Maimonides - The Guide For The Perplexed

LIBRARY
UMIVCHSITV OP
CAUfGMNIA
SAN DIEGO
is
j-
v
'
THE GUIDE FOR THE

PERPLEXED
BY
MOSES MAIMONIDES
TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL ARABIC TEXT
M. FRIEDLANDER, Pn.D
SECOND EDITION, REVISED THROUGHOUT

(EIGHTH IMPRESSION)
ROUTLEDGE
LONDON & KEGAN

:
PAUL LTD
E.C.4
BROADWAY HOUSE
68-74
CARTER LANE,
Second edition published 1904 Reprinted igio, 1919, 1925, 1928, 1936, 1942, 1947
and 1951
Printed in Great Britain by Butler
& Tanner Ltd., Frome and London
PREFACE
The
first
Edition of
the
English
Translation of Maimonides' DaldSt

fully
al-Hairin being exhausted

I
without having
supplied
the demand,
prepared a second,
revised edition of
first
the Translation.
In the new
edition
the three volumes of the
edition have been reduced to one

besides
volume by the elimination of the notes
Hebrew words and
phrases
have been eliminated or transliterated.

sought
to
By
these changes the translator
produce a cheap edition in order to

of
all
bring
the
work of
Maimonides within the reach

Literature.
students
of
Theology and Jewish
M. FRIEDLANDER.
JEWS'
COLLEGE, July 1904.
PREFACE TO VOLUME ONE OF

FIRST EDITION
THE
IN
of
compliance
the
with
desire
repeatedly
I
expressed by the
Committee
to
translate
title
Hebrew
Literature
Society,
have
undertaken
Maimonides'
Dalalat
al-Hairin,
I
better
known
by
the
Hebrew
Moreh
Nfbuchim,
.
and
offer
the
first
instalment of
my
labours
in
the present volume

in
This contains
is
(i)
short Life of
Maimonides.
(2)
which
special
attention
of
given
to his alleged apostasy.

(3)
An
analysis of
the whole
the
Moreh Nebuchim.
Arabic,
translation of
the First
Part of this
work from the
with explanatory and
critical notes.
Parts
of
the
Translation have
been
contributed
by Mr. Joseph
Introduction
Abrahams,
B.A.,
Ph.D.,
and
Rev.
H.
Gollancz
the
by the former, and the

In conclusion
of
I
first
twenty-five chapters by the latter.
beg to tender
of
my
thanks to Rev.
Literature
A. Loewy, Editor
his careful
the
Publications
of
for
.
the
Hebrew
and
Society, for
revision
my
his
manuscript
kindness
in
proofs,
and
to
Mr. A. Neubauer,
as
I
M.A.,
required
supplying
me
with such information
M. FRIEDLANDER.
JEWS'
COLLEGE, June
1881.
Life of
Maimonides
Moreh Nebuchim
Literature.
.....**
rAGB
Analysis of the Guide
for the
CONTENTS
Perplexed
xxvii
Introduction
Dedicatory Letter
The Object
of the
On
Similes Directions for the Study of this
Introductory Remarks
..... ........... ......

Guid
PART
I.
CHAPTER
I
The homonymity
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII VIII
On Genesis iii. 5 On tabnit and temunab On raab, bibbit and bazab On Exod. xxiv. On lib and isbsbab, ah and
Onyalad On makom
IX
X
XI
XII XIII
On kisse On 'alabj yarad

Onyasbab On kam
.......16 10. ...... .18 .........22

14
17
. .
.
. .
....> .......
Work
of %e!cm
.
4
8
13
abot
19 19
20
21
23
.
.
Oa'amaJ
'
.
24 25
25
On adam XV On nazab,yaxab XVI On Zur XVII On Mishnah Hagigah ii. XVIII On karab, naga, niggasb XIX On male XX On ram, nista XXI On 'abar XXII On ha
.
.
XIV
.......
.25 26
27 27 *8 29 30
3
XXIII
OnTaza,sbub
XXIV
XXVI
On
kalak
shaken
XXV On
On "The Torah speaketh the language of man" XXVII On Targum of Gen. xlvi. 4 XXVIII On regel XXIX On 'aveb XXX On ak'al XXXI, XXXII On the Limit of Man's Intellect XXXIII to XXXVI On the Study and the Teaching of Metaphysics XXXVII Oafanim XXXVIII Onaor
.
...
.
32 33
34 34
35 37
39 39 4=S 4*
.
43~5 2
52 53 54 55
5*
5
XXXIX XL
XLI
XLII
Onleb
Onruab
On nefnb On bayyim-mavet
........
CONTENTS
CHAFTER
PAGE
kanaf
'
XLIII
On
57
S8
XL1V
XLV Onsbama.
XLIX
On'ayin
XLVI, XLVII On the Attribution of Senses and XL VIII The Targum of shama and raah
.
L LI-LX On LI On the
LII LIII
Angels Figurative Expressions applied to ' . . On Faith .

Attributes
Necessity of Proving the Inadmissibility of Attributes . . . . . . reference to God Classification of Attributes
.... ..... ... ....

Sensations to
5&
59, 63
God
64
65
67 68-89
68
The Arguments
of the Attributists
LIV LVI
On
Exod.
LV On
xxxiii. 13 ; xxxiv. 7. . Attributes implying Corporeality,
Comparison
On Attributes denoting Existence, Life, Power, Wisdom and Will . . LVII On the Identity of the Essence of God and His Attributes . LVIII On the Negative Sense of the True Attributes of God LIX On the Character of the Knowledge of God Consisting of Negations LX On the Difference between Positive and Negative Attributes LXI On the Names of God LXII On the Divine Names composed of Four, Twelve and Forty-two
. .
.
....... ...... ........

.
in
69 72 75
78 79 80
81
Emotion, Non-existence and
83
87 89
91
Letters
On Ebyeb, Tab and Sbaddai LXIV On " The Name of the Lord," and " The Glory of God LXV On the phrase " God spake " LXVI On Exod. xxxii. 16 LXVII On tbabat and nab LXVIII On the Terms The Intellectus, the Intelligens and the LXIX On the Primal Cause LXX On the attribute rokeb bdarabot . LXXI The Origin of the Kalam LXXII A Parallel between the Universe and Man
LXI II
. . . . . :
....... ........
.
"
93 95
Intelligibile
96 98 99 100 102
LXXIII
LXXIV
LXXV
LXXVI
Twelve Propositions of the Kalam Proofs of the Kalam for the creatio ex nibilo . Proofs of the Kalam for the Unity of God Proofs of the Kalam for the Incorporeality of God
.
......
.
.105 107 .113

120
133
'138
. .
. .
. . .
.141
PART
II.
The Author's Introduction. The Twenty-Six Propositions employed by the Philosophers to prove the Existence of
God
.145 .149
154
CHAPTER.
I
Philosophical proofs for the Existence, Incorporeality, and Unity of the First Cause . . . . . .
II
.
Ill
IV
V
VI
VII VIII
IX
X
XI
XII XIII
the Existence of Intelligences or purely Spiritual Beings . adopts the Theory of Aristotle as least open to Objections . . . . . . . . The Spheres and the Causes of their Motion . . . Agreement of the Aristotelian Theory with the Teaching of Scripture What is meant by the Scriptural Term "Angels" . . The Homonymity of the term " Angel " . . . , . On the Music of the Spheres On the Number of the Heavenly Spheres The Influence of the Spheres upon the Earth manifests itself in four
.
On
The Author
.156 .156 159 .160

i6z
163 163
.....
. .
.
different
ways
The Theory
.164
. .
.
On
of Eccentricity Preferable to that of Epicycles , the Nature of the Divine Influence and that of the Spheres
166 168
171
Three Different Theories about the Beginning of the Universe
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XIV Seven Methods by which the Philosophers sought to prove the Eternity
of the Universe
.
xi
PAGI
.
.
.
.
.
.
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
Aristotle does not scientifically demonstrate his Theory The Author refutes all Objections to Crcatio ex nibilo
The Laws
of Nature apply to Things Created, but do not regulate the Creative Act which produces them Examinations of the Proofs of Philosophers for the Eternity of the
....
.
.174 .176 .178

178
Universe
.181
184
XIX
XX
XXI
XXII XXIII
Design in Nature The Opinion of Aristotle as regards Design in Nature . . Explanation of the Aristotelian Theory that the Universe Result of First the Cause . . . necessary . Objections to the Theory of the Eternity of the Universe
is
the
.189 .190
.
192
The Theory
Difficulty of
of Crcatio ex nibilo
. .
is
preferable to that of the Eternity of

.
. .
the Universe
XXIV
XXV
XXVI
XXVII
XXVIII
Comprehending the Nature and the Motion of the Spheres . . . according to the Theory of Aristotle The Theory of Creation is adopted because of its own Superiority, the
.195 .196
199
Proofs based on Scripture being Inconclusive . . . Examination of a passage from Pirke di-Rabbi Eliezer in reference to
XXIX
Creation The Theory of a Future Destruction of the Universe is not part of the Religious Belief taught in the Bible . . . Scriptural Teaching is in favour of the Indestructibility of the Universe Explanation of Scriptural Phrases implying the Destruction of Heaven
and Earth
XXX
XXXI
XXXII XXXIII
. . . Philosophical Interpretation of Genesis i.-iv. The Institution of the Sabbath serves (i) to Teach the Theory of Cre-
........ ........ ........

.
ZOO
2OI
202
.212
218
204
XXXIV
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
XXXVIII
ation, and (2) to promote Man's Welfare Three Theories concerning Prophecy . . The Difference between Moses and the other Israelites Revelation on Mount Sinai . . Explanation of Exodus xxiii. 20 The Difference between Moses and the other Prophets
. .
Miracles wrought by them
On On
the Mental, Physical and the Divine Influence upon
XXXIX
through the Active Intellect Courage and Intuition reach the highest degree of Perfection in Prophets Moses was the fittest Prophet to Receive and Promulgate the Immutable Law, which succeeding Prophets merely Taught and
...... ...... ........

.
.
.
at regards
.219 the .221

22J
223 225
as regards the
Moral Faculties of the Prophets . Man's Imaginative and Mental Faculties
227 229
XL The
XLI
XLII
XLIII
Expounded
.231
232 234 236 238 240 241 245 247
249
XLIV
XLV
XLVI
XLVII XLVIII
Test of True Prophecy What is Meant by "Vision" Prophets Received Direct Communication only in Dreams or Visions On the Allegories of the Prophets On the Different Modes in which Prophets Receive Divine Messages. The Various Classes of Prophets The Allegorical Acts of Prophets formed Parts of Prophetic Visions.
...... ......
.....
On
the Figurative Style of the Prophetic Writings . . . Scripture ascribes Phenomena directly produced by Natural Causes to as the God First Cause of all things . . . .
PAKT
III.
The Author's
Introduction and Apology for Publishing, contrary to the Teaching of the Mishnah, an Interpretation of Ezek. i.
xii
CONTENTS
CMAFTII
I
II
The " Four Faces" are Human The Hayyot and the Ofannim
III
Further Explanation of the Hayyot and Ezek. x.
.......
the
.
:
PAGE
Faces with four different peculiarities
252 252
255 256
Ofannim derived from
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
The The
rendering of Ofan by G'tlgal in the Targum of Jonathan Vision of Ezekiel is divided into three stages (i)
On
The
the
Hayyot and Ofannim (= Earthly elements) ; . Intelligences) (3) the man above the Hayyot ( Difference between the Vision of Ezekiel and that of
(=the Spheres);
(z)
Isaiah (vi.) Different Ways in which the Prophet perceived the Three Parts of the Mercabab (Chariot) Man has the Power to Control his Bodily Wants and Earthly Desires
IX
The God
Material Element in
tion
is
X
XI
XII
XIII
not the Creator of Evil Man the Cause of his own Misfortunes the Nature of Three Kinds of Evil (i ) That caused by
is
:
........ ..... .........

-
257
258
259
261
Man
Prevents him from Attaining Perfec-
.....
Man
;
(2)
XIV
Caused by Man to Man ; (3) Caused by Man to himself . . The Universe has No other Purpose than its own Existence . It is the Will of the Creator that the Spheres regulate the Affairs of
Mankind
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
Impossible Things are not ascribed to the Creator, but it Prove the Impossibility in each Individual Case
On
God's Omniscience
XIX
XX
XXI
XXII
XXIII
Five Theories concerning Providence Every Individual Member of Mankind enjoys the Influence of Divine Providence in proportion to his Intellectual Perfection It i an ancient Error to Assume that God takes no Notice of Man. God's Knowledge is Different from Man's Knowledge . . . The Creator's knowledge of His Production is Perfect . . Object of the Book of Job, and Explanation of the First Two
. . . . . . ;. . Chapters his Friends Discuss the various Theories concerning Providence On Trials and Temptations The Actions of God are Not Purposeless The Divine Precepts Serve a certain Purpose The Object of the Divine Precepts is to Secure the Well-being of Man's Soul and Body This Object is easily seen in some Precepts, whilst in others it is only known after due Reflection On the Sabeans or Star-worshipperi
........ ........ .....

is
.
267 272
277 279 280 282

289 290 292
2 95
difficult to
.
Job and
XXIV
.........
..... .... ...... ..... ..... ..... ?........ ...... ... .... ..... ..... .....
Laws
to
296
299
XXV
XXVI
XXVII
XXVIII
34
307 310 312
XXIX
XXX
XXXI
XXXII
XXXIII
It
is
The Law Promotes
one of the Objects of the Law of Moses to Oppose Idolatry the Well-being of Man by teaching Truth, Morality and Social Conduct
did
320
321
Why
God
give
Oppose Idolatry instead of Uprooting

is
it
directly
Another chief Object of the Law
to Train
Man
322
3 27
in
Mastering
his
XXXIV The Law
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
XXXVIII
Appetites and Desires is based on the ordinary condition of man Division of the Precepts into Fourteen Classes First Class of Precepts, to Know, Love and Fear God
328 329
33
XXXIX XL
XLI
XLII
Second Class, Laws concerning Idolatry Third Class, Moral Precepts Fourth Class, Laws relating to Charity Fifth Class, Compensation for Injury and the Duty of Preventing
Sin
Sixth Class, Punishment of the Sinner
332 33 339
342 344
35
Seventh Class, Equity and Honesty
CONTENTS
CHAPTtR
riii
FACE
Eighth Class, Sabbath and Festivals
XLIII
XLIV
XLV
XLVI
XLVII
XLVIII
Ninth Tenth
Class, Prayer, Tefillin, Zizlt and

Class,
Mezuzah
its
.
.
The Temple,
its
Vessels and
Ministers
. Eleventh Class, Sacrifices Twelfth Class, Distinction between Clean and Unclean
fication
XLIX
L
LI
LII
LIU
LIV
Index Index Index Index Index Index
Thirteenth Class, Dietary Laws Fourteenth Class, Marriage Laws . On Scriptural Passages with seemingly Purposeless Contents How God is worshipped by a Perfect Man On the Fear of God Explanation of Hesed (Love), Mhbpat (Judgment), and Zedakab
.
........
;
352 354 355 359

366 370 372 380 384
391
and on Puri-
...
. .
....
. . . .
(Righteousness)
On True Wisdom
of Scriptural Passages of Quotations from the of Quotations from the of Quotations from the of References to Other of References to
.
Targumim
Midrashim
Talmud Works of Maimonides

. .
....... ...... ......

.
.
.
.399
409 409
392 393
. . .
Works
.
of Science and Philosophy

. .
. .
Alphabetical Index
.410 .411 .412 .412
THE LIFE OF MOSES MAIMONIDES

" BEFORE the sun of Eli had
set the
sun of Samuel had risen."
Before the
voice of the prophets had ceased to guide the people, the Interpreters of the Law, the Doctors of the Talmud, had commenced their labours, and before
the Academies of Sura and of Pumbadita were closed, centres of Jewish thought and learning were already flourishing in the far West. The circumstances which led to the transference of the head-quarters of Jewish learning from the East to the West in the tenth century are thus narrated in the Sefer ba-kabbalah of Rabbi Abraham ben David : " After the death of Hezekiah, the head of the Academy and Prince of the But Exile, the academies were closed and no new Geonim were appointed. long before that time Heaven had willed that there should be a discontinuance of the pecuniary gifts which used to be sent from Palestine, North Africa and Europe. Heaven had also decreed that a ship sailing from Bari should be captured by Ibn Romahis, commander of the naval forces of Abd-errahman al-nasr. Four distinguished Rabbis were thus made prisoners Rabbi Hushiel, father of Rabbi Hananel, Rabbi Moses, father of Rabbi Hanok, Rabbi Shemarjahu, son of Rabbi Elhanan, and a fourth whose name has not been recorded. They were engaged in a mission to collect
subsidies in aid of the
Academy
in Sura.
The
captor sold
them
as slaves
Rabbi Hushiel was carried to Kairuan, R. Shemarjahu was left in Alexandria, and R. Moses was brought to Cordova. These slaves were ransomed by their brethren and were soon placed in important positions. When Rabbi Moses was brought to Cordova, it was supposed that he was uneducated. In that city there was a synagogue known at that time by the name of Keneset hamidrash, and Rabbi Nathan, renowned for his great piety, was the head of
at
the congregation. The members of the community used to hold meetings which the Talmud was read and discussed. One day when Rabbi Nathan
was expounding the Talmud and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation of the passage under discussion, Rabbi Moses promptly removed the difficulty and at the same time answered several questions whch were submitted to him. 'I am no longer Thereupon R. Nathan thus addressed the assembly
:
that stranger in sackcloth shall henceforth be my teacher, and you shall appoint him to be your chief.' The admiral, on hearing of the high attainments of his prisoner, desired to revoke the sale, but the king
your leader
would not permit
this retraction,
jects were no longer in the East."
dependent
for their religious instruction
being pleased to learn that his Jewish subon the schools
Henceforth the schools in the West asserted their independence, and even surpassed the parent institutions. The Caliphs, mostly opulent, gave every encouragement to philosophy and poetry ; and, being generally liberal in
sentiment, they entertained kindly feelings towards their Jewish subjects.
*vi
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
These were allowed to compete for the acquisition of wealth and honour on equal terms with their Mohammedan fellow-citizens. Philosophy and poetry were consequently cultivated by the Jews with the same zest as by the Arabs. Ibn Gabirol, Ibn Hasdai, Judah ha-levi, Hananel, Alfasi, the Ibn Ezras, and others who flourished in that period were the ornament of their age, and the pride of the Jews at all times. The same favourable condition was maintained during the reign of the Omeyades ; but when the Moravides and the Almohades came into power, the horizon darkened once more, and misfortunes threatened to destroy the fruit of several centuries. Amidst this gloom there appeared a brilliant luminary which sent forth rays of light and comfort this was Moses Maimonides. Moses, the son of Maimon, was born at Cordova, on the 1 4th of Nisan, 4895 (March 30, 1135). Although the date of his birth has been recorded with the utmost accuracy, no trustworthy notice has been preserved concerning the early period of his life. But his entire career is a proof that he did not his education must have been in harmony with pass his youth in idleness the hope of his parents, that one day he would, like his father and forefathers, hold the honourable office of Dayyan or Rabbi, and distinguish himself in theological learning. It is probable that the Bible and the Talmud formed the chief subjects of his study but he unquestionably made the best use of the opportunities which Mohammedan Spain, and especially Cordova, afforded him for the acquisition of general knowledge. It is not mentioned in any of his writings who were his teachers ; his father, as it seems, was his principal guide and instructor in many branches of knowledge. David Conforte, in his historical work, Kore ha-dorot, states that Maimonides was the pupil of two eminent men, namely, Rabbi Joseph Ibn Migash and Ibn Roshd (Averroes) ; that by the former he was instructed in the Talmud, and by the latter in philosophy. This statement seems to be erroneous, as Maimonides was only a child at the time when Rabbi Joseph died, and already far advanced in years when he became acquainted with the writings of Ibn Roshd. The Maiorigin of this mistake, as regards Rabbi Joseph, can easily be traced. monides in his Mishneb Tora, employs, in reference to R. Isaac Alfasi and R. " " Joseph, the expression my teachers (rabbotai), and this expression, by which he merely describes his indebtedness to their writings, has been taken
:
in
its literal
meaning.
Whoever his teachers may have been, it is evident that he was well prepared by them for his future mission. At the age of twenty-three he entered upon his literary career with a treatise on the Jewish Calendar. It is unknown
where
this work was composed, whether in Spain or in Africa. The author merely states that he wrote it at the request of a friend, whom he, however, leaves unnamed. The subject was generally considered to be very abstruse, and to involve a thorough knowledge of mathematics. Maimonides must, therefore, even at this early period, have been regarded as a profound scholar by those who knew him. The treatise is of an elementary character. It was probably about the same time that he wrote, in Arabic, an explanation
of
Logical terms, Millot higgayon, which Moses
Ibn Tibbon translated

.
into
Hebrew.
The earlier period of his life does not seem to have been marked by any incident worth noticing. It may, however, be easily conceived that the later
xvii
period of his life, which was replete with interesting incidents, engaged the So much is certain, that his youth exclusive attention of his biographers.
was beset with trouble and anxiety ; the peaceful development of science and philosophy was disturbed by wars raging between Mohammedans and The MoraChristians, and also between the several Mohammedan sects. vides, who had succeeded the Omeyades, were opposed to liberality and toleration but they were surpassed in cruelty and fanaticism by their successors. Cordova was taken by the Almohades in the year 1148, when Maimonides was about thirteen years old. The victories of the Almohades, first under the leadership of the Mahadi Ibn Tamurt, and then under Abd-almumen, were, according to all testimonies, attended by acts of excessive Abd-al-mumen would not suffer in his dominions any other intolerance. faith but the one which he himself confessed. Jews and Christians had the The Sefer hachoice between Islam and emigration or a martyr's death. kabbalah contains the following description of one of the persecutions which then occurred " After the death of R. Joseph ha-levi the study of the Torah was interrupted, although he left a son and a nephew, both of whom had under his ' tuition become profound scholars. The righteous man (R. Joseph) was taken away on account of the approaching evils.' After the death of R. Joseph there came for the Jews a time of oppression and distress. They ' quitted their homes, Such as were for death, to death, and such as were for the sword, to the sword and such as were for the famine, to the famine, and such as were for the captivity, to the captivity ; and it might be added to ' the words of Jeremiah (xv. 2) such as were for apostasy, to apostasy.' All this happened through the sword of Ibn Tamurt, who, in 4902 (1142), determined to blot out the name of Israel, and actually left no trace of the Jews
;
:
'
in
any part of
his
empire."
his
:
work on Jewish martyrdom, in Sbebet Jshudah, gives " the following account of events then happening In the year 4902 the armies of Ibn Tamurt made their appearance. A proclamation was issued that any one who refused to adopt Islam would be put to death, and his
property would be confiscated. Thereupon the Jews assembled at the gate of the royal palace and implored the king for mercy. He answered ' It is because I have compassion on you, that I command you to become Musle-
Ibn Verga in
mim
'
you from eternal punishment.' The Jews replied salvation depends on our observance of the Divine Law ; you are the master of our bodies and of our property, but our souls will be judged by the
;
for I desire to save
Our
King who gave them to
us,
and to
whom
they will return
whatever be our
'
future fate, you, I do not king, will not be held responsible for it.' ' desire to argue with you,' said the king ; f or I know you will argue according to your own religion. It is my absolute will that you either adopt my reli-
gion or be put to death.' The Jews then proposed to emigrate, but the In vain did the Jews king would not allow his subjects to serve another king.
implore the nobles to intercede in their behalf

able.
the king remained inexor;
Thus many congregations forsook their religion but within a month the king came to a sudden death the son, believing that his father had met with an untimely end as a punishment for his cruelty to the Jews, assured the involuntary converts that it would be indifferent to him what
;
xviii
Hence many Jews returned at once to the religion religion they professed. of their fathers, while others hesitated for some time, from fear that the king meant to entrap the apparent converts."
From
fled
such records
it
appears that during these calamities some of the Jews
to foreign countries, some died as martyrs, and many others submitted for a time to outward conversion. Which course was followed by the family of
Maimon ? Did they sacrifice personal comfort and safety to their religious conviction, or did they, on the contrary, for the sake of mere worldly considerations dissemble their faith and pretend that they completely subitself in
mitted to the dictates of the tyrant ? An answer to this question presents the following note which Maimonides has appended to his commen" I have now finished this work in accordance with my tary on the Mishnah promise, and I fervently beseech the Almighty to save us from error. If there be one who shall discover an inaccuracy in this Commentary or shall have a better explanation to offer, let my attention be directed unto it ; and let me be exonerated by the fact that I have worked with far greater application than any one who writes for the sake of pay and profit, and that I have worked under the most trying circumstances. For Heaven had 01dained that we be exiled, and we were therefore driven about from place to place ; I was thus compelled to work at the Commentary while travelling by It might have sufficed to mention that during that land, or crossing the sea. time I, in addition, was engaged in other studies, but I preferred to give the above explanation in order to encourage those who wish to criticise or annotate the Commentary, and at the same time to account for the slow progress of this work. I, Moses, the son of Maimon, commenced it when I was
:
twenty-three years old, and finished it in Egypt, at the age of thirty [-three] years, in the year 1479 Sel. (1168)." The Sefer Haredim of R. Eleazar Askari of Safed contains the following " statement of Maimonides On Sabbath evening, the 4th of lyyar, 4925 (1165), I went on board; on the following Sabbath the waves threatened to destroy our lives. On the 3rd of Sivan, I arrived safely at Acco, and was thus rescued from apostasy. On Tuesday, the 4th of Marheshvan, 4926, I left Acco, arrived at Jerusalem after a journey beset with difficulties and with dangers, and prayed on the spot of the great and holy house on the On Sunday, the gth of that month, I 4th, 5th, and 6th of Marheshvan. left and visited the cave of Jerusalem Machpelah, in Hebron." From these two statements it may be inferred that in times of persecution Maimonides and his family did not seek to protect their lives and property by dissimulation. They submitted to the troubles of exile in order that they might remain faithful to their religion. Carmoly, Geiger, Munk, and others
: .
are of opinion that the treatise of
well as the accounts of
Maimonides on involuntary apostasy, as some Mohammedan authors, contain strong evidence
time when the family of Maimon publicly professed A critical examination of these documents comAfter a long period of trouble pels us to reject their evidence as inadmissible. and anxiety, the family of Maimon arrived at Fostat, in Egypt, and settled there. David, the brother of Moses Maimonides, carried on a trade in precious stones, while Moses occupied himself with his studies and interto
show that there was
their belief in
Mohammed.
ested himself in the
communal
affairs of
the Jews.

It appears that for
this
TIX
some time Moses was supported by his brother, and brother died, he earned a living by practising as a physician ; but he never sought or derived any benefit from his services to his community, or from his correspondence or from the works he wrote for the instruction of
when
his
brethren
the satisfaction of being of service to his fellow-creatures was
for
him
a sufficient reward.
The first public act in which Maimonides appears to have taken a leading part was a decree promulgated by the Rabbinical authorities in Cairo in the " In times gone by, when storms year 1 167. The decree begins as follows
:
and tempests threatened us, we used to wander about from place to place but by the mercy of the Almighty we have now been enabled to find here a On our arrival, we noticed to our great dismay that the resting-place. learned were disunited that none of them turned his attention to the needs of the congregation. We therefore felt it our duty to undertake the task of
;
guiding the holy flock, of inquiring into the condition of the community, of " reconciling the hearts of the fathers to their children," and of correcting their corrupt ways. The injuries are great, but we may succeed in effecting ' a cure, and in accordance with the words of the prophet I will seek the lost one, and that which has been cast out I will bring back, and the broken one I will cure ' (Micah iv. 6). When we therefore resolved to take the
management
It
of the
communal
affairs
into our hands,
we
discovered the ex-
istence of a serious evil in the midst of the
community,"
etc.
was probably about that time that Maimon died. Letters of condoMoses from all sides, both from Mohammedan and from Christian countries ; in some instances the letters were several months on their way before they reached their destination.
lence were sent to his son
The interest which Maimonides now took in communal affairs did not prevent him from completing the great and arduous work, the Commentary on the Mishnah, which he had begun in Spain and continued during his wanderings in Africa. In this Commentary he proposed to give the quintessence of the Gemara, to expound the meaning of each dictum in the Mishnah, and to state which of the several opinions had received the sanction of the Talmudical authorities. His object in writing this work was to enable those who are not disposed to study the Gemara, to understand the Mishnah, and to facilitate the study of the Gemara for those who are willing to engage in it. The commentator generally adheres to the explanations given in the Gemara, and it is only in cases where the halakah, or practical law, is not He acknowledges the benefit he deaffected, that he ventures to dissent. rived from such works of his predecessors as the Halakot of Alfasi, and the writings of the Geonim, but afterwards he asserted that errors which were discovered in his works arose from his implicit reliance on those authorities. His originality is conspicuous in the Introduction and in the treatment of general principles, which in some instances precedes the exposition of an
entire section or chapter, in others that of a single rule.
is
The commentator
generally concise, except when occasion is afforded to treat of ethical and theological principles, or of a scientific subject, such as weights and measures, or mathematical and astronomical Although exhortations to
problems.
virtue and warnings against vice are found in all parts of his work, they are especially abundant in the Commentary on Abot> which is prefaced by a
xx
"

a sin," elicited a lesson
separate psychological treatise, called
He who speaketh much commits

;
The Eight Chapters. The dictum on the economy of

(xi.
speech
the explanation of
'olarn
ha-ba in the treatise Sanhedrin
i)
led
to discuss the principles of faith, and to lay down the thirteen articles of the Jewish creed. The Commentary was written in Arabic, and was The estisubsequently translated into Hebrew and into other languages.
him
mation in which the Commentary was held may be inferred from the followWhen the Jews in Italy became acquainted with its method and spirit, through a Hebrew translation of one of its parts, they sent to Spain in search of a complete Hebrew version of the Commentary. R. Simhah, who had been entrusted with the mission, found no copy extant, but he succeeded, through the influence of Rabbi Shelomoh ben Aderet, in causing a Hebrew translation of this important work to be prepared. In the Introduction, the author states that he has written a Commentary on the Babylonian Talmud treatise Hullin and on nearly three entire sections, viz., Moed, Of all these Commentaries only the one on RosA Nashiniy and Nezikin.
ing fact
:
ha-shanah is known. In the year 1172 Maimonides wrote the Iggeret Tern an, or Petah-ti&ah " (" Letter to the Jews in Yemen," or Opening of hope ") in response to a
addressed to him by Rabbi Jacob al-Fayumi on the critical condition Some of these Jews had been forced into apostasy ; others were made to believe that certain passages in the Bible alluded to the
letter
of the Jews in Yemen.

mission of
Mohammed others again had been misled by an impostor who pretended to be the Messiah. The character and style of Maimonides' reply appear to have been adapted to the intellectual condition of the Jews in Yemen, for whom it was written. These probably read the Bible with Midrashic commentaries, and preferred the easy and attractive Agadah to the more earnest study of the Halakah. It is therefore not surprising that the letter contains remarks and interpretations which cannot be reconciled with the philosophical and logical method by which all the other works of Maimonides are distinguished. After a few complimentary words, in which the author modestly disputes the justice of the praises lavished upon him, he attempts to prove that the present sufferings of the Jews, together with the numerous instances of apostasy, were foretold by the prophets, especially by Daniel, and must not perplex the faithful. It must be borne in mind, he continues, that the attempts made in past times to do away with the Jewish religion, had invariably failed ; the same would be the fate of the present " The religious persecutions are of but short duration." attempts j for arguments which profess to demonstrate that in certain Biblical passages allusion is made to Mohammed, are based on interpretations which are totally
;
common sense. He urges that the Jews, faithfully adhering to their religion, should impress their children with the greatness of the Revelation on Mount Sinai, and of the miracles wrought through Moses ; they
opposed to
God will send the Messiah to deliver but they must abandon futile calculations of the Messianic Although there be signs which indicate period, and beware of impostors. the approach of the promised deliverance, and the times seem to be the period of the last and most cruel persecution mentioned in the visions of Daniel (xi. and xii.), the person in Yemen who pretends to be the Messiah
also
should remain firm in the belief that
their nation,
xxi
is an impostor, and if care be not taken, he is sure to do mischief. Similar impostors in Cordova, France, and Africa, have deceived the multitude and brought great troubles upon the Jews. Yet, inconsistently with this sound advice the author gives a positive date of the Messianic time, on the basis of an old tradition ; the inconsistency is so obvious that it is impossible to
Maimonides himself. It is probably spurious, and been added by the translator. With the exception of the " rhymed introduction, the letter was written in Arabic, in order that all " should be able to read and understand it for that ; purpose the author desires that copies should be made of it, and circulated among the Jews. Rabbi Nahum, of the Maghreb, translated the letter into Hebrew.
attribute this passage to
has, perhaps,
The success in the first great undertaking of explaining the Mishnah encouraged Maimonides to propose to himself another task of a still more ambitious character. In the Commentary on the Mishnah, it was his object that those who were unable to read the Gemara should be made acquainted with the results obtained by the Amoraim in the course of their discussions on the Mishnah. But the Mishnah, with the Commentary, was not such a code of laws as might easily be consulted in cases of emergency only the initiated would be able to find the section, the chapter, and the paragraph in which the desired information could be found. The halakah had, besides, been further developed since the time when the Talmud was compiled. The changed state of things had suggested new questions these were discussed and settled by the Geonim, whose decisions, being contained in special letters or treatises, were not generally accessible. Maimonides therefore undertook to compile a complete code, which would contain, in the language and style of the Mishnah, and without discussion, the whole of the Written and the Oral Law, all the precepts recorded in the Talmud, Sifra, Sifre and Tosefta, and the decisions of the Geonim. According to the plan of the author, this work was to present a solution of every question touching the It was not in any way his obreligious, moral, or social duties of the Jews. he only sought ject to discourage the study of the Talmud and the Midrash
; ; ;
knowledge of the Law amongst those who, through incapacity or other circumstances, were precluded from that study. In order to ensure the completeness of the code, the author drew up a list of the six hundred and thirteen precepts of the Pentateuch, divided them into fourteen groups, these again he subdivided, and thus showed how many positive and negative The prinprecepts were contained in each section of the Mishneh torah. was guided in this arrangement were laid down in a ciples by which he
to diffuse a
separate treatise, called Sefer ha-mizvot.
Works
of a similar kind, written
the Halakot gedokt of R. Shimon Kahira, and the several Azharot were, according to Maimonides, full of errors, because their authors had not adopted any proper method. But an examination of the
by
his predecessors, as
rules laid
down by Maimonides and
of their application leads to the conclu;
sion that his results
were not less arbitrary as has, in fact, been shown by the criticisms of Nahmanides. The Sefer ha-mizvot was written in Arabic, and thrice translated into Hebrew, namely, by Rabbi Abraham ben Hisdai, Rabbi Shelomoh ben Joseph ben Job, and Rabbi Moses IbnTibbon. Maimonides himself desired to translate the book into Hebrew, but to his disappointment he found no time.
xxii
This Sefer ba-mi^vot was executed as a preparation for his principal work, the Mishneb Torab, or Tad ha-bazakah, which consists of an Introduction In the Introduction the author first describes the and fourteen Books. chain of tradition from Moses to the close of the Talmud, and then he exHe distinguishes between the plains his method in compiling the work. dicta found in the Talmud, Sifre, Sifra, or Tosefta, on the one hand, and the
dicta of the
Geonim on
the other
latter only as far as their necessity
and
the former were binding on all Jews, the their utility or the authority of their
propounders was recognized. Having once for all stated the sources from which he compiled his work, he did not deem it necessary to name in each case the authority for his opinion or the particular passage from which he derived his dictum. Any addition of references to each paragraph he probably considered useless to the uninformed and superfluous to the learned. At a later time he discovered his error, he being himself unable to find again the sources of some of his decisions. Rabbi Joseph Caro, in his commentary on the Mishneh Torah, termed Keseph Misbneh, remedied this deficiency. The Introduction is followed by the enumeration of the six hundred and
thirteen precepts and a description of the plan of the work, its division into fourteen books, and the division of the latter into sections, chapters, and
paragraphs.
Talmud
According to the author, the Misbneb Torab is a mere compendium of the but he found sufficient opportunities to display his real genius, his For in stating what the traphilosophical mind, and his ethical doctrines. ditional Law enjoined he had to exercise his own judgment, and to decide whether a certain dictum was meant to be taken literally or figuratively whether it was the final decision of a majority or the rejected opinion of a minority whether it was part of the Oral Law or a precept founded on the scientific views of a particular author ; and whether it was of universal application or was only intended for a special period or a special locality. The first Book, Sefer ha-madda is the embodiment of his own ethical and theological theories, although he frequently refers to the Sayings of our Sages, and employs the phraseology of the Talmud. Similarly, the section on the Jewish Calendar, Hilkot ha-'ibur, may be considered as his original work.
; ; ;
1
In each group of the balakot, its source, a certain passage of the Pentateuch, quoted, with its traditional interpretation, and then the detailed rules follow in systematic order. The Mishneb Torab was written by the author
is first
in
pure Hebrew
when subsequently
a friend asked
him
to translate
it
into
Arabic, he said he would prefer to have his Arabic writings translated into Hebrew instead of the reverse. The style is an imitation of the Mishnah ;
he did not choose, the author says, the philosophical style, because that would be unintelligible to the common reader ; nor did he select the prophetic style, because that would not harmonize with the subject. Ten years of hard work by day and by night were spent in the compilation " his own benefit, to of this code, which had originally been undertaken for save him in his advanced age the trouble and the necessity of consulting the
Talmud on
every occasion." Maimonides knew very well that his work would meet with the opposition of those whose ignorance it would expose, also of those who were incapable of comprehending it, and of those who were inclined to condemn- every deviation from their own preconceived notions.
xxiii
But he had the satisfaction to learn that it was well received in most of the congregations of Israel, and that there was a general desire to possess and study it. This success confirmed him in his hope that at a later time, when all cause for jealousy would have disappeared, the Mishneh Torah would be
received by
ized.
all
Jews
as
an authoritative code.
This hope has not been
real-
The
;
nized
his
genius, earnestness, and zeal of Maimonides are generally recogbut there is no absolute acceptance of his dicta. The more he
on his infallibility, the more did the Rabbinical authorities examine words and point out errors wherever they believed that they could discover any. It was not always from base motives, as contended by Maimonides and his followers, that his opinions were criticised and rejected. The language used by Rabbi Abraham ben David in his notes (hasagot) on the Mishneh Torah appears hars hand disrespectful, if read together with the text of the criticised passage, but it seems tame and mild if compared with expressions used now and then by Maimonides about men who happened to hold opinions differing from his own.
insisted
Maimonides received many complimentary

but likewise In most individual halakot.
letters,
congratulating
him
with criticisms and questions respecting cases he had no difficulty in defending his From the replies it must, however, be inferred that Maimonides position. made some corrections and additions, which were subsequently embodied in The letters addressed to him on the Mishneh Torah and on other his work. subjects were so numerous that he frequently complained of the time he had " to spend in their perusal, and of the annoyance they caused him ; but he bore all this patiently, as he had learned in his youth to bear the yoke." He was not surprised that many misunderstood his words, for even the simple " words of the Pentateuch, the Lord is one," had met with the same fate. Some inferred from the fact that he treated fully of 'Olam ha-ba, " the future state of the soul," and neglected to expatiate on the resurrection of the dead, that he altogether rejected that principle of faith. They therefore asked Rabbi Samuel ha-levi of Bagdad to state his opinion the Rabbi accordingly discussed the subject but, according to Maimonides, he attempted to solve the problem in a very unsatisfactory manner. The latter thereupon likewise " wrote a treatise On the Resurrection of the Dead," in which he protested his adherence to this article of faith. He repeated the opinion he had stated " in the Commentary on the Mishnah and in the Mishneh Torah, but in more words the same idea being reiterated in various forms, as the treatise was only intended for women and for the common multitude." These theological studies engrossed his attention to a great extent, but it did not occupy him exclusively. In a letter addressed to R. Jonathan, of Lunel, he says "Although from my birth the Torah was betrothed to me, and continues to be loved by me as the wife of my youth, in whose love I find a constant delight, strange women whom I at first took into my house as her handmaids have become her rivals and absorb a portion of my time." He devoted himself especially to the study of medicine, in which he distinguished " himself to such a degree, according to Alkifti, that the King of the Franks in Ascalon wanted to appoint him as his physician." Maimonides declined the honour. Alfadhel, the Vizier of Saladin king of Egypt, admired the genius of Maimonides, and bestowed upon him many distinctions. The
upon
his success
letters
xxiv
of Maimonides was entered on the roll of physicians, he received a penand was introduced to the court of Saladin. The method adopted in his professional practice he describes in a letter to his pupil, Ibn Aknin, as " You know how difficult this follows profession is for a conscientious and exact person who only states what he can support by argument or authority." This method is more fully described in a treatise on hygiene, composed for Alfadhel, son of Saladin, who was suffering from a severe illness and had applied to Maimonides for advice. In a letter to Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon he alludes to the amount of time spent in his medical practice, and says " I reside in Egypt (or Fostat) ; the king resides in Cairo, which lies about two Sabbath-day journeys from the first-named place. My duties to the
sion,
:
:
name
king are very heavy.

