seeded. Later on, by judging growth

conditions, apply an appropriate amount of ammonium sulphate at a rate of 2.55 kg/mu during the seedling stage and 7.510 kg/mu during the flowering stage. Checking, replanting and thinning for evenness: when soybean seedlings have uniformly emerged, a check should be made. Dibbles without seedling have to be replanted. In order to enable seedlings to grow stoutly and evenly, thinning should be done when a pair of true leaves have appeared. Inter-row cultivation for weeding in combination with hilling: As is common, after seedlings are established, shallow hoeing for weeds in conjunction with thinning should be done thrice. From flowering to the swelling up of pods, soya bean plants are in utter need of water. If draught is to continue, serious reduction of yield will result. In places where conditions permit, rational irrigation will increase production to an appreciable extent. At the stage when pods are ripening, pulling all weeds out will better inter-plant ventilation and the penetration of sunlight into the foliage cover, thereby enhancing earlier ripening and ensure a bumper crop. At the same time, the work of prevention of such pests as the soybean aphids and pod borers, and bean hawkmoths, and the weed, dodder Cuscuta (love vine), should not be overlooked. 3. Harvesting The mature stage for spring & summer-sown soybean crops fall on mid or late July, and early or Mid October respectively. When two-thirds of the foliage have turned yellow and fallen and the majority of the stems and pods appear dark brown with seeds separated from the inner walls of the pods, when the beans are already half-dried and quite hard and are of their original colour, and when you're shaking the plant some rattling sound comes from the pods, It can be ascertained that the time of harvesting has come. All attempts should be made to gather in the crop within a week's time. Transport the harvest to the drying yard where it should be turned over and over to be sunned for a few days until it is thoroughly dry, and then separated from the pods on fine weather. After tossing the beans into the air to remove all impurities, and drying, it could be stored when their water content is below 13.5%, while those used as seeds the water content should be below 12% to ensure long storage. 3. Grains 1) Barley Barley is an annual plant belonging to the genus Hordeum of the Gramineae family. The yield of barley is about 200300 kg/mu. Apart from being a food grain, barley is an important material used for brewing boer, producing alcohol and making maltose. Its straw is good for weaving The growing period for barley is about 190 days. Its lowest germination temperature is 12C. The optimum temperature for growth is around 20C. It bears ears in early and mid April with a milk stage of about 10 days to be normally followed by a wary ripe stage of 67 days. 1. seeding

Seeding of barley is generally done in late October to mid November at a rate of 1518 kg of seeds per mu. It can be broadcast or strip drilled. Its root system is mainly distributed within 1518 cm of the cultivated surface layer. So secondary tillage should be done carefully with the 3-ditch pattern of drainage. Seeding should be shallow and even. For producing every 50 kg of barley, it is necessary to fertilize the soil with 1.5 kg of nitrogen, 0.62 kg of phosphorus and 1.15 kg of potassium. Base manure to be applied is 6,0007,500 kg/mu of grassdecomposed pond silt or pigsty manure 2,5003,000 kg/mu. For the intarmediate soil layer, 1520 kg of ammonium sulphate and 25 kg of calciua superphosphate per mu should be used with 3,0004,000 kg of seed-Mulching manure per mu. 2. Field management Early stage field management: If seeding is followed by draught, measures should be taken timely to ensure total emergence of seeds evenly, and fertilizer be applied at the first-leaf stage, using 500 kg of night soil diluted with 3,0003,500 kg of water per mu, or 1012.5 kg of ammonium sulphate diluted with water for splashing over the surface. Another way is to use mainly organic manure made up of about 5,000 kg diluted silt mixed with 3040 kg of dissolved ammonia water per mu, or applying 1,500 kg of pigsty waste and then splash a layer of thin river silt weighting 5,000 kg. Inter-row cultivation may be done 2 to 3 times. Cholraluron may be used for weeding on barley fields. Intermediate stage field management: Be prepared for application of fertilizer for reviving of seedling. In general, this is done by applying 7.510 kg of ammonium sulphate per mu in early February, or 20 kg of ammonia water dilution or 1,000 kg of night soil for splashing. Ditches have to be cleared to better drainage and prevent dampness. Towards the end of the month, be sure to make a dressing of about 12.5 kg of ammonium sulphate per mu to promote growth and the bearing of ears. Late stage management: Be sure to do the work of disease prevention and pest control. Spray 90% trichlorfon in 1:1000 dilution to control army worms; 40% dimethoate emulsion 1:20003000 for aphids, and 0.2 -0.3 kg of carbendazol diluted with 75100 kg of water for red mold and powdery mildew. 3. Harvesting Barley is ripe by mid or late May. Harvesting should be done at the waxy ripe stage. 2) Corn (Zea mays) Corn is an annual plant belonging to the genus Zea of the Gramineae family. Its nutritive value is very high. The yield is generally 250300 kg/mu and so it is one of high-yielding crops and a good fodder. Its grain contains 8.5% protein, 4.3% fat and 73% carbohydrates. So 50 kg of corn is equivalent to 67.5 kg of oats, or 60 kg of sorghum or 65 kg of barley in nutrition. The nutritive value of corn stalk is usually more than double that of stalks or stems of other crops. Fresh stems and leaves harvested after the shooting of the phalanxes or before waxy ripe are green and juicy. Their nutritive value is very high. No matter whether they are used as green fodder or silage, they are good substitutes for fine feeds. Therefore, the successful cultivation of corn plays an important role in developing livestock farming.

Corn thrives well in warm climates. The lowest temperature required for its germination is 10 12C. It is a crop that needs short solar irradiance. In its young seedling stage, the amount of water it requires occupies 22.7% of the total needed for growth; the middle stage of growth calls for 44.5% while the late stage 32.8%. Soil suitable for its cultivation should be rich in organic material and well-drained, or of the sandy loam type. For producing every 50 kg of corn grain, the crop would take up 1.24--1.95 kg of nitrogen, 0.680.91 kg of phosphorus, and 1.962.07 kg of potassium from the soil. According to the length of its growing period, the varieties of corn to be planted can be classified into:early varieties (8095 days), intermediate varieties (96115 days) and late varieties (116150 days). According to the sowing season, corn varieties are divided into spring corn, summer corn, autumn corn and winter corn. 1. Seeding Before seeding, careful selection of seeds, examination of their germination rate and seed preparation through sunning, immersing and mixing with chemicals should be done in order to achieve the full germination, evenness of growth and get seedlings of vigorous growth. Spring corn can be seeded when soil temperature is above 1012C. To enable seedlings to have a longer period of growth, attempts should be made to sow the seeds as early as possible. Summer-and-autumnsown corn should be seeded as soon as the preceding crop is harvested. Seeding is usually done by drilling or dibbling. Seeding rate for drilling is 2.54 kg per mu; for dibbling 23.5 kg. Seeding depth is 35 cm. Seeding density for late varieties is 2,0003,000 plants per mu, for the intermediate 2,5004,000 and for the early ones 3,0005,000. When it's cultivated for fodder (silage or fresh), the density of planting may be heavier by about 20% compared with those just mentioned above. There are many ways of planting corn. Tilling depth can be 2124 cm, and ample organic manures should be applied before land is tilled. In places where ridge cultivation is practised, special action should be taken to prevent draught and to preserve moisture for the top soil. In water logging or poorly drained areas, bedding cultivation should be adopted. Application of base manure serves as principal source of nutrition for plants. Barnyard manure, livestock manure and compost prepared from the decomposition of stems and stalks which are all organic manures rich in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, are the best base fertilizer for corn. 2. Field management After the emergence of the seedlings from the soil, thinning should be done timely. Get rid of the weak seedlings and leave the strong ones so as to ensure their evenness and vitality. Quick-acting fertilizers such as night soil, ammonium, sulphate, urea, potassium sulphate and plant ash are applied as top dressing to promote growth during the three stages - the shooting up of stalks, the impregnation of ears and phalanxing. 3. Harvesting After pollination, corn will be fully ripe in about 5065 days. The higher the air temperature, the faster it will ripen. The leaves on the stem will turn yellow, the wrappers of the corn-cob will dry and wither, and the grains on the cob will look bright when it is fully ripe. It indicates the harvesting time comes.

3. Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) Sweet potato is a trailing plant belonging to the Convovulaceae family. The region of origin is tropical America and Caribbean. Its yield is about 1,500 -2,000 kg/mu. The tuber contains 20 27% starch, 2.3% protein, 0.2% fat and also multi-vitamins. Besides its use as food, it is also a fine high-yielding forage crop. Its tubers, vines and all residues after processing can be used as fodder. Its tender and juicy vines and leaves form a good fresh fodder. Its value as a feed is higher than ordinary forage grass. On one hand, sweet potato tubers can be used for feeding pigs and yet on the other hand, pig manure can be used to fertilize pond water. At the same time, its vines and leaves can be cut twice during July and August, yielding 1,0001,500 kg of fresh vines which can also be served as fresh fish feeds. From the setting of cuttings to harvesting, the growth period for sweet potato plants is usually 110160 days. Early tuber-bearing varieties can give a harvest in 8090 days. The plant likes hot weather but cannot withstand cold. It will stop growth at a temperature of 15C and stored tubers will be frostbitten even at 9C. It is a relatively draught resistant crop and will thrive in regions with an annual precipitation of 400 mm. 1. Seeding and transplanting In sweet potato production, most people adopt the tuber-vine-cutting method of propagation. Yield increase is directly proportional to the time the cuttings are set in advance. Spring cuttings should be set from late April to mid May and summer ones in June. The density of settings is to be determined by such factors as climate, soil, the amount of fertilizers applied, the characteristics of the sweet potato variety, the length of the growing season and the method of cultivation. As the sweet potato is a tuber crop, it needs a deep, loose soil layer for growth. Therefore, land used ought to be ploughed to a depth of 1215 cm and then banked in ridges for setting the cuttings. To produce every 500 kg of tubers, the vines have to absorb 2 kg of nitrogen, 0.503 kg of phosphorus and 3.1 kg of potassium. The most suitable fertilizer for this crop is a compound fertilizer that contains N.P.K. such as barnyard manures and the compost. The manures that have more potassium like plant ash will give good, conspicuous results in increasing the yield. 2. Field management When roots of sweet potato cuttings are established, a check should be made to have the missing settings replanted. Inter-row cultivation and weeding should be done timely. After dressing and spraying, it is necessary to do tilling and weeding. In principle, interrow cultivation ought not to damage the root system of the plant. Earth banking is not only of help in preserving soil moisture and preventing the tuber from being exposed, but also in draining water away as the grooves are deepened in the process of ridge banking which is usually done twice during the growth of the vines. 3. Harvesting

Harvesting comes when the weather gets cold and frost is approaching; when leaves near the stock have fallen and others turning yellow; when tubers have sufficiently swollen and their water content has reduced. Spring-set crops are harvested at the end of September to early October, while summer-set ones in mid or late October. 4. Melons and Chinese Cabbage 1) Chinese cabbage Chinese cabbage are biennial vegetables belonging to the genus Brassica of the Cruciferae family. It is the native plant of China. The nutritive value of Chinese cabbage is very high. According to analysis, the deeper the leaf colour, the higher its nutritive value is. Each 0.5 kilogramme of Chinese cabbage contains 5.5 g of protein, 0.5 g of fat, 10 g of sugar, 2 g of crude fibre, and 4 g of inorganic salt. Besides, there are vitamins, carotenes, and mineral salts. In general, the yield is 1,500 -2,500 kg/mu. It serves as fresh food of high quality for herbivorous fish as well as domestic animals and fowls. The optimal temperature for the growth of Chinese cabbage is 1520C. For seed germination, the optimum temperature is 2025C. A proper soil moisture should be maintained. When seedlings are young, nutrition requirements are small. In the middle stage when growth is vigorous, the demand for nutrients increases. Nitrogen is the major one it needs. The soil should be fertile with good moisture retaining properties. 1. Seeding and transplanting Spring seeding: This refers to sowing and transplanting from the beginning of February to the end of May. Chinese cabbage that are directly seeded usually begin cultivation in early February. Summer seeding: This refers to sowing and transplanting from early June to the end of August. Autumn seeding: This refers to cultivating from early September to the end of October. Winter seeding: This refers to cultivating from early November to the end of next January. Seed rate: Varieties sown in early spring need 3.55 kg of seeds per mu; spring-sown ones usually 1.52.5 kg/mu; summer-sown Pakchoi (Brassica chinensis) 2.53 kg/mu; summer variety (direct seeding) 0.50.75 kg/mu; autumn-sown and transplanted 0.75 1.0 kg/mu; and winter nursery bed-cultivated 2.53 kg/mu. Method of seeding: Chinese cabbage seeds are sown by broadcast. Thinning, weeding, manuring, spraying and pests control should be done after the emergence of seedlings. Field setting: Setting is also known as transplanting. Different cultivation seasons have different requirements on setting. Seedlings for transplantation before August are usually

about 25 days old; those transplanted in September, 2830 days old; those transplanted in October, 3235 days old; and those for transplantation in November, 3540 days old. 2. Field management The field management work includes top dressing, sprinkling/watering and disease/insect control. 3. Harvesting The harvesting period of the Chinese cabbage differs a great deal as cultivation methods vary. Young Pakchoi seedlings directly sown in summer can be harvested in 20 days; those cultivated in winter, in 80 90 days; those transplanted from mid September to the end of the month, in 2530 days; those transplanted in October, in 40 days; and those transplanted from mid October to early November, in 45 days. 2) Cabbage (Brassica aleracea cv. capitata) Wild cabbage is a biennial plant belonging to the Cruciferae family. It is the native plant of southern Europe. The variety commonly cultivated in China is the ordinary cabbage. The yield per mu can reach 2,0004,000 kg. It is rich in nutrition, having proteins, carbohydrates, mineral salts and vitamin C. Besides being edible, it is a very fine fodder for animals. Wild cabbage, being a biennial just forms the edible globular top in the first year, and it is until the following spring when air temperature is still as low as 26C that it starts to initiate flowering buds and then out to blossom and bear seeds. It adapts itself nicely with good resistance, through the optimum temperature for its growth is 1420C. It grows well in fertile soil that can retain moisture effectively with good drainage and easy irrigation. During the stage of formation of the globular top, it needs ample fertilizers and water. Nitrogen claims the largest share of its need though a considerable amount of phosphorus and potassium are also required. Its resistance to disease is good. 1. Seeding and transplanting Cabbage can be planted all the year round. According to harvesting season and cultivation method, it can be divided into three kinds: spring cabbage, summer cabbage and autumn-winter cabbage. 2. Field management Spring grown cabbage usually needs several applications of top dressing before the year ends. Night soil is dressed in 1:2 dilution and the amount to apply is about 1,500 kg/mu, one week after the setting of the seedlings. The second dressing should be given before Jan. 19 to enhance sprouting early in spring. The concentration and amount of manure are the same as the first dressing. The third one is to be applied one month later, and the concentration and amount to dress being 1:1 and 2,000 kg/mu respectively. The fourth dressing depends on the stage of growth, that is, when spring cabbage is forming its globular top in March to early April. The rate of diluted night soil applied is 1,5002,000 kg/mu to accelerate the growth of the globular top and make it solid. It is necessary to dig drainage grooves in early spring. From the setting of the