ing;
am
and when he or any of
obliged to visit him every day, early in the mornhis children or the inmates of his harem are
indisposed, I dare not quit Cairo, but must stay during the greater part of the day in the palace. It also frequently happens that one or two of the As a rule, I go to royal officers fall sick, and then I have to attend them.
Cairo very early in the day, and even if nothing unusual happens I do not return before the afternoon, when I am almost dying with hunger ; but I find the antechambers filled with Jews and Gentiles, with nobles and common
people, awaiting
my
return," etc.
Notwithstanding these heavy professional duties of court physician, Maimonides continued his theological studies. After having compiled a religious guide Mishneh Torah based on Revelation and Tradition, he found it necessary to prove that the principles there set forth were confirmed by " The Guide philosophy. This task he accomplished in his Dalalat al-ha'irin, for the Perplexed," of which an analysis will be given below. It was composed in Arabic, and written in Hebrew characters. Subsequently it was translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon, in the lifetime of MaimonThe ides, who was consulted by the translator on all difficult passages. congregation in Lunel, ignorant of Ibn Tibbon's undertaking, or desirous to possess the most correct translation of the Guide, addressed a very flattering
Maimonides, requesting him to translate the work into Hebrew. Maimonides replied that he could not do so, as he had not sufficient leisure for even more pressing work, and that a translation was being prepared by the ablest and fittest man, Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon. A second translation was made later on by Jehudah Alharizi. The Guide delighted many, but it also met with much adverse criticism on account of the peculiar views held by Maimonides concerning angels, prophecy, and miracles, especially on
letter to
account of his assertion that if the Aristotelian proof for the Eternity of the Universe had satisfied him, he would have found no difficulty in reconciling the Biblical account of the Creation with that doctrine. The controversy on the Guide continued long after the death of Maimonides to divide the community, and it is difficult to say how far the author's hope to effect a reconciliation between reason and revelation was realized. His disciple, Joseph Ibn Aknin, to whom the work was dedicated, and who was expected to derive from it the greatest benefit, appears to have been disappointed. His inability to reconcile the two antagonistsic elements of faith and science, he describes allegorically in the form of a letter addressed to Maimonides, in " which the following passage occurs Speak, for I desire that you be justi:
xxv
Some time ago your beloved daughter, the fied ; if you can, answer me. beautiful and charming Kimah, obtained grace and favour in my sight, and I betrothed her unto me in faithfulness, and married her in accordance with
the Law, in the presence of two trustworthy witnesses, viz., our master, Abd-allah and Ibn Roshd. But she soon became faithless to me ; she could not have found fault with me, yet she left me and departed from my tent. She does no longer let me behold her pleasant countenance or hear her melodious voice. You have not rebuked or punished her, and perhaps you are ' the cause of this misconduct. Now, send the wife back to the man, for he is or might become a prophet ; he will pray for you that you may live,' and also for her that she may be firm and steadfast. If, however, you do not send her back, the Lord will punish you. Therefore seek peace and pursue ' it ; listen to what our Sages said Blessed be he who restores to the owner
' ' :
his lost
property
restores to a
man
and reproached his son-in-law " that he falsely accused his wife of faithlessness after he had neglected her ; but he restored him his wife with the advice to be more cautious in future. In another letter " Maimonides exhorts Ibn Aknin to study his works, adding, apply yourself to the study of the Law of Moses ; do not neglect it, but, on the contrary, devote to it the best and the most of your time, and if you tell me that you do so, I am satisfied that you are on the right way to eternal bliss." Of theletters written after the completion of the "Guide," the one addressed to the wise men of Marseilles (i 194) is especially noteworthy. Maimonides was asked to give his opinion on astrology. He regretted in his reply that they were not yet in the possession of his Mishneh Torah they would have found in it the answer to their question. According to his opinion, man should only believe what he can grasp with his intellectual faculties, or perceive by his senses, or what he can accept on trustworthy authority. Beyond this nothing should be believed. Astrological statements, not being founded on any of these three sources of knowledge, must be rejected. He had himself studied astrology, and was convinced that it was no science at all. If some dicta be found in the Talmud which appear to represent astrology as a true
replied in the
for this blessing applies in a higher degree to him who his virtuous wife, the crown of her husband." Maimonides
' ;
.
same
"
strain,
source of knowledge, these may either be referred to the rejected opinion of a small minority, or may have an allegorical meaning, but they are by no
enough to set aside principles based on logical proof. which Maimonides so frequently complained in his correspondence, gradually increased, and he died, in his seventieth year, on the aoth Tebeth, 4965 (1204). His death was the cause of great mourning to all In Fostat a mourning of three days was kept in Jerusalem a fast Jews. was appointed a portion of the tochabah (Lev. xxvi. or Deut. xxix.) was read, and also the history of the capture of the Ark by the Philistines (l Sam. iv.). His_remains werebrought toJTiberiaSi. The general regard in which MaimoniderwaTTielcI/Both by his contemporaries and by succeeding gener" From Moses to Moses ations, has been expressed in the popular saying there was none like Moses,"
forcible
means
The
debility of
THE MOREH NEBUCHIM LITERATURE

The Arabic Text. The editio princeps, the only edition of the original Guide (in Arabic, Delil, or Dalalat al-ba'lrin), was undertaken Le Guide des Egares, traite and executed by the late S. Munk. Its title is de Theologie et de Philosophie -par Moise ben Maimon, publie pour la premiere
I.
text of the
fois
dans
I'
original Arabe, et accompagne d'une traduction Franfaise et de notes
The explicative;, par 5. Munk (Paris, 1850-1866). in Reflexions sur le culte des anciens Hebreux (La was 1833, published, plan Bible, par S. Cahen, vol. -iv.), with a specimen of two chapters of the Third The text adopted has been selected from the several MSS. at his Part. Two Leyden MSS. (cod. 18 and care and judgment. disposal with great
critiques,
litter aires et
221), various
MSS.
of the Bibliotheque Nationale (No. 760, very old
761
and 758, written by R. Saadia Ibn Danan), and some MSS. of the Bodleian Library were consulted. In the notes which accompany the French translation, the various readings of the different
MSS.
end of the third volume a list is added of " Variantes des Manuscrits Arabes et des deux Versions Hebrai'ques." The library of the British Museum possesses two copies of the Arabic text the one Or. 1423 is complete, beautifully written, with explanatory notes in The name of the copyist is not menthe margin and between the lines. The volume has in the tioned, nor the date when it has been written.
the
;
are fully discussed.
At
beginning an incomplete index to the Scriptural passages referred to in the Guide, and at the end fragments of Psalm cxli. in Arabic and of astronomical tables.
The second copy of the Dalalat al-fra'trin is contained in the MS. Or. It is very fragmentary. 2423, written in large Yemen Rabbinic characters. The first fragment begins with the last paragraph of the introduction ; there are a few marginal notes in Hebrew.
ha'irin
In the Bodleian Library there are the following copies of the Dalalat according to the Catal. of Hebr. MSS. by Dr. A. Neubauer No. 1236. The text is preceded by Jehudah al-Charizi's index of the contents of
:
al-
chapters,
and
by
an
index of
The volume was containing omissions, by written 1473. No. 1237. The Arabic text, with a few marginal notes containing various readings; the text is preceded by three Hebrew poems, beginning, De'i bolek, Bi-sedeb tibunot ; and Binu be-dat Mosbeb. Fol. 212 contains a fragment of the book (III., xxix.).
No. 1238. Text with
a
Biblical quotations. In the margin different hands, two in Arabic characters.
the there are notes,
few marginal notes.
riviii
No. 1239. The end of the work is wanting in this copy. The second part has fortynine chapters, as the introduction to Part II. is counted as chapter i. ; Part III. has fiftysix chapters, the introduction being counted as chapter i., and chapter xxiv. being divided into two chapters. The index of passages from the Pentateuch follows the ordinary mode of counting the chapters of the Guide. No. 1240. Arabic text transcribed in Arabic characters by Saadiah b. Levi Azankot for
Prof. Golius in 1645.
First part of the Dalalat al-halrin, written by Saadiah b. Mordecai b. Mosheh year 1431. No. 1242 contains the same Part, but incomplete. Nos. 1243, ' 2 44> I2 45> an d 1246 contain Part II. of the Arabic text, incomplete in Nos. 1245 and 1246. Nos. 1247, 1248, and 1249 have Part III.; it is incomplete in Nos. 1248 ajd 1249. No. 1249 was written 1291, and begins with III., viii. A fragment of the Arabic text, the end of Part III., is contained in No. 407, 2. No. 2508 includes a fragment of the original (I. ii.-xxxii.), with a Hebrew interlineary It is written in Yemen square translation of some words and a few marginal notes. " characters, and is marked as holy property of the Synagogue of Alsiani." fragment (I. i.) of a different recension from the printed is contained in 2422, 16. On the margin the Commentaries of Shem-tob and Ephodi are added in Arabic. copy of the Dalalat is also contained in the Berlin Royal Library MS. Or. Qu., 579 {105 Cat. Steinschneider) ; it is defective in the beginning and at the end. The Cairo Genizah at Cambridge contains two fragments (a) I. Ixiv. and beginning of Irv ; (b) II. end of xxxii. and xxxiii. According to Dr. H. Hirschfeld, jfrwiib Quarterly Re-vieiv (vol. xv. p. 677, they are in the handwriting of Maimonides. The valuable collection of MSS. in the possession of Dr. M. Caster includes a fragment of the Dalalat-al-batrin (Codex 605). II. xiii-xv., beginning and end defective.
No. 1241.
in the
II.
Translations,
a.
Hebrew.
As soon
as
European Jews heard of the
existence of this work, they procured its translation into Hebrew. Two scholars, independently of each other, undertook the task : Samuel Ibn
Tibbon and Jehudah al-Harizi. Shemtob Palquera an original

In the
There is, besides, in the Moreh ha-moreb of translation of some portions of the Moreh.
;
Sifte yesbenim (No. 112) a rhymed translation of the Dalalat by Rabbi Ibn Tibbon's version is very accurate Mattityahu Kartin is mentioned. he sacrificed elegance of style to the desire of conscientiously reproducing the author's work, and did not even neglect a particle, however unimportant it may appear. Ibn Tibbon went in his anxiety to retain peculiarities of the
" " follows agrees with meziut, existence," or with nim%.a, existing being," both occurring in the same sentence (Br. Mus. MS. Harl. 7586, marg. note by Ibn Tibbon). When he met with passages that offered any difficulty he consulted Maimonides. Harizi, on the other hand, was less conscientious about words and particles, but wrote in a superior style. Vox populi, however, decided in favour of the version of Ibn Tibbon, the rival of which be-
original so far as to imitate its ambiguities, e.g., me%,iut (I. Iviii.) is treated as a masculine noun, only in order to leave it doubtful whether a pronoun which
came almost
Also Abraham, the son of Moses Maimonides, in forgotten. Milhamoth ba-sbem, describes Harizi's version as being inaccurate. Most of the modern translations were made from Ibn Tibbon's version. There
are, therefore,
tions of
MSS. of this version almost in every library containing Hebrew books and MSS. It has the title Moreh-nebuchim.
collec-
The
has the following eight copies of Ibn Tibbon's version : Harl. 7586 A. This codex was written in the year 1284, for Rabbi Shabbatai ben Rabbi Mattityahu. In the year 1 340 it came into the possession of Jacob b. Shclomoh hit son Menahem sold it in the year 1378 to R. Mattityahu, son of R. Shabbatai, for
British
Museum

There is this It was again sold in the year 1461 by Yehiel ben Joab. fifty gold florins. end of a line are divided, and written peculiarity in the writing, that long words at the half on the one line, half on the next ; in words which are vocalized, patah is frequently
There are numerous various readings in the margin. The text is prefound for frame*. ceded by a poem, written by Joseph Ibn Aknin, pupil of Maimonides, in praise of his This poem is attributed to R. Yehudah ha-Levi master, and beginning Adon yizro. At the end the copyist adds an (Luzzatto, in his Divan, Bctulat-bat-Tebudab, p. 104). epigram, the translation of which is as follows " The Moreh is finished Praise to Him who formed and created written everything Those who oppose the for the instruction and benefit of the few whom the Lord calleth. Moreh ought to br put to death ; but those who study and understand it deserve that Divine Glory rest upon them, and inspire them with a spirit from above." Harl. 7586 B. This codex, much damaged in the beginning and at the end, contains the version of Ibn Tibbon, with marginal notes, consisting of words omitted in the The version is followed by the poems Karob meod, etc., and text, and other corrections.
:
De'i bolek, etc.
Harl. 5507 contains the Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon, with the translator's preface and marginal notes, consisting of various readings and omissions from the text. The work of Maimonides is followed by Ibn Tibbon's Vocabulary (millot-xarot) , Mesbarct-mosbeb, 'Arugot ba-mczimmab, Millar biggayon, Ruah-hen, Alfarabi's Hathalot, a Hebrew-Italian The passage in Part I., chap. vocabulary of logical terms, and an explanation of hotel. Ixxi., which refers to Christianity, has been erased. Harl. 5525 was the property of Shimshon Kohen Modon. The MS. begins with Harizi's Ka-wanat ba-perakim ; then follows the text, with a few marginal notes of a later
hand, mostly adverse criticisms and references to 'Arama's 'A kedah and the Biblical comThe text is followed by Ibn mentaries of Abarbanel. There is also a note in Latin. Tibbon's Vocabulary (Millot-xarot) and Masoret ba-paukim (Index to the Biblical In a poem, beginning March asber mcnnu derakav gabcbu, quotations in the Moreh) the Moreh is compared to a musical instrument, which delights when played by one that understands music, but is spoiled when touched by an ignorant person. Add. Z7O68 (Almanzi coll.). At the end the following remark is added : I, Samuel Ibn Tibbon, finished the translation of this work in the month of Tebet 4965 (1205). The text is preceded by the well-known epigrams, De'i' bolek and Moreb-nebucbim sa sbelomi ; the last page contains the epigram Karob mead. There are some notes in the margin, mostly referring to various readings. Add. 14763. This codex, written 1273 at Viterbo, contains the preface of Hirizi to his translation of the Moreh and his index of contents, Ibn Tibbon's version with a few marginal notes of different hands, including some remarks of the translator, and the contents of the chapters. The codex contains besides the following treatises : Commentary of Maimonides on Abot ; Comm. of Maim, on Mishnah Sanhedrin x. I ; Letter of Maimonides on the Resurrection of the Dead ; Vocabulary of difficult words by Samuel Ibn Tibbon 5 Maimonides' Letter to the wise men of Marseilles ; his Letter to Rabbi
.
Otot Mcsbaret-mosbch, Ruah-ken, Kctcr-malkut, ba-shamayim, translated Jonathan ; from the Arabic by Samuel Ibn Tibbon ; Hathalot ba-nimzaot, of Alfarabi ; Sefer bahappuak, Misble hamishim ba-talmidim ; on the seven zones of the earth ; a fragment of a chronicle from the exile of Babylon down to the fourth year of the Emperor Nicepheros of Constantinople, and a poem, which begins asberyisbal, and has the following sense: "If one asks the old and experienced for advice, you may expect his success in all he undertakes ; but if one consult* die young, remember the fate of Rehoboam, son of Solomon." Add. 14764. In addition to the Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon (from end of I. xxvii.) with a few marginal notes and index, the codex contains at the end of Part I. an Index of
references
made by
the author to explanations given in preceding or succeeding chapters.
At the end of the text the statement is added, that the translation was finished in the month of Tebet 968 (.1208). The Moreh is followed by Ruah-hcn, and Ibn Tibbon's Vocabulary of millot-zarot (incomplete), and is preceded by four poems in praise of the Moreh, beginning Sbim'u ncbonc let, March nclucbim sa sbelomi, De'i bolek and Nofet
makkim.
Bibl. Reg. 16 A, xi. This codex, written in Prov. curs, characters in the year 1308, has in front a fragment of III. i., then follows the poem of Meshullam. beginning Tebgu iiczimmotai (GrStz Lekct-sbosbannim, p. 151), and other poems.
Xxx

following
The
of the
MS.
Oxford Bodleian Library
copies of Ibn Tibbon's version are included in the the numbers refer to Dr. Neubauer's catalogue ;
MSS.
An
index of the passages from the Bible referred to in the work, and an index 1250. of the contents precede the version. The marginal notes contain chiefly omissions. 1251. This codex was written in 1675. The marginal notct contain omissions and
explanations.
1252.
The marginal
is
The
version
notes contain the translator's remarks on I. Ixxiv. 4, and III. xlvii. followed by Ibn Tibbon's vocabulary, and his additional remarks on the
reasons for the
commandments.
The MS. was bought by Samuel ben Moses from

it
Christian after the pillage of Padua, where (lo'azim) ; he gave it to a Synagogue of the
had belonged to
at
same character
Synagogue of foreigners Mantua.

a
1253. The marginal notes include that of the translator on III. xlvii. 1254. I. Text with marginal notes containing omissions. 1255. The marginal notes include those of the translator on I. xlvi.and Ixxiv. 5. 1256. The marginal notes contain various readings, notes relating to Harizi's translation and the Arabic text ; on fol. So there is a note in Latin. There are in this codex six
epigrams concerning the Moreh. 1257. Text incomplete; with marginal notes. Fragments of the Version are contained in the following codices 8 ; 2309, 2, and 2336.
204.7, 3> P- ^5
2283,
Among the MS. copies of the Moreh in the Bibl. Nat. in Paris, there is one that has been the property of R. Eliah Mizrahi, and another that had been in the hands of Azariah de Rossi (No. 685 and No. 691) the Gimzburg Library (Paris) possesses a copy (No. 771), that was written 1452 by Samuel son of Isaac for Rabbi Moses de Leon, and Eliah del Medigo's copy of the Moreh is in the possession of Dr. Ginsburg (London) it contains six poems, beginning Moreb nebuchim sa ; Emet moreb emet ; Bi-leshon esh ; Mahba'aru ; Kamu more sbav. The fditto prince-ps of this version has no statement as to where and when it was According to Fiirst (Bibliogr.) printed, and is without pagination.
; ;
it is
The copy in the British Museum has some MS. Subsequent editions contain besides the Hebrew text the Commentaries of Shem-tob and Efodi, and the index of contents by Harizi (Venice, 1551, fol.) ; also the Comm. of Crescas and Vocabulary of Ibn
printed before 1480.
notes.
Tibbon
taries of
(Sabionetta, 1553,
fol.
Jessnitz,
1742,
;
fol.
etc.)
the
Commen-
Narboni and S. Maimon (Berlin, 1791) the commentaries of Efodi, German translaShem-tob, Crescas and Abarbanel (Warsaw, 1872, 410) tion and Hebrew Commentary (Biur) Part I. (Krotoschin, 1839, 8vo) German translation and notes, Part II. (Wien. 1864), Part III. (Frankfort; >
a-M., 1838).
The Hebrew
version of Ibn
Tibbon
(Part
I.
to ch. Ixxii.) has been trans-
lated into Mishnaic
There is of the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. It has been edited by L. Schlosberg, with notes. London, 1851 (Part L), 1876 (II.), and 1879 (III.). The notes on Part I. were supplied by S. Scheyer.
Latin translation of the Moreh has been discovered by Dr. J the Latin MSS. of the Munic Library, Catal. Cod. latinorum bibl. regiae Monacensis, torn. I, pars iii. pag. 208 (Kaish. 36 b), 1700 (7956 b). This version is almost identical with that edited by Augustinus Justinianus,
first
Hebrew by M. Levin (Zolkiew, 1829, 410). only one MS. known of Harizi's version, viz., No. 682
The
Perles
among

Paris, 1520,
xxxi
based on Harizi's Hebrew version of the Moreh. The In the Commentary of Moses, is not mentioned. son of Solomon, of Salerno, on the Moreh, a Latin translation is quoted, and the quotations agree with this version. It is called by this commentator ha 'atakat ha-nozrit (" the Christian translation "), and its author, " ba-ma 'atik ha-nozer (lit. the Christian translator "). Dr. Perles is, however, of opinion that these terms do not necessarily imply that a Christian has made this translation, as the word nozer may have been used here for " Latin." He thinks that it is the result of the combined efforts of Jewish and Christian scholars connected with the court of the German Emperor
and
is
name
of the translator
Frederic
II., especially as in
the thirteenth century several Jewish scholars
distinguished themselves by translating Oriental works into Latin. Sec Gratz Monatschrift, 1875, Jan.-June, "Die in einer Miinchener Hand-
aufgefundene erste lateinische Uebersetzung," etc., von Dr. J. Perles. Director neutrorum, has been variously rendered into Latin directorium dubitantium, director neutrorum, nutantium or dubitantium doctor perplexorum. Gedaliah ibn Yahyah, in Shalshelet ha-kabbalah, mentions a Latin translation of the Moreh by Jacob Monteno but nothing is known of it, unless it be the anonymous translation of the Munich MS., mentioned above. Augustinus Justinianus edited this version (Paris, 1520), with slight alterations and
schrift
The
title
a great
number
of mistakes.
Joseph Scaliger's opinion of

:
this version
is
Qui latine vertit, Hebraica, expressed in a letter to Casaubonus, as follows non Arabica, convertit, et quidem saepe hallucinatur, neque mentem Authoris assequitur. Magna seges mendorum est in Latino. Praeter ilia quae ab
inertia Interprets peccata sunt accessit et inertia
;
Librariorum aut Typo-
altitudo pro aptitude ; bonigraphorum, e.g., prophetise pro philosophise tatem pro brevitatem. (Buxtorf, Doctor Perplexorum, Prasf.) Johannes Buxtorfius, Fil., translated the Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon
into Latin (Basileas, 1629, 4to).
lator discusses the life
In the Praefatio ad Lectorem, the transand the works of Maimonides, and dwells especially
on the merits and the fate of the The preface is followed ore h-nebuc kirn. by a Hebrew poem of Rabbi Raphael Joseph of Treves, in praise of an edition of the Moreh containing the Commentaries of Efodi, Shem-tob, and Crescas. Italian was the first living langxiage into which the Moreh has been translated. This translation was made by Yedidyah ben Moses (Amadeo de Moise di Recanati), and dedicated by him to " divotissimo e divinissimo " Signor mio il Signor Immanuel da Fano (i.e., the Kabbalist Menahem Azarriah). The translator dictated it to his brother Eliah, who wrote it in Hebrew characters it was finished the 8th of February, 1583. The MS.
;
contained in the Royal Library at Berlin, MS. Or. Qu. 487 (M. Steinschneider Catal., etc.) The Moreh has been translated into Italian a second time, and annotated by D. J. Maroni: Guida degli Smarriti, Firenze,
copy
is
1870,
fol.
The Moreh
has been translated into
German by
R. Furstenthal (Part
I,,
Krotoschin, 1839), M. Stern (Part II., Wien, 1864), and S. Scheyer (Part III.. The translation is based on Ibn Tibbon's Hebrew Frankfort-a.-M., 1838). The chapters on the Divine Attributes have been translated into version.
xxxii
German, and fully discussed, by Dr. Kaufmann in his Geschichle der AttriAn excellent French translation, based on the butenlebre (Gotha, 1877). Arabic original, has been supplied by the regenerator of the Guide, S. Munk.
It
was published together with the Arabic text
(Paris,
1850-1866).
The Moreh has also been translated into the Hungarian language by Dr. The translation is accompanied by notes (Budapest, 1878-80). Klein. The portion containing the reasons of the Commandments (Part III.
xxvi.-xlix.) has been translated into English by James Townley (London, 1827). The translation is preceded by an account on the life and works of Maimonides, and dissertations on various subjects ; among others, Talmudical and Rabbinical writings, the Originality of the Institutions of Moses, and Judicial astrology. It is but natural that in a philosophical work like the III. Commentaries. Moreh, the reader will meet with passages that at first thought seem unintelligible, and require further explanation, and this want has been supplied by the numerous commentators that devoted their attention to the study of the Moreh. Joseph Solomon del Medigo (1591) saw eighteen CommenThe four principal ones he characterizes thus (in imitation taries. Moses Narboni is rasba', has no piety, of the Hagadah for Passover) the Moreh. Shem-tob is frakam, and reveals all the secrets of " " wise," expounds and criticises ; Crescas is tarn, simple," explains the " book in the style of the Rabbis Epodi is sbe-eno yode'a lisbol, does not understand to ask," he simply explains in short notes without criticism (MiktabThe earliest annotations were afyuz; ed. A. Geiger, Berlin, 1840, p. 18). made by the author himself on those passages, which the first translator of the Moreh was unable to comprehend. They are contained in a letter addressed to Samuel Ibn Tibbon, beginning, left siklo yehullal ish (Bodl Ibn Library, No. 2218, s. ; comp. The Guide, etc., I. 21, 343 ; II. 8, 99). Tibbon, the translator, likewise added a few notes, which are found in the
ch.
margin of MSS. of the Hebrew version of the Moreh (on I. xlv. Ixxiv. ; II. MSS. Bodl. 1252, I ; 1253, 1255, 1257; Brit. Mus. xxiv. ; and III. xlvii. Add. 14,763 and 27,068). Both translators wrote explanations of the philosophical terms employed in the versions. Harizi wrote his vocabulary first, and Ibn Tibbon, in the
introductory remarks, to Perush millot zarot (" Explanation of difficult words "), describes his rival's vocabulary as full of blunders. Ibn Tibbon's Perush is found almost in every copy of his version, both MS. and print ; so also Harizi's index of the contents of the chapters of the Moreh (Kavvanat
ha-perakim).
The
following
is
an alphabetical
list
of
Commentaries on the Moreh

i.
Abarbanel (Don liaak] wrote a Commentary on I. book Sbamayim-hadashim, " New Heavens," on II.
Iv.
II. xxxi.
xlv.,
and a separate
question concerning Creatio ex nihilo. Thus twenty-seven objections are raised against his interpretation of the first chapter of arfati. Ezckiel. These objections he wrote at Molin, in the house of R. Abraham Treves The Commentary is followed by a short essay (maamar) on the plan of the Moieh. The
which he fully discusses the The opinion of Maimonides is not always accepted.
xix., in
method adopted by Abarbanel

jerics of questions
is
in all his
Commentaries,
is
also
employed
in this essay.
put forth on the subject, and then the author sets about to answer them. M. J. Landau edited the Commentary without text, with a Prefacr, and with exIn addition to MS. Bodl. 2385). planatory notes, called Moreb U-ztid,ikab (Prag. 1831;

these the
xxxiii
" to several questions asked by Rabbi sam; author wrote Tesbubot " Answers Shaul ha-Cohen on topics discussed in the Moreh (Venice, 1754). " a kabbalistic ComSodot ha-moreh," or Sitre-iorab, Abraham Abulafa wrote He gives the expression, pi? }3 (Paradise), for the number mentary on the Moreh. MS. Nat. Bibl. 226, 3. Leipsic Libr. 232, 4. MS. (177) of the chapters of the Moreh. Bodl. 2360, 5, contains a portion of Part III. Bucbner A. Ha-moreb li-zedakab (Warsaw, 1838). Commentary on "The Reasons of the Laws," Moreh III. xxix.-xlix. The Commentary is preceded by an account of the life
of Maimonides.
Comtino, Mordecai b. Eliezer, wrote a short commentary on the Moreh (Dr. GinsNarboni, who "spread light on dark passages in ourg's collection of MSS. No. 10). Reference is also made to his own commentary on Ibn the Guide," is frequently quoted.
Ezra's Ycsod-mora.
Crescas (Asber
that
b. Abraham), expresses in the Preface to his Commentary the conviction he could not always comprehend the right sense of the words of Maimonides, for
is
" there
tions will help

spite
no searching " the

his
to his understanding."
He
he
Maimonides and
him.
young" to study the Moreh with profit. work precedes the Preface. His notes
nevertheless thinks that his explanalong poem in praise of
of his great respect of Maimonides,
now and
are short and clear, and in ihen criticises and corrects
is named by Joseph Del Medigo (Miktab-ahuz ed. A. Geiger, Berlin, and note 76), as having written a Commentary on the Moreh. David ben Tebudab Leon Rabbino wrote 'En ba-tore, MS. Bodl. 1263. He quotes in his Commentary among others 'Arama's Akedat yizhak. The Preface is written by Immanuel ben Raphael Ibn Meir, after the death of the author. Efodi is the name of the Commentary written by Isaac ben Moses, who during the He repersecution of 1391 had passed as Christian under the name of Profiat Duran. turned to Judaism, and wrote against Christianity the famous satire "Al tehee kaaboteka" ("Be not like your Fathers"), which misled Christian* to cite it as written in favour of Christianity. It is addressed to the apostate En Bonet Bon Giorno. The same author also wrote a grammatical work, Mdaseb-efod. The name Efod (TSK), is explained as composed of the initials Amar Profiat Duran. His Commentary consists of short notes, explanatory of the text. The beginning of this Commentary is contained in an Arabic
David Tahya
;
1840
p.
8,
'
translation in
MS. Bodl. 2422, 16. Epbraim Al-Naqa-vab in Sba'ar Kebod ba-sbem
answers some questions addressed to Or adonai,

F&rstentbal,
/?.,
(MS. Bodl. 939, 2 and 1258, 2), him concerning the Moreh. He quotes Hisdai's
a
translator and
commentator of the Mahzor, added

I.
Biurf short ex-
planatory notes, to his
German
translation of Part I. of the
Gersbon, Moreb-derek,
Hillel b.
Commentary on Part
of the
Moreh (Krotoschin, 1839). Moreh (MS. Bodl. 1265).
Samuel b. Elazar of Verona explained the Introduction to Part II. (the 25 S. H. Halberstam edited this Commentary together with Tagmule ba-nefesb of Propos.). the same author, for the Society Mekize-nifdamim (Lyck, 1874). Joseph ben Aba-mari b. Joseph, of Caspi (Argentiere), wrote three Commentaries on the Moreh. The first is contained in a Munich MS. (No. 263) ; and seems to have been ' recast by the author, and divided into two separate Commentaries Ammude Kcsef, and The former was to contain plain and ordinary explanation, whilst proMaskiyot Kescf. found and mysterious matter was reserved for the second In II., chap, (Steinschn. Cat.). xlviii., Caspi find* fault with Maimonides that he does not place the book of Job among " the highest class of inspired writings, its author being undoubtedly Moses." These Commentaries have been edited by T. Werblumer (Frankfort-a.-M., 1848). R. Kirchheim
:
added a Hebrew introduction discussing the character of these commentaries, and describing the manuscripts from which these were copied ; a Biography of the author is added
in
German.
" Joseph Giqatilia wrote notes on the Moreh, printed with "Questions of Shaul ha-kohen (Venice, 1574. MS. Bodl. 1911, 3).
Joseph b. Isaac ba-Le-vi's Gib'at ha-Moreh is a short Commentary on portions of the Moreh, with notes by R. Yom-tob Heller, the author of Toiafot Tom-tob (Prag.,
1612).
xxxiv

commentary on Parts
ibn
II.
Isaac Satanov wrote a
and III. of the Moreb (see Maimofl
Solomon
Isaac
p. xxi.).
ben
Sbem-tob
Sbem-tob
wrote a
lengthy
Commentary on
is
Part there
I.
is
The object of the Commentary (MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 1388). no contradiction between Maimonides and the Divine Law.
as a true believer in Creatio ex nibilo, whilst
Moreh, show that He praises Maito

a
the
monides
Ibn Ezra and Gersonides assumed
Nachmanides is called ba-hasid ba-gadol, but is nevertheprima materia (Tozer, kadosb). less blamed, together with Narboni and Zerahyah ha-Levi, for criticising Maimonides, instead of trying to explain startling utterances even in "a forced way" (bederek " in spite of his wisdom, frequently misunderstood the Moreh." raboK) ; and Narboni, At the end of each chapter a rtsumt (derush) of the contents of the chapter is given, and the lesson to be derived from it. The MS. is incomplete, chaps, xlvi. xlviii. are
missing.
fCauffmann, D., in his Getcbicbte det Atributenlebre, translated Part critical and explanatory notes.
I.
chap.
!.
Ixiii.
into
German, and added
Kalonymos wrote a kind of introduction to the Moreb (Mesbaret Mosbeb), in which he

especially discusses the theory of Maimonides on Providence. Leibnitz made extracts from.Buxtorf s Latin version of the
remarks.
March, and added his own Observations ad R. Mosen Maimoniden (Foucher de Careil, C.A., La Pbilosofbie
kind of introduction to his retranslation of Tibbon's the Mishnah. Gitfat ha-moreb, a lengthy commentary on Book I. of expatiating on topics of modern philosophy. In
Jui-ve, 1861).
Hebrew
Levin, M., wrote Allon-moreb as a version into the language of Maimon, Solomon, is the author of The author is fond (Berlin, 1791).
the introduction he gives a short history of philosophy. and III. was written by Isaac Satanov.
i
The commentary on Books
II.
Meir ben Jonah ba-mekunneb Ben-sbneor wrote a commentary on the Moreb in Fez 560 (MS. Bodl. 1262). Menahem Kara expounded the twenty-five propositions enumerated in the Introduction to Part II. of the Moreh (MS. Bodl. 1649, 13). Mordecai Taffe, in his Or Tekarot, or Pinnat Yikrat, one of his ten Lebusbim, comments upon the theories contained in the Moreb.
Moses, son of Abraham Provenfal, explains the passage in Part I. chap. Ixxiii. Prop. 3, which Maimonides refers to the difference between commensurable and incommensurable lines (MS. Bodl. 2033, 8).
in
Moses, son of Jcbudab Nagari, made an index of the subjects treated in the Moreb, inHe did so, dicating in each case the chapters in which allusion is made to the subject. "in obedience to the advice of Maimonides, to consider the chapters in connected order"
It has been printed together with the questions of Shaul ha-kohen (Part I. p. 20). (Venice, 1574). Moses son of Solomon of Salerno, is one of the earliest expounders of the Moreb. He wrote his commentary on Parts I. and II., perhaps together with a Christian scholar. He quotes the opinion of "the Christian scholar with whom he worked together." Thus he names Petrus de Bernia and Nicolo di Giovenazzo. R. Jacob Anatoli, author of the
Maimed ba-talmidim,
Elieeer,
quoted as offering an explanation for the passage from Pirke di-rabbi (II. chap, xxvi.) considers as strange and inexplicable (Part I., written 1439; MS. of Bet ba-midrasb, London; Parts I.-II., MS. Bodl. 1261, written, 1547 ; MS. Petersburg, No. 82 ; Munich MS. 60 and 370). Moses ba-katan, son of Jebudab, son of Moses, wrote To'aliyot firke ba-maamar (" Lessons taught in the chapters of this work "). It is an index to the Moreb (MS. Bodl.
is
which Maimonides
1267).
Moses Leiden explained the 25 Prop, of the Introduction

Paris).
to Part II.
(MS. Gflnzburg,
1362. freely criticizes Maicommentary " He went too monides, and uses expressions like the following far, may God pardon him" (II. viii.). Is. Euchel ed. Part I. (Berlin, 1791); J. Goldenthal, I. to III. (Wien, The Bodl. Libr. possesses several MS. copies of this commentary (Nos. 1260, 1852). 1264, 2, and 1266). Munk, S., added to his French translation of the Moreh numerous critical and explana-
Moses Narboni wrote
a short
at Soria,
:
He
tory notes. S. Sachs (Ha-tehiyah, Berlin, 1850,
p. 8)
explains various passages of the
Moreh, with

i
xxxv
view of discovering the names of those who are attacked by Maimonides without being named. his German translation of the Moreh, Scbeyer, S., added critical and explanatory notes to Part 3, and to the Hebrew version of Harizi, Part I. He also wrote Das Psycbologiscbe
Moreh (Frankf.-a-M., 1845). Ibn Palquera's Moreb ba-moreb consists of 3 parts (i) a philosophical explanation of the Moreh, (2) a description of the contents of the chapters of the Moreh, He wrote the Part I, i.-lvii. (Presburg, 1827) ; (3) Corrections of Ibn Tibbon's version. book for himself, that in old age he might have a means of refreshing his memory. The study of science and philosophy is to be recommended, but only to those who have had a Ibn Roshd (Averroes) is frequently quoted, and regood training in "the fear of sin." ferred to as be-hakam ba-nixkar (the philosopher mentioned above). Sbem-tob ben Joseph ben Sbem-tob had the commentary of Efodi before him, which he seems to have quoted frequently -verbatim without naming him. In the preface he dwells on the merits of the Moreh as the just mediator between religion and philosophy. The commentary of Shem-tobh is profuse, and includes almost a paraphrase of the text. He apologises in conclusion for having written many superfluous notes and added explanation where no explanation was required ; his excuse is that he did not only intend
System des Maimonides^ an Introduction to the
Sbem
tab
to write a
calls
He often commentary (biur) but also a work complete in itself (hibbur). the reader's attention to things which are plain and clear. Sbem-tob Ibn Sbem-tob, in Sefer ba-emunot (Ferrara, 1556), criticises some of the His objections were various theories discussed in the Moreh, and rejects them as heretic. * examined by Moses Al-ashkar, and answered in Hasagot al mab sbe-katab Rabbi Sbem-tob
neged ba-Rambam (Ferrara, 1556). Solomon b. Jebudah ba-nasi wrote in Germany Sitre-torab, a kabbalistic commentary on the Moreh, and dedicated it to his pupil Jacob b. Samuel (MS. Bet-ha-midrash,
London).
twenty-five Propositions forming the introduction to Part 2, have been Abu-beer ben Mohammed al-tabrizi. His Arabic explanations have been translated by Isaac b. Nathan of Majorca into Hebrew (Ferrara, 1556). At the the end The author of these Propositions is the chief following eulogy is added : whose sceptre is " wisdom " and whose throne is " understanding," the Israelite prince, that has benefited his nation and all those who love God, etc. : Moses b. Maimon b. Ebed-elohim, the Israelite. . . . May God lead us to the truth. Amen !
Tabrizi.
fully explained
The
by
Mohammed
Tisbbi.
In
MS.
Bodl. 2279, i, there are
some marginal notes on Part
III.
which
are
signed Tishbi (Neub. Cat.). Tahya Ibn Suleiman wrote in Arabic a
fragment Zerahyab
is
contained in the Berlin

Isaac ba-Le-vi.
b.
Commentary on the Guide of the Perplexed. MS. Or. Qu., 554, 2 (Steinschneider, Cat. No. 92). Commentary on the Moreh, I., i. Ixxi., and some other
Shelomoh on some passages
of the
portions of the work. (See Maskir, 1861, p. 125). MS. Bodl. 2360, 8, contains a letter of Jehudah b.
Moreh, and Zerahyah's
reply.
Anonymous Commentaries. The MS. Brit. Mus. 1423 contains marginal and interlineary notes in Arabic. No author or date is given, nor is any
other commentary referred to in the notes. The explanations given are " the answer mostly preceded by a question, and introduced by the phrase, in the same as is in the Hebrew-Arabic is," Midrash, MS. style employed
Mus. Or. 2213. y The Midrashic character is prominent in the notes. Thus the verse " Open, ye gates, that the righteous nation which keepeth the truth may enter in," is explained as meaning Open, ye gates of wisdom,
Brit.
:
that perceiveth truth may enter. The notes are numerous, especially in the first part, explaining almost every word ; e.g., " on Rabbi " Why does Maimonides employ this title before the name of
that
:
human understanding
his pupil
The answer
is
either the
word
is
not to be taken
literally
(" master "), but as a mere compliment, or it has been added by later copyists. Of a similar style seem to be the Arabic notes in the Berlin MS. Or.
Oct. 258,
2, 8,
10.
(Cat. Steinschneider,
No.
108.)
Anonymous marginal
xxxvi
notes are

met with almost
6.
in every
MS.
of the
Moreh
e.g., Brit.
Mus. Harl.
5525; Add. 14,763, 14,764;
Bodl. 1264, i;
2282, 10;
2423, 3;
Munich
MS., 239,
The explanation of passages from the Pentateuch contained in the Moreh have been collected by D. Ottensosser, and given as an appendix (Morehderek) to Derek-selulah (Pent, with Comm. etc., Furth, 1824). IV. Controversies. The seemingly new ideas put forth by Maimonides in the Moreh and in the first section of his Mishneh-torah (Sefer ha-madda} soon produced a lively controversy as regards the merits of Maimonides' theories. It was most perplexing to pious Talmudists to learn how Maimonides explained the anthropomorphisms employed in the Bible, the Midrashim and the Talmud, what he thought about the future state of our soul, and that he considered the study of philosophy as the highest degree of Divine worship, surpassing even the study of the Law and the practice of its The objections and attacks of Daniel of Damascus were easily precepts.
by a Cerent (excommunication) pronounced against him by the Rosh ka-golab Rabbi David. Stronger was the opposition that had its centre in Montpellier. Rabbi Solomon ben Abraham noticed with regret in his own community the fruit of the theories of Maimonides in the neglect of the study of the Law and of the practice of the Divine precepts. It happened to
silenced
in modern times happened to Moses Mendelssohn. and followers of the great master misunderstood or misinterpreted his teaching in support of their dereliction of Jewish law and Jewish practice, and thus brought disrepute on him in the eyes of their opponents. Thus it came that Rabbi Solomon and his disciples turned their wrath against the writings of Maimonides instead of combating the arguments of the pseudo-Maimonists. The latter even accused Solomon of having denounced the Moreh and the Sefer ka-madda' to the Dominicans,
Moses Maimonides what
Many
so-called disciples
who condemned these writings to the flames when subsequently copies of the Talmud were burnt, and some of the followers of the Rabbi of Mont;
were subjected to cruel tortures, the Maimonists saw in this event punishment for offending Maimonides. (Letters of Hillel of Verona, Hemdah Genuzah, ed. H. Edelmann, p. 1 8 sqq!). Meir b. Todros ha-levi Abulafia wrote already during the lifetime of Maimonides to the wise men in Lunel about the heretic doctrines he discovered in the works of Maimonides. Ahron b. Meshullam and Shesheth Benvenisti defended Maimonides. About 1232 a correspondence opened between the Maimonists and the Anti-maimonists (GrStz, Gesch. d. J. vii. note I). The Grammarian David Kimhi wrote in defence of Maimonides three letters to Jehudah Alfachar, who answered each of them in the sense of Rabbi Solomon of Montpellier. Abraham b. Hisdai and Samuel b. Abraham Saportas on the side of the Maimonists, took part in the controMeshullam b. Kalonymos b. Todros of Narbonne begged Alfachar versy. to treat Kimhi with more consideration, whereupon Alfachar resolved to withdraw from the controversy. Nahmanides, though more on the side of Rabbi Solomon, wrote two letters of a conciliatory character, advising moderation on both sides. Representatives of the congregations of Saragossa, Huesca, Monzon, Kalatajud, and Lerida signed declarations against R. Solomon. A herem was proclaimed from Lunel and Narbonne against
pellier
a just
xxxvii
the Anti-Maimonists. The son of Maimonides, Abraham, wrote a pamin defence of the writings of his father. The conphlet Milhamot adonai, troversy raised about fifty years later by Abba Mari Don Astruc and R. Solomon ben-Aderet of Barcelona, concerned the Moreh less directly. The
question was of a more general character : Is the study of philosophy dangerous to the religious belief of young students ? The letters written in this controversy are contained in Minhat-kenaot by Abba Mari Don
Astruc (Presburg, 1838), and Kitab alrasail of Meir Abulafia ed. J. Brill Yedaya Bedrasi took part in this controversy, and wrote (Paris, 1871). Ketab hitnazlut in defence of the study of philosophy (Teshubot Rashba, Hanau, 1610, p. ill b.). The whole controversy ended in the victory of the
Moreh and
Stray remarks are found in and some in condemnation of Maimonides. A may suffice. Rabbi Jacob Emden in his Mitpahat-stfarim (Lemberg, 1870, p. 56) believes that parts of the Moreh are spurious ; he " even doubts whether any portion of it is the work of Maimonides, the author of the Mishneh-torah, who was not capable of writing such heretic S. D. Luzzato regards Maimonides with great reverence, but doctrines." this does not prevent him from severely criticising his philosophical theories (Letters to S. Rappoport, No. 79, 83, 266, Iggeroth Shedal ed. E. Graber, " From Przemys'l, 1882), and from expressing his conviction that the saying Moses to Moses none rose like Moses," was as untrue as that suggested by " From Abraham to Abraham (Ibn-Ezra) none rose like AbraRappoport, ham." Rabbi Hirsch Chayyuth in Darke-Mosheh (Zolkiew, 1840) examines the attacks made upon the writings of Maimonides, and tries to refute them, and to show that they can be reconciled with the teaching of the Talmud. The Bodl. MS. 2240, 33, contains a document signed by Josselman and other Rabbis, declaring that they accept the teaching of Maimonides as correct, with the exception of his theory about angels and sacrifices. Numerous poems were written, both in admiration and in condemnation Most of them precede or follow the Moreh in the printed of the Moreh. editions and in the various MS. copies of the work. A few have been edited in the Literaturblatt d. Or. I. 379, II. in Dibre-hakamim, pp. 75 and 86 In the Sammelband 26-27, IV. 748, and Leket-shoshannim by Dr. Gratz. of the Mekize Nirdamim (1885) a collection of 69 of these poems is contained, In imitation of the Moreh edited and explained by Prof. Dr. A. Berliner. and with a view of displacing Maimonides' work, the Karaite Ahron II. b. Eliah wrote a philosophical treatise, E%.-hayyim (Ed. F. Delitzsch. Leipzig,
the other writings of Maimonides.
various works, few instances
some
in praise
1841).
the
Jahresbericht der Landes Rabbinerschule zu Buda-Pest. 1896. Eisler, M. Vorlesungen flber die jddischen Philosophen des Mittela/ters. Abtheil. II., Moses Maimonides (Wien, 1870). Geiger, A. Das Judenthum u, seine Geschichte (Bretlau, 1865), Zehnte Vorleung : Aben Ezra u. Maimonides. Geschichte d. Juden, VI. p. 363 tqq. Gr3tz, H.
Joel,
Of the works that discuss the whole or part of the Moreh the following are noteworthy Die Bibilexegese Moses Maimuni's, in the Bachei, W.
:
philosophical system of
Joel,
M. M.
Religionsphilosophie des Moses b. Maimon (Breslan, 1859). Albertus Magnus u. sein Vorhaltniss zu Maimonides (Breslan, 1863).
xxxviii
Kaufmann, D.
Geschichte der Attributenlehre, VII. Gotha, 1 874. Die Philosophic des Maimonides. Predigt und Schul-Magazin, I. xriii. (Magdeburg, 1834.) Die Ethik d. Maimonides (Breslau, 1876). Rosin, D. Rubin, S. Spinoza u. Maimonides, ein Psychologisch-Philosophisches Antitheton (Wien, 1868). Das psychologische System des Maimonides. Franktort-a.-M.. 1845. Scheyer, S. Beth-Talmud, I. x. p. 289. Weiss, T. H. David Yellin and Israel Abrahams, Maimonides.
Philippsohn, L.
ANALYSIS OF THE GUIDE FOR
THE PERPLEXED
" to afford a ** to guide for the perplexed," Le. iTistheobject of this work " HTinkers whose studies have brought them into collision with religion (p. 9), "who have studied philosophy and have acquired sound knowledge, and who, while firm in religious matters, are perplexed and bewildered on account of the ambiguous and figurative expressions employed in the holy writings" (p. 5).
Joseph^ltKe son of Jehudah Ibn Aknin, a disciple of Maimonides, is addressed by " for him and for his teacher as an example of this kind of students. It was " those like him that the treatise was composed, and to him this work is
in the dedicatory letter with which the Introduction begins. Maimonides, having discovered that his disciple was sufficiently advanced for an exposition of the esoteric ideas in the books of the Prophets, commenced to " give him such expositions by way of hints." His disciple then begged him to him further give explanations, to treat of metaphysical themes, and to expound the system and the method of the Kalam, or Mohammedan Theology. 1 In compliance with this request, Maimonides composed the Guide of the Perplexed.
inscribed
The
mentions only the first-named subject. He observes " primary object is to explain certain terms occurring in the prophetic book. Of these some are " This work has also homonymous, some figurative, and some hybrid terms." a second object. It is designed to explain certain obscure figures which occur in the Prophets, and are not distinctly characterised as being figures" (p. 2). Yet from this observation it must not be inferred that Maimonides abandoned his original purpose for he examines the Kalam in the last chapters of the First Part (ch. Ixx.-lxxvi.), and treats of certain metaphysical themes in the But in the passage beginning of the Second Part (Introd. and ch. i.-xxv.). quoted above he confines himself to a delineation of the main object of this other two subjects, which, treatise, and advisedly leaves unmentioned the however important they may be, are here of subordinate interest. Nor did he consider it necessary to expatiate on these subjects ; he only wrote for the studen^ for whom a mere reference to works on philosophy and science was sufficient. We therefore meet now and then with such phrases as the following " This is fully discussed in works on metaphysics." By references of this kind the author may have intended to create a taste for the study of philosophical works. But our observation only holds good with regard to the Aristotelian philosophy.
:
This, 3. An examination of the system and method of the Kalam. a correct account of the contents of the book ; but in the second part of the Introduction, in which the theme of this work is defined, the author
problems.
is
reader has, therefore, to expect that the subjects mentioned in the disciple's request indicate the design and arrangement of the present work, and that the Guide consists of the following parts i. exposition of the esoteric ideas 2. treatment of certain metaphysical (sodot) in the books of the Prophets.
:
An
in fact,
My
See infra, page 4, note
I.
xl

writings of the
if
The
their opinions,
ment, even
Mutakallemim are never commended by him he states and tells his disciple that he would not find any additional argu he were to read all their voluminous works (p. 133). Maimonides
;
was a zealous disciple of Aristotle, although the theory of the Kalam might seem to have been more congenial to Jewish thought and belief. The Kalam upheld the theory of God's Existence, Incorporeality, and Unity, together with
Maimonides nevertheless opposed the Kalam, and, anticipating the question, why preference should be given to the system of Aristotle, which included the theory of the Eternity of the Universe, a theory contrary to the fundamental teaching of the Scriptures, he exposed the weakness of the
the creatio ex nihilo.
Kalam and
its fallacies.
is
The
the
exposition of Scriptural texts
divided by the author into two parts
1 part treats of homonymous, figurative, and hybrid terms, employed in reference to God ; the second part relates to Biblical figures and allegories.
first
These two parts do not closely follow each other ; they are separated by the examination of the Kalam, and the discussion of metaphysical problems. It seems that the author adopted this arrangement for the following reason first of all, he intended to establish the fact that the Biblical anthropomorphisms do not imply corporeality, and that the Divine Being of whom the Bible speaks could therefore be regarded as identical with the Primal Cause of the philosoHaving established this principle, he discusses from a purely metaphers. physical point of view the properties of the Primal Cause and its relation to the universe. solid foundation is thus established for the esoteric exposition of Before discussing metaphysical problems, which he treats Scriptural passages. in accordance with Aristotelian philosophy, he disposes of the Kalam, and de:
monstrates that
its
The " Guide
arguments are
:
illogical
and
for the Perplexed
i. On following four parts On the Supreme Being and His relation to the universe, according to the Kalam. 3. On the Primal Cause and its relation to the universe, according to the philoat 4. Esoteric exposition of some portions of the Bible (sodof) sophers. Maaseh bereshith, or the history of the Creation (Genesis, ch. i.-iv.) ; b, on Prophecy ; r, Maaseb mercabhah, or the description of the divine chariot
:
contains, therefore, an Introduction and the homonymous, figurative, and hybrid terms. 2.
"
illusory.
(Ezekiel, ch.
i.).
Part.
this plan, the work ends with the seventh chapter of the Third chapters which follow may be considered as an appendix ; they treat of the following theological themes : the Existence of Evil, Omniscience and Providence, Temptations, Design in Nature, in the Law, and in the Biblical Narratives, and finally the true Worship of God.
According to
The
the
In the Introduction to the "Guide," Maimonides (i) describes the object ot work and the method he has followed ; .(2) treats of similes ; (3) gives " " directions for the and (4) discusses the usual causes of ; study of the work
i (pp. 2-3). Inquiring into the root of the evil which the Guide was intended to remove, viz., the conflict between science and religion, the author perceived that in most cases it originated in a misinterpretation of the anthropomorphisms in Holy Writ. The main difficulty is found in the ambiguity of the words employed by the prophets when speaking of the Divine Being ; the question arises whether they are applied to the Deity and to other things in one and the same sense or equivocally ; in the latter case the author distinguishes In order to between homonyms pure and simple, figures, and hybrid terms. show that the Biblical anthropomorphisms do not imply the corporeality of the Deity, he seeks in each instance to demonstrate that the expression under exam-
inconsistencies in authors.
See infra, page
5,
note 4.
xli
ination is a perfect homonym denoting things which are totally distinct from each other, and whenever such a demonstration is impossible, he assumes that the figuratively expression is a hybrid term, that is, being employed in one instance " and in another homonymously. His explanation of " form (z,elem) may serve
an illustration. According to his opinion, it invariably denotes "form" in the philosophical acceptation of the term, viz., the complex of the essential But to obviate objections he proposes an alternative view, properties of a thing. to take zelem as a hybrid term that may be explained as a class noun denoting only things of the same class, or as a homonym employed for totally different
as
'"form" in the philosophical sense, and "form" in the ordinary meaning of the word. Maimonides seems to have refrained from explaining anthropomorphisms as figurative expressions, lest by such interpretation he might implicitly admit the existence of a certain relation and comparison between the Creator and His creatures. Jewish philosophers before Maimonides enunciated and demonstrated the Unity and the Incorporeality of the Divine Being, and interpreted Scriptural " " the Law speaks in the language of man metaphors on the principle that but our author adopted a new and altogether original method. The Commentathings, viz.,
when treating of anthropomorphisms, generally contented themselves with the statement that the term under consideration must not be taken in its literal
tors,
which implied a lesser degree of corporeality. The Talmud, the Midrashim, and the Targumim abound in Saadiah in " Emunot <ve-de'ot," Bahya in his " Hobot paraphrases of this kind. ba-lebabot" and Jehudah ha-levi in the " Cusari," insist on the necessity and the Saadiah enumerates ten terms which appropriateness of such interpretations. primarily denote organs of the human body, and are figuratively applied to God. To establish this point of view he cites numerous instances in which the terms in Saadiah question are used in a figurative sense without being applied to God. further shows that the Divine attributes are either qualifications of such of God's actions as are perceived by man, or they imply a negation. The correctness of this method was held to be so obvious that some authors found it necessary to apologize to the reader for introducing such well-known topics. From R. Abraham ben David's strictures on the Yad hahazakah it is, however, evident that in the days of Maimonides persons were not wanting who defended the literal interpretation of certain anthropomorphisms. Maimonides, therefore, did not content himself with the vague and general rule, " The Law speaks in the language of man," but sought carefully to define the meaning of each term when applied to God, and to identify it with some transcendental and metaphysical term. In pursuing this course he is sometimes forced to venture upon an interpretation which is much too far-fetched to commend itself even to the supposed philoIn such instances he generally adds a simple and plain exsophical reader. planation, and leaves it to the option of the reader to choose the one which The enumeration of the different meanings of a word appears to him preferable. is often, from a philological point of view, incomplete ; he introduces only sucn When treating of an imperfect homonym, the significations as serve his object. several significations of which are derived from one primary signification, he apparently follows a certain system which he does not employ in the interpretation of perfect homonyms. The homonymity of the term is not proved ; the author confines himself to the remark, " It is employed homonymously," even when the various meanings of a word might easily be traced to a common source 2 (pag. 4-8). In addition to the explanation of homonyms Maimonides undertakes to interpret similes and allegories. At first it had been his intention
sense, or they paraphrased the passage in expressions
to write
two
distinct
works
ba-she<vaah,
"
Book of
Book on Prophecy," and Sefet Sefer ha-nebuah, Reconciliation." In the former work he had intended
"A
xlii
to explain difficult passages of the Bible, and in the latter to expound such passages in the Midrash and the Talmud as seemed to be in conflict with common sense. Witn respect to the " Book of Reconciliation," he abandoned his plan, because he apprehended that neither the learned nor the unlearned would profit
by
it
the one
would
find
is
it
superfluous, the other tedious.
The
subject of the
"Book on Prophecy"
treated in the present
work, and also strange passages
that occasionally occur in the Talmud and the Midrash are explained. The treatment of the simile must vary according as the simile is compound or
In the first case, each part represents a separate idea and demands a separate interpretation ; in the other case, only one idea is represented, and it is not necessary to assign to each part a separate metaphorical meaning. This division the author illustrates by citing the dream of Jacob (Gen. xxviii. 12 sqq.),
simple.
and the description of the adulteress (Prov. vii. 6 sqg.). He gives no rule by which it might be ascertained to which of the two categories a simile belongs,
and, like other Commentators, he seems to treat as essential those details of a
which he can offer an adequate interpretation. As a general principle, he warns against the confusion and the errors which arise when an attempt is made to expound every single detail of a simile. His own explanations are not intended to be exhaustive ; on the contrary, they are to consist of brief allusions to the idea represented by the simile, of mere suggestions, which the reader is The author thus aspires to follow in the expected to develop and to complete. wake of the Creator, whose works can only be understood after a long and perYet it is possible that he derived his preference for a reserved severing study. and mysterious style from the example of ancient philosophers, who discussed Like Ibn Ezra, metaphysical problems in figurative and enigmatic language. who frequently concludes his exposition of a Biblical passage with the phrase, " Here a profound idea (sod) is hidden," Maimonides somewhat mysteriously re" Note " Consider it well." In marks at the end of different
simile for
chapters,
this,"
such phrases some Commentators fancied that they found references to metaWhether physical theories which the author was not willing fully to discuss. this was the case or not, in having recourse to that method he was not, as some have suggested, actuated by fear of being charged with heresy. He expresses his opinion on the principal theological questions without reserve, and does not dread the searching inquiries of opponents ; for he boldly announces that their displeasure would not deter him from teaching the truth and guiding those who are able and willing to follow him, however few these might be. When, however,
we examine
the
professed enigmatic
Divine attributes,
treated as fully as
work itself, we are at a loss to discover to which parts the method was applied. His theories concerning the Deity, the angels, creatio ex nihilo, prophecy, and other subjects, are
phrases
might be expected. It is true that a cloud of mysterious enshrouds the interpretation of Ma'aseh beresbit (Gen. i.-iii.) and Ma'aseh mercabah (Ez. i.). But the significant words occurring in these portions are explained in the First Part of this work, and a full exposition is found in the Second and Third Parts. Nevertheless the statement that the exposition was never intended to be explicit occurs over and over again. The treatment of the first three chapters of Genesis concludes thus "These remarks, together with what we have already observed on the subject, and what we may have to " add, must suffice both for the object and for the reader we have in view (II. of first after the the In like manner, he declares, xxx.). explanation chapter of " Ezekiel I have given you here as many suggestions as may be of service to you,
: :
if
you
me
as
them a further development. ... Do not expect to hear from this subject, for I have, though with some hesitation, gone " far in my explanation as I possibly could go (III. vii.). In the next paragraph, headed, " Directions for the Study of 3 (pag. 8-9).
will give
anything more on

this
xliii
bear in
before
Work," he implores the reader not to be hasty with his criticism, and to mind that every sentence, indeed every word, had been fully considered
it was written down. Yet it might easily happen that the reader could not reconcile his own view with that of the author, and in such a case he is asked Such disapproval to ignore the disapproved chapter or section altogether. Maimonides attributes to a mere misconception on the part of the reader, a fate
which awaits every work composed

style,
he intended to reduce to a
minimum
in a mystical style. In adopting this peculiar the violation of the rule laid down in
The
increased the mysteriousness of the treatise, should abstain from expounding the work,
" (Abot ii. 1 7). Maimonides thy acts be guided by pure intentions by expressing his wish that the reader lest he might spread in the name of the author opinions which the latter never held. But it does not occur to him He is positive that the views he enunciates might in themselves be erroneous.
and " Let
ii i), that metaphysics should not be taught publicly. violation of this rule he justifies by citing the following two Mishnaic " maxims " It is time to do something in honour of the Lord (Berakot ix. 5),
the
Mishnah (Hagigah
:
all
that his own theory is unexceptionally correct, that his esoteric interpretations of Scriptural texts are sound, and that those who differed from him viz., the Mutakallemim on the one hand, and the unphilosophical Rabbis on the other are indefensibly wrong. In this respect other Jewish philosophers e.g. Saadiah and Bahya were far less positive ; they were conscious of their own fallibility, and invited the reader to make such corrections as might appear needful. Owing to this strong self-reliance of Maimonides, it is not to be expected that opponents
would
receive a fair
and impartial judgment
at his hands.
4 (P a &- 9" 11 )- The same self-reliance is noticeable in the next and conHere he treats of the contradictions cluding paragraph of the Introduction. which are to be found in literary works, and he divides them with regard
to their origin into seven classes. The first four classes comprise the apparent contradictions, which can be traced back to the employment of elliptical speech ; the other three classes comprise the real contradictions, and are due to carelessness and oversight, or they are intended to serve some special purpose. The Scriptures, the Talmud, and the Midrash abound in instances of apparent con-
works contain real contradictions, which escaped the notice of In the present treatise, however, there occur only such contradictions as are the result of intention and design.
tradictions
;
later
the writers.
PART
The homonymous
(i)
I.
nouns and verbs used
expressions which are discussed in the First Part include in reference to God, ch. i. to ch. xlix. ; (2) attributes
;
1. to Ix. (3) expressions commonly regarded as names of God, In the first section the following groups can be distinguished (a} expressions which denote form and figure, ch. i. to ch. vi. ; () space or relations of space, ch. viii. to ch. xxv. ; (c) parts of the animal body and their Each of these groups includes chapters not functions, ch. xxviii. to ch. xlix. connected with the main subject, but which serve as a help for the better understanding of previous or succeeding interpretations. Every word selected for
of the Deity, ch.

ch. Ixi. to Ixx.
upon some Scriptural text which, according to che opinion of the author, has been misinterpreted. But such phrases as " the mouth of the " the hand of the Lord," are not introduced, because their figurative Lord," and
discussion bears
meaning
is
too obvious to be misunderstood.
lengthy digressions which are here and there interposed appear like outbursts of feeling and passion which the author could not Yet they are repress. " " word? for they gradually unfold the author'* j fitly spoken in the right place
The
xliv
the reader with those general principles on which he foundi theory, and acquaint Moral reflections are of frequent the interpretations in the succeeding chapters. occurrence, and demonstrate the intimate connexion between a virtuous life and
the attainment of higher knowledge, in accordance with the maxim current long before Maimonides, and expressed in the Biblical words, "The fear of the Lord
" The discussion of the term " %elem (ch. i.) afforded the first occasion for " reflections of this kind. Man, the image of God," is defined as a living and rational being, as though the moral faculties of man were not an essential element of his existence, and his power to discern between good and evil were the result of the first sin. According to Maimonides, the moral faculty would, in fact, not have been required, if man had remained a purely rational being. " the It is only through the senses that knowledge of good and evil" has become The narrative of Adam's fall is, according to Maimonides, an indispensable. allegory representing the relation which exists between sensation, moral faculty, In this early part (ch. ii.), however, the author does not yet and intellect. mention this theory ; on the contrary, every allusion to it is for the present reserved for the Second Part. studiously avoided, its full exposition being " he beheld " is followed the advice that treatment of hazah
No opportunity the beginning of wisdom (Ps. cxi. 10). this lesson, be it in a passing remark or in an elaborate essay.
is
"
is
lost to inculcate
The
(ch. vi.),
by
the student should not approach metaphysics otherwise than after a sound and thorough preparation, because a rash attempt to solve abstruse problems brings nothing but injury upon the inexperienced investigator. The author points to the "nobles of the children of Israel" (Exod. xxiv. 11), who, according to his this error, and received their deserved punishment. He interpretation, fell into
gives additional force to these exhortations by citing a dictum of Aristotle to the same effect. In a like way he refers to the allegorical use of certain terms by
Plato (ch. xvii.) in support of his interpretation of
"xur"
(lit.,
"rock")
as de-
noting
" Primal Cause."
entitle a student to
theory that nothing but a sound moral and intellectual training engage in metaphysical speculations is again discussed digression which precedes the third group of homonyms (xxxi. xxxvi.). intellectual faculties, he argues, have this in common with his physical
The
would
in the
Man's
forces,
that their sphere of action is limited, and they become inefficient whenever they This happens when a student approaches metaphysics without are overstrained.
due preparation.
Maimonides goes on to argue that the non-success of metathe transcendental physical studies is attributable to the following causes character of this discipline, the imperfect state of the student's knowledge, the made even in the preliminary studies, and persistent efforts which have to be
:
waste of energy and time owing to the physical demands of man. For these reasons the majority of persons are debarred from pursuing the study of metaphysics. Nevertheless, there are certain metaphysical truths which have to be communicated to all men, e.g., that God is One, and that He is incorporeal for to assume that God is corporeal, or that He has any properties, or to ascribe to Him any attributes, is a sin bordering on idolatry. Another digression occurs as an appendix to the second group of homonyms Maimonides found that only a limited number of terms are (ch. xxvi.-xxvii.). applied to God in a figurative sense; and again, that in the "Targum" of Onkelos some of the figures are paraphrased, while other figures received a He therefore seeks to discover the principle which was applied literal rendering. both in the Sacred Text and in the translation, and he found it in the Talmudical " The Law For this reason all figures dictum, speaketh the language of man." are eschewed which, in their literal sense, would appear to the multitude as imOnkelos, who rigorously guards himself plying debasement or a blemish.
finally the
;

against using
xlv
" illustrates this rule by the mode in which Onkelos renders "yarad he went is when in to God. It used reference (" down,"), generally paraphrased, " but in one exceptional instance, occurring in Jacob's " visions of the night does (Gen. xlvi. 4), it is translated literally ; in this instance the literal rendering not lead to corporification ; because visions and dreams were generally regarded as mental operations, devoid of objective reality. Simple and clear as this explanation may be, we do not consider that it really explains the method of Onkelos. On the contrary, the translator paraphrased anthropomorphic terms, even when he found them in passages relating to dreams or visions ; and indeed it is doubtful whether Maimonides could produce a single instance in favour of his view. He was equally unsuccessful in his explanation of "hazab" "he saw" He says that when the object of the vision was derogatory, it was not (ch. xlviii.). brought into direct relation with the Deity ; in such instances the verb is paraphrased, while in other instances the rendering is literal. Although Maimonides grants that the force of this observation is weakened by three exceptions, he does not doubt its correctness. The next Section (ch. 1. to ch. lix.) " On the Divine Attributes " begins with " the explanation that " faith consists in thought, not in mere utterance ; in This explanation forms the basis for the conviction, not in mere profession. The several arguments advanced by Maimonides against subsequent discussion. the employment of attributes are intended to show that those who assume the real existence of Divine attributes may possibly utter with their lips the creed of the Unity and the Incorporeality of God, but they cannot truly believe it. demonstration of this fact would be needless, if the Attributists had not put forth their false theses and defended them with the utmost tenacity, though with the most absurd arguments. After this explanation the author proceeds to discuss the impropriety of The Attributists admit that God is the Primal assigning attributes to God. Cause, One, incorporeal, free from emotion and privation, and that He is not comparable to any of His creatures. Maimonides therefore contends that any
of figurative terms
any term that might suggest when there is no cause
corporification, gives a literal rendering for entertaining such an apprehension.
Maimonides
attributes which, either directly or indirectly, are in contradiction to this creed, should not be applied to God. By this rule he rejects four classes of attributes
viz.,
those which include a definition, a partial definition, a quality, or a relation. The definition of a thing includes its efficient cause ; and since God is the
Primal Cause, He cannot be defined, or described by a partial definition. whether psychical, physical, emotional, or quantitative, is always regarded as something distinct from its substratum ; a thing which possesses any quality, consists, therefore, of that quality and a substratum, and should not be called one. All relations of time and space imply corporeality ; all relations between two objects are, to a certain degree, a comparison between these two To employ any of these attributes in reference to God would be as objects. much as to declare that God is not the Primal Cause, that He is not One, that He is corporeal, or that He is comparable to His creatures. There is only one class of attributes to which Maimonides makes no objection, viz. such as describe actions, and to this class belong all the Divine attributes which occur in the Scriprures. The " Thirteen Attributes " (shelosh esreb aifillustfation. ^7ôÊ5co37~XxxivrS, TTseTve as They were communicated to TvToses when he, as the chief of the Israelites, wished to know the way in which God governs the universe, in order that he himself in ruling the nation might follow it, and thereby promote their real well-being. On the whole, the opponents of Maimonides admit the correctness of this
quality,
theory.
Only
a small
number of
attributes are
the subject of dispute.
The
xlvi
Scriptures
unquestionably ascribe to God Existence, Life, Power, Wisdom, The Attributists regard these as properties distinct Unity, Eternity, and Will. With great acumen, and with from, but co-existing with, the Essence of God.
equally great acerbity, Maimonides shows that their theory their belief in the Unity and the Incorporeality of God.
different
:
is
irreconcilable with
i. be regarded as ways of interpreting these attributes descriptive of the works of God, and as declaring that these possess such properties as, in works of man, would appear to be the result of the will, the 2. The term "existing," "one," power, and the wisdom of a living being. as attri"wise," etc., are applied to God and to His creatures homonymously as attributes of anything beside butes of God they coincide with His Essence God they are distinct from the essence of the thing. 3. These terms do not describe a positive quality, but express a negation of its opposite. This third
; ;
He They may
points out three
more
interpretation appears to have been preferred by the author ; he discusses it He observes that the knowledge of the incomfully than the two others.
prehensible Being is solely of a negative character, and he shows by simple and appropriate examples that an approximate knowledge of a thing can be attained by mere negations, that such knowledge increases with the number of these negations, and that an error in positive assertions is more injurious than an In describing the evils which arise from the applierror in negative assertions.
cation of positive attributes to God, he unsparingly censures the hymnologists, because he found them profuse in attributing positive epithets to the Deity. On the basis of his own theory he could easily have interpreted these epithets His severity in the same way as he explains the Scriptural attributes of God. may, however, be accounted for by the fact that the frequent recurrence of
positive attributes in the literary composition of the
Jews was the cause that
the
Mohammedans
charged the Jews with
entertaining false notions of the
Deity.
is followed by a treatment of the names of seems to have been beyond the design of the author to elucidate the etymology of each name, or to establish methodically its signification ; for he His sole aim is to show that does not support his explanations by any proof. the Scriptural names of God in their true meaning strictly harmonize with the There are two things which philosophical conception of the Primal Cause. the Primal have to be distinguished in the treatment of the Primal Cause Cause fer u, and its relation to the Universe. The first is expressed by the tetragrammaton and its cognates, the second by the several attributes, especially " " by rokeb bdarabot, He who rideth on the 'arabot (Ps. Ixviii. 4) The tetragrammaton exclusively expresses the essence of God, and therefore it is employed as a nomen proprium. In the mystery of this name, and others mentioned in the Talmud, as consisting of twelve and of forty-two letters, Maimonides finds no other secret than the solution of some metaphysical The subject of these problems is not actually known, but the author problems. " absolute existence of the He discovers Deity." supposes that it referred to the the same idea in ebyeb (Exod. iii. 14), in accordance with the explanation added afher ebyeb, " that is, I am." In the course of this discusin the Sacred Text sion he exposes the folly or sinfulness of those who pretend to work miracles by the aid of these and similar names. With a view of preparing the way for hi peculiar interpretation or rokeb ba'arabot, he explains a variety of Scriptural passages, and treats of several Such expressions as " the philosophical terms relative to the Supreme Being. word of God," " the work of God," " the work of His fingers," " He made," " He spake," must be taken in a figurative sense ; they merely represent God as the cause that some work has been produced, and that some person has acquired
The
inquiry into the attributes
God.
It

a certain
xlvii
"
knowledge.
1
(Exod. xx.
1)
is
"And He rested on interpretecTasfollows On the seventh Day

Thepassage,
:
the seventh
day
the forces and laws
six days were in the state of being v7eT~cbrrrplere, which during the previous esfaBTisTied for the preservation of the Universe. They were not to be increased
jor
modified.
""Tfseems that Maimonides introduced this figurative explanation with a view of showing that the Scriptural "God" does not differ from the "Primal "
Cause
"
or
the latter
" Ever-active Intellect of the philosophers. On the other hand, reject the Unity of God, although they assume that the Primal Cause comprises the causa ffficiens, the agens, and the causa finalis (or, the cause,
do not
ligent,
the means, and the end) ; and that the Ever-active Intellect comprises the intelthe intellectus, and the inlellectum (or, the thinking subject, the act or thought, and the object thought of) ; because in this case these apparently
different elements
rokeb ba' arabot, " riding on 'arabot." Maimonides is at " pains to prove thut'arabot denotes the highest sphere," which causes the motion of all other spheres, and which thus brings about the natural course of produc-
" Primal
Cause
"
are,
is
in fact, identical.
The
Biblical term corresponding to
" and destruction. By the highest sphere he does not understand a material sphere, but the immaterial world of intelligences and angels, "the seat of justice and judgment, stores of life, peace, and blessings, the seat of the souls Rokeb ba' arabot, therefore, means : He presides over the of the righteous," etc. immaterial beings, He is the source of their powers, by which they move the
tion
"
spheres and regulate the course of nature.

in the
This theory
is
more
fully developed
Second Part.
author, the
next section (chap. Ixxi.-lxxvi.) treats of the Kalam. According to the method of the Kalam is copied from the Christian Fathers, who The latter examined in applied it in the defence of their religious doctrines. their writings the views of the philosophers, ostensibly in search of truth, in Subsequently reality, however, with the object of supporting their own dogmas.
;
The
theologians found in these works arguments whicirTeemeHttT confirm the truth of their own religion they blindly adopted these arguments, and made no inquiry whence these had been derived. Maimonides rejects d priori the theories of the Mutakallemim, because they explain the phenomena in the universe in conformity with preconceived notions, instead of following the scientific method of the philosophers. Among the Jews, especially in the East and in Africa, there were also some who adopted the method of the Kalam ; in doing so they followed the Mu'tazilah (dissenting Mohammedans), not because they found it more correct than the Kalam of the Ashariyah (orthodox Mohammedans), but because at the time when the Jews became acquainted with the Kalam it was only cultivated by the Mu'tazilah. The Jews in Spain, however, remained faithful to the Aristotelian philosophy. The four principal dogmas upheld by the dominant religions were the creatio ex HJ^z/opthe Existence of God, His Incorporeality, and His Unity. By the philosophers the creatio ex nihilo was rejected, but the Mutakallemim defended Maimonides it, and founded upon it their proofs for the other three dogmas. adopts the philosophical proofs for the Existence, Incorporeality, and Unity of God, because they must be admitted even by those who deny the creatio ex nihilo, the proofs being independent of this dogma. In order to show that the Mutakallemim are mistaken in ignoring the organization of the existing order of things, the author gives a minute description of the analogy between the Unior Kosmos, and man, the mikrokosmos (ch. Ixxii.). This analogy is is advised either to find the proof by his own The Kalam does studies, or to accept the fact on the authority of the learned. not admit the existence of law, organization, and unity in the universe. Its
verse,
Mohammedan
merely asserted, and the reader
xlviii
adherents have, accordingly, no trustworthy criterion to determine whether a thing is possible or impossible. Everything that is conceivable by imagination is by them held as possible. The several parts of the universe are in no relation o each other ; they all consist of equal elements ; they are not composed of substance and properties, but of atoms and accidents the law of causality is ignored ; man's actions are not the result of will and design, but are mere accidents. Maimonides in enumerating and discussing the twelve fundamental propositions of the Kalam (ch. Ixiii.), which embody these theories, had apparently no intention to give a complete and impartial account of the Kalam ; he solely aimed at exposing the weakness of a system which he regarded as founded not on a sound basis of positive facts, but on mere fiction ; not on the evidences of the senses and of reason, but on the illusions of imagination. After having shown that the twelve fundamental propositions of the Kalam are utterly untenable, Maimonides finds no difficulty in demonstrating the insufficiency of the proofs advanced by the Mutakallemim in support of the above:
Seven arguments are cited which the Mutakallemim employ 1 The first argument is based on the atomic support of the creatfo~7x nibilo. that the consists of equal atoms without inherent properuniverse theory, viz., to all ties variety and change observed in nature must therefore be attributed an external force. Three arguments are supplied by the proposition that finite Three other arguments things of an infinite number cannot exist (Propos. xi.). derive their support from the following proposition (x.) Everything that can be imagined can have an actual existence. The present order of things is only one out of the many forms which are possible, and exist through the fiat of a
named dogmas.
in
determining power. The Unity of God is demonstrated by the Mutakallemim as follows Two Gods would have been unable to produce the world ; one would have impeded the work of the other. Maimonides points out that this might have been avoided by a suitable division of labour. Another argument is as follows The two Beings would have one element in common, and would differ in another ; Maimonides each would thus consist of two elements, and would not be God. might have suggested that the argument moves in a circle, the unity of God The following argument is altogether being proved by assuming His unity. Both Gods are moved to action by will ; the will, being without unintelligible The fallacy a substratum, could not act simultaneously in two separate beings. of the following argument is clear The existence of one God is proved the existence of a second God is not proved, it would be possible ; and as possibility is The possibility of inapplicable to God, there does not exist a second God. ascertaining the existence of God is here confounded with potentiality of exist ence. Again, if one God suffices, the second God is superfluous ; if one God is not sufficient, he is not perfect, and cannot be a deity. Maimonides objects that it would not be an imperfection in either deity to act exclusively within As in the criticism of the first argument, Maimonides their respective provinces.
: :
: :
Saadiah proves the existence of the Creator in the following way i. The Universe 2. All things are compounds ; 3. Changes observed in all 4. If time were infinite, it would be imbeings are effected by some external cause. possible to conceive the progress of time from the present moment to the future, or from
1
:
limited, and therefore cannot possess an unlimited force. the composition must be owing to some external cause.
is
the past to the present moment. (Emunot vede'ot, ch. i.). Bahya founds hi argu2. The series of ments on three propositions : i. thing cannot be its own maker. successive causes is finite. 3. Compounds owe their existence to an external force. I. The Universe, even the elements, are compounds consisting His arguments are :
of substance and form.