plants to the closing-up of ridges by their foliage, tilling is conducted in combination with weeding 34 times. Summer grown cabbage (Brassica broccoli) usually need three dressings within a month. Each dressing calls for 1,500 kg/mu of human feces. The first dressing is given in 1:3 dilution after the set transplants have been established. The second one is dressed 10 days later in 1:1 dilution. Before the formation of the globular top, the third is applied in 2:1 dilution. When the globular top begins to form, no more dressing should be done as it is liable to cause rotting, during the whole process of field growth, chemical fertilizers can also be applied singly like aqueous ammonia in 1:100 dilution 45 times at a rate of 25 kg/mu. The soil is generally loosened 23 times. Autumn grown cabbage generally gets 34 dressings, each applying 1,500 kg/mu of night soil but in different concentrations. The first dressing is given 34 days after the transplants have been established in 1:3 dilution. Half a month later comes the second in 1:1 dilution. The third is applied before the formation of the globular top in 2:1 dilution. The cabbage for over-wintering should not be dressed too heavily in the second and third dressings. In the middle of November, dressing is given to back up globular formation of the top using 2,000 kg/mu in 2:1 dilution. 3. Harvesting Spring grown cabbage are harvested in batches sooner or later from mid April to early June depending on the variety. The yield is 2,5005,000 kg/mu. Summer varieties are seeded in early March and harvested in July-August with yields of 1,5003,000 kg/mu. Those sown in early May are gathered in August-September with yield of 1,5002,000 kg/mu. Those seeded in early June are collected in SeptemberOctober with yield of about 2,300 kg/mu. 3. Squash (C.maschata, Cucurbita maxima, C. melopepo) The squash is an annual plant belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family. It is the native plant of the tropics. The squash is a juicy fodder of high yield. It is rich in nutrition containing a lot of carotene as well as vitamin C and glucose. Its stems and leaves can be processed into stalk sugar fodder after drying. Its yield is generally 1,0002,000 kg/mu. The optimum temperature for the germination of squash seeds is 2530C while the most suitable one for the development of the fruit is 2527C. It belongs to the type of crops that need short solar irradiance. It thrives well in a dry, hot environment with a soil moisture of about 50%. A fertile, neutral or slightly acid sandy loam soil is best suited for its growth. 1. Seeding and transplanting Nursery bed seeding period usually falls between mid March and early April. Two kinds of seeding are in general practice: one is bunch planting, the size of planting holes is

usually 7.59 cm square and 912 cm deep. Each hole takes an average of 23 seeds after which it is mulched with a layer of nutritive fine soil which ensures them not to be exposed to the air. Spread a thin covering of straw over the bed to serve as shading and to preserve soil moisture, or place a few short bamboo sticks over it and then spread a plastic sheet on them to act as cover for the same effects. Finally, fit up a glass window frame and use mud to seal up the edges of the covering. At night use some straw mats to blanket the whole thing to prevent the loss of heat and accelerate germination. The other method is broadcast sowing (also known as 2-stage breeding). Over the surface of a dressed bed is spread a layer of plant ash and then cast the seeds evenly on it. After that, use a tiny-hole nozzle sprayer to sprinkle fine droplets over it and then mulch the seeds with a layer of nutritive soil of 2 cm thick. Finally spread a layer of straw over the bed or cover it with a plastic sheet by setting up a glass window for the sheet covering and then seal the nursery bed tight. At night cover it with a straw mat to preserve the heat in it to enhance germination. It's necessary to maintain proper temperature, better ventilation, sufficient sunlight and to control pests in the nursery. Setting the transplants: When squash seedlings have grown to a height of 912 cm with 23 true leaves, they can be transplanted. They are usually set in late April, and intercropping with other vegetable crops. 2. Field management After transplantation, check for missing transplants and reset. Dig holes and orientate the plant. Hill vines opportunely. Control disease and pests. 3. Harvesting Early set squash can be collected 1015 days after the pistillate flowers have withered. Harvesting in batches at regular intervals commences from the end of July, and large area collection takes place in early and mid August. 5. Aquatic Plants 1) Water peanut or alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) The water peanut plant is a perenial plant which is a native plant of Latin America and was introduced into China more than 30 years ago. This plant is a high-yield, easily cultivated aquatic crop and good for both fodder and manure. Surface of lakes, river bends, ditches, and ponds can all be used for float cultivation. It is not difficult to propagate, and relatively easy to over-winter with strong adaptability. The yield of fresh grass can reach 1525 tons per mu annually - an amount enough to provide 1015 pigs with silage all the year round. Its stalks and leaves contain 2.49% non-nitrogenous extracts, 2.18% crude protein, 0.18 crude fat, 1.19% of crude fibre, 1.25% ash content, 0.232% calcium and 0.028% phosphorus. It can not only be

served either fresh or cooked, but can also be prepared as fermented fodder or dried and ground as fodder for use throughout the year. Water peanut plants love warm climate, humidity, and sunshine. They also need fertilizer. Although they are not strict about the depth of water on which they thrive, they can grow well in rivers, ditches and ponds which have slow running or stagnant water that is fertile with a depth of 11.5 meters. They undergo asexual reproduction through their stalks and vines. As seedlings can germinate and grow on each and every node, they can propagate very fast. 1. Time for breeding and propagation The growth and reproduction of water peanut plants are very fast. With the exception of the utter heat in summer and the bitter cold in winter, the rest time of the year are fit to make cuttings for transfer and propagation. However, if it is to be introduced into a locality for cultivation from another region, it is best to do so at the beginning of April when the old stalks are starting to germinate or just before they germinate. On the arrival of these introduced cuttings, they should be promptly cast onto the surfaces alloted to the within one or two days with the aim of promoting their early germination for earlier cultivation. Shelter them from wind and sunlight to avoid the risk of being dried. Selfreserved seedlings are best cut for cultivation after new stalks grow to a height of 1530 cm. Cuttings can float better in this way, thereby, warding off the onslaught of waves. 2. Method of planting Generally, two methods are in practice: Laying ropes and using lattice frames. In places where the flow is little swifter and the water somewhat deeper, the method of laying ropes is adopted to prevent the seedlings from being scattered by the wind. While in stagnant ponds latticed frames are used. 3. Management Fertilizer treatment: In general, water peanut needs no fertilizer. If water is sheer and leaves of seedlings turn yellow at the start or in the process of growing, then it is necessary to give top dressing such as fertile silt mixed with barnyard manure, or to spray diluted nitrogenous fertiliser on time in order to promote growth. Weeding: This should be done before planting so as to wipe out all obstacles in growing water peanut. If weeds and moss reappear after cultivation, they ought to be timely wiped out. Moss is generally eradicated manually. If the results are not so good, it is better to spread plant ash or copper sulphate to kill it. This is done in two ways: One is to use 0.20.5% copper sulphate solution to kill the moss on them; the other is to crush copper sulphate into small pieces and put them in a small bag hanging on water surfaces densely aggregated by moss. With the gradual dissolution of copper sulphate in surrounding water, moss is killed. Pest control: Three-spotted plusia occurs in July to September crawling over and devouring water peanut plants. To control them, use 90% crystalline trichlorfon at a concentration of 0.083 ppm for spraying, after which, 35 days have to elapse to allow the chemical to lose its toxicity enough before they can be harvested and fed to

livestock. Steps can also be taken to remove a part of them away so that affected erect stalks will bend over and lie on the surface of the water, thereby drowning the pests. 4. Harvesting After planting for 3040 days with stalks and leaves rearing 2030 cm above the surface, harvesting can be done, leaving stalks of about 6 cm above water and retaining about 34 leaves on them. After that, cuttings can be made every 10 days or so. In July and August, the weather gradually becomes warmer with abundant rainfall. Thus, water is enriched, the growth is fast and so harvesting at shorter intervals is advisable. After every cropping, use a hoe to loosen and separate the seedlings. This will help restore growth through better spacing. Towards the end of October comes the last harvest of the year. 5. Seedling reservation and over-wintering Water peanut plants to be reserved for seeding should be densely cultivated on sunny leeward ponds. Choice should be made of plants whose stalks and leaves look luxuriant, relatively well-seasoned and healthy. Reserves should not be cut for harvest after Frost's Descent. Stalks and leaves of such seedlings should remain 30 cm above the water surface. Thus, when the leaves on the top are frost-hit and wither, they will note: Frost's Descent, 18th solar term, around Oct. 23. naturally fall over and cover up the plants beneath them, thereby, serving as a protective layer which is of help in over-wintering the crop. 2) Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) It is a wild aquatic plant belonging to Araceae family. The roots of this plant look like a bundle of cotton threads suspended in the water: The stalk is very short and leaves grow in clusters. Each plant has 610 leaves arranged in a ring-like fashion. Leaf blades look oval in shape, on both surfaces of which grow velvety hairs. Its flowers are yellow, and the stamens without pedicles grow in symphysis but look protruded, while the pistils are like solitary bulbs of oval with single ovary in which are found several ovules. The fruit is a kind of berry. Water lettuce plant contains 1.07% crude protein, 0.26% crude fat, and 1.63% carbohydrates. It also contains considerable amount of crude fibre and It can be used as fresh or cooked fodder for pigs. It grows and reproduces very rapidly and the yield is very high, 1020 tons per mu. At the same time, it has such advantages as less labour, lower cost, no land-use and easy management. Water lettuce floats on the water and so surfaces of river bends, lakes and ponds, etc. can all be used for propagation. It grows well in places where the water is fertile and stagnant. On running water, its growth is relatively poor. The suitable depth of water for cultivation is 0.71.5 m, and the optimum pH value is 6.57.5. This crop likes warm weather, and its resistance to cold is poorer than water peanut and water hyacinth, but its endurance to heat is better. Although it can grow in any temperature between 1540C, it grows faster when it is 2235C. It divides and reproduces the fastest, especially between 3035C. If water, fertilizer and sunlight conditions match nicely, each plant can reproduce 5060 plants within a month. When

temperature is above 35C or below 18C, it is unable to divide, or just divide a few times. When it is below 1015C, it will just maintain its life activities, and when it falls below 5C, it will perish at once. Its endurance to fertility is very high, and so it demands an ample supply of nitrogenous fertilizer if it is to grow well. If water quality is poor and no fertilizer is applied, it will not thrive well. 1. Small pond planting in spring When air temperature rises above 15C around mid April, small ponds can be used to plant seed seedlings removed from the nursery beds for preliminary propagation in order to supply sufficient seedlings for extensive planting in summer. When seed seedlings are transferred to ponds be sure that they are getting crowdedly together at one corner of the pond so that they will mutually give support to one another and not move about freely. Every measure has to be taken to prevent filamentous green algae from entangling the seedlings, and to provide such good conditions as fertilizer, air temperature and humidity, and places with still water for their propagation so that general cultivation may commence ahead of season. 2. Large-scale planting in summer When the temperature of the water surface has risen to about 23C around mid May, the growth and reproduction of water lettuce increases in speed conspicuously. It is necessary to catch hold of this opportunity to expand the cultivation of this crop. The amount of seed seedlings to use on water surface of one mu is 1020 kg. When planting, it is necessary to use reed stalks, bamboo poles, or tying straw ropes together to form an enclosure to cultivate them inside it so that they may thrive and grow in a colony to speed up reproduction. If the population increase meets with a check, the enclosure should be enlarged gradually to provide more space for growth, and when the seedlings have occupied more than half of the pond surface, the ropes confining them can be removed to let the crop propagate at will. Later on, they can be transferred to other places for cultivation and expansion. 3. Water surface management Fertilizer treatment: Fertilizer is applied 57 days after planting. After that, the dressing is done weekly, each time at a rate of 250300 kg of night soil per mu or pigsty manure diluted 4- to 5-fold to be splashed onto the leaf surface in the evening. Prevention and control of weeds: On the initial stage of planting, it is compulsory to eradicate all weeds on the water surface. If filamentous green algae is present, kill it by casting plant ash or spraying 1% lime water or 0.5% copper sulphate. Pest control: Use 0.5% 666 powder to spray on the leaves of water lettuce early in the morning when their surface are still wet with dew to control aphids, or use 40% dimethoate emulsion in about 1:2000 dilution for spraying. At the initial stage of the occurrence of yellow wilt, use the Bordeauz mixture of 160- to 200-fold water suspension for spraying to control it. Crop can be harvested for fodder one week after applying chemicals to avoid poisoning of livestock.

Sprinkling water on leaf surface: In bright summer weather when the day is hot and dry, it is necessary to sprinkle clear water on leaf surfaces 23 times at noon to increase humidity and lower air temperature locally, thereby, promoting growth. 4. Harvesting Cropping usually commences from mid or late June. First, divide the crop into several square blocks and then scoop up the plants block by block. The amount to gather depends on growth conditions. Be gentle in making the harvest in order to avoid too much shake-up of the crop. After harvesting, the seedlings should be brush apart so that they are distributed evenly on the water surface to enhance their propogation. 5. Seedling protection and over-wintering From late Oct. to early or mid April, the work of protecting the seedling for over-wintering should not stop until it is entirely frost free. The work is done on the nursery beds. To maintain temperature properly is the prerequisite to the protection of seedlings. Therefore, it is essential to keep the temperature of the wintering nursery above 15C. In addition, more sunlight and better ventilation will help the crop to overwinter safely. 3) Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) It is a perenrial aquatic plant belonging to the Pontederiaceae family. The plant floats on the water, growing out creeping branches from its roots to form new branches. The leaves grow out straight and are either oval or round in shape varying from 2.55.0 cm in width. They are smooth and shiny. The petiole bulges out on the lower half like a gall bladder, a spongy interior filled with air. The flower is monopedicle with a sheath in the middle portion and flowers of six petals blossoming on the top in violet and blue. There is a bright yellow spot at the centre of the top petal. The yield of water hyacinth is very high, reaching 1016 tons per mu. It is also rich in nutrition. Analysis shows that fresh crops contain 1.9% crude protein, 0.25% crude fat, 1.11% fibre, 2.21% non-nitrogenous extracts. 1.33% ash content and inorganic salts like calcium and phosphorus. Therefore, the planting of water hyacinth is a good way of solving green forage for pigs. This crop likes warmth and humidity and still water or slowly running water. The optimum water depth is 0.31 m but the water has to be fertile. Its adaptability is better than water lettuce; especially its endurance to poor fertility is higher. The river bends and ponds that are not fit for planting water lettuce can be used for cultivating spring water hyacinth, and yet produce a considerable amount of forage. Besides this, it is more cold-resistant than water lettuce. As long as temperature remains at 710C. it can safely overwinter. 1. Planting time Water hyacinth is cultivated along the Changjiang River Drainage in early or mid April. When air temperature rises above 13C and frost is over, the old seedlings that have overwintered start to germinate and sprout. New leaves burst forth with all vigour. This indicates that it is the right time to plant hyacinth. 2. Method of planting