lebabot, ch.
i.)
2.
In the Universe plan and unity
is
discernible.
(Hobot ha-
xlix
seems here to forget that the existence of separate provinces would require a would not properly be called superior determining Power, and the two Beings
Gods.
weakest of all arguments are, according to Maimonides, those by which Mutakallemim sought to support the doctrine of God's Incorporeality. If God were corporeal, He would consist of atoms, and would not be one or He would be comparable to other beings but a comparison implies the existence A of similar and of dissimilar elements, and God would thus not be one. corporeal God would be finite, and an external power would be required to
The
the
define those limits.
PART
The Second
II.
|.
Part includes the following sections:
Introduction
2.
sophical Proof ofjthe_JExistencjBofOneIncorporeal PrimaT~Cau^~(ch. i.) ; 3. On the Spheres and the Intelligences (ii.-xii.) ; 4. On the theory of the Eternity
of"
tnTTJmverse
(xiii.-xxix.)
5.
Exposition of Gen.
i.-iv. (xxx., xxxi.)
6.
On
Prophecy (xxxii.-xlviii.). "The enumeration of twenty-six propositions, by the aid of which the philosophers prove the Existence, the Unity, and the Incorporeality of the Primal The proposiCause, forms the introduction to the Second Part of this work. tions treat of the properties of the finite and the infinite (i.-iii., x.-xii., xvi.), of change and motion (iv.-ix., xiii.-xviii.), and of the possible and the absolute
or necessary (xx.-xxv.) ; they are simply enumerated, but are not demonstrated. Whatever the value of these Propositions may be, they were inadequate for their
purpose, and the author is compelled to introduce auxiliary propositions to prove- the existence of an infinite, incorporeal, and uncompounded Primal Cause.
(Arguments
I.
and
III.)
The first and the fourth arguments may be They are based on the hypothesis that the series
finite,
termed cosmological proofs. of causes for every change is
and terminates in the Primal Cause. There is no essential difference in in the first are discussed the causes of the motion of a two arguments moving object the fourth treats of the causes which bring about the transition of a thing from potentiality to reality. To prove that neither the spheres nor a force residing in them constitute the Primal Cause, the philosophers employed two propositions, of which the one asserts that the revolutions of the spheres are infinite, and the other denies the possibility that an infinite force should reside in a finite object. The distinction between the finite in space and the
the
:
finite in
infinite in
time appears to have been ignored ; for it is not shown why a force time could not reside in a body finite in space. Moreover, those who, like Maimonides, reject the eternity of the universe, necessarily reject this proof, while those who hold that the universe is eternal do not admit that the spheres have ever been only potential, and passed from potentiality to actuality. The second argument is supported by the following supplementary proposition : If two elements coexist in a state of combination, and one of these elements is to be found at the same time separate, in a free state, it is certain that the second elemen is likewise to be found by itself. Now, since things exist which combine in themselves motive power and mass moved by that power, and since mass is found by itself, motive power must also be found by itself independent of mass. The third argument has a logical character The universe is either eternal or It cannot be eternal in all its temporal, or partly eternal and partly temporal. parts, as many parts undergo destruction ; it is not altogether temporal, because, if so, the universe could not be reproduced after being destroyed. The con:
tinued existence of the universe leads, therefore, to the conclusion that there if force, the Primal Cause, besides the transient world. These arguments have this in common, that while proving the existence of a Primal Cause, they at the same time demonstrate the Unity, the Incorporeality, and the Eternity of that Cause. Special proofs are nevertheless superadded for each of these postulates, and on the whole they differ very little from those ad-
an immortal
vanced by the
Mohammedan
Theologians.
This philosophical theory of the Primal Cause was adapted by Jewish scholars
universe is a living, organized being, changes on this earth are due to the revolutions of the spheres ; the lowest or innermost sphere, viz., the one nearest to the centre, is the sphere of the moon ; the outermost or uppermost is " the Numerous spheres are interposed ; but Maiall-encompassing sphere."
to the Biblical theory of the Creator. of which the earth is the centre.
The
Any
monides divides all the spheres into four groups, corresponding to the moon, the This division is claimed by the author as his sun, the planets, and the fixed stars. own discovery ; he believes that it stands in relation to the four causes of their
motions, the four elements of the sublunary world, and the four classes of beings, the mineral, the vegetable, the animal, and the rational. The spheres have souls, and are endowed with intellect ; their souls enable them to move freely, and the impulse to the motion is given by the intellect in conceiving the idea of the Each sphere has an intellect peculiar to itself ; the intellect Absolute Intellect. " attached to the sphere of the moon is called " the active intellect (Sekel ha-po'el). In support of this theory numerous passages are cited both from Holy Writ and
viz.,
from post-Biblical Jewish literature. The angels (elobim, malakini) mentioned in the Bible are assumed to be identical with the intellects of the spheres they are free agents, and their volition invariably tends to that which is good and noble they emanate from the Primal Cause, and form a descending series of beings, ending with the active intellect. The transmission of power from one element to the other is called "emanation" (shefa"). This transmission is performed without the utterance of a sound ; if any voice is supposed to be heard, it is only an illusion, originating in the human imagination, which is the source of all evils (ch.
;
;
xii.).
In accordance with this doctrine, Maimonides explains that the three men who appeared to Abraham, the angels whom Jacob saw ascend and descend the ladder, and all other angels seen by man, are nothing but the intellects of the spheres, four In his description of in number, which emanate from the Primal Cause (ch. x). The spheres do not contain any of the the spheres he, as usual, follows Aristotle. four elements of the sublunary world, but consist of a quintessence, an entirely Whilst things on this earth are transient, the beings which different element. inhabit the spheres above are eternal. According' to Aristotle, these spheres, as well as their intellects, coexist with the Primal Cause. Maimonides, faithful to the teaching of the Scriptures, here departs from his master, and holds that the
spheres and the intellects had a beginning, and were brought into existence by the He does not attempt to give a positive proof of his doctrine ; will of the Creator. all he contends is that the theory of the creatio ex nihilo is, from a philosophical
point of view, not inferior to the doctrine which asserts the eternity of the universe, and that he can refute all objections advanced against his theory (ch. xiii.xxviii.).
He next enumerates and criticises the various theories respecting the origin of B. God formed the Universe, viz. : A. God created the Universe out of nothing. the Universe from an eternal substance. C. The Universe originating in the It is not held necessary by the author to diieternal Primal Cause is co-eternal.
who do not assume a Primal Cause, since the existence of such a cause has already been proved (ch. xiii.).
cuss the view of those
li
objections raised to a creatio ex nihilo by its opponents are founded partly They infer properties of Nature, and partly on those of the Primal Cause. from the properties of Nature the following arguments : (i) The first moving
The
on the
force
for if it had a beginning, another motion must have produced it, would not be the First moving force. (2) If the formless matter be it would then not eternal, it must have been produced out of another substance have a certain form by which it might be distinguished from the primary substance, and then it would not be formless. (3) The circular motion of the spheres does not involve the necessity of termination and anything that is without an end, must be without a beginning. (4) Anything brought to existence existed previously in potentia ; something must therefore have pre-existed of which potential
is
eternal
it
and then
existence could be predicated. Some support for the theory of the eternity of the heavens has been derived from the general belief in the eternity of the heavens.
If it properties of the Primal Cause furnished the following arguments were assumed that the Universe was created from nothing, it would imply that the First Cause had changed from the condition of a potential Creator to that of an actual Creator, or that His will had undergone a change, or that He must be imperfect, because He produced a perishable work, or that He had been inactive during a certain period. All these contingencies would be contrary to a true conception of the First Cause (ch. xiv.). Maimonides is of opinion that the arguments based on the properties of things in Nature are inadmissible, because the laws by which the Universe is regulated This refutation need not have been in force before the Universe was in existence. is styled by our author "a strong wall built round the Law, able to resist all " attacks In a similar manner the author proceeds against the objec(ch. xvii.). tions founded on the properties of the First Cause. Purely intellectual beings, he says, are not subject to the same laws as material bodies ; that which necessitates a change in the latter or in the will of man need not produce a change in immaterial As to the belief that the heavens are inhabited by angels and deities, it has beings. not its origin in the real existence of these supernatural beings ; it was suggested to man by meditation on the apparent grandeur of heavenly phenomena (ch.
:
The
xviii.).
Maimonides next proceeds
to explain
how, independently of the authority
or
Admitting Scripture, he has been led to adopt the belief in the creatio ex nihilo. that the great variety of the things in the sublunary world can be traced to those immutable laws which regulate the influence of the spheres on the beings below
According to Aristotle
the variety in the spheres can only be explained as the result of God's free will. the principal authority for the eternity of the Universe it is impossible that a simple being should, according to the laws of nature, be the cause of various and compound beings. Another reason for the rejection of the
Eternity of the Universe may be found in the fact that the astronomer Ptolemy has proved the incorrectness of the view which Aristotle had of celestial spheres,
is likewise far from being perfect and impossible to obtain a correct notion of the properties of the heavenly spheres ; " the heaven, even the heavens, are the Lord's, but the " earth hath He given to the children of man (Ps. cxv. 16). The author, observing that the arguments against the creatio ex nihilo are untenable, adheres to his theory,
although the system of that astronomer

final (ch. xxiv.).
It is
which was taught by such prophets as Abraham and Moses. Although each Scriptural quotation could, by a figurative interpretation, be made to agree with the opposite theory, Maimonides declines to ignore the literal sense of a term,
be in opposition to well-established truths, as is the case with anthropofor the latter, if taken literally, would be contrary to the demonstrated truth of God's incorporeality (ch. xxv.). He is therefore surprised that the author of Pirke-di Rabbi Eliezer ventured to assume the eternity of
unless
it
morphic expressions
lii

and \e thinks
it
matter,
tive
possible that
Rabbi Eliezer carried the
license ot figura-
(Ch. xxvi.). speech too far. The theory of the creatio ex nihilo does not involve the belief that the Universe will at a future time be destroyed ; the Bible distinctly teaches the creation, but not the destruction of the world except in passages which are undoubtedly con-
On the contrary, respecting certain parts of the ceived in a metaphorical sense. Universe it is clearly stated " He established them forever." (Ps. cxlviii. 5.) The
of the of those immutable laws which govern the Universe. The Divine will would in that case set aside those laws, both in the Within this interval, however, the laws initial and the final stages of the Universe. remain undisturbed (ch. xxvii.). Apparent exceptions, the miracles, originate in these laws, although man is unable to perceive the causal relation. The Biblical account of the creation concludes with the statement that God rested on the seventh day, that is to say, He declared that the work was complete ; no new act of creation was to take place, and no new law was to be introduced. It is true that the second and the third chapters of Genesis appear to describe a new creation, that of Eve, and a new law, viz., that of man's mortality, but these chapters are explained as containing an allegorical representation of man's psychical and intellectual faculties, or a supplemental detail of the contents of Maimonides seems to prefer the allegorical explanation which, the first chapter. as it seems, he had in view without expressly stating it, in his treatment of
be, as the creation has been, a direct act
destruction of the Universe
would
result
Divine
will,
and not the
Adam's sin and punishment.

one hand
to
It is certainly inconsistent on the (Part I. ch. ii.) admit that at the pleasure of the Almighty the laws of nature may become inoperative, and that the whole Universe may become annihilated, and on the other hand to deny, that during the existence of the Universe, any of the natural laws ever have been or ever will be suspended. It seems that Maimonides
could not conceive the idea that the
kallemim taught
work of the All-wise should be, as the Mutawithout plan and system, or that the laws once laid down
should not be sufficient for all emergencies. The account_of_the_ Creation given in the book of Genesis is explained by the author according to the following two rules First its language is allegorical The words erez, mayim, anH, 'Secondly, the terms employed are homonyms. ruab, and hosbek in the second verse (ch. i.), are homonyms and denote the four elements earth, water, air, and fire ; in other instances erez is the terrestrial globe, mayim is water or vopour, ruah denotes wind, and bosbek darkness: According to Maimonides, a summary of the first chapter may be given thus 5 God created the Universe by producing first the resbit the " beginning " Gen. i. i), or hathalah, i.e., the intellects which give to the spheres both existence and motion, and thus become the source of the existence of the entire Universe. Af'firStTnTs Universe consisted of a chaos of elements, but its form was successively developed by the influence of the spheres, and more directly by the action of light and darkness, the properties of which were fixed on the first day of the Creation. In the subsequent five days minerals, plants, animals, and the intellectual beings came into existence. The seventh day, on which the Universe was for the first time ruled by the same natural laws which still continue in operation, was distinguished as a day blessed and sanctified by the The Creator, who designed it to proclaim the creatio ex nihilo (Exod. xx. n). Israelites were moreover commanded to keep this Sabbath in commemoration of their departure from Egypt (Deut. v. 15), because during the period of the In the Egyptian bondage, they had not been permitted to rest on that day. history of the first sin of man, Adam, Eve, and the serpent represent the intelIn order to complete the imagery, lect, the body, and the imagination. Samael or Satan, mentioned in the Midrash in connexion with this account,
:

is
liii
error,
man's appetitive faculties. Imagination, the source of directly aided by the appetitive faculty, and the two are intimately connected with the body, to which man generally gives paramount attention, and for the sake of which he indulges in sins ; in the end, however, they subadded
is
as representing
due the
its Instead of obtaining pure and real power. conceptions ; in consequence, the body is subject to suffering, whilst the imagination, instead of being guided by the intellect In the and attaining a higher development becomes debased and depraved. three sons of Adam, Kain, Abel, and Seth, Maimonides finds an allusion to the three elements in man the vegetable, the animal, and the intellectual. First, the animal element (Abel) becomes extinct ; then the vegetable elements (Kain) are dissolved only the third element, the intellect (Seth), survives, and forms the basis of mankind (ch. xxx., xxxi.).
intellect
and weaken
false
knowledge,
man forms
Maimonides having so far stated his opinion in explicit terms, it is difficult what he had in view by the avowal that he could not disclose It is unquestionably no easy matter to adapt each verse in the everything.
to understand
first chapters of Genesis to the foregoing allegory ; but such an adaptation is, according to the author's own view (Part I., Introd., p. 19), not only unnecessary, but actually objectionable. In the next section (xxxii.-xlviii.) Maimonides treats of Prophecy. He mentions the following three opinions : i. Any person, irrespective of his physical or moral qualifications, may be summoned by the Almighty to the 2. mission of a prophet. Prophecy is the highest degree of mental development, and can only be attained by training and study. 3. The gift of prophecy depends on physical, moral, and mental training, combined with inHe defines proThe author adopts the last-mentioned opinion. spiration. phecy as an emanation (shefa'), which through the will of the Almighty descends from the Active Intellect to the intellect and the imagination of The prophet is thus distinguished both from thoroughly qualified persons. wise men whose intellect alone received the necessary impulse from the Active Intellect, and from diviners or dreamers, whose imagination alone has been influenced by the Active Intellect. Although it is assumed that the attainment of this prophetic faculty depends on God's will, this dependence is nothing else but the relation which all things bear to the Primal Cause for the Active Intellect acts in conformity with the laws established by the will of God ; it gives an impulse to the intellect of man, and, bringing to light those mental
;
powers which lay dormant, it merely turns potential faculty into real action. These faculties can be perfected to such a degree as to enable man to apprehend the highest truths intuitively, without passing through all the stages of research The same fact is noticed with respect to required by ordinary persons. imagination ; man sometimes forms faithful images of objects and events which cannot be traced to the ordinary channel of information, viz., impressions made on the senses. Since prophecy is the result of a natural process, it may appear surprising that, of the numerous men excelling in wisdom, so few became Maimonides accounts for this fact by assuming that the mora) prophets. faculties of such men had not been duly trained. None of them had, in the author's opinion, gone through the moral discipline indispensable for the vocation of a prophet. Besides this, everything which obstructs mental improvement, misdirects the imagination or impairs the physical strength, and precludes Hence no prophecy was vouchman from attaining to the rank of prophet. safed to Jacob during the period of his anxieties on account of his separation from Joseph. Nor did Moses receive a Divine message during the years which the Israelites, under Divine punishment, spent in the desert. On the other hand, music and song awakened the prophetic power (comp. z Kings iii 15), and
fiv
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED,

spirit
" of prophecy alights only on him who is wise, strong, and rich the for a Shabbat, 923). Although preparation prophetic mission, the pursuit of earnest and persevering study, as also the execution of the Divine dictates, required physical strength, yet in the moment when the prophecy was received the functions of the bodily organs were suspended. The intellect then acquired true knowledge, which presented itself to the prophet's Pure ideals are almost incomimagination in forms peculiar to that faculty. translate them into language which he is accustomed to prehensible.; man must In receiving use, and he must adapt them to his own mode of thinking. prophecies and communicating them to others the exercise of the prophet's imagination was therefore as essential as that of his intellect, and Maimonides seems to apply to this imagination the term "angel," which is so frequently mentioned in the Bible as the medium of communication between the Supreme
"
The
(Babyl. Talm.
Being and the prophet.

his bodily functions under such control that even without the temporary suspension he was able to receive prophetic inspiration was in his case not needed " God spoke to interposition of the imagination " Moses differed so completely from him mouth to mouth (Num. xii. 8). " " could only have been applied to him other prophets that the term prophet and other men by way of homonymy. The impulses descending from the Active Intellect to man's intellect and to his imagination produce various effects, according to his physical, moral, and Some men are thus endowed with extraordinary courage intellectual condition. and with an ambition to perform great deeds, or they feel themselves impelled to appeal mightily to their fellowmen by means of exalted and pure language. Such men are filled with " the spirit of the Lord," or, " with the spirit of
Only Moses held
their
To this distinguished class belonged Jephthah, Samson, David, Solomon, and the authors of the Hagiographa. Though above the standard Maimonides of ordinary men, they were if included in the rank of prophets.
holiness."
prophets into two groups, viz., those who receive inspiration in receive it in a vision. The first group includes the i. Those who see following five classes symbolic figures ; 2. Those who hear a voice addressing them without perceiving the speaker ; 3. Those who see a man and hear him addressing them ; 4. Those who see an angel addressing The other group is them ; 5. Those who see God and hear His voice. divided in a similar manner, but contains only the first four classes, for Maimonides considered it impossible that a prophet should see God in a vision. This classification is based on the various expressions employed in the Scriptures
divides the
dream and those who

:
to describe the several prophecies.
When the
the
first
Israelites received
the
Law
at
Mount
Sinai, they distinctly heard
two commandments, which include the doctrines of the Existence and the Unity of God ; of the other eight commandments, which enunciate moral, " and it was not metaphysical truths, they heard the mere " sound of words the that Divine of Moses the instruction was revealed to them. moath through Maimonides defends this opinion by quotations from the Talmud and the Midrashim. The theory that imagination was an essential element in prophecy is sup;
ported
writings,
by the fact that figurative speech predominates in the prophetical which abound in figures, hyperbolical expressions and allegories. The symbolical acts which are described in connexion with the visions of the
prophets, such as the translation of Ezekiel from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ez. viii. 3), Isaiah's walking about naked and barefoot (Isa. xx. 2), Jacob's wrestling
with the angel (Gen. xxxii. 27

xxii. 28),
iqq.),
had no positive
reality.
The
and the speaking of Balaam's ass (Num. prophets, employing an elliptical style,

vision or a dream.
Iv
frequently omitted to state that a certain event related by them was part of a In consequence of such elliptical speech events are described in the Bible as coming directly from God, although they simply are the effect of the ordinary laws of nature, and as such depend on the will of God.
Such passages cannot be misunderstood when it is borne in mind that every event and every natural phenomenon can for its origin be traced to the Primal In this sense the prophets employ such phrases as the following : " And Cause. " I have 7 will command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it" (Isa. v. 6) ; "
also called
my
mighty men
(ibid. xi. 3).
PART
;
III.
:
i. This part contains the following six sections Exposition of the ma'asek mercabah (Ez. i.), ch. i. vii. 2. On the nature and the origin of evil, ch. viii. xii. On Providence and Omni4. 3. On the object of the creation, ch. xiii.,-xv.
;
the object of the Divine precepts (ta ante ha-miz'vot) science, ch.xvi.-xxv. ; 5. and the historical portions of the Bible, ch. xxv.-xl. ; 6. guide to the proper
On
worship of God.
great caution Maimonides approaches the explanation ot the ma'aseb the chariot which Ezekiel beheld in a vision (Ez. i.). The mysteries included in the description of the Divine chariot had been orally
With
mercabah,
transmitted from generation to generation, but in consequence of the dispersion of the Jews the chain of tradition was broken, and the knowledge of these Whatever he knew of those mysteries he owed mysteries had vanished.
exclusively to his own intellectual faculties ; he therefore could not reconcile himself to the idea that his knowledge should die with him. He committed
exposition of the ma'aseb mercabah and the ma'aseb bereshit to writing, but did not divest it of its original mysterious character ; so that the explanation was fully intelligible to the initiated that is to say, to the philosopher but to the ordinary reader it was a mere paraphrase of the Biblical text.
his
(Introduction.) The first seven chapters are devoted to the exposition of the Divine chariot. According to Maimonides three distinct parts are to be noticed, each of which These parts correspond to the three begins with the phrase, "And I saw."
parts of the Universe, the sublunary world, the spheres and the intelligences. First of all the prophet is made to behold the material world which consists
of the earth and the spheres, and of these the spheres, as the more important, In the Second Part, in which the nature of the spheres is are noticed first. discussed, the author dwells with pride on his discovery that they can be divided into four groups. This discovery he now employs to show that the four " " He points out (animals) represent the four divisions of the spheres. hayyot that the terms which the prophet uses in the description of the hayyot are identical with terms applied to the properties of the spheres. For the four hayyot or "angels," or cherubim, (i) have human form ; (2) have human faces ; (3) possess characteristics of other animals ; (4) have human hands (5) their feet are straight and round (cylindrical) ; (6) their bodies are closely joined to each other (7) only their faces and their wings are separate ; (8) their substance is transparent and refulgent ; (9) they move uniformly i ( o) each moves
; ; ;
they return towards their starting point ; and (13) they move in consequence of an extraneous impulse (ruah}. In a similar manner the spheres are described (i)they possess the characteristics of man, viz., life and intellect ; (2) they consist like man of body and soul ; (3) they are strong, mighty and swift, like the ox, the
direction;
:
in
its
own
(n) they run;
(12) swift as lightning
lion,
and the eagle
(4)
they perform
all
manner of work
as
though they had
Ivi
hands ; (5) they are round, and are not divided into parts ; (6) no vacuum intervenes between one sphere and the other ; (7) they may be considered as one being, but in respect to the intellects, which are the causes of their existence and motion, they appear as four different beings ; (8) they are transparent and
refulgent; (9) each sphere moves uniformly, (10) and according to its special laws ; (n) they revolve with great velocity ; (12) each point returns again to its previous position ; (13) they are self-moving, yet the impulse emanates from
an external power. In the second part of the vision the prophet saw the qfannim. These represent For the qfannim (i) are connected the four elements of the sublunary world. with the bayj>otznd with the earth ; (2) they have four faces, and are four separate beings, but interpenetrate each other "as though it were a wheel in the midst of a wheel" (Ez. i. 16) ; (3) they are covered with eyes ; (4) they are not self-moving ; (5) they are set in motion by the hayyot ; (6) their motion is not The same may almost be said of the four elements circular but rectilinear. (i) they are in close contact with the spheres, being encompassed by the sphere of the moon ; earth occupies the centre, water surrounds earth, air has its position between water and fire ; (2) this order is not invariably maintained the respective portions change and they become intermixed and combined with each other ; (3) though they are only four elements they form an infinite number of things ; (4) not being animated they do not move of their own accord ; (5) they are set in motion by the action of the spheres ; (6) when a portion is displaced it returns
: ;
in a straight line to its original position. In the third vision Ezekiel saw a human
was divided in the middle ; it was hashmal, (mysterious)
form above the hayyot. The figure upper portion the prophet only noticed that from the loins downwards there was " the vision ; of the likeness of the Divine Glory," and " the likeness of the throne." The world of Intelligences was represented by the figure ; these can only be perceived in as far as they influence the spheres, but their relation to the Creator is
in the
beyond human comprehension.

vision.
The
Creator himself
is
not represented in this
to the whole vision Maimonides finds in the introductory words, the heavens were opened," and in the minute description of the place and When pondering on the grandeur of the spheres the time of the revelation.
The key
"And
their influences, which vary according to time and place, man begins to At the conclusion of this exposition think of the existence of the Creator. Maimonides declares that he will, in the subsequent chapters, refrain from giving The foregoing summary, howfurther explanation of the ma'aseh mercabah. ever, shows that the opinion of the author on this subject is fully stated, and it is indeed difficult to conceive what additional disclosures he could still have
and
made.
The task which the author has proposed to himself in the Preface he now He has discussed the method of the Kalam, the regarded as accomplished. system of the philosophers, and his own theory concerning the relation between he has explained the Biblical account of the Primal Cause and the Universe In the creation, the nature of prophecy, and the mysteries in Ezekiel's vision. the remaining portion of the work the author attempts to solve certain theological problems, as though he wished to obviate the following objections, which
:
might be
that the entire Universe
a design throughout the creation, and What is the purpose law of causation For what purpose was the world created ? of the evils which attend human life ? Does In hew far does Providence interfere with the natural course of events ? God know and foresee man's action* ? To what end wa* the Divine Law
raised to his theory that there is subject to the
is
:
revealed
These problems are
treated seriatim.

All
evils,
Ivii
man from the pure Intellects it is " the thickness of knowledge has to traverse before it reaches man. In " God saw all that He had made, reality, evil is the mere negative of good " Evil does not exist at all. When and behold it was very good (Gen. i. 31). evils are mentioned in the Scriptures as the work of God, the Scriptural expressions must not be taken in their literal sense. i. Evils necessitated There are three kinds of evils by those laws of pro2. Evils which ductTolTlin^~o!e^truclIo^rby^vTucTirtHe species are perpetuated. men inflict on each other they are comparatively few, especially among civilized men. 3. Evils which man brings upon himself, and which comprise the majority
the partition separating " which true the cloud
;
:
Maimonides holds, originate in the material element of man's Those who are able to emancipate themselves from the tyranny of the body, and unconditionally to submit to the dictates of reason, are protected from many evils. Man should disregard the cravings of the body, avoid them as topics of conversation, and keep his thoughts far away from them : convivial and erotic songs debase man's noblest gifts thought and speech, Matter is
existence.
of existing evils. The consideration of these three classes of evils leads to the conclusion that " the Lord is good to all, and his tender mercies are over all "
his
works
(Ps. cxlv. 9).
What is the object of the creation ? must be left unanswered. Also those who believe that the ThlTcreatlon is the result of the will of God. Univefse is eternal must admit that they are unable to discover the purpose of It would, however, not be illogical to assume that the rhe Universe. spheres TmvfT been created for the sake of man, notwithstanding the great dimensions of th~FT6rmer and the smallness of the latter. Still it must be conceded that, even if mankind were the main and central object of creation, there is no absolute for it is a matter of course that, under altered interdependence between them All teleological theories must conditions, man could exist without the spheres. therefore be confined within the limits of the Universe as it now exists. They are only admissible in the relation in which the several parts of the Universe stand to each other ; but the^purpose_of the jJniverse as a whole__cannot^be It is simplyân emanation from the will of God. accounted for. Regarding the belief in Providence, Maimonides enumerates the following
Thejmestion,
;
i. There is no Providence; everything is subject to chance; of the Universe is governed by Providence, viz., the spheres, the species, and such individual beings as possess the power of perpetuating their the rest that is, the sublunary world existence (e-g., the stars) is left to mere chance. / 3/ Everthing is^ ^predetermined ; according to this theory, revealed Law is inconceivable. ^/ Providence assigns its blessings to all creatures, according to their merits" ; accordingly, all beings, even the lowest animals, if innocently injured or killed, receive compensation in a future life. /In According to the Jewish belief, all living beings are endowed with free-will ; God is Maimonides denies the just, and the destiny of man depends on his merits. existence of trials inflicted by Divine love, i.e. afflictions which befall man, not as punishments of sin, but as means to procure for him a reward in times to come. Maimonides also rejects the notion that God ordains special temptation. The Biblical account, according to which God tempts men, " to know what is in their hearts," must not be taken in its literal sense ; it merely states that God made the virtues of certain people known to their fellowmen in order that their good example should be followed. Of all creatures man alone enjoys the especial care of Providence because the acts of Providence are identical with certain influences (shefa] which the Active Intellect brings to bear upon the human
five
2.
opinions:
Only
a part
intellect
their eftect
;
upon man
intellectual condition
irrational beings, however,
varies according to his physical, moral, and cannot be affected by these
Iviii

If
influences.
we cannot
in
in
each individual case see
how
these principles are
wisdom is far above that of man. The author seems to have felt that his theory has its weak points, for he intro" duces it as follows My theory is not established by demonstrative proof ; it is based on the authority of the Bible, and it is less subject to refutation than any
applied,
it
must be borne
:
mind
that God's
of the theories previously mentioned." Providence implies Omniscience, and men who deny this, to ipso, have no Some are unable to reconcile the fate of man with Divine belief in Providence. Justice, and are therefore of opinion that God takes no notice whatever of the Others believe that God, being an absolute Unity, events which occur on earth. cannot possess a knowledge of a multitude of things, or of things that do not These objections, which are based yet exist, or the number of which is infinite. on the nature of man's perception, are illogical ; for God's knowledge cannot be compared to that of man ; it is identical with His essence. Even the Attributists, who assume that God's knowledge is different from His essence, hold
that
i.
it is
It
is one,
distinguished from man's knowledge in the following five points : 2. It includes even such things although it embraces a plurality.
as
do not yet exist. 3. It includes things which are infinite in number. 4. It does not change when new objects of perception present themselves. 5. It does However difficult this theory may appear not determine the course of events. to human comprehension, it is in accordance with the words of Isaiah (Iv. 8)
:
thoughts, and your ways are not ways." According to Maimonides, the difficulty is to be explained by the fact that God is the Creator of all things, and His knowledge of the things is not dependent on their existence ; while the knowledge of man is solely dependent on the objects
"Your
thoughts are not
My
My
which come under his cognition. According to Maimonides, the book of Job illustrates the several views which have been mentioned above. Satan, that is, the material element in human
existence,
is described as the cause of Job's sufferings. Job at first believed that man's happiness depends on riches, health, and children ; being deprived of these sources of happiness, he conceived the notion that Providence is indifferent
rejected this opinion.
After a careful study of natural phenomena, he Eliphaz held that all misfortunes of man serve as punishments of past sins. Bildad, the second friend of Job, admitted the existence of those afflictions which Divine love decrees in order that the patient sufferer may be fitted to receive a bountiful reward. Zophar, the third friend of Job,
to the fate of mortal beings.
declared that the ways of God are beyond human comprehension ; there is but one explanation assignable to all Divine acts, namely : Such is His Will. Elihu gives a fuller development to this idea ; he says that such evils as befell Job may be remedied once or twice, but the course of nature is not altogether reversed. It is true that by prophecy a clearer insight into the ways of God
can be obtained, but there are only few
who
arrive at that exalted intellectual
degree, whilst the majority of men must content themselves with acquiring a Such a study leads man to knowledge of God through the study of nature.
the conviction that his understanding cannot fathom the secrets of nature and the
treats of the purpose of the Divine Pentateuch they are described as the means of acquiring wisdom, enduring happiness, and also bodily comfort (ch. xxxi.). Generally a distinction is made between "hu^kim" ("statutes") and misbpa(im ("judgments "). The object of the latter is, on the whole, known, but the bu^kim are considered as tests of man's obedience ; no reason is given why they have been enacted. Maimonides rejects this distinction ; he states that all precepts are the result of wisdom and design, that all contribute to the welfare of man-
The
wisdom of Divine Providence. concluding section of the Third Part

In the
precepts.
GVtDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
lix
The author kind, although with regard to the bukîm this is less obvious. draws another line of distinction between the general principles and the details of rules. For the selection and the introduction of the latter there is but one " Such is the will of God." reason, viz. The laws are intended to promote man's perfection ; they improve both his mental and his physical condition ; the former in so far as they lead him to the acquisition of true knowledge, the latter through the training of his moral and social faculties. Each law thus imparts knowledge, improves the moral condition of man, or conduces to the well-being of society. Many revealed laws This object is not help to enlighten man, and to correct false opinions. God in His wisdom sometimes withheld from the always clearly announced. knowledge of man the purpose of commandments and actions. There are If the same other precepts which tend to restrain man's passions and desires. end is occasionally attainable by other means, it must be remembered that the Divine laws are adapted to the ordinary mental and emotional state of man, and In this work, as in the Tad ha-haxakaht not to exceptional circumstances. Maimonides divides the laws of the Pentateuch into fourteen groups, and in each group he discusses the principal and the special object of the laws included
:
in
it.
In addition to the legislative contents, the Bible includes historical information ; and Maimonides, in briefly reviewing the Biblical narratives, shows that these are likewise intended to improve man's physical, moral, and intellectual " " It is not a vain condition. thing for you (Deut. xxxii. 47), and when it it is his own fault. vain to anyone, proves In the final chapters the author describes the several degrees of human perfection, from the sinners who have turned from the right path to the best of
men, who in all their thoughts and acts cling to the Most Perfect Being, who aspire after the greatest possible knowledge of God, and strive to serve their Maker in the practice of "loving-kindness, righteousness, and justice." This degree of human perfection can only be attained by those who never forget the
presence of the Almighty, and remain firm in their fear and love of God. These servants of the Most High inherit the choicest of human blessings ; they are endowed with wisdom : they are godlike beings.
INTRODUCTION
To
"
to his Pupil, R. Joseph Ibn Aknin.} In the name of GOD, Lord of the Universe. R. Joseph (may God protect him !), son of R. Jehudah (may his repose be in Paradise !)
[Letter of the Author
My
dear pupil, ever since you resolved to
come
to me, from a distant
country, and to study under my direction, I thought highly of your thirst for knowledge, and your fondness for speculative pursuits, which found exI refer to the time when I received your writings pression in your poems. in prose and verse from Alexandria. I was then not yet able to test your
powers of apprehension, and I thought that your desire might possibly exceed your capacity. But when you had gone with me through a course of astronomy, after having completed the [other] elementary studies which are indispensable for the understanding of that science, I was still more gratified by the acuteness and the quickness of your apprehension. Observing your great fondness for mathematics, I let you study them more deeply, for I felt sure of your ultimate success. Afterwards, when I took you through a course of logic, I found that my great expectations of you were confirmed, and I considered you fit to receive from me an exposition of the esoteric ideas contained in the prophetic books, that you might understand them as they are understood by men of culture. When I commenced by way of hints, I
noticed that you desired additional explanation, urging me to expound some metaphysical problems ; to teach you the system of the Mutakallemim ; to
tell you whether their and if not, arguments were based on logical proof what their method was. I perceived that you had acquired some knowledge in those matters from others, and that you were perplexed and bewildered ;
;
I urged you to desist yet you sought to find out a solution to your difficulty. from this pursuit, and enjoined you to continue your studies systematically ;
for
my object was that the truth should present itself in connected order, and that you should not hit upon it by mere chance. Whilst you studied
with
rabbinical literature
never refused to explain difficult verses in the Bible or passages in which we happened to meet. When, by the will of God, we parted, and you went your way, our discussions aroused in me a resolution which had long been dormant. Your absence has prompted me
I
me
to
compose
this treatise for

I
you and
it
they
may
as
be.
have divided
is
for those who are like you, however few into chapters, each of which shall be sent to
you
soon
as it
completed.
the
Farewell
"
" Cause me
(Psalm
[Prefatory Remarks.']
to
know
way wherein
should walk, for
I lift
up mjr soul unto Thee."
" Unto you, O men, I call, and my voice is to the sons of men." (Prov. viii. 4.) " Bow down thine ear and hear the words of the wise, and apply thine heart unto
(Prov.
xxii. 17.)
1
cxliii. 8.)
my
knowledge."
INTRODUCTION
My
primary object in this work is to explain certain words occurring in the prophetic books. Of these some are homonyms, and of their several meanings the ignorant choose the wrong ones ; other terms which are employed in a figurative sense are erroneously taken by such persons in their primary signification. There are also hybrid terms, denoting things which are of the same class from one point of view and of a different class from It is not here intended to explain all these expressions to the unanother. lettered or to mere tyros, a previous knowledge of Logic and Natural Philo-
sophy being indispensable, or to those who confine their attention to the for the study of our holy Law, I mean the study of the canonical law alone true knowledge of the Torah is the special aim of this and similar works.
;
The object of this treatise is to enlighten a religious man who has been trained to believe in the truth of our holy Law, who conscientiously fulfils
his moral and religious duties, and at the same time has been successful in reason has attracted him to abide within his philosophical studies. its sphere ; and he finds it difficult to accept as correct the teaching based
Human
literal interpretation of the Law, and especially that which he himself or others derived from those homonymous, metaphorical, or hybrid expressions. Hence he is lost in perplexity and anxiety. If he be guided solely by
on the
and renounce his previous views which are based on those expressions, he would consider that he had rejected the fundamental principles of the Law ; and even if he retains the opinions which were derived from those expressions, and if, instead of following his reason, he abandon its guidance altogether, it would still appear that his religious convictions had suffered loss and injury. For he would then be left with those errors which give rise to fear and anxiety, constant grief and great perplexity. This work has also a second object in view. It seeks to explain certain obscure figures which occur in the Prophets, and are not distinctly characterized as being figures. Ignorant and superficial readers take them in a Even well informed persons are bewildered literal, not in a figurative sense. if they understand these passages in their literal signification, but they are
reason,
entirely relieved of their perplexity suggest that the terms are figurative.
when we
For
explain the figure, or merely
have called this book Guide for the Perplexed. I do not presume to think that this treatise settles every doubt in the minds of those who understand it, but I maintain that it settles the greater part of their difficulties. No intelligent man will require and expect that on introthis reason I
I shall completely exhaust it ; or that on commencing the exposition of a figure I shall fully explain all its parts. Such a course could not be followed by a teacher in a viva vocf exposition, much less by an author in writing a book, without becoming a target for every foolish con-
ducing any subject
ceited person to discharge the arrows of folly at him Some general principles bearing upon this point have been fully discussed in our works on the
Talmud, and we have there

of this kind.
called the attention of the reader to
many themes
(Mishneh tor ah, I. ii. 12, and iv. 10) that the " NatuMa'ase Bereshit (Account of the Creation) signified expression of the ral and Chariot Ma'aseh Mercabab (" Description Science," ") " The Metaphysics, and we explained the force of the Rabbinical dictum, M&'asfh Mercabah must not be fully expounded even in the presence of a
also stated
We
INTRODUCTION
single student, unless he be wise and able to reason for himself, and even then you should merely acquaint him with the heads of the different sections of the subject. (Babyl. Talm. Hagigab, fol. 1 1 b). You must, therefore, not expect from me more than such heads. And even these have not been methodically and systematically arranged in this work, but have been, on the contrary, scattered, and are interspersed with other topics which we shall have
occasion to explain. object in adopting this arrangement is that the truths should be at one time apparent, and at another time concealed. Thus we shall not be in opposition to the Divine Will (from which it is wrong to
deviate) which has withheld from the multitude the truths required for the " knowledge of God, according to the words, The secret of the Lord is with them that fear Him " xxv.
(Ps.
My
14).
that also in Natural Science there are topics which are not to be Our Sages laid down the rule, " The Ma'asth Berefully explained. shitb must not be expounded in the presence of two." If an author were to
explain these principles in writing, it would be equal to expounding them, unto thousands of men. For this reason the prophets treat these subjects in figures, and our Sages, imitating the method of Scripture, speak of them in metaphors and allegories because there is a close affinity between these subDo not jects and metaphysics, and indeed they form part of its mysteries. imagine that these most difficult problems can be thoroughly understood by any one of us. This is not the case. At times the truth shines so brilliantly that we perceive it as clear as day. Our nature and habit then draw a veil over our perception, and we return to a darkness almost as dense as before.
;
Know
We
are like those who, though beholding frequent flashes of lightning, still find themselves in the thickest darkness of the night. On some the lightning flashes in rapid succession, and they seem to be in continuous light, and
is as clear as the day. This was the degree of prophetic excellence " attained by (Moses) the greatest of prophets, to whom God said, But " as for thee, stand thou here it is written and of whom v. (Deut. 31), by
their night
the skin of his face shone," etc. (Exod. xxxiv. 29). [Some perceive the prophetic flash at long intervals ; this is the degree of most prophets.] By others only once during the whole night is a flash of lightning perceived. This is the case with those of whom we are informed, " They prophesied, and did not prophesy again " (Num. xi. 25). There are some to whom the flashes of lightning appear with varying intervals; others are in the condition of men, whose darkness is illumined not by lightning, but by some kind of crystal or similar stone, or other substances that possess the property of
shining during the night ; and to them even this small amount of light is " not continuous, but now it shines and now it vanishes, as if it were the flame of the rotating sword."
"
Me
" Truth, in spite of all its they walk on in darkness (Ps. Ixxxii. 5). powerful manifestations, is completely withheld from them, and the follow" And now men see not the ing words of Scripture may be applied to them, " light which is bright in the skies (Job xxxvii. 21). They are the multitude of ordinary men there is no need to notice them in this treatise.
stand
;
;
degrees in the perfection of men vary according to these distinctions* who never beheld the light even for one day, but walk in " continual darkness, it is written, They know not, neither will they under-
The
Concerning those
INTRODUCTION
You must know
that
if
a person,
who
has attained a certain degree of per-
fection, wishes to
impart to others, either orally or in writing, any portion of the knowledge which he has acquired of these subjects, he is utterly unable to be as systematic and explicit as he could be in a science of which the method The same difficulties which he encountered when investiis well known. gating the subject for himself will attend him when endeavouring to instruct others ; viz., at one time the explanation will appear lucid, at another time, obscure ; this property of the subject appears to remain the same both For this reason, great theoto the advanced scholar and to the beginner. logical scholars gave instruction in all such matters only by means of metaphors and allegories. They frequently employed them in forms varying more or less essentially. In most cases they placed the lesson to be illusWhen trated at the beginning, or in the middle, or at the end of the simile. they could find no simile which from beginning to end corresponded to the idea which was to be illustrated, they divided the subject of the lesson, although in itself one whole, into different parts, and expressed each by a Still more obscure are those instances in which one simile separate figure.
is employed to illustrate many subjects, the beginning of the simile repreSometimes the whole metaphor may senting one thing, the end another. refer to two cognate subjects in the same branch of knowledge. If we were to teach in these disciplines, without the use of parables and
we should be compelled to resort to expressions both profound and transcendental, and by no means more intelligible than metaphors and similes ; as though the wise and learned were drawn into this course by the
figures,
as they are compelled to follow the laws of nature in matters relating to the body. You are no doubt aware that the Almighty, desiring to lead us to perfection and to improve our state of These society, has revealed to us laws which are to regulate our actions.
Divine Will, in the same way
an advanced state of intellectual culture. We conception of the Existence of the Creator according to our that is, we must have a knowledge of Metaphysics. But this capabilities discipline can only be approached after the study of Physics ; for the science of Physics borders on Metaphysics, and must even precede it in the course of our studies, as is clear to all who are familiar with these questions, "yherefore the Almighty commenced Holy Writ with the description of the Creation, the subject being on the one hand most that is, with Physical Science weighty and important, and on the other hand our means of fully comprelaws, however, presuppose
must
first
form
;
hending those great problems being limited. He described those profound truths, which His Divine Wisdom found it necessary to communicate to us, in allegorical, figurative, and metaphorical language. Our Sages have said " (Yemen Midrash on Gen. i. i), It is impossible to give a full account of the Creation to man. Therefore Scripture simply tells us, In the beginning God " created the heavens and the earth (Gen. i. i). Thus they have suggested " that this subject is a deep mystery, and in the words of Solomon, Far off " find and exceedingly deep, who can it out ? It has been (Eccles. vii. 24). treated in metaphors in order that the uneducated may comprehend it according to the measure of their faculties and the feebleness of their appreIn our hension, while educated persons may take it in a different sense. commentary on the Mishnah we stated our intention to explain difficult
INTRODUCTION
latter
problems in the Book on Prophecy and in the Book of Harmony. In the we intended to examine all the passages in the Midrash which, if taken with truth and common sense, and must literally, appear to be inconsistent therefore be taken figuratively. Many years have elapsed since I first commenced those works. I had proceeded but a short way when I became For I observed that by expounding these dissatisfied with my original plan. means and of allegorical mystical terms, we do not explain anypassages by thing, but merely substitute one thing for another of the same nature, whilst in explaining them fully our efforts would displease most people ; and my 'sole object in planning to write those books was to make the contents of Midrashim and the exoteric lessons of the prophecies intelligible to everybody. We have further noticed that when an ill-informed Theologian reads these Midrashim, he will find no difficulty ; for possessing no knowledge of the properties of things, he will not reject statements which involve When, however, a person who is both religious and well impossibilities. educated reads them, he cannot escape the following dilemma either he takes them literally, and questions the abilities of the author and the sound:
doing thereby nothing which is opposed to the principles he will acquiesce in assuming that the passages in question meaning, and he will continue to hold the author in high estimation whether he understood the allegory or not. As regards prophecy in its various degrees and the different metaphors used in the prophetic books, we shall give in the present work an explanation, according to a different method. Guided by these considerations I have refrained from writing In my larger work, the Mishthose two books as I had previously intended. nah Torab, I have contented myself with briefly stating the principles of our faith and its fundamental truths, together with such hints as approach a clear In this work, however, I address those who have studied philoexposition. sophy and have acquired sound knowledge, and who while firm in religious matters are perplexed and bewildered on account of the ambiguous and
ness of his
of our faith, or have some secret
mind
Some chapters may figurative expressions employed in the holy writings. be found in this work which contain no reference whatever to homonyms.
Such chapters will serve as an introduction to others ; they will contain some reference to the signification of a homonym which I do not wish to mention in that place, or explain some figure ; point out that a certain expression is a figure ; treat of difficult passages generally misunderstood in consequence
of the
homonymy
they include, or because the simile they contain

it
is
taken
in place of that
which
represents,
and
vice versa.
:
The Having spoken of similes, I proceed to make the following remark key to the understanding and to the full comprehension of all that the Prophets have said is found in the knowledge of the figures, their general You know the verse ideas, and the meaning of each word they contain. " " I have also spoken in similes by the Prophets (Hosea xii. 10) ; and also " " the verse, Put forth a riddle and speak a parable And (Ezek. xvii. 2). " because the Prophets continually employ figures, Ezekiel said, Does He " not speak parables ? (xxi. 5). Again, Solomon begins his book of Proverbs " with the words, To understand a proverb and figurative speech, the words " of the wise and their dark sayings (Prov. i. 6) ; and we read in Midrash, Shir " ba-shirim Rabba, i. i) ; To what were the words of the Law to be com:
INTRODUCTION
?
pared before the time of Solomon
To
a well the waters of
which are
at a
great depth, and though cool and fresh, yet no man could drink of them. clever man joined cord with cord, and rope with rope, and drew up and
drank.
ject,
till
So Solomon went from
figure to figure,
and from subject to sub-
Sages.
the
Law
he obtained the true sense of the Law." So far go the words of our " I do not believe that any intelligent man thinks that the words of " mentioned here as the
requiring
application of figures in order to
be understood, can refer to the rules for building tabernacles, for preparing the lulab, or for the four kinds of trustees. What is really meant is the apprehension of profound and difficult subjects, concerning which our Sages said, " If a man loses in his house a sela, of a pearl, he can find it by lighting a taper worth only one issar. Thus the parables in themselves are of no great value, but through them the words of the holy Law are rendered intelligible." These likewise are the words of our Sages consider well their statement, that the deeper sense of the words of the holy Law are pearls, and the literal acceptation of a figure is of no value in itself. They compare the hidden meaning included in the literal sense of the simile to a pearl lost in a dark
;
room, which is full of furniture. It is certain that the pearl is in the room, but the man can neither see it nor know where it lies. It is just as if the pearl were no longer in his possession, for, as has been stated, it affords him no The same is the case with the combenefit whatever until he kindles a light. " prehension of that which the simile represents. The wise king said, A word " in of vessels of silver is like xxv. gold (Prov. apples n). Hear fitly spoken The word maskiyoth, the Hebrew equithe explanation of what he said " " " valent for vessels," denotes i.e., things in which there filigree network are very small apertures, such as are frequently wrought by silversmiths. " called in Hebrew maskiyyotb (lit. transpicuous," from the verb They are " he saw," a root which occurs also in the Targum of Onkelos, Gen. sakab, Thus Solomon meant xxvi. 8), because the eye penetrates through them. " to say, Just as apples of gold in silver filigree with small apertures, so is a
:
word
See
fitly
spoken."
beautifully the conditions of a good simile are described in this It shows that in every word which has a double sense, a literal one figure and a figurative one, the plain meaning must be as valuable as silver, and the
!
how
so that the figurative meaning bears hidden meaning still more precious It is further necessary the same relation to the literal one as gold to silver.
;
that the plain sense of the phrase shall give to those who consider it some notion of that which the figure represents. Just as a golden apple overlaid with a network of silver, when seen at a distance, or looked at superficially,
mistaken for a silver apple, but when a keen-sighted person looks at the object well, he will find what is within, and see that the apple is gold. The same is the case with the figures employed by prophets. Taken literally,
is
such expressions contain wisdom useful for many purposes, among others, for the amelioration of the condition of society e.g., the Proverbs (of Soloin their literal sense. Their hidden meaning, and similar mon), sayings however, is profound wisdom, conducive to the recognition of real truth.
;
Know that
every
the figures employed by prophets are of two kinds

;
first,
where
word which occurs in the simile represents a certain idea and secondly, where the simile, as a whole, represents a general idea, but has a great
INTRODUCTION
many points which have no reference whatever to that idea ; they are simply required to give to the simile its proper form and order, or better to conceal the idea ; the simile is therefore continued as far as necessary, according to
its literal
sense.
Consider
this well.
it (ver. 13) to a seventh. Every word in element into the idea represented by the figure. An example of the second class of prophetic figures is found in Proverbs " For at the window of my house I looked through my case(vii. 6-26) ment, and beheld among the simple ones ; I discerned among the youths a young man void of understanding, passing through the street near her corner and he went the way to her house, in the twilight, in the evening, in the black and dark night and, behold, there met him a woman with the attire of a harlot, and subtil of heart. (She is loud and stubborn ; her feet abide not in her house now she is without, now in the streets, and lieth in wait in every corner.) So she caught him, and kissed him, and with an impudent face said unto him, I have peace offerings with me this day have I paid my vows. Therefore came I forth to meet thee, diligently to seek thy face, and I have found thee. I have decked my bed with coverings of tapestry, with I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, striped cloths of the yarn of Egypt. aloes, and cinnamon. Come, let us take our fill of love until the morning let us solace ourselves with loves. For the goodman is not at home, he is gone a long journey he hath taken a bag of money with him, and will come home at the day appointed. With her much fair speech she caused him to He goeth after her yield, with the flattering of her lips she forced him. straightway, as an ox goeth to the slaughter, or as fetters to the correction of a fool till a dart strike through his liver ; as a bird hasteth to the snare, and knoweth not that it is for his life. Hearken unto me now therefore, O ye children, and attend to the words of my mouth. Let not thine heart decline to her ways, go not astray in her paths. For she hath cast down many wounded yea, many strong men have been slain by her." The general principle expounded in all these verses is to abstain from excessive indulgence in bodily pleasures. The author compares the body, which is the source of all sensual pleasures, to a married woman who at the same time is a harlot. And this figure he has taken as the basis of his entire
angels " a sixth ; the
is to be found in Genesis and the top of it reached to " heaven and, behold, the angels of God ascending and descending on it " " " refers to ladder idea set on the xxviii. The word one ; 12). (Gen. up " " and the top of it reached to heaven " to a third earth to another " " " " " " to of God to a fourth to a fifth
An example of the
"
first class
of prophetic figures earth,
And, behold,
;
a ladder set
up on the
Lord stood above
ascending "
descending
this figure introduces a fresh
book.
shall explain how aptlv he concludes pleasures to an adulterous harlot. that work with tiie praises of a faithful wife who devotes herself to the welfare
We shall hereafter show the wisdom of Solomon in comparing sensual We
of her
husband and of her household. All obstacles which prevent man from
attaining his highest aim in life, all the deficiencies in the character of man, all his evil This will be expropensities, are to be traced to the body alone.
plained later on. The predominant idea running throughout the figure is, that man shall not be entirely guided by his animal, or material nature ; foi the material substance of man is identical with that of the brute creation.
INTRODUCTION
An adequate explanation of the figure having been given, and its meaning having been shown, do not imagine that you will find in its application a you must"not ask what is corresponding element for each part of the figure meant by " I have peace offerings with me " (ver. 14) by I have decked " or what is added to the force (ver. 1 6) my bed with coverings of tapestry " " for the goodman is not at home of the figure by the observation (ver. 19),
;
;
and
so
on to the end
illustration of the
metaphor
For all this is merely to complete the of the chapter. The circumstances dein its literal meaning.
scribed here are such as are
common
to adulterers.
Such conversations take
place between
all
is
have
said, for it
adulterous persons. You must well understand what I a principle of the utmost importance with respect to those
If you observe in one of the chapters things which I intend to expound. that I explained the meaning of a certain figure, ard pointed out to you its
general scope, do not trouble yourself further in order to find an interpretation of each separate portion, for that would lead you to one of the two following erroneous courses ; either you will miss the sense included in the
metaphor, or you will be induced to explain certain things which require no explanation, and which are not introduced for that purpose. Through this unnecessary trouble you may fall into the great error which besets most modern sects in their foolish writings and discussions ; they all endeavour to find some hidden meaning in expressions which were never uttered by the author in that sense. Your object should be to discover in most of the figures the general idea which the author wishes to express. In some instances it will be sufficient if you understand from my remarks that a certain expression For when you contains a figure, although I may offer no further comment. know that it is not to be taken literally, you will understand at once to what subject it refers. My statement that it is a figurative expression will, as it were, remove the screen from between the object and the observer.
Directions for
the
Study
of
this
Work.
If you desire to grasp all that is contained in this book so that nothing shall escape your notice, consider the chapters in connected order. In studying each chapter, do not content yourself with comprehending its principal subject,
but attend to every term mentioned therein, although it may seem to have no connection with the principal subject. For what I have written in this work was not the suggestion of the moment ; it is the result of deep study and great application. Care has been taken that nothing that appeared doubtful should be left unexplained. Nothing of what is mentioned is out of place, every remark will be found to illustrate the subject-matter of the respective chapter. Do not read superficially, lest you do me an injury, and derive no benefit for yourself. You must study thoroughly and read continually ; for you will then find the solution of those important problems of religion, which are a source of anxiety to all intelligent men. I adjure any reader of my book, in the name of the Most High, not to add any explanation even to a single word ; nor to explain to another any portion of it except such passages as have been fully treated of by previous theological authorities ; he must not teach others anything that he has learnt from my work alone, and that has not been hitherto discussed by any of our authorities. The reader must, moreover, beware of raising objections to any of my state-
INTRODUCTION
ments, because it is very probable that he may understand my words to mean He will injure me, while I enthe exact opposite to what I intended to say. " He will requite me evil for good." Let the deavoured to benefit him.
make a careful study of this work ; and if his doubt be removed on even one point, let him praise his Maker and rest contented with the knowBut if he derive from it no benefit whatever, he may ledge he has acquired. Should he notice any consider the book as if it had never been written.
reader
opinions with which he does not agree, let
explanation, even
if
him endeavour
in order that
to find a suitable
it
seem far-fetched,
owe it especially to our Such a duty we owe to every one. charitably. scholars and theologians, who endeavour to teach us what is the truth accordI feel assured that those of my readers who ing to the best of their ability.
have not studied philosophy, will still derive profit from many a chapter. But the thinker whose studies have brought him into collision with religion, will, as I have already mentioned, derive much benefit from every chapter. How greatly will he rejoice How agreeably will my words strike his ears Those, however, whose minds are confused with false notions and perverse
! !
We
he may judge
me
methods,
who
regard their misleading studies
as sciences,
and imagine them-
selves philosophers, though they have no knowledge that could truly be termed science, will object to many chapters, and will find in them many
insuperable difficulties, because they do not understand their meaning, and because I expose therein the absurdity of their perverse notions, which constitute " stored up for their ruin." God knows their riches and peculiar treasure,
that I hesitated very much before writing on the subjects contained in this work, since they are profound mysteries ; they are topics which, since the time of our captivity have not been treated by any of our scholars as far as we possess their writings ; how then shall I now make a beginning and dis-
thy acts be guided by pure intentions." On these two principles while composing some parts of this work. Lastly, when I have a when I find the road narrow, and can see no difficult subject before me other way of teaching a well established truth except by pleasing one intelligent man and displeasing ten thousand fools I prefer to address myself to
"
them ? But I rely on two precedents first, to similar cases our Sages " It is time to do something in honour of the Lord for applied the verse, void have made thy law" (Ps. cxix. 126). Secondly, they have said, they
cuss
: :
Let
all
I relied
the one man, and to take no notice whatever of the condemnation of the multitude ; I prefer to extricate that intelligent man from his embarrass-
ment and show him the

fection
cause of his perplexity, so that he
may
attain per-
and be at peace.
Introductory Remarks.
[Ox METHOD]
THERE
are seven causes of inconsistencies
and contradictions to be met with
The first cause arises from the fact that the author collects in a literary work. the opinions of various men, each differing from the other, but neglects
to
mention the name
of the author of
contradictions or inconsistencies
belong to two different one opinion which he subsequently rejects
any particular opinion. In such a work must occur, since any two statements may authors. Second cause The author holds at first
:
in his work, however,
both
his
io
original are not
INTRODUCTION
;
and altered views are retained. Third cause: The passages in question all to be taken literally some only are to be understood in their literal sense, while in others figurative language is employed, which includes another meaning besides the literal one or, in the apparently inconsistent passages, figurative language is employed which, if taken literally, would seem to be contradictories or contraries Fourth cause The premises are not identical in both statements, but for certain reasons they are not fully stated in these passages or two propositions with different subjects which are expressed by the same term without having the difference in meaning
: :
pointed out, occur in two passages. The contradiction is therefore only apparent, but there is no contradiction in reality. The fifth cause is traceable to the use of a certain method adopted in teaching and expounding profound problems. Namely, a difficult and obscure theorem must sometimes be mentioned and assumed as known, for the illustration of some elementary and intelligible subject which must be taught beforehand, the commencement being always made with the easier thing. The teacher must therefore facilitate, in any manner which he can devise, the explanation of those theorems, which have to be assumed as known, and he must content himself with giving a general though somewhat inaccurate notion on the subject. It is, for the present, explained
according to the capacity of the students, that they may comprehend it as far as they are required to understand the subject. Later on, the same subject is thoroughly treated and fully developed in its right place. Sixth cause
:
not apparent, and only becomes evident through a series of premises. The larger the number of premises necessary to prove the contradiction between the two conclusions, the greater is the chance that it will escape detection, and that the author will not perceive his own inconcontradiction
is
The
Only when from each conclusion, by means of suitable premises, is made, and from the enunciation thus inferred, by means of proper arguments, other conclusions are formed, and after that process has been repeated many times, then it becomes clear that the original conclusions are contradictories or contraries. Even able writers are liable to overlook such inconsistencies. If, however, the contradiction between the original statements can at once be discovered, and the author, while writing the second, does not think of the first, he evinces a greater deficiency, and his words deserve no notice whatever. Seventh cause It is sometimes necessary to introduce such metaphysical matter as may partly be disclosed, but must while, therefore, on one occasion the object which the partly be concealed
sistency.
an inference
may demand that the metaphysical problem be treated as solved in one way, it may be convenient on another occasion to treat it as solved in the opposite way. The author must endeavour, by concealing the fact as much as possible, to prevent the uneducated reader from perceiving
author has in view
the contradiction.
Inconsistencies occurring in the Mishnah and Boraitot are traceable to first cause. You meet frequently in the Gemara with passages like the " Does not the beginning of the passage contradict the end ? following
the
the beginning is the dictum of a certain Rabbi ; the end that of an" or " Rabbi other ; (Jehudah ha-Nasi) approved of the opinion of a certain
;
No
rabbi in one case and gave
it
therefore anonymously, and having accepted
INTRODUCTION
11
that of another rabbi in the other case he introduced that view without
" " naming the authority ; or Who is the author of this anonym >u- dictum " Who is the author of that paragraph in the Mishnah Rabbi A." Rabbi B." Instances of this kind are innumerable.
traced to the
?
r
in the Gemara may be Apparent contradictions or differences occurring " In this particular case he first cause and to the second, as e.g., " " or He agrees with him in one point, but differs ; agrees with this rabbi " " or These two dicta are the opinions of two Amofrom him in another raim, who differ as regards the statement made by certain rabbi." These
;
" it then becomes necessary to consider which of the " In the first recension of the Talmud two opinions came second. Again, by Rabbi Ashi, he made one assertion, and in the second a different one."The inconsistencies and contradictions met with in some passages of the
The following are examples of contradictions traceable to the first cause. " Rabba altered his are instances which may be traced to the second cause.
;
opinion on that point
prophetic
cause,
books,
it is
if
taken
literally, are all
traceable to the third or fourth
exclusively in reference to this subject that I wrote the present You know that the following expression frequently occurs, Introduction.
and
"
ing that either
verse says this, another that," showing the contradiction, and explainsome premise is wanting or the subject is altered. Comp. " Solomon, it is not sufficient that thy words contradict thy father ; they are
One
themselves inconsistent, etc." Many similar instances occur in the writings The passages in the prophetical books which our Sages have of our Sages. Our desire, however, explained, mostly refer to religious or moral precepts.
is to discuss such passages as contain apparent contradictions in regard to the I shall principles of our faith. explain some of them in various chapters of the present work ; for this subject also belongs to the secrets of the Torah.
Contradictions traceable to the seventh cause occurring in the prophetical works require special investigation ; and no one should express his opinion on that matter by reasoning and arguing without weighing the matter well in his mind. Inconsistencies in the writings of true philosophers are traceable to the fifth cause. Contradictions occurring in the writings of most authors and commentators, such as are not included in the above-mentioned works, are
due to the sixth cause. Many examples of this class of contradictions are " found in the Midrash and the Agada hence the saying, We must not raise questions concerning the contradictions met with in the Agada." You may also notice in them contradictions due to the seventh cause. Any inconsistency discovered in the present work will be found to arise in consequence of the fifth cause or the seventh. Notice this, consider its truth, and remember it well, lest you misunderstand some of the chapters in this book. Having concluded these introductory remarks I proceed to examine those expressions, to the true meaning of which, as apparent from the context, it is This book will then be a key admitting necessary to direct your attention. to places the gates of which would otherwise be closed. When the gates are opened and men enter, their souls will enjoy repose, their eyes will be gratified, and even their bodies, after all toil and labour, will be refreshed.
;
PAR?
"
Open ye
the gates, that the righteous nation which keepeth the truth enter in" (Isa. xxvi. 2.)
may
CHAPTER
SOME have been
is
figure to believe in the " Let for they thought that the words corporeality [of the Divine Being] " had the form us make man in our zelem God that (Gen.i. 26), implied
of opinion that
by the Hebrew zelem, the shape and

this
:
of a thing
to be understood,
and
explanation led
men
being, i.e., that He had figure and shape, and that, consequently, was corporeal. They adhered faithfully to this view, and thought that iTthey were to relinquish ft they would eo ipso reject the truth of the Bible and further, if they did not conceive God as having a body possessed of face and limbs, similar to their own in appearance, they would have to deny even the existence of God. The sole difference which they admitted, was that He excelled in greatness ancTsplendour, and that His substance was not flesh and blood. Thus far went their conception of the greatness and glory of God. The incorporeality of the Divine Being, and His unity, in the true will be sense of the word for there is no real unity without incorporeality In this (Part II., ch. i.) fully proved in the course of the present treatise. chapter it is our sole intention to explain the meaning of the words zelem " and demut. I hold that the Hebrew equivalent of form " in the ordinary Thus of the the and of a thing, is toar. viz., word, acceptation figure shape we find" [And Joseph was] beautiful in toar ('form'), and beautiful in appearance" (Gen. xxxix. 6): "What form (toar) is he of?" (i Sam. " xxviii. 14) As the form (toar) of the children of a king " (Judges viii. 1 8). " It is also applied to form produced by human labour, as He marketh its form (toar) with a line," " and he marketh its form (toar) with the compass " This term is not at all applicable to God. The term zelem, (Isa. xliv. 13).
oTaTiuman
He
on the other hand,
signifies
the specific form,
viz.,
that which constitutes
t..e
essence of a thing, whereby the thing is what it is ; the reality of a thing in " " so far as it is that particular being. In man the form is that constituent which gives him human perception and on account of this intellectual per:
" In the zelem of God ception the term zelem is employed in the sentences " he created him (Gen. i. 27). It is therefore rightly said, " Thou despisest " " " can their zelem (Ps. Ixiii. 20) ; the only concern the soul contempt the specific form of man, not the properties and shape of his body, I am " " also of opinion that the reason why this term is used for idols may be found in the circumstance that they are worshipped on account of some idea
represented by them, not on account of their figure and shape. For the " reason the term is used in the expression, the forms (zalme) of your
13
14
(l Sam. vi. 5), for the chief object was the removal of the injury caused by the emerods, not a change of their shape. As, however, it must " be admitted that the term zelem is employed in these two cases, viz. the " and " " the idols on account of the external shape, images of the emerods the term zelem is either a homonym or a hybrid term, and would denote both the specific form and the outward shape, and similar properties relating to " the dimensions and the shape of material bodies ; and in the phrase Let " " us make man in our zelem the specific (Gen. i. 26), the term signifies form " of man, viz., his intellectual perception, and does not refer to his " " " figure or shape." Thus we have shown the difference between zelem and toar, and explained the meaning of zelem. " Demut is derived from the verb damah, he is like." This term likewise " denotes agreement with regard to some abstract relation : comp. I am " like a pelican of the wilderness the author does not compare (Ps. cii. 7) ; himself to the pelican in point of wings and feathers, but in point of sadness. " Nor any tree in the garden of God was like unto him in beauty" (Ezek. xxxi. " Their poison is like the 8) ; the comparison refers to the idea of beauty. " " " of a He is like unto a lion (Ps. Iviii. 5) ; poison (Ps. xvii. 12) ; serpent the resemblance indicated in these passages does not refer to the figure and " In the same manner is used the likeness shape, but to some abstract idea. " of the throne i. the is made with to (Ezek. 26); regard greatness comparison and glory, not, as many believe, with regard to its square form, its breadth, or " the length of its legs this explanation applies also to the phrase the likeness of the bayyot ("living creatures," Ezek. i. 13). As man's distinction consists in a property which no other creature on earth possesses, viz., intellectual perception, in the exercise of which he does not
:
emerods "
employ his senses, nor move his hand or his foot, this perception has been compared though only apparently, not in truth to the Divine perception, which requires no corporeal organ. On this account, i.e., on account of the Divine intellect with which man has been endowed, he is said to have been made in the form and likeness of the Almighty, but far from it be the notion
that the
Supreme Being
is
corporeal, having a material form.
CHAPTER
SOME
years ago a learned
II
man
asked
me
a question of great
importance
the
problem and the solution which we gave in our reply deserve the closest attention. Before, however, entering upon this problem and its solution I must premise that every Hebrew knows that the term Elohim is a homonym, and denotes God, angels, judges, and the rulers of countries, and that Onkelos the proselyte explained it in the true and correct manner by taking " Elohim in the sentence, and ye shall be like Elohim " (Gen. iii. 5) in the last" mentioned meaning, and rendering the sentence and ye shaL be like " " princes." Having pointed out the homonymity of the term Elohim we " return to the question under consideration. It would at first sight," said " the objector, appear from Scripture that man was originally intended to be perfectly equal to the rest of the animal creation, which is not endowed with but that intellect, reason, or power of distinguishing between good and evil Adam's disobedience to the command of God procured him that great per:
ON GENESIS
faction
III.
15
which is the peculiarity of man, viz., the power of distinguishing between good and evil the noblest of all the faculties of our nature, the essential
characteristic of the
human
race.
It thus appears
strange that the
punishment
be the rreans of elevating man to a pinnacle of perfection to which he had nor ,-tained previously. This is equivalent to saying that a certain man was rebellious and extremely wickecl, wherefore his nature was changed for the better, and he was made to shine as a star in the heavens." Such was the purport and subject of the question, thougrTnot in the exact words of the inquirer. Now mark our reply, which " was as follows You appear to have studied the matter superficially, and nevertheless you imagine that you can understand a book which has been the guide of past and present generations, when you for a moment withdraw from your lusts and appetites, and glance over its contents as if you were reading
for rebelliousness should
:
a historical work or some poetical composition. Collect your thoughts and examine the matter carefully, for it is not to be understood as you at first sight think, but as you will find after due deliberation namely, the intellect which was granted to man as the highest endowment, was bestowed on him
;
before his disobedience. With reference to this gift the Bible states that " man was created in the form and likeness of God." On account of this gift
it is
His commandments, as " (Gen. ii. 16) for no commandments are given to the brute creation or to those who are devoid of understanding. Through the intellect man distinguishes between the true and the false. This faculty Adam possessed perfectly and completely. The right and the wrong are terms employed in the science of apparent truths
of intellect
said
:
"
man was addressed by God, and received And the Lord God commanded Adam
(morals), not in that of necessary truths, as, e.g., it is not correct to say, in " " " reference to the proposition the heavens are spherical," it is good or to
declare the assertion that
"
the earth
is
flat
the one
it is
true, of the other it

false
is false.
" to be " bad " but we say of ; Similarly our language expresses
by the terms emet and sheker, of the morally right and the morally wrong, by tab and ra\ Thus it is the function of the intellect to discriminate between the true and the false a distinction which is
the idea of true and
When Adam was yet in applicable to all objects of intellectual perception. a state of innocence, and was guided solely by reflection and reason on " account of which it is said : Thou hast made him (man) little lower than
" the angels he was not at all able to follow or to understand (Ps. viii. 6) the principles of apparent truths ; the most manifest impropriety, viz., to
appear in a state of nudity, was nothing unbecoming according to his idea: he could not comprehend why it should be so. After man's disobedience, however, when he began to give way to desires which had their source in his
imagination and to the gratification of his bodily appetites, as it is said," And " the wife saw that the tree was good for food and delightful to the eyes he was punished by the loss of part of that intellectual faculty (Gen. iii. 6),
which he had previously possessed. He therefore transgressed a command with which he had been charged on the score of his reason and having obtained a knowledge of the apparent truths, he was wholly absorbed in the study of what is proper and what improper. Then he fully understood the magnitude of the loss he had sustained, what he had forfeited, and in what " situation he was thereby placed. And ye shall be like Hence we read,
;
16

"
elohim, knowing good and evil," and not knowing or discerning the " while in necessary truths we can only apply the words true and the false : " " " true and false," not good and evil." Further observe the passage, And
it is
"
"
" the eyes of both were opened, and they knew they were naked (Gen. iii. 7) : " " not said, And the eyes of both were opened, and they saw ; for what
the
man had
precisely the
same
seen previously and what he saw after this circumstance was there had been no blindness which was now removed, ;
but he received a new faculty whereby he found things wrong which previBesides, you must know that the Heously he had not regarded as wrong. brew word pakaJ? used in this passage is exclusively employed in the figurative sense of receiving new sources of knowledge, not in that of regaining the " God opened her eyes " (Gen. xxi. 19). " Then sense of sight. Comp., " " shall the eyes of the blind be opened (Isaiah xxxviii. 8). Open ears, he " " heareth not Which have eyes (ibid. xlii. zo), similar in sense to the verse, " to see, and see not When, however, Scripture says of Adam, (Ezek. xii. 2). " He changed his face (panav) and thou sentest him forth " (Job xiv. 20), it must be understood in the following way On account of the change of his For -panim, the Hebrew equivalent of face, original aim he was sent away. " " he turned," and signifies also is derived from the verb panah, aim," because man generally turns his face towards the thing he desires. In accordance with this interpretation, our text suggests that Adam, as he altered his intention and directed his thoughts to the acquisition of what he was forthis was his punishment it was bidden, he was banished from Paradise measure for measure. At first he had the privilege of tasting pleasure and happiness, and of enjoying repose and security ; but as his appetites grew stronger, and he followed his desires and impulses, (as we have already stated above), and partook of the food he was forbidden to taste, he was deprived of everything, was doomed to subsist on the meanest kind of food, such as he never tasted before, and this even only after exertion and labour, as it is said, " " " Thorns and thistles shall grow up for thee (Gen. iii. 18), By the sweat " And the of thy brow," etc., and in explanation of this the text continues, Lord God drove him from the Garden of Eden, to till the ground whence he was taken." He was now with respect to food and many other requirements " brought to the level of the lower animals comp., Thou shalt eat the grass " on his iii. 1 of the field condition, the Psalmist says, 8). Reflecting (Gen. " Adam unable to dwell in dignity, was brought to the level of the dumb beast" (Ps. xlix. 13). " May the Almighty be praised, whose design and wisdom cannot be fathomed."
: :
CHAPTER
III
IT might be thought that the Hebrew words temunab and tabnit have one and the same meaning, but this is not the case. Tabnit, derived from the verb banah (he built), signifies the build and construction of a thing that is to say, its figure, whether square, round, triangular, or of any other shape. " (tabnit) of the Tabernacle and the pattern (tabnit) Comp. the pattern " " of all its vessels (Exod. xxv. 9) according to the pattern (tabnit) which " " " the form of any bird thou wast shown upon the mount (Exod. xxv. 40) ; " " " the form (tabnit') of a hand the pattern (Ezek. viii. 3) (Deut. iv. 17)
; ; ;
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE

(tabnif) of
I?
the porch" (l Chron. xxviii. ll). In all these quotations it is the shape which is referred to. Therefore the Hebrew language never employs the word tabnit in speaking of the qualities of God Almighty.
The term
senses.
temunah, on the other hand,
is
used in the Bible in three different
" ness (temunati) (Deut. iv. 15). Secondly, the forms of our imagination, i.e., the impressions retained in imagination when the objects have ceased to " affect our senses. In In this sense it is used in the passage which begins
It signifies, first, the outlines of things which are perceived by our " And ye make an image bodily senses, i.e., their shape and form ; as, e.g., " the form (temunaf) of some likeness " (Deut. iv. 1 6) ; for ye saw no like-
thoughts from the visions of the night" (Job iv. 13), and which concludes " it remained but I could not recognize its sight, only an image temunab was before my eyes," i.e., an image which presented itself to my sight during sleep. Thirdly, the true form of an object, which is perceived only by the
intellect
:
and
"
it is
in this third signification that the
The words
herefore
And
the similitude of the

shall
mean " he
term is applied to God. he behold " (Num. xii. 8) comprehend the true essence of the Lord."
Lord
shall
CHAPTER
THE
IV
"
three verbs raah, bibbit, and hazah, which denote he perceived with the eye," are also used figuratively in the sense of intellectual perception. As
regards the
(v a-yar)
first
of these verbs this

a well in
is
and behold
"
the field
"
well known,
"
e.g.,
:
And
here
he looked
it signifies
(Gen. xxix. 2)
ocular perception ; yea, my heart has seen (raab) much of wisdom and " of knowledge (Eccles. i. 16) ; in this passage it refers to the intellectual
perception.
e.g.,
applied to God And the Lord ap" " And God saw (va-yar) that peared (va-yera) unto him (Gen. xviii. i) " " " it was good I beseech thee, show me (barenf) thy glory (Gen. 10) " " And they saw (va-yiru) the God of Israel (Exod. xxiv. (Exod. xxxiii. 18)
In
"
this figurative sense the verb is to be understood, " I saw (raiti) the Lord (i Kings xxii. 19) ;
;
when
"
i.
All these instances refer to intellectual perception, and by no means to for, on the one hand, the perception with the eye as in its literal meaning
10).
:
eye can only perceive a corporeal object, and in connection with it certain accidents, as colour, shape, etc. ; and, on the other hand, God does not
perceive by means of a corporeal organ, as will be explained. In the same manner the Hebrew hibbit signifies "he viewed " with the eye; " Look (tabbif) not behind thee " (Gen. xix. 17) ; " But his wife comp.
" looked (va-tabbet) back from him " (Gen. xix. 26) ; And if one look (ve" " " unto the land and v. to view and jbserve ; nibbat) (Isa. 30) figuratively, " " with the intellect, a thing till it be understood. to contemplate In this " used in passages like the following He hath not beheld " " " cannot be seen for xxiii. 21) ; (Num. iniquity " with the eye. The words, And they looked (ve-hibbitu) after Moses " (Exod. xxxiii. 8) in addition to the literal understanding of the phrase were explained by our Sages in a figurative sense. According to them, these words mean that the Israelites examined and criticised the actions and sayings " " of Moses. Compare also Contemplate (habbff), I pray thee, the heaven
sense the verb
is
:
(hibbit) iniquity in Jacob
18
(Gen. xv. 5)
babbit)
;

for this took place in a prophetic vision. This vert, when " is to look (meemployed in this figurative sense ; e.g.,
;
applied to God,
" " upon God (Exod. iii. 6) " And the similitude of the Lord shall he And thou canst not look (habbet) on inibehold (yabbii) (Num. xii. 8) "
;
"
quity
:
(Hab.
i.
13).
The same explanation applies to bazah. It denotes to view with the " as And let our eye look (ve-tabaz) upon Zion " (Mic. iv. ll) and
figuratively, to perceive mentally
"
eye, also
and Jerusalem
in a vision
"
"
"
phrase,
" (mahazeb") (Gen. xv. Also they saw (va-yel?ezu)
(Isa.
i.
i)
The word
i)
:
which he saw (hazah) concerning Judah of the Lord came unto Abraham
in this
sense
God
"
bazah
1
is
used in the
this well.
(Exod. xxiv.
1).
Note
CHAPTER V
WHEN the chief of philosophers [Aristotle] was about to inquire into some very profound subjects, and to establish his theory by proofs, he commenced his treatise with an apology, and requested the reader to attribute the author's inquiries not to presumption, vanity, egotism, or arrogance, as though he
were interfering with things of which he had no knowledge, but rather to his and his desire to discover and establish true doctrines, as far as lay in human power. We take the same position, and think that a man, when he commences to speculate, ought not to embark at once on a subject so vast and important ; he should previously adapt himself to the study of the several branches of science and knowledge, should most thoroughly refine his moral character and subdue his passions and desires, the offspring of his imagination ; when, in addition, he has obtained a knowledge of the true fundamental propositions, a comprehension of the several methods of inference and proof, and the capacity of guarding against fallacies, then he He must, however, not may approach the investigation of this subject.
zeal
decide any question by the first idea that suggests itself to his mind, or at once direct his thoughts and force them to obtain a knowledge of the Creator, id patiently, and advance but he must wait modest! step by step. " And Moses hid his face, for In this sense we must understand the words " he was afraid to look upon God (Exod. iii. 6), though retaining also the literal meaning of the passage, that Moses was afraid to gaze at the light which appeared to his eye ; but it must on no account be assumed that the Being which is exalted far above every imperfection can be perceived by the This act of Moses was highly commended by God, who bestowed on eye. "
And the similia well deserved portion of His goodness, as it is said " tude of the Lord shall he behold (Num. xii. 8). This, say our Sages, was the reward for having previously hidden his face, lest he should gaze at the Eternal. (Talm. B. Berakot Fa.) " " But the nobles of the Children of Israel were impetuous, and allowed what they perceived was but imperfect. their thoughts to go unrestrained " And they saw the God of Israel, and there was Therefore it is said of them, " and they saw the under his feet," etc. (Exod. xxiv. 10) ; and not merely, " the of the whole is to Israel criticize of their act of God purpose passage are blamed not to describe it. for the nature and of their perThey seeing ception, which was to a certain extent corporeal a result which necessarily
him
: :
ON EXODUS XXm. lo-n

followed,
19
fact that they ventured too far before being perfectly deserved to perish, but at the intercession of Moses this fate was averted by God for the time. They were afterwards burnt at Taberah, except Nadab and Abihu, who were burnt in the Tabernacle of
from the
prepared.
They
the congregation, according to
what
is
stated
by authentic
it
tradition.
(Midr.
Rabba ad
If
locum.)
such was the case with them,
how much more is
incumbent on us who
are inferior, and on those who are below us, to persevere in perfecting our knowledge of the elements, and in rightly understanding the preliminaries which purify the mind from the defilement of error ; then we may enter the
camp in order to gaze as the Bible says, And let the priests also, which come near to the Lord, sanctify themselves, lest the Lord break " forth upon them (Exod. xix. 22). Solomon, also, has cautioned all who
holy and divine
:
"
endeavour to attain this high degree of knowledge in the following figurative " " terms, Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God (Eccles. iv. 17). I will now return to complete what I commenced to explain. The nobles of the Children of Israel, besides erring in their perception, were, through this cause, also misled in their actions for in consequence of their confused to perception, they gave way bodily cravings. This is meant by the words, " Also they saw God and did eat and drink " (Exod. xxiv. 1 1). The principal " And there was under his feet as it were a paved part of that passage, viz., " work of a in the stone will be further
;
(Exod. xxiv. 10), sapphire explained course of the present treatise (ch. xxviii.). All we here intend to say is, that wherever in a similar connection any one of the three verbs mentioned above
occurs,
it
has reference to intellectual perception, not to the sensation of sight

;
by the eye for God is not a being to be perceived by the eye. It will do no harm, however, if those who are unable to comprehend what we here endeavour to explain should refer all the words in question to sensuous perception, to seeing lights created [for the purpose], angels, or similar
beings.
CHAPTER VI
THE two Hebrew nouns
the
isb and ishshab were originally employed to designate male and female " of human beings, but were afterwards applied to the " male and female " of the other species of the animal creation. For in" Of every clean beast thou shalt take to thee by sevens," stance, we read, " isb ve-ishto (Gen. vii. 2), in the same sense as isb ve-ishsbah, male and female." The term zakar u-nekebah was afterwards applied to anything Thus we read, designed and prepared for union with another object " The five curtains shall be coupled together, one (ishshab') to the other "
"
" It will easily be seen that the Hebrew brother and sister equivalents for are likewise treated as homonyms, and used, in a figurative sense, like isb and
ishsbab.
(abotab) (Exod. xxvi. 3).
"
CHAPTER
IT
is
VII
known that the verb yalad means " to bear," " they have born " (ve-yaledu) him children (Deut. xxi. 15). The word was next used in a
well
20

"
" He will cause her to bear (holidab) and bring forth " " verb further denotes, to bring forth," said of changes in " for the process of time, as though they were things which were born, e.g., " thou knowest not what a day may bring forth xxvii. i). (yeled) (Prov. Another figurative use of the word is its application to the formation of " thoughts and ideas, or of opinions resulting from them comp. and brought " " and they please themselves forth (ve-yalad) falsehood (Ps. vii. 14) ; also, " " in the children (yalde) of strangers ii. (Isa. 6), i.e., they delight in the
as if
to figurative sense with reference to various objects in nature, meaning, " " before the mountains were created xc. create," e.g. ; 2) (Ps. (yulladu) " to produce," in reference to that which the earth causes to come forth also,
by
birth, e.g.,
(Isa. Iv. 10).
The
of strangers." Jonathan the son of Uzziel paraphrases this passage, they walk in the customs of other nations." A man who has instructed another in any subject, and has improved his knowledge, may in like manner be regarded as the parent of the person taught, because he is the author of that knowledge ; and thus the pupils of the pro" sons of the prophets," as I shall explain when treating of phets are called the homonymity of ben (son). In this figurative sense, the verb yalad (to " And Adam lived an hundred and bear) is employed when it is said of Adam, " thirty years, and begat (va-yoled) a son in his own likeness, in his form " the the form of and his As v. words, likeness," Adam, (Gen. regards 3). we have already stated (ch. i.) their meaning. Those sons of Adam who were born before that time were not human in the true sense of the word, they had " not the form of man." With reference to Seth who had been instructed, " he enlightened and brought to human perfection, it could rightly be said, It is acknowledged that a (Adam) begat a son in his likeness, in his form." man who does not possess this " form " (the nature of which has just been explained) is not human, but a mere animal in human shape and form. Yet a power which such a creature has the power of causing harm and injury does not belong to other creatures. For those gifts of intelligence and judgment with which he has been endowed for the purpose of acquiring perfection, but which he has failed to apply to their proper aim, are used by him for wicked and mischievous ends ; he begets evil things, as though he merely Such was the conresembled man, or simulated his outward appearance. In reference to this subject dition of those sons of Adam who preceded Seth. " the Midrash says During the 130 years when Adam was under rebuke he demons when, however, he was again restored to divine begat spirits, i.e., " This is the sense of the pasfavour he begat in his likeness, in his form." " Adam lived one hundred and thirty years, and he begat in his likeness, sage, " in his form (Gen. v. 3).
opinions "
CHAPTER
VIII
ORIGINALLY the Hebrew term makom (place) applied both to a particular spot and to space in general ; subsequently it received a wide: signification " " and denoted degree," as regards the perfection of man in position," or We say, e.g., this man occupies a certain place in such and certain things.
such a subject.
In
this sense this
fills
"
term, as
is
well known,
is
frequently used
by
authors, e.g.,
He
his ancestors' place
(makom) in point of wisdom

and piety "
21
still remains in its (makom), i.e., in statu place " Blessed be the glory of the Lord from His place quo [ante]. (mekomo) (Ezek. iii. 12), makom has this figurative meaning, and the verse may " be paraphrased Blessed be the Lord according to the exalted nature of His
;
"
the dispute
"
In the verse,
"
existence," and wherever makom is applied to God, it expresses the same idea, namely, the distinguished position of His existence, to which nothing is equal or comparable, as will be shown below (chap. Ivi.). It should be observed that when we treat in this work of any homonym, we do not desire you to confine yourself to that which is stated in that par-
but we open for you a portal and direct your attention to word which are suited to our purpose, though they may not be complete from a philological point of view. You should examine the prophetical books and other works composed by men of science, notice the meaning of every word which occurs in them, and take homonyms in that sense which is in harmony with the context. What I say in a particular For example, passage is a key for the comprehension of all similar passages. we have explained here makom in the sentence " Blessed be the glory of the Lord from His place " (mekomo) but you must understand that the word makom has the same signification in the passage " Behold, a place (makom) is with me " (Exod. xxxiii. 26), viz., a certain degree of contemplation and inticular chapter
;
those significations of the
ling sion
tellectual intuition (not of ocular inspection), in addition to its literal mean" a place," viz., the mountain which was pointed out to Moses for seclu-
and
for the
attainment of perfection.
CHAPTER IX
THE
and
for
Since "
throne," requires no comment. original meaning of the word kisse, men of greatness and authority, as, e.g., kings, use the throne as a seat, " thus indicates the the throne rank, dignity, and position of the person
it is
"
the throne," inasmuch the superiority of Him who manifests Himself, and " causes His light and glory to dwell therein. glorious throne on Comp. high from the beginning is the place of our sanctuary" (Jer. xvii.i2). For " the same reason the heavens are called throne," for to the mind of him who observes them with intelligence they suggest the Omnipotence of the Being
as it likewise indicates
whom
made, the Sanctuary has been styled
"
which has
called them into existence, regulates their motions, and governs " the sublunary world by their beneficial influence as we read, Thus saith " the Lord, The heavens are my throne and the earth my footstool (Isa.
:
Ixvi. i)
i.e.,
they
testify to
testifies
my
tence, as the throne
Existence, my Essence, and to the greatness of him who
my Omnipois
worthy to
occupy This
it.
is
the idea which true believers should entertain
not, however, that
the Omnipotent,
supported by any material object ; for God is incorporeal, as we shall prove further on ; how, then, can He be said to occupy any space, or rest on a body ? The fact which I wish to point out is this every place distinguished by the Almighty, and chosen to receive His light and splendour, as, for instance, the Sanctuary or the Heavens, is " termed throne " ; and, taken in a wider sense, as in the passage " For my hand is upon the throne of God " (Exod. xvii. 16), " the throne " denotes
is
:
Supreme God
22

of
here the Essence and Greatness of God.
and Greatness
God) need not be considered
These, however (the Essence as something separate from

;
the God Himself or as part of the Creation, so that God would appear to have existed both without the throne, and with the throne such a belief " would be undoubtedly heretical. It is distinctly stated, Thou, O Lord, remainest for ever ; Thy throne from generation to generation " (Lam. " " v. 19). By Thy throne we must, therefore, understand something inseparable from
the
God. On that account, both here and in all similar passages, word " throne " denotes God's Greatness and Essence, which are in-
separable from His Being. Our opinion will be further elucidated in the course of this Treatise.
CHAPTER X
have already remarked that when we treat in this work of homonyms, the intention to exhaust the meanings of a word (for this is not a we shall mention no other significations but those philological treatise) which bear on our subject. We shall thus proceed in our treatment of the terms ala h and yarad. " These two words, 'alah, he went up," and yarad, " he went down," are Hebrew terms used in the sense of ascending and descending. When " a body moves from a higher to a lower place, the verb yarad, to go down," is used ; when it moves from a lower to a higher place, 'alah, " These two verbs were afterwards employed to go up," is applied. with regard to greatness and power. When a man falls from his high posi" " he has come down," and when he rises in station he has gone tion, we say " The stranger that is within thee shall get up." Thus the Almighty says, " very high, and thou shalt come down very low (Deut. xxviii. up above thee " The Lord thy God will set thee on high ('dyon) above all Again, 43). " " nations of the earth And the Lord magnified Solomon (Deut. xxviii. l) " The Sages often employ (lema'alati) (i Chron. xxix. 25). exceedingly " In holy matters men must ascend (ma'aliri) and not these expressions, as descend (moridin)." The two words are also applied to intellectual processes, namely, when we reflect on something beneath ourselves we are said to go down, and when our attention is raised to a subject above us we are
WE
we have not
said to rise.
Now, we occupy a lowly position, both in space and rank in comparison with the heavenly sphere, and the Almighty is Most High not in space, but with respect to absolute existence, greatness and power. When it pleased
the Almighty to grant to a human being a certain degree of wisdom or prophetic inspiration, the divine communication thus made to the prophet and the entrance of the Divine Presence into a certain place is termed (yeridah), " descending," while the termination of the prophetic communication or the
" ascending." departure of the divine glory from a place is called 'aliyab, " " " The expressions to go up and to go down," when used in reference to God, must be interpreted in this sense. Again, when, in accordance with the divine will, some misfortune befalls a nation or a region of the earth, and when the biblical account of that misfortune is preceded by the statement
that the Almighty visited the actions of the people, and that
He
punished

them
for
23
"
man
to descend : accordingly, then the prophetic author employs the term is so low and insignificant that his actions would not be visited and
it
"
would not bring punishment on him, were
What is man that thou clearly stated in the Bible, with regard to this idea, " shouldst remember him, and the son of man that thou shouldst visit him
(Ps. viii. 5).
not for the divine will "
as is
The
verb "
" the Lord came down to see (Gen. xi. " 5) ; "I will go down now and see (Gen. xviii. 21). All these instances convey the idea that man here below is going to be punished. More numerous, however, are the instances of the first case, viz., in which these verbs are used in connection with the revelation of the word and of the " And I will come down and talk with thee there " (Num. glory of God, e.g., " xi. 17) ; And the Lord came down upon Mount Sinai " (Exod. xix. 20) ; " The Lord will come down in the sight of all the people " (Exod. xix. 1 1) ; " And God went up from him " (Gen. xxxv. 13) ; " And God went up from Abraham " (Gen. xvii. 22). When, on the other hand, it says, " And Moses went up unto God " (Exod. xix. 3), it must be taken in the third signification of these verbs, in addition to its literal meaning that Moses also ascended to
their language
design of the Deity to punish man is, therefore, introduced by the " " to descend Go to, let us go down and there confound ; comp.
"
(Gen.
xi. 7)
"
And
of
the top of the mount, upon which a certain material light (the manifestation God's glory) was visible ; but we must not imagine that the Supreme
He
Being occupies a place to which we can ascend, or from which we can descend. is far from what the ignorant imagine.
CHAPTER XI
" " he was seated," as Now primary meaning of the Hebrew yashab is " a seat a Sam. i. since but, (l 9) upon person can best remain motionless and at rest when sitting, the term was applied to thus, in the promise that everything that is permanent and unchanging Jerusalem should remain constantly and permanently in an exalted condition, " " She will rise and sit in her place it is stated, (Zech. xiv. 10) ; further, " He maketh the woman who was childless to sit as a joyful mother of chil" dren (Ps. cxiii. 9) ; i.e., He makes her happy condition to be permanent and enduring. When applied to God, the verb is to be taken in that latter sense "Thou, O Lord, remainest (tesheb) for ever" (Lam. v. 19); "O thou who sittest (ha-yoshebt) in the heavens " (Ps. cxxiii. i) " He who sitteth " in the heavens He who is everlasting, constant, and in no (ii. 4), i.e., to way subject change ; immutable in His Essence, and as He consists of nought but His Essence, He is mutable in no way whatever not mutable in His relation to other things ; for there is no relation whatever existing between Him and any other being, as will be explained below, and therefore no change as regards such relations can take place in Him. Hence He is immutable in every respect, as He expressly declares, " I, the Lord, do not '' change (Mai. iii. 6) i.e., in Me there is not any change whatever. This idea is expressed by the term yasbab when referring to God.
THE
Eli the priest sat (yashab)
24

verb,
when employed of Sod, is frequently complemented by " the inasmuch as the heavens are without change or mutation, that is Heavens," to say, they do not individually change, as the individual beings on earth, by transition from existence into non-existence. The verb is also employed in descriptions of God's relation (the term " re" is here used as a to of lation
The
evanescent things ; existing species homonym) for those species are as constant, well organized, and unvarying as the indi" Thus we find, viduals of the heavenly hosts. sitteth over the circle
Who
of the earth
"
(Isa. xl. 22),

;
Who
the sphere of the earth existence within that sphere.
remains constantly and unremittingly over that is to say, over the things that come into
"
Again,
The Lord
sitteth
upon the
:
flood
"
(Ps.
xxix. 10),
i.e.,
despite the
change and variation of earthly objects, no change takes place with respect His relation to each of the things which to God's relation (to the earth) come into existence and perish again is stable and constant, for it concerns only the existing species and not the individuals. It should therefore be " " borne in mind, that whenever the term is sitting applied to God, it is
used in this sense.
CHAPTER
THE term kam
"
XII
" " The (l Sam. i. 23) ; (yakem) His promise made was sure as the of Abra(va-yakom) Ephron property ham " (Gen. xxiii. 17). " The house that is in the walled city shall be " " And the kingdom of Israel shall be established (ve-kam) (Lev. xxv. 30) " It is always (l Sam. xxiv. 20). firmly established (ve-kamab) in thy hand in this sense that the verb is employed with reference to the Almighty ; as " Now shall I rise (akum), saith the Lord " (Ps. xii. 7), which is the same as " Now shall I verify my word and my dispensation for good or evil." saying, " Thou shalt arise (takum) and have mercy upon Zion " (Ps. cii. 1 3), which means Thou wilt establish what thou hast promised, viz., that thou wouldst
In one of its significations it is the (he rose) is a homonym. " " to sit," as He did not rise (kam) nor move for him " (Esth. opposite of v. 9). It further denotes the confirmation and verification of a thing, e.g. :
The Lord
of
will verify
field
pity Zion.
Generally a person who resolves to set about a matter, accompanies his " " the verb is employed to express to resolve to do by rising, hence " That my son hath stirred up my servant against me " a certain thing ; as, The word is figuratively used to signify the execution of a (l Sam. xxii. 8). " divine decree against a people sentenced to extermination, as And I will " " but he will arise against rise against the house of Jeroboam (Amos vii. 9) ; " the house of the evildoers (Isa. xxxi. 2). Possibly in Psalm xii. 7 the verb
resolve
has this latter sense, as also in Psalm against her enemies.
cii.
13,
namely: Thou wilt
rise
up
There
<hould
it
are
many
be understood that
passages to be interpreted in this manner, but in He rises or sits far be such a notion
no way
!
In the world above there is neither Sages expressed this idea in the formula, " for the two verbs 'amad and kam are syn; sitting nor standing (amidah)
"
Our
onyms [and what
is
said
about the former
is
also applicable to the latter].

CHAPTER
THE term 'amad
"
25
XIII
(he stood) is a homonym signifying in the first instance " When he stood (be-'omdo) before Pharaoh " (Gen. to stand upright," as " " " and Samuel stood (ya'amod) Moses xli. He Though ; (Jer. xv. l) ; 46)
cessation and inter" still (amedu) and answered no more but stood they ruption," (Job " " and she ceased (va-taâmod) to bear (Gen. xxix. 35). Next it xxxii. 16) " " that they may continue (yoto be enduring and lasting," as, signifies " " Then shalt thou be able to endure 'amedu) many days (Jer. xxxii. 14) " " " His taste remained ( amad) in him (<amod) (Exod. xviii. 23) ; (Jer. in existence without any xlviii. n), i.e., it has continued and remained " " His righteousness standeth for ever (Ps. cxi. 3), i.e., it is perchange ; manent and everlasting. The verb applied to God must be understood in " And his feet shall stand (ve-âmedu) this latter sense, as in Zechariah xiv. 4, " " in that day upon the Mount of Olives His causes, i.e., the (Zech. xiv. 4), events of which He is the cause, will remain efficient," etc. This will be
stood by
them " (Gen.

as
"
xviii. 8).
It further
denotes
"
chap, xxviii.)
when we speak of the meaning of regel (foot). (Vide infra, In the same sense is this verb employed in Deuteronomy v. " " But as for thee, stand thou here by me," and Deuteronomy v. 5, I 28, stood between the Lord and you."
further elucidated
CHAPTER XIV
THE homonymous term adam
is
in the first place the
name
of the first
man
Next, it means " " " mankind," as My spirit shall not strive with man (adam) (Gen. vi. 3). " " the of the children Who knoweth of man Again spirit (adam) (Eccles. " " iii. so that a man (adam) has no pre-eminence above a beast 21) ; (Eccles. " " iii. Adam signifies also the multitude," the lower classes " as 19). " Both low (bene adam) and opposed to those distinguished from the rest, as " (Ps. xlix. 3). high (bene isb) "
being, as Scripture indicates, derived
It
is
from adamah, "earth."
in this third signification that it occurs in the verses,
The
sons of the
higher order (Elobim) saw the daughters of the lower order (adam) (Gen. " " vi. 2) ; and as the humble man (adam) you shall die Forsooth (Ps.
!
"
Ixxxii. 7).
CHAPTER XV
the two roots nazab and yazab are distinct, yet their meaning is, you know, identical in all their various forms. The verb has several meanings in some instances it signifies " to stand " " " or to place oneself," as And his sister stood (va-tetazzab} afar off " (Exod. " "
as
:
ALTHOUGH
ii.
The kings of the earth set themselves (yityazzebu) (Ps. ii. 2) 4) " xvi. 27). In other instances They came out and stood (r.izzabim) (Num. " it denotes continuance and permanence, as, Thy word is established (.nizzab}
"
;
in
Heaven " Whenever

"
sense, as,
i.e.,
" And, behold, the Lord stood (nizzab) upon it (Gen. xxviii. 13), " as eternal and everlasting appeared upon it," namely, upon the ladder,
(Ps. cxix. 89), i.e., it remains for ever. this term is applied to it must be
God
understood in the latter
26
earth.
the upper end of which reached to heaven, while the lower end touched the This ladder all may climb up who wish to do so, and they must ulti-
mately attain to a knowledge of Him who is above the summit of the ladder, because He remains upon it permanently. It must be well understood that " " the term upon it is employed by me in harmony with this metaphor. " " who were of God going up represent the prophets. That the Angels " " term angel was applied to prophets may clearly be seen in the following " He sent an angel " (Num. xx. 16) ; " And an angel of the Lord passages
:
" This application is termed descent," in accordance with our explanation of the term yarad (chapter x.). To return to our subject. The phrase " stood upon it " indicates the imply the idea of physical permanence and constancy of God, and does not " This is also the sense of the phrase Thou shalt stand upon the position. " rock (Exod. xxxiii. 21). It is therefore clear that nizzab and -amad are " identical in this figurative signification. Behold, I will stand Comp. " (Exod. xvii. 6) . ('omed) before thee there upon the rock in Horeb
Gilgal to Bochim" (Judges ii. l). suggestive, too, is the " The ascent is mentioned ascending and descending on it expression " " and arriving at a certain before the descent, inasmuch as the ascending " ladder the the of descending," i.e., the application of the precedes height knowledge acquired in the ascent for the training and instruction of mankind.
came up from "
How
CHAPTER XVI
" " And thou rock," as " hard stone," like the shalt smite the rock Then, (zur) (Exod. xvii. 6). " " Knives of stone (zurim) (Josh. v. 2). It is next employed to flint, e.g., " which the stones are hewn ; comp. from Look unto the the quarry signify " From this li. latter rock (zur) whence ye are hewn i). (Isa. meaning of the " term another figurative notion was subsequently derived, viz., the root and " " that after It is on this account the words all Look to of origin things. " Look unto Abraham the rock whence ye are hewn," the Prophet continues, " Abraham evidently may infer that the words your father," from which we " " " serve to rock whence are hewn the and that the father ; ye explain your " Prophet meant to say, Walk in his ways, put faith in his instruction, and conduct yourselves according to the rule of his life fqr the properties contained in the quarry should be found again in those things which are formed and hewn out of it." " It is in the latter sense that the Almighty is called rock," He being the
THE word
zur
(rock)
is
"
homonym.
First, it
denotes
Thus we read, efficient of all things besides Himself. " " Of the Rock that the Rock, His work is perfect (Dent, xxxii. 4) ; " " Their Rock had sold (Dcut. xxxii. 1 8) ; begat thee thou art unmindful " " There is no rock like our God " (i Sam. ii. 2) : The them " (xxxi. 30) ; " " Rock of Eternity (Isa. xxvi. 4). Again, And thou shalt stand upon the
origin
and the causa
"
He
is
Rock " (Exod.

is
xxxiii. 21), i.e.,

all
Be firm and
steadfast in the conviction that
God
you towards the knowledge " Divine Being. We have shown (chap, viii.) that the words Behold, " a place is with me (Exod. xxxiii. 21) contain the same idea.
the source of
things, for this will lead
of the

CHAPTER XVII
Do
27
not imagine that only Metaphysics should be taught with reserve to the people and to the uninitiated ; for the same is also the case with the In this sense we have repeatedly made use greater part of Natural Science. " of the expression of the Sages, Do not expound the chapter on the Creation " in the presence of two This principle was not [vide Introd. page 2]. to our peculiar Sages ; ancient philosophers and scholars of other nations
common
were likewise wont to treat of the principia rerum obscurely, and to use figurative language in discussing such subjects. Thus Plato and his predecessors called Substance the female, and Form the male. (You are aware that the principia of all existing transient things are three, viz., Substance, Form, and Absence of a particular form ; the last-named principle is always inherent in the substance, for otherwise the substance would be incapable of receiving a new form ; and it is from this point of view that absence [of a particular form] is included among the principia. As soon, then, as a substance has received a certain form, the privation of that form, namely, of that which has just been received, has ceased, and is replaced by the privation of another form, and so on with all possible forms, as is explained in treatises on natural philosophy.) Now, if those philosophers who have nothing to fear from a lucid explanation of these metaphysical subjects still were in the habit of discussing them in figures and metaphors, how much more should we, having the interest of religion at heart, refrain from elucidating to the mass any subject that is beyond their comprehension, or that might be taken in a sense directly opposite to the one intended. This also deserves attention.
CHAPTER
THE
three words karab,
XVIII
1 ,
" to come near," naga to touch," andnagasb, "to " " " in space," sometimes sometimes contact or nearness signify approach," the approach of man's knowledge to an object, as if it resembled the physical approach of one body to another. As to the use of karab in the first meaning, " As he drew near (karab) the camp " viz., to draw near a certain spot, comp. " xxxii. And Pharaoh drew near (Exod. 19) (hikrib) (Exod. xiv. 10). Naga " in the first sense, viz., expressing the contact of two bodies, occurs in And " " she cast it (va-tagga ) at his feet He caused it to touch iv. ; 25) (Exod. " And nagash in the first sense, viz., to (Isa. vi. 7). (va-yagga') my mouth " or move towards another And Judah approach person, is found, e.g., in drew near (va-yiggask) unto him " (Gen. xliv. l). The second meaning of these three words is " approach by means of know" contact by comprehension," not in reference to space. As to ledge," or " for her judgment reacheth (naga ) unto naga* in this seecond sense, comp. heaven " (Jer. li. 9). An instance of karab being used in this meaning is " contained in the following passage, And the cause that is too hard for you, " " Ye it unto me bring (takribun) (Deut. i. 17) ; this is equivalent to saying, shall make it known unto me." The verb karab (in the Hiphil) is thus employed in the sense of giving information concerning a thing. The verb " And Abraham drew near (vanagash is used figuratively in the phrase, " and said xyiii. this took yiggasb), place in a prophetic vision and (Gen. 23) ;
1 ; ,
1
"
28
in a trance, as will be explained (Part I. chap, xxi., and Part II. chap, xli.; " also in Forasmuch as this people draw near (niggash) me with their mouths
and with
or contact
Wherever a word denoting approach their lips" (Isa. xxix. 13). is employed in the prophetic writings to describe a certain relation
between the Almighty and any created being, it has to be understood in this approach mentally]. For, as will be proved in this treatise (II. chap, iv.), the Supreme is incorporeal, and consequently He does not approach or draw near a thing, nor can aught approach or touch Him ; for when a being is without corporeality, it cannot occupy space, and all idea
latter sense [viz., to
" There can be no doubt respecting the verses The Lord " " unto all them that call upon him (Ps. cxlv. 1 8) ; They " "
approaching (kirbat) to "
of approach, contact, distance, conjunction, separation, touch, or proximity is inapplicable to such a being.
is nigh (karob) take delight in
God
(Isa. Iviii. 2)
;
The
nearness
(kirbaf) of
such phrases intimate a spiritual approach, i.e., the attainment of some knowledge, not, however, approach in space. Thus also " who hath God so nigh (kerobirri) unto him " (Deut. " Draw thou near (kerab) and hear " (Deut. v. 27) ; " And Moses iv. 7) ; alone shall draw near (ve-niggasb) the Lord ; but they shall not come nigh " (Exod. xxiv. 2). (yiggashu) " And Moses shall draw near " to If, however, you wish to take the words mean that he shall draw near a certain place in the mountain, whereon the " Divine Light shone, or, in the words of the Bible, where the glory of the Lord abode," you may do so, provided you do not lose sight of the truth that there is no difference whether a person stand at the centre of the earth or at he is no further the highest point of the ninth sphere, if this were possible away from God in the one case, or nearer to Him in the other ; those only approach Him who obtain a knowledge of Him ; while those who remain ignorant of Him recede from Him. In this approach towards, or recession from God there are numerous grades one above the other, and I shall further elucidate, in one of the subsequent chapters of the Treatise (I. chap. lx., and II. chap, xxxvi.) what constitutes the difference in our perception of God. " Touch (ga ) the mountains, and they shall smoke " In the passage, " " " the verb touch is used in a figurative sense, viz., Let thy cxliv. 5), (Ps. " word touch them." So also the words, Touch thou him himself " (Job " ii. Bring thy infliction upon him." In a 5). have the same meaning as similar manner must this verb, in whatever form it may be employed, be interpreted in each place, according to the context ; for in some cases it
is
God
pleasant to
me
(Ps. Ixxiii. 28)
all
denotes contact of two material objects, in others knowledge and comprehension of a thing, as if he who now comprehends anything which he had not
comprehended previously had thereby approached a subject which had been This point is of considerable importance. distant from him.
CHAPTER XIX
THE
term male is a homonym which denotes that one substance enters " And she filled (va-temalle) her pitcher " (Gen. xxiv. another, and fills it, as " An omer-full (meld) for each " (Exod. xvi. 32), and many other 1 6) ; instances. Next, it signifies the expiration or completion of a fixed period

of time, as
29
" "
"
(Gen. xxv. 24)
And when her days to be delivered were fulfilled (va-yimUif) " And forty days were completed (va-yimleit) for him
;
(Gen.
1.
lency, as
"
Them
attainment of the highest degree of excel" Full (male) with the blessing of the Lord (Deut. xxxiii. 23) ; " " He hath he filled (mille) with wisdom of heart (Exod. xxxv. 35) ;
3).
It further denotes
"
was
(va-yimmale) with wisdom, and understanding, and cunning " The whole earth is full (mek) of In this sense it is said (l Kings vii. 14). " " earth his glory All the vi. gives evidence of his perfection," (Isa. 4),
filled
"
i.e.
leads
to a knowledge of
it.
Thus
also
"
The
(male) the tabernacle
"
glory of the
Lord
filled
(Exod.
xl.
word
to
God must
be interpreted
34) ; and, in fact, every application of the in this manner ; and not that He has a
body occupying space. If, on the other hand, you prefer to think that in " this passage by the glory of the Lord," a certain light created for the pur" is to be understood, that such light is always termed glory," and that pose " such light filled the tabernacle," we have no objection.
CHAPTER XX
THE word ram
in dignity, (high)
is
homonym, denoting elevation in space, and elevation

and power. It has the first meaning in " (va-tarom) above the earth (Gen vii. 17) and up "
;
"
i.e.,
greatness, honour,
And
the ark was lifted
the latter meaning in I have exalted (harimoti) one chosen out of the " " Forasmuch as I have exalted (barimoti) thee from (Ps. Ixxxix. 20 ; people " " Forasmuch as I exalted (barimoti) amongst the dust (l Kings xvi. 2) ;
thee from
among
this
:
the people
"
(i
Kings
xiv. 7).
employed in reference to God, it must be taken in " the second sense Be thou exalted (rumab), O God, above the heavens " In the same manner does the root nasa (to lift up) denote both (Ps. Ivii. 12). elevation in space and elevation in rank and dignity. In the former sense it occurs
term
is
Whenever
in
they lifted up (va-yisseil) their corn upon their asses" (Gen. xlii. and there are many instances like this in which this verb has the mean" " " to carry," to move from place to place ; for this implies elevation ing " in space. In the second sense we have And his kingdom shall be exalted " " And he bare them, and carried them " (ve-tinnase) (Num. xxiv. 7) ; " Ixiii. Wherefore do ye exalt yourselves " (titnasselt) (va-yenasseem) (Isa. 9) ;
26)
;
"And
(Num.
"
Lift
xvi. 3). this
Every form of
verb
when
saith
" Thus up thyself (hinnase), thou judge of the earth (Ps. xciv. 2) ; " the High (ram) and Exalted (nisia) One Ivii. (Isa. 15) denoting elevasurprised that I
applied to
God
has this latter sense
"
e.g.,
tion in rank, quality,
and power, and not elevation in space. " elevation in rank, employ the expression, " How can you assert that several quality, and power," and you may say, " distinct expressions denote the same thing ? It will be explained later on (chap. 1. seqq.) that those who possess a true knowledge of God do not consider that He possesses many attributes, but believe that these various attributes which describe His Might, Greatness, Power, Perfection, Goodness, etc., are identical, denoting His Essence, and not anything extraneous to His I shall devote special Essence. chapters to the Names and Attributes oi
You may be
30

;
" " in the our intention here is solely to show that high and exalted in denote in not elevation rank, passage quoted space.
God
CHAPTER XXI
primary signification the Hebrew 'abar," to pass," refers to the motion in space, and is chiefly applied to living creatures moving at some " And He passed over ('abar) before them " distance in a straight line, e.g., " " Pass (abor) before the people (Exod. xvii. 5). Instances (Gen. xxxiii. 3) ; The verb was next applied to the passage of of this kind are numerous. " sound through air, as And they caused a sound to pass (va-ya'abini) through" " That I hear the Lord's people spreading out the camp (Exod. xxxvi. 6) ; " the report (ma'abirim) (i Sam. ii. 24). Figuratively it denoted the appearance of the Light and the Divine PreIN
its
of a
body
sence (Shechinah) which the prophets perceived in their prophetic visions, as it is said," And behold a smoking furnace, and a burning lamp that passed " (Gen. xv. 17). This took place in a prophetic ('abar) between those pieces
vision, for the narrative The verb has this latter
*abarti)
" commences, And a deep sleep fell upon Abram." " And I shall pass (vemeaning in Exodus xii. 12, " " I shall reveal myself," etc.), the land of through Egypt (denoting
similar phrases.
and in
all
is next employed to express that a person has gone too far, and " And as a transgressed the usual limit, in the performance of some act, as man who is drinking wine has passed ('abarv) the proper limit " (Jer. xxiii. 9).
The verb
It
is
also
to a different aim and miss the
used figuratively to denote "

object, e.g.,
aim
"
(leba'abiro)
the Lord passed by (va-ya'abor) before his " " " his face to mean the face of God " ; our Teachers likewise interpreted " his face " as being identical with " the face of God." And, although this is found in the midst of Agadic interpretations which would be out of place in this our work, yet it is some " " is his employed in this passage as support of our view, that the pronoun " " and the whole a substitute for God's passage could in my opinion be
to me, of this verb in " face (Exod. xxxiv. 6).
I
"
(l
abandon one aim, and turn shot an arrow, causing it to Sam. xx. 36). This is the sense, it appears
:
to
He
And
take
Moses sought to attain to a certain perception which explained as follows " is called the perception of the Divine face," a term occurring in the " " face cannot be seen but God vouchsafed to him a percep; phrase " the seeing of the back," tion of a lower degree, viz., the one called, " And thou shalt see my back " (Exod. xxxiii. 23). We in the words,
:
My
have mentioned this subject in our work Mishneh Torab. Accordingly, it is stated in the above-mentioned passage that the Lord withheld from Moses " the seeing of the Divine face," and subthat perception which is termed stituted for it another gift, viz., the knowledge of the acts attributed to God, which, as I shall explain (chap, liv.) are considered to be different and In asserting that God withheld from separate attributes of the Supreme. Moses (the higher knowledge) I mean to say that this knowledge was unattainable, that by its nature it was inaccessible to Moses ; for man, whilst able,,to gain perfection by applying his reasoning faculties to the attainment of what is within the reach of his intellect, either weakens his reason or loses
ON EXODUS XXIV.
it
31
as I shall elucidate in
altogether as soon as he ventures to seek a higher degree of knowledge one of the chapters of this work unless he be granted
a special aid
thee with
from heaven, as is described " my hand until I pass by (Exod.
in the words,
xxxiii. 23).
"
And
I will cover
" nomen regens before God," thus connecting the expression (of corporeality) with another word which is supplied, and which " God " ; e.g., " And behold the Lord stood upon it " governs the genitive " The glory of the Lord stood arrayed above (Gen. xxviii. 1 3), he explains, " The Lord watch between me and thee " (Gen. xxxi. 49), he it." Again, paraphrases," The word of the Lord shall watch." This is his ordinary method in explaining Scripture. He applies it also to Exod. xxxiv. 6, which he para" The Lord caused his Presence to pass before his face and called." phrases, According to this rendering the thing which passed was unquestionably " " refers to his some physical object, the pronoun Moses, and the phrase " " before him." Comp. So went the <al panav is identical with le/anav, " This is likewise an (<al panav) (Gen. xxxii. 22). present over before him appropriate and satisfactory explanation ; and I can adduce still further " while my glory passeth support for the opinion of Onkelos from the words " which state that the passing object xxxiii. 22), by (ba-'abor) (Exod. expressly was something ascribed to God, not God Himself and of this Divine glory " " it is also said, And the Lord passed by before him." until I pass by," and Should it, however, be considered necessary to assume here an ellipsis, according to the method of Onkelos, who supplies in some instances the term " " " the Glory," in others the Word," and in others the Divine Presence,"
assuming an
ellipsis
Onkelos, in translating this verse, adopts the same method which he applies to the explanation of similar passages, viz., every expression implying corporeality or corporal properties, when referring to God, he explains by
of
a
case, we may also supply here may require in each particular " And a voice from the Lord voice," and explain the passage, him and before called." have passed already shown that the verb 'abar, " " he passed," can be applied to the voice, as in And they caused a voice to
as
the context
the word
"
We
No
6). According to this explanation, objection can be raised to applying the verb kara (he called) to kol (voice), for a similar phrase occurs in the Bible " in reference to God's commands to Moses, He heard the voice speaking
pass
it
through the camp was the voice which
"
(Exod. xxxvi.
called.
the voice spoke," and, in the same manner as it can be said " " the voice called ; indeed, we can even support this appli" " " cation of the verbs to say," and to call," to the voice," by parallel ' ' " "A voice saith and it as What shall I cry ? passages, Cry,' (Isa. xl. 6). says
Tinto
;
him "
"
we may
also say
'
According to this view, the meaning of the passage under discussion would be "A voice of God passed before him and called, Eternal, Eternal, All' " powerful, All-merciful, and All-gracious (The word Eternal is repeated ; it is in the vocative, for the Eternal is the one who is called. Comp. Moses, Moses Abraham, Abraham !) This, again, is a very appropriate explana' :
! !
tion of the text.