Small stagnant ponds of less than 1 mu can be directly seeded with water hyacinth seedlings which may float and grow in it at will, while in large ones or in slightly running water, planting should be done with the help of bamboo frames or by setting up supports and then tying straw ropes to them to enclose an area of the water surface for planting the seedlings within it. When the enclosure is densely populated by them, enlarge it gradually until eventually the supports and ropes are removed. In this way, the crop will not be dispersed by winds and waves, and so it is advantageous to its growth and reproduction. One mu of water surface needs about 46 kg of seed seedlings. 3. Management Fertilizer treatment: In fertile ponds, no application of fertilizer is required, but it is necessary to stir the fertile silt at the bottom to enable nutrients to dissolve in the water. If water quality is poor, the plants will be weak and slender, and leaf blades will look yellow. It shows that night soil or animal manure need to be applied to the crop. The dressing is usually done in the vigorous growing season weekly or biweekly. Weeding: During the initial stage, the growth of water hyacinth is easily interfered by weeds. So it is necessary to eradicate the aquatic weeds and filamentous green algae. Weeding will cease only when the growth of water hyacinth is vigorous and when seedlings cover up the whole water surface. Cropping: When water hyacinth plants are growing luxuriantly and reproducing rapidly after planting for a month or two, harvesting can commence. The amount to gather is about one-fourth of the whole crop or one third at the most. After cropping, it is necessary to brush the seedlings apart for speedy reproduction. In summer, it is possible to gather the harvest once every week, but this interval of cropping depends on the fertility of the water, the growth condition of the crop and air temperature. In Changjing River Drainage, the growth of this plant ceases by the end of October when temperature drops below 10C and leaves begin to turn yellow. At this moment, seedlings that are of medium size, that look more seasoned and healthy and that are free from diseases and pests are to be chosen for overwintering. The method involves placing a layer of fertile pond silt at the bottom of large vessels or wooden tubs and fill it with water to the 9 cm level. Then put the selected seedlings into it and place the containers in a nursery, the temperature of which is maintained above 710C. The seedlings should be frequently exposed to sunlight and can be placed together with water lettuce seedlings in the same nursery for overwintering.

Fig. 1. Thermo-electric umbrella for chick nurture

Fig. 2. Wooden feeding trough

Fig. 3. Cylindric feeding trough

Fig. 4. Chain-driven feeding trough

Fig. 5. A big opening jar with an aluminum plate beneath

Fig. 6. Chick transportation cage

Fig. 7. Broiler transportation cage

CHAPTER V DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN INTEGRATED FISH FARM

In China, there is a great variety of integrated fish farms which are involved in lake, reservoir and pond fish culture. This chapter mainly deals with the design and construction of an integrated fish farm which combines pond fish culture with crop, livestock, poultry farming and sideline occupations. 1. Site selection and preparation An integrated fish farm is a production base. The design and quality of its construction would directly affect the investment and the deployment of labour force in construction and, more important, fish, livestock and poultry production. In constructing a farm, the following requirements should be emphasized in calculation and design. All the information should be gathered in detail for analysis and comparison and thus, it can provide the reliable scientific basis for site selection. 1) Water source (1) Plentiful water supply of desirable quality: The most important requirement in fish culture is water supply. Water, irrespective of its origin, can be used providing it is of desirable quality and available in quantity. However, if the water source is near some factory or mine sewage, water quality must be examined to see if its contents are harmful to fish. For example, the effluent from metallurgical factory contains lead; the one from instrument plant and table salt-electrolysing plant contains mercury; the one from coking plant; petroleum and gas industry contains phenol. All these toxic materials can either kill fish directly or accumulate in fish body which smells and brings harm to people's health. In such a case, other water sources should be considered. The waste water from some food processing mills such as slaughterhouse, brewery, beancurd works is rich in organic materials, which are beneficial to fish farming through fermentation, or sedimentation or controlled introduction to fish ponds. Underground water often contains excessive with lack of oxygen. Its temperature is too low for warm water fish. It should be completely exposed to the air before it's used. The underground water flowing out of coal mine or sulphur mine is too acidic to culture fish.

The acidity or alualinity (pH value) of water represents the hydro chemical quality. In general, the optimum pH value for pond fish culture is between 6.5 and 8.5. The value beyond this range would affect the fish yield and even cause fish to die in high mortality. many cultured fish spp. are of eurysalinity, such as Tilapia, mullet, redeye mullet, milkfish and Common carp that have a strong tolerance of salinity. salinity will do no harm to Common carp but (7000 ppm) is the lethal concentration. (Soller et el 1965) If the species selected for rearing are of eurysalinity, salinity is no serious problem for fish farming practices. Analysis on the growth of fish and its activity in the water body we use is a practical and simple way of determining whether the water is fit for fish farming or not. Of course, it will be more reliable to rear fish in this kind of water in a container for some time combining with physio-chemical analysis on the water. When you make an investigation of water quality, one thing must be taken into account, that is, in flooding season the water may be of less toxicity; but in dry season, due to evaporation, the concentration of poisonous elements in it will go up and the water will become harmful to fish. If you are forced to use it as a water source, the reserved water supply should be prepared. Generally speacing, only the water you want to use is not toxic and is toxic and is suitelic for the farming, can other problems on farm construction be considered, or they should be put aside for the time being. (2) Water amount Water should be abundant with a stable level to meet the first-hand information on the variation of water level in different seasons and the irrigation requirements for crop farming etc. This is the principal consideration to design the area for fish ponds. Water amount will influence the production potentials, so the relevant information as hydrology, meterology, topographical feature, edaphic quality, etc. should be collected and then, the calculation could be conducted in conjunction with water depth needed by per unit area fish pond based on the flowing amount of different seasons so as to ensure adequate water supply for fish ponds and fields as well. If a farm is constructed along a lake, river or reservoir, be sure to get the information of the highest and lowest water levels in the years passed and to select the areas with stable water levels to establish a farm, thus, avoiding the draught through leakage in the dry season and the overflow in flooding seasons. Flooding prevention measures should be taken the same as the smallscale irrigation works which is not offended by the water within 25 years. The farm should be kept safe above the safety line. The water-logged area and depressions with too much rainfall can not afford site selection for the time being. 2) Soil quality Different soil characters deeply affect the quality of the pond construction and influence the future fish yield to some extent and even the crop yield. Therefore, soil quality should be carefully differenciated and chosen. The soil for pond construction should ensure non-leakage and no collapse for dykes. This is the most important thing for manured pond. Loam is characterized by conservation of water and fertilizer with proper ventilation. Therefore, it is the best soil for the dyke construction. Sandy loam is also good for water conservation; however, it has a weak coagulation so it is poor for dyke construction. Clay is good for water conservation. It can be used as soil materials for pond bottom, but not good for dyke, because it

cracks when dry. If these latter two soils are used for dykes, the dyke crown should be widened and the gradient of slope decreased. Grit soil, sand soil and silty soil are greatly porous, poor in water and fertilizer retention. They are not good materials for pond constructions. The sand, however, could replace part of clay for dyke construction. Apart from the consideration given to the soil quality which effects the construction, attention should also be paid to the soil contents, which influence the fish growth. If the iron contents is too much, ferric hydroxide will form colloid in water and will deposit on the pond bottom. This rosty sediment is often attached to fish hills hindering fish respiration especially, fish egg hatching, fry rearing. This type of soil appcars russet brown or green and is relatively easy to identify. The soils with excessive decaying matter have lower water and fertilizer retention power. It is easy to collapse down if used as the material of pond dyke. In the tidal areas and swamps, the pond construction is more difficult to be carried out, because the ground water level is high. The operating cost may be much higher. These areas are too low to allow complete drainage as required for propoer management. The temperature adjustment may be affected after being put into operation too. In termining soil quality, it si not enough to just examine the top soil. Enough samples have to be taken from various representative sports. The sampling depth should exceed the depth of the pond by one meter. There must be certain thickness of soil which has good water retention power to avoid serious leakage. Owing to the variety of integrated different product of land can be fully utilized. It is most design too continue from a flat and wide. Watt generaly but generaly there is no problem a farm in tilly district. The slopes are good places for afforestation and fedder cultivation and livesock production indesinging fish pond gravitational flow canbe fully utilized to deduc by soil concervation and energy as much as possible use intertide pond or lake bay areas for pond construction. Probably, this kind of topography for a farm needs greater investment and is timeconsuming. However, it doesn't occupy fertile crop land and the development and utilization of waste land is of great economic significance. 4) Transportation and Energy There is a large amount of fresh produce and processed food being sent to the market and fishery necessities and livestock, etc. purchased from the market; therefore, the farm site should be a place easy of access. For example, Helei Fish Farm is located in the suburbs of Wuxi. Either water borne traffic or land transportation facilitates the development of the farm. A fish farm, if it is possible, should be selected near the place where it is rich in natural food such as snails, Corbicula spp., aquatic grass, etc. to provide sufficient food for fish all the year round apart from self-supplied feeds and fertilizers. Electricity is the principal energy of a fish farm. It is better to select a site where it is easy to get in connection with power plant. Water, road and electricity must be within reach of a farm site before starting capital construction.

2. Overall Layout of an Integrated Fish Farm In order to work out an overall programme for a farm, land area elevation measurements should be carried out. Draw up an ichnography with a scale of 1:1000 - 1:500 before the earthwork calculation and the pond construction. The engagement items and their scale are determined by the natural conditions of a site, investment and consumers' preference. Then, the production departments can be determined. The overall layout of a farm means to make rational arrangement of each department and their affiliated equipment. It will not only involve the construction and investment but also the future operation. The reasonableness of the layout must be shown on the following: A. The facilitates management and increases production and economic returns; B. Every measure should be taken for easy operation, lessening labour intensity, heightening efficiency and protecting worker's health; C. It economizes of capital construction investment and reduces material consumption and manpower. The layout of integrated fish farm is not only for the present being but also for the future development and there should be room enough to realize a practical long-run programme in stages according to the funds and labour force avaliable. Other types of occupations in integrated fish farm serve fish production. The scale of crop and animal production depends upon the needs of aquaculture. Therefore, the locations and areas of various ponds should be considered first and then the location and areas of livestock pens, crop farming, processing insustry and finally, the ones of other facilities. 1) Aquaculture facility arrangements Fish ponds are main buildings on the farm. Fish ponds in China are generally outdoor earthern ones. Fish seeds, if it is possible, should be produced within the farm. Thus, it can reduce operating cost and can get desirable sized fingerlings so as to bring out the full potentials of various fish ponds and to avoid infectious fish diseases from outside. The farm with foodfeeders as major cultivated species needs large-sized fingerlings. The nursery ponds generally account for 25 30%, growout ponds for 7075%; if plankton-feeders as dominant spp. the nursery ponds should account for 15% while growout ponds 85%. If the production scale is rather large and the farm intands to breed fry and fingerlings by itself, it has to build the spawning ponds and hatcheries. The rate of the areas of brooders, fry and fingerling ponds depends on the quantity of fry and fingerlings needed. In general, the ratio is about 5:10:85. The ratio between the water surface and total farm area is dependent on soil quality and integrated management requirements. Generally, water area occupies about 6070. In Wuxi area it holds 68%; pond dykes 21%; inlet and outlet channels 11%. Various fish ponds are arranged on the basis of water demands and operational convenience for the purpose of raising the survival rate of fish. The brooder ponds, spawning ponds and hatcheries, etc. should be placed at the nearest area of water inlet. Spawning ponds should be close to the hatching facilities. Both of them should be built in the vicinity of brooder ponds to facilitate brooder transportation. Fingerlings' ponds ought to be next to fry nurturing ponds and food fish ponds. Thus, fish ponds will be arranged in such a rational way that the various cultural operations such as fry stocking and fingerling transference can be carried out in the shortest possible time with the minimum amount of labour.

2) Other types of Occupations Arrangement in an Integrated Fish Farm (1) Location of livestock houses: Presently, the animals raised in integrated fish farms are pigs, cows, ducks, chickens and geese. Their penthouse and shed are arranged as follows: (i) Pigsty location In order to lead the pig excreta into the fish ponds, the pigsties, generally built on the pond dykes or on the highlands nearby the fish pond. A limited-scale farm may centralize the pigsties in divisional areas. The pigsties constructed on pond dykes are easy of access through canals or roads. Pig excreta are ushered into the septic tanks for fermentation before being put into use; thus, it shortens the distance of transportation. (ii) Cowshed Cows need both cowshed and playground which occupy more areas than pigsties on pond dykes. Generally, intensive farming is practised. The cowshed is built in the place near the fish pond for easy transportation of the wastes, feeds and milk. (iii) Location of duck and goose pens They are just built separately along the pond dykes. (iv) Location of chicken house This type of house is open type with good ventilation. It is almost on the highlands with dry ground. In order to prevent the outbreak of chicken diseases, the chicken house should be located a bit far away from other domestic animal houses. But, for the sake of transportation, they should be near the roads. (2) Fodder crop field Aside from the pond dyke, slope for crop cultivation, an integrated fish farm should have special plots for fodder crop cultivation. The area of plots depends upon the requirements of fodder crops and lands available. If the fine feeds are provided mainly by the market the fodderland of a farm can be less; if conditions were otherwise, the fodderland should be more. The full use ought to be made of wasted plots, hilly place and even water surface. Some of the farms grow crop even in fingerling rearing pond in off-season and lake bay and river bends. 3) Farm administration building The farm administration building is like a headquarters which is responsible for organization and leadership of its production. Therefore, the headquarters is located in the central area easy of access. 4) Industry and side-line occupations Simple processing workshops for fish, duck eggs, milk, bean and slaughtery, brewery and fish gear repairing shop should be established for better sale, speedy transportation, comprehensive