will surely not find it strange that this subject, so profound and diffishould bear various interpretations ; for it will not impair the force of the argument with which we are here concerned. Either explanation may be adopted ; you may take that grand scene altogether as a prophetic vision,
cult,
You
32
and the whole occurrence as a mental operation, and consider that what Moses sought, what was withheld from him, and what he attained, were things perceived by the intellect without the use of the senses (as we have or you may assume that in addition there was a certain explained above) ocular perception of a material object, the sight of which would assist intellectual perception. The latter is the view of Onkelos, unless he assumes that in this instance the ocular perception was likewise a prophetic vision, as was " a smoking furnace and a burning lamp that passed between the case with " those pieces (Gen. xv. 17), mentioned in the history of Abraham. You may also assume that in addition there was a perception of sound, and that there was a voice which passed before him, and was undoubtedly something
:
choose either of these opinions, for our sole intention " to guard you against the belief that the phrase and the Lord " " is analogous to before the xvii. (Exod.' 5), for God, passed," pass people " to being incorporeal, cannot be said to move, and consequently the verb
material.
You may
is
and purpose
"
pass
cannot with propriety be applied to
Him
in
its
primary
signification.
CHAPTER XXII
" approach to a certain person, as Thy brother came (ba) with subtilty " (Gen. xxvii. 35). It next denotes (with regard to " " " a certain to enter a living being) And when Joseph came place, e.g., " " into the house xliii. When (Gen. 26) (va-yabo) ye come (ta-bou) into " the land (Exod. xii. 25). The term was also employed metaphorically in " " to come the sense of applied to a certain event, that is, to something in" When thy sayings come to pass (yabo) " (Judg. xiii. 17) ; " Of corporeal, as " that which will come (yabou) over thee (Isa. xlvii. 13). Nay, it is even " " And Yet evil came (va-yabo) " (Job iii. 26) ; applied to privatives, e.g., " darkness came (va-yabo) since the word has been to incorNow, applied poreal things, it has also been used in reference to God to the fulfilment of His word, or to the manifestation of His Presence (the Shechinah). In this " " Lo, I come (ba} unto thee in a thick cloud figurative sense it is said, " " it For the Lord the of Israel cometh xix. God (Exod. (ba) through 9) ; In these and all similar passages, the coming of the Shechinah (Ezek. xliv. 2). " is meant, but the words, And the Lord my God shall come (u-ba) " (Zech. " His word will come," that is to say, the promises xiv. 5) are identical with which He made through the Prophets will be fulfilled therefore Scripture " " The word of the adds all the holy ones that are with thee," that is to say, Lord my God will be performed, which has been spoken by all the holy ones who are with thee, who address the Israelites."
its
IN Hebrew, the verb bo
"
signifies
to
come "
as
applied to a living being,
i.e.,
arrival at a certain place, or
CHAPTER
Taza
is
XXIII
(" he came out ") is the opposite of ba (" he came in "). The term yaza applied to the motion of a body from a place in which it had previously rested, to another place (whether the body be a living being or not), e.g.,
"
And when
fire
" " If (Gen. xliv. 4) ; they were gone out (yazeit) of the city " break out (teze) (Exod. xxii. .5). It was then figuratively employed to

"
;
33
The word went out denote the appearance of something incorporeal, as, " " When this deed of the queen (Esth. vii. 8) (yaza) of the king's mouth " " shall come abroad (yeze) unto all women the (Esth. i. 17), that is to say, " " For out of Zion shall forth will the Law go (teze) report spread." Again, " " The sun had risen (yaza) upon the earth (Gen. xix further, (Isa. ii. 3)
;
23),
i.e., its
light
became
visible.
In
this figurative sense
we must
"
e.g.,
applied to the Almighty,
The word of God, which until now has been in (Isa. xxvi. 21), i.e., cometh out, and will become manifest," i.e., something will come into for everything new emanating from being which had not existed before God is ascribed to His word. Comp. " By the word of the Lord were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth " (Ps. xxxiii. 6). This is a simile taken from the conduct of kings, who employ the word as the means of carrying their will into effect. God, however, requires no instrument wherewith to operate in order to perform anything the effect
place
secret,
;
;
"
"
take every expression of coming out when Behold, the Lord cometh out (yoze) of his
is
produced
solely
by His
will alone.
He
does not employ any kind of speech,
be explained further on (chap. lv.). " " is thus verb to come out employed to designate the manifestation of a certain work of God, as we noticed in our interpretation of the phrase, " Behold, the Lord cometh out of his place." In a similar manner the term " to return," has been figuratively employed to denote the discontinusbub, " ance of a certain act according to the will of God, as in I will go and return " to my place (Hosea v. 15) ; that is to say, the Divine presence (Shechinah) which had been in our midst departed from us, the consequence of which has been the absence of Divine protection from amongst us. Thus the Prophet " And I will hide my face from them, and they foretelling misfortune says, " shall be devoured (Deut. xxxi. 17) ; for, when man is deprived of Divine protection he is exposed to all dangers, and becomes the butt of all fortuitous circumstances ; his fortune and misfortune then depend on chance. Alas how terrible a threat This is the idea contained in the words, " I will go " and return to my place (Hos. v. 15).
as will
The
CHAPTER XXIV
one of the words which denote movements per" And Jacob went (halak) on his way " (Gen. formed by living beings, as in xxxii. i), and in many other instances. The verb " to go " was next employed in describing movements of objects less solid than the bodies of living " And the waters were going on (halok) decreasing " (Gen. beings, comp. " And the fire went along (va-tihalak) upon the ground " (Exod. viii. 5) ix. 23). Thtn it was employed to express the spreading and manifestation " of something incorporeal, comp. The voice thereof shall go like a serpent " " of the Lord God walking in the garden " xlvi. The voice again, (Jer. 22) " " " the voice that is qualified by (Gen. iii. 8). It is walking." Whenever the word " to go " is used in reference to God, it must be taken in this figurative sense, i.e., it applies to incorporeal things, and signifies either the manifestation of something incorporeal, or the withdrawal of the Divine protection, an act corresponding in lifeless beings to the removal of
halak
is
THE term
likewise
34

"
a thing, in living beings to the departure of a living being, walking." " withdrawal of God's protection is called in the Bible the hiding of
The
God's coun-
As for me, I will hide my countenance, as in Deuteronomy xxxi. 18, " tenance." On the same ground it has been designated going away," or " " a I will and from return to my place thing, comp. moving away depart " But in the passage, And the anger of the Lord was kindled (Hos. v. 15). " against them, and he went (Num. xii. 9), the two meanings of the verb are " combined, viz., the withdrawal of the Divine protection, expressed by and he went," and the revelation, manifestation, and appearance of something went forth and reached them, in consequence of namely, of the anger which " which Miriam became The expression " to leprous, white as snow." " was further walk applied to conduct, which concerns only the inner life, " and which requires no bodily motion, as in the following passages, And thou " " Ye shall walk after the Lord your shalt walk in his ways (Deut. xxviii. 9) ; God " (Deut. xiii. 5) ; " Come ye, and let us walk in the light of the Lord."
(Isa.
ii.
"
5).
CHAPTER XXV
THE Hebrew
was
shakan, as
is
well known, signifies
"
dwelling (shaken) in the plains of

pass,
came to
most
when
But dwelling place the continued stay in a place, general or special ; when a living being dwells long in a place, we say that it stays in that place, although it unquestionably " And he was staying in the plains of Mamre " moves about in it, comp.
(Gen.
xiv. 13),
common meaning
(Gen. xiv. 13); "And it " Israel dwelt (bisbekori) (Gen. xxxv. 22). This is the " " consists in in a of the word.
Mamre
"
to dwell,"
"
as,
And
he
and,
"And
it
came to
pass,
when
Israel
stayed" (Gen.
xxxv. 22).
The term was next applied metaphorically to inanimate objects, i.e., to everything which has settled and remains fixed on one object, although the object on which the thing remains is not a place, and the thing itself is not a " Let a cloud dwell upon it [the day] " (Job iii. living being ; for instance, 5) ; there is no doubt that the cloud is not a living being, and that the day
not a corporeal thing, but a division of time. In this sense the term is employed in reference to God, that is to say, to denote the continuance of His Divine Presence (Shechinah) or of His Providence in some place where the Divine Presence manifested itself constantly, or in some object which was constantly protected by Providence. Comp. " And the glory of the Lord abode " (Exod. xxiv. 16) ; " And I will dwell " " And for the goodwill of among the children of Israel " (Exod. xxix. 45) ; bush him that dwelt in the (Deut. xxxiii. 16). Whenever the term is applied to the Almighty, it must be taken consistently with the context in the sense either as referring to the Presence of His Shechinah (i.e., of His light that was created for the purpose) in a certain place, or of the continuance of
is
His Providence protecting a certain object.
CHAPTER XXVI
You, no doubt, know the Talmudical
saying, which includes in itself all the It runs thus various kinds of interpretation connected with our subject.
:
ONKELOS' VERSION OF GENESIS XLVI.

"
35
The Torah
speaks according to the language of

easily
man," that
is
to say, exall,
pressions,
which can
be comprehended and understood by
are
Hence the description of God by attributes implyapplied to the Creator. ing corporeality, in order to express His existence ; because the multitude of
people do not easily conceive existence unless in connection with a oody, and that which is not a body nor connected with a body has for them no existence. to
Whatever we regard
as expressing that
as a state of perfection,
is
is
likewise attributed
God,
He
is
want ; thus He never represented as eating, drinking, sleeping, being ill, using violence, and the like. Whatever, on the other hand, is commonly regarded as a state
of perfection is attributed to Him, although it is only a state of perfection in relation to ourselves ; for in relation to God, what we consider to be a state
fection or deficiency whatever is to God anything which the multitude consider a defect or
perfect in every respect, and that no imperfound in Him. But there is not attributed
men were
You
of perfection, is in truth the highest degree of imperfection. If, however, to think that those human perfections were absent in God, they
would consider
Him
and
as imperfect.
of living beings,
is one of the distinguishing characteristics indispensable for them in their progress towards perAs they require food and drink to supply animal waste, so they fection. require locomotion, in order to approach that which is good for them and in harmony with their nature, and to escape from what is injurious and contrary
are aware that locomotion

is
It makes, in fact, no difference whether we ascribe to God eating and drinking or locomotion ; but according to human modes of expression, that is to say, according to common notions, eating and drinking would be an imperfection in God, while motion would not, in spite of the
to their nature.
fact that the necessity of
locomotion
is
the result of some want.
Further-
has been clearly proved, that everything which moves is corporeal and divisible ; it will be shown below that God is incorporeal and that He
more,
it
nor can rest be ascribed to Him for rest can only ; be applied to that which also moves. All expressions, however, which imply the various modes of movement in living beings, are employed with regard to God in the manner we have described and in the same way as life is ascribed to Him ; although motion is an accident pertaining to living beings, and
can have no locomotion
;
there is no doubt that, without corporeality, expressions like the following " could not be imagined to descend, to ascend, to walk, to place, to stand, to surround, to sit, to dwell, to depart, to enter, to pass, etc. It would have been superfluous thus to dilate on this subject, were it not for the mass of the people, who are accustomed to such ideas. It has been
:
necessary to expatiate on the subject, as we have attempted, for the benefit of those who are anxious to acquire perfection, to remove from them such notions as have grown up with them from the days of youth.
CHAPTER XXVII
Proselyte, who was thoroughly acquainted with the Hebrew and Chaldaic languages, made it his task to oppose the belief in God's corporeality. Accordingly, any expression employed in the Pentateuch in reference to God, and in any way implying corporeality, he paraphrases in
ONKELOS the
j6
" I will go down with the exception of the following passage, " which he into xlvi. renders A with thee 4), Egypt (Gen. literally. (ereef) remarkable proof of this great man's talents, the excellence of his version, and the correctness of his interpretation By this version he discloses to us an important principle as regards prophecy. " And God spake unto Israel in the visions of the This narrative begins etc. And He said, I am God, etc., I will go and said, Jacob, Jacob, night, down with thee into Egypt " (Gen. xlvi. 2, 3). Seeing that the whole narrative is introduced as a vision of the night, Onkelos did not hesitate to translate in the nocturnal vision, and thus gave literally the words addressed to Jacob For the passage in question contains a a faithful account of the occurrence. statement of what Jacob was told, not what actually took place, as is the case " And the Lord came down upon Mount Sinai " (Exod. xix. in the words, have an account of what actually occurred in the physical we Here 20). " He manifested Himself," world ; the verb yarad is therefore paraphrased and entirely detached from the idea of motion. Accounts of what happened A in the imagination of man, I mean of what he was told, are not altered. most remarkable distinction
his version,
!
All expressions denoting any mode of motion, by Him to mean the appearance or manifestation of a certain the occasion], i.e., the Shekhinah (Divine light that had been created [for " he Thus the Lord will come down " Providence. or paraphrases Presence), " " will manifest The Lord Himself"; "And God came down (Exod. xix. li), ** Himself" and does manifested not "And God And God say (xvi. 20), " "I will go down now and see " (Gen. xviii. 21), he paracame down " This is his rendering [of the I will manifest myself now and see." phrases, " he went down," when used in reference to God] throughout verb yarad,
consonance with the context.

are explained
Hence you may
infer that there
is
a great difference
between
communi-
cation, designated as having been made in a dream, or a vision of the night, " and a vision or a manifestation simply introduced with phrases like And the
word
of the
Lord came unto me, saying "
"
And
the Lord spake unto me,
saying,"
in the
According to my opinion, it is also possible that Onkelos understood Elohim " above passage to signify angel," and that for this reason he did not " I will go down with thee to Egypt." to translate Do not hesitate literally, think it strange that Onkelos should have believed the Elohim, who said to " " I am God, the God of thy father (ib. 3), to be an angel, for this Jacob, sentence can, in the same form, also have been spoken by an angel. Thus " And the angel of God spake unto me in a dream, saying, Jacob. Jacob says, And I said, Here am I, " etc. (Gen. xxxi. li) ; and concludes the report of " I am the God of Bethel, the angel's words to him in the following way, " where thou anointedst the pillar, and where thou vowedst a vow unto me there is no doubt that vowed to the not to God, Jacob (ib, 13), although It is the usual practice of prophets to relate words addressed to them angel. by an angel in the name of God, as though God Himself had spoken to them. Such passages are all to be explained by supplying the nomen regens, and by " I am the messenger of the God of thy considering them as identical with " I am the messenger of God who appeared to thee in Bethel," and father," the like. Prophecy with its various degrees, and the nature of angels, will be

fully discussed in the sequel, in
(II.
37
this treatise
accordance with the object of
chap. xiv.).
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE
term
regel
;
is
homonymous, "
Foot
living being
" And all the people that follow thee " object which follows another ; comp. at 1 are xi. Another signification of the word is that 8). (lit. thy feet) (ib. " " " And the Lord hath blessed thee, I being the cause " cause ; comp.
(leragli)
comp.
signifying, in the first place, the foot of a " for foot (Exod. xxi. 24). Next it denotes an
(Gen. xxx. 30),
i.e.,
for
my
sake
for that
which
exists for
the sake
of another thing has the latter for its final cause. Examples of the term"used It has that meaning in Genesis xxxiii. 14, in this sense are numerous. Be-
cause
(leregel) of
the cattle that goeth before
me, and because
(leregel)
of
the children."
And Consequently, the Hebrew text, of which the literal rendering is " stand in that day upon the Mount of Olives (Zech. xiv. 4) " And the things caused by him can be explained in the following way
:
"
his feet shall
on that day upon the Mount of Olives, that is to say, the wonders which will then be seen, and of which God will be the Cause or the Maker,
(raglav)
will
remain permanently."
To
incline in paraphrasing the
In the passage (Exod. xxiv. 10, lit., And there was under his feet, like the action of the whiteness of a sapphire stone "), Onkelos, as you know, in his " " his feet as a figurative expression version, considers the word (raglav) " " " throne ; the words and a substitute for under his feet " he therefore
" might [when referring to God], because done by His Will. "
that day upon the those parts of the
Mount
passage, of Olives.
this explanation does Jonathan son of Uziel " he will appear in his might on
And He generally
all
body by which contact and motion
expresses terms denoting " are effected, by his
such expressions denote acts
And under the throne of his glory." Consider this well, and paraphrases, you will observe with wonder how Onkelos keeps free from the idea of the corGod, and from everything that leads thereto, even in the remotest " For he does not say, and under His throne " ; the direct relation degree. " of the throne to God, implied in the literal sense of the phrase His throne,"
poreality of
"
would necessarily suggest the idea that God is supported by a material object, and thus lead directly to the corporeality of God he therefore refers the throne to His glory, i.e., to the Shekhinah, which is a light created for the
;
purpose.
Similarly he paraphrases the words,
of
For my hand I lift up to the throne An oath has been uttered by God, whose She(Exod. xvii. 16), khinah is upon the throne of his glory." This principle found also expression " in the popular phrase, the Throne of the Glory."
"
God
"
"
We have already gone too far away from the subject of this chapter, and touched upon things which will be discussed in other chapters ; we will now return to our ^resent theme. You are acquainted with the version of Onkelos [of the passage quoted]. He contents himself with excluding from his version all expressions of corporeality in reference to God, and does not show us what they (the nobles of the children of Israel Exod. xxiv. 10) per-
38
In all similar instances Onkelos also ceived, or what is meant by that figure. abstains from entering into such questions, and only endeavours to exclude every expression implying corporeality; for the incorporeality of God is a demonstrative truth and an indispensable element in our faith ; he could
decidedly state all that was necessary in that respect. The interpretation of a simile is a doubtful thing ; it may possibly have that meaning, but it may It contains besides very profound matter, the also refer to something else.
understanding of which is not a fundamental element in our faith, and the comprehension of which is not easy for the common people. Onkelos, therefore, did not enter at all into this subject. We, however, remaining faithful to our task in this treatise, find ourselves " under his compelled to give our "explanation. According to our opinion " " under that of which He is the cause," that which feet (raglav) denotes exists through Him," as we have already stated. They (the nobles of the
children of Israel) therefore comprehended the real nature of the materia prima, which emanated from Him, and of whose existence He is the only " like the action of the whiteness of the Consider well the phrase, cause.
sapphire stone." If the colour were the point of comparison, the words, " " would have sufficed ; but the as the whiteness of the sapphire stone addition of
" was necessary, because matter, as such, is, as you are well aware, always receptive and passive, active only by some accident. On the other hand, form, as such, is always active, and only passive as is explained in works on Physics. This explains the by some accident, " " in reference to like the action the materia prima. The exaddition of " " refers the whiteness of the sapphire to the transparency, not to pression " " of the for the whiteness the white colour sapphire is not a white colour, but the property of being transparent. Things, however, which are transparent, have no colour of their own, as is proved in works on Physics ; for if they had a colour they would not permit all the colours to pass through them nor would they receive colours ; it is only when the transparent object is In totally colourless, that it is able to receive successively all the colours.
like
"
the action
this respect it (the as
such
What
whiteness of the sapphire) is like the materia prima, which entirely formless, and thus receives all the forms one after the other. they (the nobles of the children of Israel) perceived was therefore the
is
materia prima, whose relation to God is distinctly mentioned, because it is the source of those of his creatures which are subject to genesis and destrucThis subject also will be treated later tion, and has been created by him.
on more fully. Observe that you must have recourse to an explanation of this kind, even when adopting the rendering of Onkelos, " And under the throne of His " for in fact the materia prima is also under the heavens, which are called glory " throne of God," as we have remarked above. I should not have thought of this unusual interpretation, or hit on this argument were it not for an utterance of R. Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, which will be discussed in one of the parts
;
of this treatise (II. chap. xxvi.). The primary object of every intelligent person must be to deny the corporeality of God, and to believe that all those perceptions (described in the above passage) were of a spiritual not of a
material character.
Note
this
and consider
it
well.

CHAPTER XXIX
THE term
ling
;
39
is homonymous, denoting, in the first place, pain and tremb" In sorrow (be-'ezeb) thou shalt bring forth children (Gen. iii. " it denotes anger And his father had not made him 16). comp. " " for he was angry (ne'ezab) for angry gazabo} at any time (l Kings i. 6) ; " the sake of David The term signifies also provocation ; (i Sam. xx. 34). " " comp. They rebelled, and vexed ('izzebii) his holy spirit (Isa. Ixiii. 10) ; " " " and provoked (ya'azibahit) him in the desert (Ps. Ixxviii. 40) ; If there " " be any way of provocation ( ozeb) in me (ib. cxxxix. 24) ; Every day they " rebel
'ezeb
"
comp. Next
(ye'azztbu) against
vi.
my words
(ib. Ivi. 6).
6 the word has either the second or the third signification. " In the first case, the sense of the Hebrew va-yifazzeb el libbo is God was " with them on account of the wickedness of their deeds as to the ; angry " words to his heart " used here, and also in the history of Noah (ib. viii. 21) I will here explain what they mean. With regard to man, we use the ex" " he said to himself," or he said in his heart," in reference to a pression
In Genesis
larly the phrase
Simisubject which he did not utter or communicate to any other person. " And God said in his heart," is used in reference to an act
God decreed without mentioning it to any prophet at the time the event took place according to the will of God. And a figure of this kind is admissible, since " the Torah speaketh in accordance with the " In the Penlanguage of man (supra c. xxvi.). This is plain and clear. tateuch no distinct mention is made of a message sent to the wicked generation of the flood, cautioning or threatening them with death ; therefore,
which
it is
likewise
them, that God was angry with them in His heart that no flood should happen again, He did not tell " a prophet to communicate it to others, and for that reason the words in
said concerning
;
when He decreed
"
are added.
his
heart
Taking the verb in the third signification, we explain the passage thus " And man rebelled against God's will concerning him " ; for leb (heart)
also signifies of leb (heart).
"
will," as
we
shall explain
when
treating of the
homonymity
CHAPTER XXX
IN
its
animals
primary meaning akal (to eat) is used in the sense of taking food by this needs no illustration. It was afterwards observed that eating ;
includes
form, which
(i) the loss of the food, i.e., the destruction of its processes first takes place ; (2) the growth of animals, the preservation of their strength and their existence, and the support of all the forces of their
two
body, caused by the food they take. The consideration of the first process led to the figurative use of the verb, " " " in the sense of hence it includes all modes ; consuming," destroying " of depriving a thing of its form ; comp. And the land of your enemies shall " " A land that destroyeth (lit. eateth) destroy (lit. eat) you (Lev. xxvi. 38) ; " " the inhabitants thereof Ye shall be destroyed (lit. eaten) xiii. (Num. 32) ; " " " with the sword Shall the sword destroy (lit. eat) (2 Sam. (Isa. i. 6) ; " ii. and And the fire Lord burnt of the ; them, 26) among destroyed (lit. " ate) them that were in the uttermost parts of the camp (Num. xi. i) ;
40
" (God)
is

a destroying
(lit.
(Deut. iv. 24), tnat is, He destroys rebel against Him, as the fire destroys everything that comes within its reach. Instances of this kind are very frequent. With reference to the second effect of the act of eating, the verb " to eat "
eating) fire
"
those
who
in ; figuratively used in the sense of learning acquiring wisdom," These preserve the human form short, for all intellectual perceptions. (intellect) constantly in the most perfect manner, in the same way as food
is
"
"
"
" " in the sense of " This figurative use of the verb to eat acquiring wisdom " is frequently met with in the Talmud, e.g., " Come, eat fat meat at ' ' ' Raba's (Baba Bathra 220) ; comp. "All expressions of eating and drinking found in this book (of Proverbs) refer to wisdom," or, according to another " " to the Law reading, (Koh. rabba on Eccl. iii. 13). Wisdom has also been " " called water," e.g., Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to frequently " the waters
'
" body in its best condition. Comp. Come ye, buy and eat Hearken diligently unto me, and eat ye that which is good " (Isa. Iv. l) " " " It is not good to eat much honey (ib. z) (Prov. xxv. 27) My son, eat thou honey, because it is good, and the honeycomb, which is sweet to thy " taste so shall the knowledge of wisdom be unto thy soul (ib. xxiv. 13, 14).
preserves the
;
"
"
(Isa. Iv. i).
The
figurative
meaning of these expressions has been
so general
and
common, that it was almost considered as its primitive signification, and led " " and " thirst " in the sense of " absence of to the employment of hunger " " wisdom and intelligence I will send a famine in the land, not a comp. " famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but of hearing the words of the Lord
;
"
My soul
thirsteth for
God,
for the living
God
"
this kind occur frequently. The words, With " of the wells of salvation (Isa. xii. 3), are paraphrased " Uzziel thus You will joyfully receive new instruction
:
"
Instances of (Ps. xlii. 3). joy shall ye draw water out
by Jonathan son from the chosen
of of
" " water " to indicate the wisConsider how he explains dom which will then spread," and " the wells " (ma'ayene) as being identical " " " with the the eyes of the congregation xv. 24), in the sense of (Num. " " or the the chosen of the wise." the from chiefs," righteous," By phrase, he expresses his belief that righteousness is true salvation. You now see how he gives to every word in this verse some signification referring to wisdom
the righteous."
and study.
This should be well considered.
CHAPTER XXXI
KNOW that for the human mind there are certain objects
are within the scope of
its
nature and capacity

exist,
:
amongst things which actually no way and by no means grasp

;
of perception which on the other hand, there are, certain objects which the mind can in
;
the gates of perception are closed against it. Further, there are things of which the mind understands one part, but remains ignorant of the other and when man is able to comprehend certain
:
he must be able to comprehend everything. they are able to perceive things, but not at every distance and afl other powers of the body are limited in a similar way. A man can, e.g., carry two kikkar, but he cannot carry ten kikkar. How individuals of the same each other in these sensations and in species surpass
things, it does not follow that This also applies to the senses
;
ON THE STUDY OF METAPHYSICS

other bodily faculties
their
41
is universally known, but there is a limit to them, and power cannot extend to every distance or to every degree. There is a conAll this is applicable to the intellectual faculties of man. siderable difference between one person and another as regards these faculWhile one man can discover a certain ties, as is well known to philosophers.
not unlimited. A boundary is undoubtedly set to the human it cannot There are things (beyond that boundary) which pass. are acknowledged to be inaccessible to human understanding, and man does not show any desire to comprehend them, being aware that such knowledge is impossible, and that there are no means of overcoming the difficulty ;
tinction
is
thing by himself, another is never able to understand it, even if taught by means of all possible expressions and metaphors, and during a long period ; This dishis mind can in no way grasp it, his capacity is insufficient for it.
mind which
e.g.,
we do not know the number of stars in heaven, whether the number is we do not know the number of animals, minerals, or plants, even or odd and the like. There are other things, however, which man very much desires to know, and strenuous efforts to examine and to investigate them have been
;
thinkers of all classes, and at all times. They differ and disagree, and constantly raise new doubts with regard to them, because their minds are bent on comprehending such things, that is to say, they are moved by desire and every one of them believes that he has discovered the way leading to a true knowledge of the thing, although human reason is entirely unable to demonstrate the fact by convincing evidence. For a proposition which can be proved by evidence is not subject to dispute, denial, or rejection none " but the ignorant would contradict it, and such contradiction is called denial Thus you find men who deny the spherical form of a demonstrated proof." of the earth, or the circular form of the line in which the stars move, and the like such men are not considered in this treatise. This confusion prevails mostly in metaphysical subjects, less in problems relating to physics, and is Alexander Aphrodisius said that entirely absent from the exact sciences. there are three causes which prevent men from discovering the exact truth first, arrogance and vainglory secondly, the subtlety, depth, and difficulty of any subject which is being examined ; thirdly., ignorance and want of capacity to comprehend what might be comprehended. These causes are enumerated by Alexander. At the present time there is a fourth cause not mentioned by him, because it did not then prevail, namely, habit and trainWe naturally like what we have been accustomed to, and are attracted ing. towards it. This may be observed amongst villagers ; though they rarely enjoy the benefit of a douche or bath, and have few enjoyments, and pass a life of privation, they dislike town life and do not desire its pleasures, preferring the inferior things to which they are accustomed, to the better things to which they are strangers it would give them no satisfaction to live in palaces, to be clothed in silk, and to indulge in baths, ointments, and perfumes. The same is the case with those opinions of man to which he has been accustomed from his youth he likes them, defends them, and shuns the This is likewise one of the causes which prevent men from opposite views. Such finding truth, and which make them cling to their habitual opinions. is, e.g., the case with the vulgar notions with respect to the corporeality of God, and many other metaphysical questions, as we shall explain. It is the
; ; ;
:
made by
;.
42
with passages of the Bible, which they are accusto receive as true, and the literal sense of which implies the corporeality of God and other false notions ; in truth, however, these words were employed as figures and metaphors for reasons to be mentioned
result of long familiarity
tomed to respect and
below. PO not imagine that what we have said of the insufficiency of our understanding and of its limited extent is an assertion founded only on the Bible for philosophers likewise assert the same, and perfectly understand It is a fact which is it, without having regard to any religion or opinion. only doubted by those who ignore things fully proved. This chapter is intended as an introduction to the next.
;
CHAPTER XXXII
You must
consider, when reading this treatise, that mental perception, because connected with matter, is subject to conditions similar to those to
which physical perception is subject. That is to say, if your eye looks around, you can perceive all that is within the range of your vision ; if, however, you overstrain your eye, exerting it too much by attempting to see an object which is too distant for your eye, or to examine writings or engravings too small for your sight, and forcing it to obtain a correct perception of them, you will not only weaken your sight with regard to that special object, but also for those things which you otherwise are able to perceive your eye will have become too weak to perceive what you were able to see before you exerted yourself and exceeded the limits of your vision. The same is the case with the speculative faculties of one who devotes himself to the study of any science. If a person studies too much and exhausts his reflective powers, he will be confused, and will not be able to apprehend even that which had been within the power of his apprehension. For the powers of the body are all alike in this respect. The mental perceptions are not exempt from a similar condition. If you admit the doubt, and do not persuade yourself to believe that there is a proof for things which cannot be demonstrated, or to try at once to reject and positively to deny an assertion the opposite of which has never been proved, or attempt to perceive things which are beyond your perception, then you have attained the highest degree of human perfection, then you are like R. Akibha, who " in peace entered [the study of these theological problems], and came out in peace." If, on the other hand, you attempt to exceed the limit of your intellectual power, or at once to reject things as impossible which have never been proved to be impossible, or which are in fact possible, though their possibility be very remote, then you will be like Elisha Aher ; you will not only fail to become perfect, but you will become exceedingly imperfect. Ideas founded on mere imagination will prevail over you, you will incline toward defects, and toward base and degraded habits, on account of the confusion which troubles the mind, and of the dimness of its light, just as
:
weakness of sight causes invalids to see many kinds of unreal images, especially for a long time at dazzling or at very minute objects. " Hast thou found honey ? eat so much as Respecting this it has been said, " is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled therewith, and vomit it (Prov. xxv.
when they have looked
16).
Onr
Sages also applied this verse to Elisha After.

How
excellent
is
43
(as
this simile
In comparing knowledge to food
we
observed in chap, xxx.), the author of Proverbs mentions the sweetest food, namely, honey, which has the further property of irritating the stomach, and of causing sickness. He thus fully describes the nature of knowledge. Though great, excellent, noble and perfect, it is injurious if not kept within
bounds or not guarded properly ; it is like honey which gives nourishment and is pleasant, when eaten in moderation, but is totally thrown away when " eaten immoderately. Therefore, it is not said lest thou be filled and loathe " The same idea is but lest thou vomit it." it," expressed in the words, " " It is not good to eat much honey (Prov. xxv. 27) ; and in the words, " " Neither make thyself over-wise ; why shouldst thou destroy thyself ? " (Eccles. vii. 16) ; comp. Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God " (ibid. v. i). The same subject is alluded to in the words of David, " " Neither do I exercise myself in great matters, or in things too high for me " of our Do not and in the into cxxxi. 2), (Ps. Sages sayings things inquire which are too difficult for thee, do not search what is hidden from thee ; study what you are allowed to study, and do not occupy thyself with mysteries." They meant to say, Let thy mind only attempt things which are for the study of things which lie beyond man's within human perception comprehension is extremely injurious, as has been already stated. This " lesson is also contained in the Talmudical passage, which begins, He who " He considers four things," etc., and concludes, who does not regard the honour of his Creator " ; here also is given the advice which we have already
:
should not rashly engage in speculation with false is in doubt about anything, or unable to find a proof for the object of his inquiry, he must not at once abandon, reject and deny it ; he must modestly keep back, and from regard to the honour of his Creator, hesitate [from uttering an opinion] and pause. This has
mentioned,
viz.,
that
man
conceptions, and when he
already been explained. It was not the object of the Prophets and our Sages in these utterances to close the gate of investigation entirely, and to prevent the mind from com-
prehending what
is within its reach, as is imagined by simple and idle people, better to put forth their ignorance and incapacity as wisdom and perfection, and to regard the distinction and wisdom of others as irre-
whom
ligion
it suits
and imperfection, thus taking darkness
for light
and
light for darkness.
The whole object of the Prophets and the Sages was to declare that a limit is set to human reason where it must halt. Do not criticise the words used in this chapter and in others in reference to the mind, for we only intended
to give
some idea
;
intellect
for other chapters have
of the subject in view, not to describe the essence of the been dedicated to this subject.
CHAPTER XXXIII
You must know
sophy,
viz.,
that
it is
;
Metaphysics
historical
very injurious to begin with this branch of philoor to explain [at first] the sense of the similes
occurring
in
prophecies, and
ployed in
Prophets.
On
interpret the metaphors which are emaccounts and which abound in the writings of the the contrary, it is necessary to initiate the young and to in-
struct the less intelligent
according to their comprehension
those
who
44
appear to be talented and to have capacity for the higher method of studj, on proof and on true logical argument, should be gradually adi.e., that based vanced towards perfection, either by tuition or by self-instruction. He, however, who begins with Metaphysics, will not only become confused in matters of religion, but will fall into complete infidelity. I compare such a person to an infant fed with wheaten bread, meat and wine ; it will undoubtedly die. not because such food is naturally unfit for the human body, but because of the weakness of the child, who is unable to digest the food, and cannot derive The same is the case with the true principles of science. benefit from it.
presented in enigmas, clad in riddles, and taught by all wise men most mysterious way that could be devised, not because they contain some secret evil, or are contrary to the fundamental principles of the Law in their own eyes), but because of (as fools think who are only philosophers
They were
in the
the incapacity of man to comprehend them at the beginning of his studies : only slight allusions have been made to them to serve for the guidance of those who are capable of understanding them. These sciences were, therefore, called Mysteries (sodoth), and Secrets of the Law (sitre torah), as we
shall explain. This also is
the Torah speaks the language of man," as the object of the Torah to serve as a guide for the instruction of the young, of women, and of the common people ; and as all of them are incapable to comprehend the true sense of the words, tradition was considered sufficient to convey all truths which were to be established ; the reason
why
"
we have
explained, for
it is
and as regards ideals, only such remarks were made as would lead towards a knowledge of their existence, though not to a comprehension of their true essence. When a man attains to perfection, and arrives at a knowledge of " the Secrets of the Law," either through the assistance of a teacher or by self-instruction, being led by the understanding of one part to the study of the other, he will belong to those who faithfully believe in the true principles, either because of conclusive proof, where proof is possible, or by forcible arguments, where argument is admissible ; he will have a true notion of those things which he previously received in similes and metaphors, and he We have frequently mentioned in this will fully understand their sense. " not to discuss the Ma'aseb Mercabah treatise the principle of our Sages even in the presence of one pupil, except he be wise and intelligent and then only the headings of the chapters are to be given to him." We must, therefore, begin with teaching these subjects according to the capacity of the pupil, and on two conditions, first, that he be wise, i.e., that he should have successfully gone through the preliminary studies, and secondly that he be intelligent, talented, clear-headed, and of quick perception, that is, " " have a mind of his own (mebin midda*ato\ as our Sages termed it.
;
I will now proceed to explain the reasons wKy we should not instruct the multitude in pure metaphysics, or begin with describing to them the true essence of things, or with showing them that a thing must be as it is, and cannot be otherwise. This will form the subject of the next chapter ; and I
proceed to say
CHAPTER XXXIV
THERE
are five reasons
why
instruction should not begin with Metaphysics,
ON THE STVDY Of METAPHYSICS

but should at
first
41
be restricted to pointing out what
is
fitted for notice
and
The subject itself is difficult, subtle and profound, " Far and exceeding deep, who can find it out ? " (Eccles. vii. 24). The following " Whence then cometh wisdom ? and words of Job may be applied to it " where is the place of understanding ? (Job xxviii. 20). Instruction should not begin with abstruse and difficult subjects. In one of the similes contained in the Bible, wisdom is compared to water, and amongst other interpretations He who can swim given by our Sages of this simile, occurs the following may bring up pearls from the depth of the sea, he who is unable to swim will be drowned, therefore only such persons as have had proper instruction should
First Reason.
off
:
what may be made manifest to the multitude.
expose themselves to the risk. Second Reason. The intelligence of man is at first insufficient ; for he is not endowed with perfection at the beginning, but at first possesses perfection " And man is born a wild ass " only in potentta, not in fact. Thus it is said, man If a a certain xi. 12). (Job possesses faculty in -potentia, it does not
follow that
cient either
tices
must become in him a reality. He may possibly remain defion account of some obstacle, or from want of training in pracwhich would turn the possibility into a reality. Thus it is distinctly
it
stated in the Bible,
"
"
Not many
those
are wise
noticed
how few were
who
There tion" (B. T. Succah 45<z). path to perfection, and which keep man away from
sufficient preparation
(ib., xxxii. 9) ; also our Sages say, attained to a higher degree of perfecare many things which obstruct the
"
Where can he find it. and leisure to learn all that is necessary in order to develop that perfection which he has in potentia ? Third Reason. The preparatory studies are of long duration, and man, in his natural desire to reach the goal, finds them frequently too wearisome, and does not wish to be troubled by them. Be convinced that, if man were able to reach the end without preparatory studies, such studies would not be preparatory but tiresome and utterly superfluous. Suppose you awaken any person, even the most simple, as if from sleep, and you say to him, Do you not desire to know what the heavens are, what is their number and their form what beings are contained in them ; what the angels are how the creation of the whole world took place what is its purpose, and what is the relation of its various parts to each other ; what is the nature of the soul how it enters the body ; whether it has an independent existence, and if so, how it can exist independently of the body ; by what means and to what purpose, " and similar problems. He would undoubtedly say Yes," and show a natural desire for the true knowledge of these things ; but he will wish to satisfy that desire and to attain to that knowledge by listening to a few words from you. Ask him to interrupt his usual pursuits for a week, till he learn all this, he would not do it, and would be satisfied and contented with imaginary and misleading notions ; he would refuse to believe that there is anything which requires preparatory studies and persevering research.
; ; ; ;
You, however, know how

is
all
these subjects are connected together
for there
His works, the latter including all existing things besides Him ; we can only obtain a knowledge of Him through His works ; His works give evidence of His existence, and show what must
nothing
else in existence
but
God and
be assumed concerning Him, that
is
to say,
what must be attributed
to
Him
46
GV1DE FOR THE PERPLEXED
It is thus necessary to examine all things either affirmatively or negatively. according to their essence, to infer from every species such true and well established propositions as may assist us in the solution of metaphysical prob-
lems. Again, many propositions based on the nature of numbers and the properties of geometrical figures, are useful in examining things which must be negatived in reference to God, and these negations will lead us to further
You will certainly not doubt the necessity of studying astronomy and physics, if you are desirous of comprehending the relation between the world and Providence as it is in reality, and not according to imagination. There are also many subjects of speculation, which, though not preparing the
inferences.
for metaphysics, help to train the reasoning power, enabling it to understand the nature of a proof, and to test truth by characteristics essential to
way
it.
They remove the confusion arising in the minds of most thinkers, who confound accidental with essential properties, and likewise the wrong opinions resulting therefrom. We may add, that although they do not form
the basis for metaphysical research, they
assist in
forming a correct notion of
these things, and are certainly useful in many other things connected with that discipline. Consequently he who wishes to attain to human perfection,
must therefore
first
study Logic, next the various branches of Mathematics
in their proper order, then Physics, and lastly Metaphysics. find that many who have advanced to a certain point in the study of these disciplines become weary, and stop ; that others, who are endowed with sufficient
We
which surprises them if no knowledge whatever had been given to us by means of tradition, and if we had not been brought to the belief in a thing through the medium of similes, we would have been bound to form a perfect notion of things with their essential a goal which could characteristics, and to believe only what we could prove only be attained by long preparation. In such a case most people would die, without having known whether there was a God or not, much less that certain things must be asserted about Him, and other things denied as defects. From such a fate not even " one of a city or two of a family " (Jer. iii. 14) would have escaped. " " As regards the privileged few, the remnant whom the Lord calls (Joel attain the at which aim after due iii. 5), they only they preparatory perfection labour. The necessity of such a preparation and the need of such a training for the acquisition of real knowledge, has been plainly stated by King Solomon in the following words " If the iron be blunt, and he do not whet the edge, then must he put to more strength ; and it is profitable to prepare for " wisdom " (Eccles. x. 10) Hear counsel, and receive instruction, that thou be wise in latter end " (Prov. xix. 20). mayest thy There is still another urgent reason why the preliminary disciplines should be studied and understood. During the study many doubts present themselves, and the difficulties, or the objections raised against certain assertions,
while
capacity, are interrupted in their studies by death, still engaged with the preliminary course. Now,
:
are soon understood, just as the demolition of a building is easier than its erection while, on the other hand, it is impossible to prove an assertion, or to
;
remove any doubts, without having recourse to

these preliminary studies.
several propositions taken
from
He who approaches
person
proper preparation
is
like a
who
metaphysical problems without journeys towards a certain place, and

on the road
falls
47
into a deep pit, out of
perish there ; if he had not gone forth, but have been better for him.
which he cannot had remained
rise,
at
home,
and he must it would

their
after
indolence,
Solomon has expatiated in the book of Proverbs on sluggards and by which he figuratively refers to indolence in the search
thus speaks of a man who desires to know the final results, but does not exert himself to understand the preliminary disciplines which lead
wisdom.
He
" but the righteous giveth, and spareth not (Prov. xxi. 25, 26) ; that is to say, if the desire killeth the slothful, it is because he neglects to seek the thing which might satisfy his desire, he does nothing but desire, and hopes to obtain a thing without using the means to reach it. It would be better for him were he without that desire. Observe how the end of the simile throws light on " its beginning. It concludes with the words but the righteous giveth, and " " " and " slothful " can the antithesis of not righteous spareth only be Solomon thus indicates that justified on the basis of our interpretation. only such a man is righteous who gives to everything its due portion ; that is to say, who gives to the study of a thing the whole time required for it, aiyl does not devote any part of that time to another purpose. The passage
;
to them, doing nothing else but desire. The desire of the slothful killeth him ; for his hands refuse to labour. He coveteth greedily all the day long ;
"
his ways may therefore be paraphrased thus And the righteous man devotes " to wisdom, and does not withhold any of them." Comp. Give not thy
:
strength unto
(Prov. xxxi. 3). majority of scholars, that is to say, the most famous in science, are afflicted with this failing, viz., that of hurrying at once to the final results,
women
"
The
and of speaking about them, without treating of the preliminary
disciplines.
Led by
ambition to disregard those preparatory studies, for the attainment of which they are either incapable or too idle, some scholars endeavour to prove that these are injurious or superfluous. On reflection the
folly or
truth will
become obvious.
is taken from the It physical constitution of man. has been proved that moral conduct is a preparation for intellectual progress, and that only a man whose character is pure, calm and steadfast, can
The Fourth Reason
attain
to
intellectual
perfection
that
is,
acquire correct conceptions.