utilization of produce and enhancement of employment in a large-scale farm. These workshops should be arranged near the source of materials. (See Fig. 101) 3. Fish Pond Design After determining the location and the area of land for fish ponds, steps are taken in arranging the position of ponds and pond dykes and setting the directions, shapes, size of inflow and outflow channels. 1) Fish pond size Pond size depends upon the environmental requirements of fish in different stages of growth and the requirements of operational management. The general practice size of growth pond ranges from 5 to 10 mu with depth 33.5 m (water depth 2.53 m); fingerling pond 25 mu with depth 22.5 m (water depth 1.52 m); nursery pond 12 mu with depth 1.52m (water depth 1 1.5 m). The brooder pond equals to the growout pond. Is it necessary to construct the storage, settlement filtering or sunexposure ponds? That depends. A fish pond is often in a rectangular shape, broad from the east to the west. This kind of fish ponds get more solar irradiance which benefits photosynthesis of aquatic plants and enables them to produce more oxygen, which in turn, promotes the growth of fish and natural food organisms. The ratio of pond length and width should be 2:1 or 3:2. The length of a big pond ought to be enlarged. The width of same type of ponds should be uniform. In this case, it needs less fishing gears and spares much time in operations. 2) Pond structure All the fish ponds have the same structure with a little differences in size and depth. (1) Embankment The embankment includes pond dyke, partitional dyke, marginal dyke, transportation dyke and cofferdam. Soil quality and the use of dyke are the main factors to decide the width of dyke crown and the gradient of slope. The width of pond dyke can be narrower if the soil quality is better or the food supply is sufficient or the area of land is not adequote. The common width of pond bank ranges from 25 meters. The big pond is with wider crown while small pond with narrower one. The width of the dyke between fish pond and inflow and outflow canals keeps between 35 m while the width of the dykes for pigsties, cow shed, etc. or piping and traffic roads 5 to 10 m. If the outflow canal is too small for boat traffic, the dyke should be wider at least on one side of a pond so as to enable vehicles to get to the fish pond. The gradient of dyke slope of loam soil should be 1:1 to 1:1.5 while the one of poor soil or growout pond dyke should be greater, that is, 1:2.5 to 1:3 under the water surface and 1:1 to 1:1.5 above the water surface. In grow-out pond 0.51 m wide path along the inner slopes should be provided for the sake of pulling nets and avoiding erosion by waves. (See Fig. 103b)

A cofferdam is a sort of building to prevent a fish farm from flooding. It requires 0.5 m higher than the peak water level in the history. Crown width of the cofferdam is 46 m or even 10 m wide as required for the stretch against the wind and waves, the gradient should be larger. The leeward slope is about 1:1.5 to 1:2.5 while the windward slope 1:2.5 to 1:3.5. If the slopes are well protected with grass and stone pieces, the gradient of slopes may be reduced to 1:2. A slope of several meters wide out of dyke foot should be left as buffer zone where the aquatic plants can be planted to lessen wave attacks. If the soil is poor in quality, an edaphic core made of soil with good coagulation should be built. (See Fig. 102) (2) Pond bottom The bottom is flat. It should be slanting from the inlet to the outlet. There is a slope of about 3 for big pond while about 5 for small one; a slight slope from dyke foot to the central area and so it is good for drainage and harvest operation. (See Fig. 103a) 3) Water intake and drainage system of fish ponds This system of the fish pond functions to maintain the water level and to adjust pond water quality, to prevent draught and flood and the dissemination of fish diseases. Its construction is extremely important. No neglect could be allowed even if one thinks of economizing on the investment and land use, otherwise, the potential danger will occur in the future operation. Therefore, an independent water intake and drainage system should be prepared. This system includes inlet and outlet canals and its bypass channels such as aqueducts, culvert, stilling basins and slnice gates etc. (1) Inlet canal Inlet canal can be as general canal, branch canal and by-pass chennal. The flowing amount of water should suffice the demand of water supply in a given time. The bottom of inflow canal ought to be higher than the peak water level in fish ponds. It should be kept dry when no irrigation. Sectional size of the canal is dependent upon the flowing amount of water. The section of earth dyke is trapezium-shaped with the gradient of 1:1 to 1:1.5 on both sides. If protected with bricks and stones, it often appears rectangular. The slope of the canal will influence the flowing speed of water. In a field construction, it should be adjusted based on the slope of land. Thus, it is economical and simplified. If it is too steep on topographical features, several stilling basins in certain places should be built. In constructing the canals, the following slanting ratio is adopted:

The distance of conveyance should not be too long. Otherwise, it wastes land and it has bad effects on water supply to fish ponds. It is suitable for a general canal to supply 150200 mu of fish ponds. Inlet water locks generally adopt culvert type using underground pipes constructed with bricks, stones and cement. The size of head gate depends on the pond size so as to ensure the ponds with sufficient water supply in a given time. The place between the gate and the pond bottom had better be cemented with stones so as to prevent bank erosion. (Fig. 104) (2) Outflow canal The design of outflow canal is almost the same as the inflow canal, but the bottom of the canal is 0.3 m lower than the pond bottom. If it is used as flooding drainage canal in flooding season, it should be large enough to get the water drained in a limited time. Mostly, outlet waterlocks often adopt trough type; however, it is difficult to close the gate tightly because of strong water pressure. It's not convenient to lift it up too; hence, the terraced type of outflow sluice is used with the advantages of easy operation. The size of sluice gate should be big enough for draining the water in a given time. (See Fig. 105) The inflow and outflow canals should be arrayed alternately one side for irrigation and the other for drainage. It can not only prevent the dissemination of fish diseases but also can benefit the rearing of brooders and flood control. (See Fig. 106) (3) Open ditch and hidden culvert or subdrainage Inflow and outflow canals employ not only open ditch as mentioned above but also hidden culvert or a combination. Open ditch has many advantages - simple construction, less labour and material, easy maintenance or otherwise - occupying large area of land, obstructing the traffic, losing large amount of water. The hidden culvert has many advantagesoccupying small area of land, obstructing no traffic, losing small amount of water but it has some disadvantages too, such as big financial investment. For the sake of convenience, several maintenance wells should be built at intervals along the channel to avoid being silt up. 4) Earthwork calculation Based on the level measurement, the area of fish ponds and the depth of excavation, the earthwork quantity can be figured out. The amount of excavation ought to be equal to the one of filling of by and large. The excavated soil should be piled up as near as possible for shortening the transport and saving labour and time. Therefore, either the excavation work or the filling work should be wellplanned to avoid no where to pile the soil for excavating and nowhere to get the soil for filling. In balancing the earthwork, if the soil excavated is more than the soil filled, more small fish ponds can solve this problem e.g. reducing the depth of fish ponds, enlarging the area of stacking section or broadening or heightening the weir, etc.

4. Leakage control and acid soil improvement 1) Leakage control of fish ponds First of all, investigation should be made to find the reason of pond leakage before taking any corresponding measures. 1. If the pond bottom or dyke contains much sand or grit soil which brings about pond leakage, spread clay soil on the pond bottom and it is evenly distributed by virtue of inlet water. The clay particles will enter into the cracks of the pond bottom during the process of leakage and then, it will stop the leakage. In certain countries, about 10 m3 of cow dung per-ha is spread on the pond bottom a few times; and it will greatly control the leakage blocking the soil pores. 2. If the leakage is due to poor construction of pond dyke, which should have been pressed by ramming, the remedy measure of compacting could be taken. If it still leaks, spread heavy clay soil or turn over the dyke for rebuilding till leakage stops. 2) Acid soil improvement Acid soils are common in many parts of the world, e.g. lateritic soil in the tropics, humic soils in the temperate zone and acid sulphate soils in Southeast Asia, which the local people call coastal mangrove soil with pH value below 3. In the Philippines, there are about 100,000 ha of fish ponds of acid soil, which produce very low fish yields. This type of soil can be regulated with quicklime (Ca (OH)2) or limestone (CaCO3). However, the feasibility of this method depends on the local economic conditions. According to Swingle (1961), practical experience has shown that soils of pH5 require approximately 2 tons of limestone per ha and those with pH 4 require 4 to 6 tons/ha. 3) Newly-dug fish ponds often contain much heavy metals that harm fish growth and often cause body-curved disease of fry; therefore, in the first two years, it is better to farm two-yearold fingerlings and adult fish. If they are to be used to nurture fry, the water should be changed over before stocking fry so as to wash away the excessive elements which are harmful to fry. Field Work Guide I Ichnographical drawing with a theodolite Objectives: Within a given area designed for a fish farm, set several points where a theodolite is used for making measurements of horizontal angles and sight distances before drawing an ichnography and calculating the land area. Approaches: (1) Selected land area: 2530 mu (2) Based on the shape of the area, set several points as Point 1, 2,3, n with the numbered stakes as indicators.

(3) Place the theodolite at Point No. 1, put the horizontal level at 6 or so and point the axis of the telescope towards true north, take down the readings and run the telescope clockwise towards Point number 2; take down the readings and calculate the magnetic bearing of Point No. 2. (4) Set a leveling staff at Point No.2 and a theodolite at Point No.1. Write down readings of distance.

a'Fb' ~ AFB,

a'b'= ab =p a constant, the distance between two scales

FO = f, AB = 1

Use C instead of

FE = Cl, c+f=q

D = FE + D = Cl +q

+f q = O,

D = Cl

(5) Turn the telescope clockwise toward Point n, write down the readings to calculate the azimuth of angle 1. (6) The leveling staff is set at Point No. 2 up to Point n; use the same method as mentioned above to calculate the distance between Point No. 1 and Point No. 2; between Point No.2 and Point No.3.... (7) Move the theodolite to Point No.2. and level and centre it; repeat the same method as (4), (5), (6) and calculate the distance between Point No.2 and 3. (8) An example of measurement

Measurement record form.

point of origin measured point compass reading horizonal azimuth sight distance reading 1 2 n 00340 179 34 50 179 31 10 lower scale 2.044 upper scale 0.963 sight dist. 1.081 horiz dist. 108.1 2 1 3 Ditto

(9) Calculation and correction of angle deviation In theory, the total amount of interior angles of a polygon should be as follows: t = (n - 2) . 180 n stands for the number of interior angle in a polygon or within a closed line. stands for the interior angle. But in practice, the sum of the interior angles measured, m is often not equal to the sum because of errors in measurement. The difference between the two is called the closed difference of the angles, that is, f = m - t First of all, we must calculate whether it is within the range of allowable error, which is different in different instruments. If a theodolite is with 6" or 15" the allowable closed error of the angles is 25" or 45 . If the error is beyond the allowable range, the reason for that is to be found before it is redone. If f is less than the allowable one, adjustment is made. The error with opposite symbol is to be distributed to each interior angle. The total corrected angles should be almost the same as in theory. (10) Land area calculation On the ichonography that is drawn, a number of triangles, square or trapezoid can be divided as it is shown in Fig. 4 containing three triangles F1, F2, F3. The side parameters are measured with tape measure. S= s (s-a)(s-b)(s-c)

a,b,c respectively stand for the parameters. The total area is the sum of F1 + F2 + F3.

Field work Guide II Elevation measurement with levelling instrument Objectives: Based on the ichnographical measurement, typical points are selected for elevation measurement for design and calculation of fish ponds and earthwork. Method: At the practical site, several points are selected according to the topographical features. Elevation should be measured on the basis of the national standard sealevel point nearby. If there is none, a hypothetical one can be set as for a standard to establish an independent system. Then, from this point of origin onward, the elevation of each point can be measured. 1. Direction is set with a theodolite, and a tape measure for the length. Generally, every 20 m long there is a surveying point marked with numbered stakes which are called elevation control points, the number of which can be changeable in designing and construction of fish ponds based on the topographical features. 2. The leveling instrument is placed in a wide sighted view. The leveling staff will be set on the control points one after another and then, calculate out the elevation of each point. Leveling measurement Table
No. of control pt. MB 1 2 3 4 5 leveling staff No. 1.732 1.571 1.920 2.002 1.642 0.09 0.161 0.188 0.270 high + low 3.050 3.211 2.862 2.780 3.14 elevation known elevation remarks

Field Work Guide III Design and layout of an integrated fish farm Objectives: Based on the practical work done with Guide I, II and the instructor's lecture, an integrated fish farm could be designed. Topics: 1. An integrated fish of fish-livestock-crop type with herbivorous fish as its major spp. (60% in fish yield)

2. An integrated fish farm with plankton-feeder as its dominant spp. (60% in fish yields) (one of the two is chosen.) Note: 1) Net yield is about 200 kg/mu. 2) The fine feeds needed by livestock are provided by the market. 3) Fry are provided by the market while the fingerlings are nurtured by the farm itself. Figure out the area of fish ponds, the width of dyke crown, the position and structure of inflow and outflow canals, the amount of soil to be excavated and to be filled, the area of fodder crop land (including dyke crown and slopes); the positions of livestock and poultry houses and the number of them raised on the farm. Ref: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Science of the culture of fresh water fish spp. in China Teaching materials of pond fish culture Teaching materials of fresh water Aquaculture of Jiangsu Province Commercial Fish Farming Text book of fish culture Measurement and layout

Fig. 101 Plane figure of Xi Nan Fish Farm 1. headquarters 2. vegetable plots 3. green plots 4. yearling ponds 5. cow shed 6. experimental ponds 7. 2-year-old fingerling ponds 8. fodder grinder 9. grow-out ponds 10. fodder crop field 11. sowpigsty 12 chicken house 13. office of livestockpoultr y farming 14. duckpens 15. overwintering ponds for Tilapia 16. brew house 17. office of aquaculture brigade 18. tool house 19. pigsties 20. locks 21. locks for flooding drainage 22. administration house

Fig. 10-2 Sectional view of flood control dykes

Fig. 10-3 Sketch map of pond structure A. plane figure B. sectional view along line a -b (after Science of the Culture of Freshwater Fish Spp. in China)

Fig. 10-4 Sectional view of inlet lock (after Science of the Culture of Freshwater Fish Spp. in China)

Fig. 10-5 Sectional view of outlet lock (after Science of the Culture of Freshwater Fish Spp. in China)

Fig. 10-6 Plane figure showing the inlet, outlet canals of the ponds

Fig.1.

Fig.2.

Fig. 3. Acknowledgements The English version of this teaching materials runs to nearly two hundred thousand words. Although the principles are not difficult to understand, it involves many disciplines such as biology (zoology or botany), ecology, physics, chemistry, economic and geodesy, etc. I have little talent and less learning while the editorial board laid a heavy burden on me to go all over the English Manuscripts. I do what I can to fulfil the revision task. Through days and nights of the 4 months, the materials are completely prepared now. The Centre put out the trial edition to solicit comments. The preliminary response from the participants of the 5th training course is good. I feel comfortable at this. Here, I want to express my gratitude to Ms. P. C. Spliethoff from Netherlands and other participants who gave us some suggestions and comments.

Because of less labour and limited time, this revision must have some errors and there is much room for improvement. I beseech a favour of comments from the compilers, translators and readers. I am greatly indebted to Miss Ma Qian who typed most of the manuscripts, Mr. Qin Dong-zhu who assisted me in editing work especially on scientific aspect and my wife Li Pei-zhen who also assisted me in editing work esp. on English aspect. This teaching materials are compiled by the instructors concerned. I greatly appreciate their cooperation during the preparation. Also I' d like to thank the other translators who have made their efforts too. They are Mr. Yang Xianguang (Chapter 1 & 3), Mr. Zhang Lai-fa (Chapter 2), Mr. Zhou En-hua (Chapter 4 & 5), Mr Chen Bao-hua (Chapter 6), Mr. Min Kuan-hong (Chapter 8 & 10). Chapter 7 was translated by myself and Chapter 9 was translated by unknown person but reviewed by Mr. Chen and Mr. Zhou. I look forward to receiving further comments and suggestions. Li Ka ngmin A u g . 1 2 , 1 9 8 5