all
Many men
are naturally so constituted that
perfection
is
impossible
e.g., he whose heart is very warm and is himself very powerful, is sure to be passionate, though he tries to counteract that disposition by training ; he whose testicles are warm, humid, and vigorous, and the organs connected therewith are surcharged, will not easily refrain from sin, even if he makes
You also find persons of great levity and great efforts to restrain himself. rashness, whose excited manners and wild gestures prove that their constitutis in disorder, and their temperament so bad that it cannot be cured. Such persons can never attain to perfection ; it is utterly useless to occupy oneself with them on such a subject [as Metaphysics]. For this science is, as you know, different from the science of Medicine and of Geometry, and, from the reason already mentioned, it is not every person who is capable of approaching it. It is impossible for a man to study it successfully without moral preparation he must acquire the highest degree of uprightness and " for the froward is an abomination to the Lord, but His secret is integrity,
tion
48

"
(Prov.
;
with the righteous

to teach
it
iii.
32).
Therefore
it
was considered inadvisable
on
nay, it is impossible for them to comprehend it, account of the heat of their blood and the flame of youth, which confuses
to
young men
their
minds
that heat, which causes
all
the disorder, must
first
disappear
they must have become moderate and settled, humble in their hearts, and subdued in their temperament only then will they be able to arrive at the highest degree of the perception of God, i.e., the study of Metaphysics, which " Lord is nigh unto them that is called Ma'aseb Mercabah Comp. The " " I dwell in the high and lofty place, are of a broken heart xxxiv. (Ps. 18) ; with him also that is of a contrite and humble spirit ; to revive the spirit of the humble, and to revive the heart of the contrite ones *' (Isa. Ivii. 15). " Therefore the rule, the headings of the sections may be confided to him," The headings of is further restricted in the Talmud, in the following way the sections must only be handed down to an Ab-bet-din (President of the Court), whose heart is full of care, i.e., in whom wisdom is united with It is further stated there humility, meekness, and a great dread of sin. " The secrets of the Law can only be communicated to a counsellor, scholar, and good orator." These qualities can only be acquired if the physical constitution of the student favour their development. You certainly know that some persons, though exceedingly able, are very weak in giving counsel, while others are ready with proper counsel and good advice in social and political A person so endowed is called " counsellor " and may be unable matters. to comprehend purely abstract notions, even such as are similar to common He is unacquainted with them, and has no talent whatever for them sense. we apply to him the words " Wherefore is there a price in the hand of a " fool to get wisdom, seeing he hath no heart to it ? Others (Prov. xvii. 16).
;
: :
are intelligent and naturally clear-sighted, able to convey complicated ideas " in concise and well chosen language, such a person is called a good
orator," but he has not been engaged in the pursuit of science, or has not acquired any knowledge of it. Those who have actually acquired a know-
ledge of the sciences, are called " " brew term for wise in arts
the
Talmud as
scholars ") the Hehakam harashim has been explained in implying, that when such a man speaks, all become, as it were,
"
wise in arts
"
"
(or
speechless.
Now,
consider how, in the writings of the Rabbis, the admission of a person
on metaphysics is made dependent on distinction in social and study of philosophy, as well as on the possession of clearsightedness, intelligence, eloquence, and ability to communicate things by
into discourses
qualities,
If a person satisfies these slight allusions. requirements, the secrets of the are confided to him. In the same place we also read the following pas" R. Jochanan said to R. Elasar, Come, I will teach you Ma'aseh sage :
Law
Mercabah" The reply was, " I am not yet old," or in other words, I have not yet become old, I still perceive in myself the hot blood and the rashness
of youth.
You
learn
from
this that, in addition to the
above-named good
How, then, could any person speak quaKties, a certain age is also required. on these metaphysical themes in the presence of ordinary people, of children,
and of
women
Fifth Reason.
Man
is
necessity of looking after the material wants of the body, especially
disturbed in his intellectual occupation by the if the
49
necessity of providing for wife and children be superadded ; if he seeks superfluities in addition to his ordinary wants, for
much more
so
by custom and
bad habits these become a powerful motive. Even the perfect man to whom we have referred, if too busy with these necessary things, much more so if busy with unnecessary things, and filled with a great desire for them must weaken or altogether lose his desire for study, to which he will apply himself with interruption, lassitude, and want of attention. He will not attain to that for which he is fitted by his abilities, or he will acquire imperfect knowFor these reasons it was ledge, a confused mass of true and false ideas. proper that the study of Metaphysics should have been exclusively cultivated It is not by privileged persons, and not entrusted to the common people. for the beginner, and he should abstain from it, as the little child has to abstain from taking solid food and from carrying heavy weights.
CHAPTER XXXV
Do not think that what we have laid down in the preceding chapters on the importance, obscurity, and difficulty of the subject, and its unsuitableness for communication to ordinary persons, includes the doctrine of God's incorThis is not the poreality and His exemption from all affections (TrdOrj). case. For in the same way as all people must be informed, and even children
must be trained
to be worshipped, so
incorporeal ; and His creatures

tures,
God is One, and that none besides Him is must all be taught by simple authority that God is that there is no similarity in any way whatsoever between Him
in the belief that
;
that His existence

like
is
not
like
the existence of His crea-
His
wisdom
duals of
that of any living being, His wisdom not like the of the wisest of men ; and that the difference between Him and His
life
not
is not merely quantitative, but absolute [as between two indivitwo different classes] I mean to say that all must understand that our wisdom and His, or our power and His do not differ quantitatively or qualitatively, or in a similar manner ; for two things, of which the one is strong and the other weak, are necessarily similar, belong to the same The same is the case with all class, and can be included in one definition. other comparisons ; they can only be made between two things belonging to the same class, as has been shown in works on Natural Science. Anything predicated of God is totally different from our attributes ; no definition can comprehend both ; therefore His existence and that of any other being totally differ from each other, and the term existence is applied to both
creatures
homonymously,
This
as I shall explain.
suffices for
believe that there
the guidance of children and of ordinary persons who must is a Being existing, perfect, incorporeal, not inherent in a
body
as a force in it
affections. missibility,
God, who is above all kinds of deficiency, above all But the question concerning the attributes of God, their inadand the meaning of those attributes which are ascribed to Him
;
concerning the Creation, His Providence, in providing for everything ; concerning His will, His perception, His knowledge of everything ; concerning prophecy and its various degrees ; concerning the meaning of His names which imply the idea of unity, though they are more than one ; all " " the these things are very difficult problems, the true Secrets of the Law
'
50
" secrets " mentioned so frequently in the books of the Prophets, and in the words of our Teachers, the subjects of which we should only mention the headings of the chapters, as we have already stated, and only in the presence of a person satisfying the above-named conditions. That God is incorporeal, that He cannot be compared with His creatures, that He is not subject to external influence ; these are things which must be explained to every one according to his capacity, and they must be taught byway of tradition to children and women, to the stupid and ignorant, as they are taught that God is One, that He is eternal, and that He alone is to
*
be worshipped. Without incorporeality there is no unity, for a corporeal thing is in the first case not simple, but composed of matter and form which are two separate things by definition, and secondly, as it has extension it is When persons have received this doctrine, and have been also divisible.
trained in this belief, and are in consequence at a loss to reconcile it with the writings of the Prophets, the meaning of the latter must be made clear and
explained to them by pointing out the homonymity and the figurative Their belief application of certain terms discussed in this part of the work. in the unity of God and in the words of the Prophets will then be a true and
perfect belief.
Those who
are not sufficiently intelligent to
comprehend the true
inter-
pretation of these passages in the Bible, or to understand that the same term admits of two different interpretations, may simply be told that the scriptural passage is clearly understood by the wise, but that they should content themselves with knowing that God is incorporeal, that He is never subject to external influence, as passivity implies a change, while God is entirely free
from all change, that He cannot be compared to anything besides Himself, that no definition includes Him together with any other being, that the words of the Prophets are true, and that difficulties met with may be explained on this principle. This may suffice for that class of persons, and it is not proper to leave them in the belief that God is corporeal, or that He has any of the properties of material objects, just as there is no need to leave them in the belief that God does not exist, that there are more Gods than one, or that any other being may be worshipped.
CHAPTER XXXVI
SHALL explain to you, when speaking on the attributes of God, in what sense we can say that a particular thing pleases Him, or excites His anger and His wrath, and in reference to certain persons that God was pleased with them, was angry with them, or was in wrath against them. This is not the
I
going to
" " " hater of the enemy," adversary," or " " and then the Lord's wrath Lord. Comp. And ye serve other gods,. " " will be kindled against you Lest the anger of the Lord (Deut. xi. 16, 17) " " etc. (ib. vi. 15) To provoke him to thy God be kindled against thee. " " work of the hands xxxi. anger through (ib. your 29) ; They have moved
that none but the idolater called
.
.
I intend to explain in it what I am now that in examiniug the Law and the books of " " " the Prophets, you will not find the expressions burning anger, provo" " " or cation, jealousy applied to God except in reference to idolatry ; and
subject of the present chapter

say.
You must know,

;
51
me to jealousy with that which is not God ; they have provoked me to anger " " For the Lord thy God is a jealous with their vanities (ib. xxxii. 21) " " with their graven God (ib. vi. 15) Why have they"provoked me to anger " Because of the pro(Jer. viii. 19) ; images, and with strange vanities ? " " For a fire is (Deut. xxxii. 19) ; voking of his sons and of his daughters " " will The Lord take kindled in mine anger (ib. 22) ; vengeance on His " " And adversaries, and he reserveth wrath for his enemies (Nah. i. 2) ; " " He hath driven out hate Him them that vii. Until 10) (Deut. repayeth " " His enemies from before Him Which the Lord thy (Num. xxxii. 21) God hateth " (Deut. xvi. 22) ; " For every abomination to the Lord, which He hateth, have they done unto their gods " (ib. xii. 31). Instances like these are innumerable and if you examine all the examples met with in the holy writings, you will find that they confirm our view. The Prophets in their writings laid special stress on this, because it concerns errors in reference to God, i.e., it concerns idolatry. For if any one believes that, e.g., Zaid is standing, while in fact he is sitting, he does not deviate from truth so much as one who believes that fire is under the air, or that water is under the earth, or that the earth is a plane, or things similar to these. The latter does not deviate so much rom truth as one who believes that the sun consists of fire, or that the heavens form a hemisphere, and similar things in the third instance the deviation from truth is less than the deviation of a man who believes that angels eat and drink, and the like. The latter again deviates less from truth than one who believes that somefor ignorance and error concerning thing besides God is to be worshipped
; ; ; ; ; ;
thing which has a high position in the universe, are of greater importance than those which refer to a thing which occupies a lower " " place ; by error I mean the belief that a thing is different from what it
a
great thing,
i.e.,
by ignorance," the want knowledge of which can be obtained.

really
is
;
"
of
knowledge respecting things the
If a person does not know the measure of the cone, or the sphericity of the sun, it is not so important as not to kriow whether God exists, or whether the world exists without a God ; and if a. man assumes that the cone is half (of the cylinder), or that the
sun
is
a circle, it
is
that
God
is
more than One.
You must know
not so injurious as to believe that idolaters when worship-
ping idols do not believe that there is no God besides them ; and no idolater ever did assume that any image made of metal, stone, or wood has created the heavens and the earth, and still governs them. Idolatry is founded on the
idea that a particular
tures.
This
fear thee,
form represents the agent between God and His crea" would not plainly said in passages like the following : " " in of nations And ? x. king 7) ; every place incense is (Jer.
is
Who
offered unto
my name
is
"
(Mai.
i.
n)
"
by
my name
"
allusion
is
made
I.
to
the Being which
called
by them
this in
[i.e.;
the idolaters]
"
the First Cause."
We
have already explained

i.),
our larger work (Mishneb Torab,
On
co-religionists can doubt it. The infidels, however, though' believing in the existence of the Creator, attack the exclusive prerogative of God, namely, the service and worship
Idolatry, chap,
and none of our
which was commanded, in order that the belief of the people in His existence " should be firmly established, in the words, And you shall serve the Lord," etr, (Exod. xxiii. 25). By transferring that prerogative to other beings, they
52
cause the people, who only notice the rites, without comprehending their meaning or the true character of the being which is worshipped, to renounce
their belief in the existence of
God.
shalt save alive nothing that breatheth comp. (Deut. xx. The object of this commandment, as is distinctly stated, is to extirpate 16). that false opinion, in order that other men should not be by it any
death
"
They were
therefore punished with
Thou
"
more
in the
words of the Bible

" enemies," "
"
corrupted
that they teach you not," etc.
They
are called
"
foes,"
adversaries
"
(ib.
by worshipping
18). idols
they are said to provoke God to jealousy, anger, and wrath. How great, then, must be the offence of him who has a wrong opinion of God Himself, and believes Him to be different from what He truly is, i.e., assumes that He does
not exist, that He consists of two elements, that He is corporeal, that He is Such subject to external influence, or ascribes to Him any defect whatever. a person is undoubtedly worse than he who worships idols in the belief that
they, as agents, can
do good or
evil.
Therefore bear in mind that by the belief in the corporeality or in anything connected with corporeality, you would provoke God to jealousy and wrath, kindle His fire and anger, become His foe, His enemy, and His adverIf you think that there sary in a higher degree than by the worship of idols. is an excuse for those who believe in the corporeality of God on the ground
of their training, their ignorance or their defective comprehension, you must make the same concession to the worshippers of idols ; their worship is due
to ignorance, or to early training, they continue in the custom of their You will perhaps say that the literal interprefathers." (T. B. Hullin, 1 30) tation of the Bible causes men to fall into that doubt, but you must know
"
that idolaters were likewise brought to their belief by false imaginations and There is no excuse whatever for those who, being unable to think for ideas. themselves, do not accept [the doctrine of the incorporeality of God] from the
I do not consider those men as infidels who are unable true philosophers. to prove the incorporeality, but I hold those to be so who do not believe it, especially when they see that Onkelos and Jonathan avoid [in reference
to
I
God] expressions implying corporeality intended to say in this chapter.
as
much
as possible.
This
is all
CHAPTER XXXVII
THE Hebrew
term panim
(face)
is
homonymous
most of
its
various
mean-
It denotes in the first place the face of a " And all faces are turned into paleness " (Jer. xxx. 6) ; living being ; comp. " " Wherefore are your facts so sad ? (Gen. xl. 7). In this sense the term
ings have a figurative character.
occurs frequently.
The
(l Sam. i. 18). frequently used (paneba) was gone " in reference to God in the sense of anger and wrath ; comp. The anger " " The them of the Lord hath divided iv. (Lam. 16) ; anger (pene) of (pene) " " Mine anger (panai) the Lord is against them that do evil (Ps. xxxiv. 17) ; " " Then will I set mine rest xxxiii. shall go and I will give thee (Exod. 14) ;
is
next meaning of the word "
"
is
"
anger
;
"
comp.
And
her anger
Accordingly, the term
"
anger
(panai) (Lev. xx. 3)
there are
Another meaning of the word
"
is
many
other instances.
the presence and existence of a person
"

"
53
died in the presence (pene) [i.e., in the lifetime] of all his breth" And in the presence (pene) of all the people I will 1 8) " x. He will surely curse thee in thy very presence " be glorified 3) ; (Lev. In the same sense the word is used in the following (paneka) (Job i. ll). " And the Lord spake unto Moses face to face," i.e., both being passage, " Come, present, without any intervening medium between them. Comp. " " and xiv. also The Lord let us look one another in the face ; Kings 8) (2
comp.
ren
"
He
(Gen. xxv. "
talked with
" you face to face (Deut. "
v. 4)
instead of
which we read more
the voice of the words, but saw no " The hearing of the voice similitude ; only ye heard a voice (ib. iv. 12). " face to face." without seeing any similitude is termed Similarly do the " And the Lord spake unto Moses face to face " correspond to words, " " There he heard the voice of one speaking unto him (Num. vii. 89), in the
plainly in another place,
Ye heard
description of God's speaking to Moses. Thus it will be clear to you that the perception of the Divine voice without the intervention of an angel is
In the same sense the word panim must be " (Exod. xxxiii. 23) ; as cannot be true it existence, is, i.e., my comprehended. The word panim is also used in Hebrew as an adverb of place, in the sense " " of between the hands." In this sense it is frequently embefore," or " And my face (panat) ployed in reference to God ; so also in the passage, " shall not be seen," according to Onkelos, who renders it, And those before me shall not be seen." He finds here an allusion to the fact, that there are
expressed by
face to face."
"
understood
in
"
And my
face (panai) shall not be seen
higher created beings of such superiority that their true nature cannot be perceived by man viz., the ideals, separate intellects, which in their relation to God are described as being constantly before Him, or between His hands, i.e., as enjoying uninterruptedly the closest attention of Divine Providence. He, i.e., Onkelos, considers that the things which are described
also
;
as
completely perceptible are those beings which, as regards existence, are inferior to the ideals, viz., substance and form ; in reference to which we are " And thou shalt see that which is behind me " (ibid.), i.e., beings, from told,
The word is also used as an adverb of time, meaning " before." Comp. " " In former time (le-pbanim) in Israel Of old (le-pbanim) (Ruth iv. 7) ; " hast Thou laid the foundation of the earth (Ps. cii. 25). " Another signification of the word is attention and regard." Comp. " Thou shalt not have regard (pene) to the poor " (Lev. xx. 15) ; " And a " " Who does not show re(Isa. iii. 3) ; person receiving attention (panim) gard (panim)" etc. (Deut. x. 17, etc.). The wordpanim (face) has a similar " The Lord turn his face to thee " (i.e., The signification in the blessing, Lord let his providence accompany thee), " and give thee peace/*
"
as it were, I turn away, and which I leave behind me. This figure is to represent the utter remoteness of such beings from the Deity. You shall later on (chap, liv.) hear my explanation of what Moses, our teacher, asked for.
which,
CHAPTER XXXVIII
term ahor is a homonym. It is a noun, signifying " back." " " Behind The spear came (share) the tabernacle (Exod. xxvi. 12) ; Comp. " QUt behind him (abarav} (2 Sam. ii. 23).
THE Hebrew
"
54
It
is
" " " next used in reference to time, signifying after neither aftei ; " " arose there like him xxiii. After (afar) (aharav) (2 Kings any 25) ; " these things (Gen. xv. l). In this sense the word occurs frequently. The term includes also the idea of following a thing and of conforming " with the moral principles of some other being. Comp. Ye shall walk after " " the God xiii. shall walk after (abare) Lord, your (Deut. 5) ; (a})are) They " the Lord (Hos. xi. 10), i.e., follow His will, walk in the way of His actions, " He walked after (ahare) the commandment " and imitate His virtues " In this sense the word occurs in Exodus xxxiii. 20, And thou (ib. v. 1 1). " shalt shalt see my back thou that which follows me, is (aborai) ; perceive
him
similar to
will
me, and is the result of my will, i.e., be explained in the course of this treatise.
all
things created
by me,
as
CHAPTER XXXIX
THE Hebrew
is
leb (heart) is a homonymous noun, signifying that organ which " And thrust the source of life to all beings possessing a heart. Comp. " them through the heart of Absalom (i Sam. xviii. 14).
This organ being in the middle of the body, the word has been figuratively " " the middle part of a thing." Comp. unto the midst applied to express " " " the heaven iv. midst of of fire ; n) (Deut. (labbath) (leb) (Exod. iii. 2). " " denotes Went further not mine heart with thought." Comp. It;^
thee
after
"
(2
Kings
v. 26), i.e., I
seek not " (Num. xv. 39), i.e., after your own thoughts your own _heart " Whose heart (i.e., whose thought), turneth away this day " (Deut. xxix. 18). " "
event happened.
Similarly
my thought " must be explained, And that ye

counsel."
was with thee in
when
a certain
The word
further signifies
Comp.
All the rest of Israel
were of one heart (i.e., had one plan) to make David king" (i Chron. " " but fools die for want of heart," i.e., of counsel ; zii. 38) ; My " heart (i.e., my counsel) shall not turn away from this so long as I live
(Job xxvii. 6)
;
for this sentence
is
and will not let it my heart shall never turn away from this." As regards the expression yeheraf, I think that " a handmaid it may be compared with the same verb in the form neJprefet, " where betrothed (nehrefet) to a man xix. (Lev. 20), nehrefeth is similar in " " turning away," and signifies meaning to the Arabic munharifat, turning of to that of the from state slavery marriage." " " " will And I shall give you pastors Leb (heart) denotes also ; comp.
ness I hold fast,
iii. Is thine heart right as heart 15), will In this sense the as will is ? thy right (2 Kings " word has been figuratively applied to God. Comp. That shall do according " soul to that which is in mine heart and in Sam. ii. (i 35), i.e., according
preceded by the words, " " go ; and then follows,
"
My
righteous-
according to
is ?
"
my
will (libbf)
"
"
(Jer.
my
x. 15), i.e.,
is
my
and My (i.e., My providence be there perpetually (i Kings ix. 3). The word is also used in the sense of " understanding." Comp. " For " " vain man will be endowed with a heart A (Job xi. 12), i.e., will be wise ; " wise man's heart is at his right hand (Eccles. x. 2), i.e., his understanding is
to
My will
"
my
And mine
eyes
and mine heart

"
will) shall
engaged in perfect thoughts, the highest problems. Instances of this kind It is in this sense, namely, that of understanding, that the are numerous.

word
also
55
is used whenever figuratively applied to God ; but exceptionally it is " It must, in each passage, be explained in used in the sense of will." accordance with the context. Also, in the following and similar passages, " " " " Consider it in thine heart it signifies understanding ; (Deut. iv. 39) ; *' And none considereth in his heart " (Isa. xliv. 19). Thus, also, " Yet the Lord hath not given you an heart to perceive," is identical in its meaning " " with Unto thee it was shown that thou mightest know (Deut. iv. 35). " As to the passage, And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine " " " " with all thine heart to mean with all the heart (Ib. vi. 5), I explain powers of thine heart," that is, with all the powers of the body, for they all make have their origin in the heart ; and the sense of the entire passage is
:
the knowledge of God the aim of all thy actions, as we have stated in our Commentary on the Mishnah (Aboth, Eight Chapters, v.), and in our Mishneh Torah, yesode hatorah, chap. ii. 2.
CHAPTER XL
Ruafr
is
"
"
"
homonym,
the
signifying
air," that
is,
one of the four elements.
Comp.
locusts
And
air of
God moved
It denotes also,
"
(Exod.
x. 13)
wind." Comp. And the east wind (ruaft) brought the " " west wind (ruah) (ib. 19). In this sense the word ;
breath."
" (Gen. "
i.
2).
occurs frequently.
Next,
it signifies
"
"
and does not come again
"
Comp.
A breath
"
;
(ruah) that passeth away,

is
(Ps. Ixxviii. 39)
wherein
the breath
(ruafr)
of life" (Gen. vii. 15). It signifies also that which remains of

to destruction.
"
gave
it
"
Comp.
And
"
man after his death, and is not subject the spirit (ruah) shall return unto God who
word
as
(Eccles. xii. 7).
Another
signification of this
it is
"
is
the divine inspiration of the pro-
phets whereby they prophesy
phecy, as far as
"
opportune
xi.
shall explain, when speaking on proto discuss this subject in a treatise like this.
we
Comp.
And
I will
" it upon them (Num. rested them "
take of the spirit (ruah)
which
is
" of the Lord spake by me in used this sense. (2 frequently The meaning of " intention," " will," is likewise contained in the word ruah. fool uttereth all his spirit" (ruah) (Prov. xxix. n), i.e., Comp. " his intention and will ; And the spirit (ruah} of Egypt shall fail in the midst " and I will thereof, (Isa. xix. 3), i.e., her intendestroy the counsel thereof " tions will be frustrated, and her plans will be obscured ; Who has comthe of or is familiar the who with his counsel Lord, prehended spirit (ruah) " that he may tell us ? (Isa. xl. 13), i.e., Who knows the order fixed by His or the will, perceives system of His Providence in the existing world, that he
17)
;
"
upon
(ib.
25)
And it came to The spirit (ruah)
"
upon
thee,
and
will
put
pass,
when
the spirit (ruah)
Sam.
xxiii. 2).
The term
is
"A
may
tell
us
as
we
shall explain in
the chapters in which
we
shall speak
on Providence.
God, has generally the explained above, the last signi" will." The meaning of the word in each individual case is fication, viz., therefore to be determined by the context.
ruah,
fifth signification
;
Thus the Hebrew
when used
in reference to
as
sometimes, however,
56

CHAPTER XLI
THE Hebrew nefesh (soul) is a homonymous noun, signifying the vitality " which is common to all living, sentient beings. E.g. wherein there is a " " It denotes also blood," as in Thou 30). (nefesh) (Gen. living soul
i.
shalt not eat the blood (nefesh)
reason," that is, the distinguishing characteristic signification of the term is " As the Lord liveth that made us this soul " (Jer. xxxviii. 16). of man, as in
"
with the meat " (Deut.
xii.
23).
Another
" shall be bound in the bundle of life comp. But the soul (nefesh) of my lord " " " it denotes will To xxv. bind his Sam. ; 29). Lastly, (l comp. princes " Thou wilt not deliver me unto the at his will (be-nafsho) (Ps. cv. 22) " will (be-nefesh) of my enemies (Ps. xli. 3) and according to my opinion, it
;
;
It denotes also the part of
man
"
that remains after his death (ncfesb, soul)
If it be your will (nafshe" should bury my dead (Gen. xxiii. 8) ; Though Moses and will could stood before not be toward this people " Samuel me, yet my (nafshf) I had no pleasure in them, I did not wish to that xv. is, l), (Jer. preserve " them. When nefesh is used in reference to God, it has the meaning will," " That shall do as we have already explained with reference to the passage,
has this
meaning
I
also in the following passages,
"
ketri)
that
"
and in mine intention (be" the And his will 35). nafshf) (l Similarly explain phrase, " (nafsho) to trouble Israel ceased (Judg. x. 16). Jonathan, the son of Uzziel [in the Targum of the Prophets], did not translate this passage, because he understood nafshi to have the first signification, and finding, therefore, in
according to that which "
is
in
my
will (bi-lebabi)
Sam.
ii.
we
God, he omitted them from his translahowever, nefesh be here taken in the last signification, the sentence can well be explained. For in the passage which precedes, it is stated that Providence abandoned the Israelites, and left them on the brink of death then they cried and prayed for help, but in vain. When, however, they had
these words sensation ascribed to
If,
tion.
thoroughly repented, when their misery had increased, and their enemy had had power over them, He showed mercy to them, and His will to continue Note it well, for it is remarkable. The their trouble and misery ceased. preposition ba in this passage has the force of the preposition min (" from" and ba'amal is identical with me-amal. Grammarians give many or " of ") " And that which remaineth instances of this use of the preposition ba " " If there reof (ba) the flesh and of (ba) the bread (Lev. viii. 32) ; " " mains but few of (ba) the years xxv. Of the (ib. 52) ; (ba) strangers and " of (ba) those born in the land (Exod. xii. 19).
;
:
CHAPTER XLII
and Ilai (" living ") signifies a sentient organism (lit. growing " " sensation "), comp. Every moving thing that liveth (Gen. ix. 3)
denotes recovery from a severe illness " " In the sickness (Isa. xxxviii. 9) ; camp
:
"
"
"
having
;
it also
"
And was
till
"
v.
8)
quick,
raw
Mavet
his illness
signifies
(Lev. xiii. 10). " " and " death severe illness,"
as a
is
(hat) flesh
"
recovered (va-yehi) of his " they recovered (hayoiam) (Josh,

as
(l
in
"
His heart died

37), that
is,
(va-yamot) within him, and he became
stone
"
Sam. xxv.
was
severe.
For
this reason it
stated concerning the son of the

woman
left in
57
was no breath
him "
of Zarephath,
(i
"
And
xvii.
his sickness
17).
was so
sore, that there
Kings
The
ill,
have given the idea that he was very
simple expression va-yamoth would near death, like Nabal when he heard
what had taken
place.
Some of the Andalusian authors say that his breath was suspended, so that no breathing could be perceived at all, as sometimes an invalid is seized with a fainting fit or an attack of asphyxia, and it cannot be discovered whether he is alive or dead ; in this condition the patient may remain a day or two. The term bai has also been employed in reference to the acquisition of " " So shall they be life (hayyim) unto thy soul wisdom. Comp. (Prov. iii. " " " For they are life For whoso findeth me findeth life (ib. viii. 35) ; 22) " (hayyim) to those that find them (ib. iv. 22). Such instances are numerous. In accordance with this metaphor, true principles are called life, and corrupt Thus the Almighty says, " See, I have set before thee this principles death. " " " day life and good and death and evil (Deut. xxx. 15), showing that life " " " " and good," death and evil," are identical, and then He explains these " In the same way I understand His words, That ye may live " (ib'. terms. " That it may be v. 33), in accordance with the traditional interpretation of " in the life to come] (ib. xxii. 7). In consequence of the well with thee [scil. "
;
The righteous frequent use of this figure in our language our Sages said, even in death are called living, while the wicked even in life are called dead."
(Talm. B. Berakhotk, p. 78).
Note
this well.
CHAPTER
THE Hebrew
Its
;
XLIII
(kanaf)
(Deut. iv. 17). next applied figuratively to the wings or corners of garments ; " " comp. upon the four corners (kanfoth) of thy vesture (ib. xxii. 12). It was also used to denote the ends of the inhabited part of the earth, and the corners that are most distant from our habitation. Comp.
most of its meanings are metaphorical. kanaf is a homonym " " primary signification is wing of a flying creature," e.g., Any winged " fowl that flieth in the air
The term was
"
That
"
;
it
might take hold of the ends
(kanfoth) of the earth
"
13)
From
the utttermost part (kenaf) of the earth have
we heard
(Job xxxviii. " songs
(Isa. xxiv. 16).
of
(in his Book of Hebrew Roots) says that kenaf is used in the sense concealing," in analogy with the Arabic kana/tu alshaian," I have hidden " And thy teacher will something," and accordingly explains, Isaiah xxx. 20,
Ibn Ganah "
no longer be hidden or concealed." It is a good explanation, and I think " that kenaf has the same meaning in Deuteronomy xxiii. I, He shall not " " take away the cover (kenaf) of his father also in, Spread, therefore, thy cover (kenafeka) over thine handmaid" (Ruth iii. 9). In this sense, I think, the word is figuratively applied to God and to angels (for angels are not corporeal, according to my opinion, as I shall explain). Ruth ii. 12 must therefore " be translated Under whose protection (kenafav) thou art come to trust " ; and wherever the word occurs in reference to angels, it means concealment. You have surely noticed the words of Isaiah (Isa. vi. 2), "With twain he covered his face, and with twain he covered his feet." Their meaning is this The cause of his (the angel's) existence is hidden and concealed; this is meant by the
; :
58

The
"
;
covering of the face.
which are
called
"
his feet
things of which he (the angel) (as I stated in speaking of the
is
the cause, *nd

regel),
homonym
for the actions of the intelligences are not seen, and their ways are, except after long study, not understood, on account of two the one of which is contained in their own properties, the other reasons
in ourselves
;
are likewise concealed
that
is
ideals are difficult to
to say, because our perception is imperfect and the be fully comprehended. As regards the phrase " and
with twain he
flieth," I shall explain in a special
chapter
(xlix.)
why
flight
has been attributed to angels.
CHAPTER XLIV
THE Hebrew
fountain ; 'ay in is a homonym, signifying e.g., By a foun" " " tain ('<?) of water (Gen. xvi. 7). It next denotes ; eye comp. ('ay in) " " " Eye for eye (Exod. xxi. 24). Another meaning of the word is provi-
"
"
"
dence,"
as it
is
said concerning Jeremiah,
"
Take him and
direct thine atten-
tion (enekd) to
him"
understood
when
In this figurative sense it is to be (Jer. xxxix. 12). " used in reference to God ; e.g., And providence and
"
my
Kings ix. 3), as we have already " The eyes ('<?), i.e., the Providence of the Lord thy explained (page 140) ; " " God, are always upon it (Deut. xi. 12) They are the eyes (ene) of the " Lord, which run to and fro through the whole earth (Zech. iv. 10), i.e., His providence is extended over everything that is on earth, as will be ex-
my
pleasure shall be there perpetually
(i
plained in the chapters in which we shall treat of Providence. When, how" " " is connected with the verb to see," (raah or bazah) as ever, the word eye " " " " in His eyes behold (Ps. Open thine eyes, and see (l Kings xix. 16) ; xi. 4), the phrase denotes perception of the mind, not that of the senses ; for
every sensation is a passive state, as is well never passive, as will be explained by me.
known
to you,
and
God
is
active,
CHAPTER XLV
" " to hear," and also to obey." Shama' is used homonymously. It signifies " As regards the first signification, comp. Neither let it be heard out of thy " And the fame thereof was heard in Pharaoh's mouth " (Exod. xxiii. 13) ; " house (Gen. xlv. 16). Instances of this kind are numerous.
Equally frequent are the instances of this verb being used in the sense of " " " And they hearkened (shame'ii) not unto Moses " (Exod. vi. 9). to obey " " If they obey (yishme'u) and serve him (Job xxxvi. 1 1) Shall we then " " hearken (nisbma -) unto you Whosoever will not hearken (Neh. xiii. 27) ; " (Josh. i. 18). (yishma') unto thy words " The verb also signifies to know " (" to understand "), comp. " A nation " whose tongue, i.e., its language, thou shalt not understand (tishma^ (Deut. The verb shama*, used in reference to God, must be taken in xxviii. 49).
:
the sense of perceiving, which
according to the
part of the third signification, whenever, interpretation of the passage, it appears to have the " " " For that first meaning : comp. And the Lord heard it (Num. xi. i) ; " He heareth your murmurings (Exod. xvi. 7). In all such passages mental perception is meant. When, however, according to the literal interpretation
is
literal
59
the verb appears to have the second signification, it implies that God responded to the prayer of man and fulfilled his wish, or did not respond and " " " did not fulfil his wish I will surely hear his I cry (Exod. xxii. 23) ; " " " will hear, for I am gracious Bow down thine and hear ; ear, (ib. 27) "But the Lord would not hearken to your voice, nor give (2 Kings xix. 16) " " ear unto you Yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not (Deut. i. 45) ; " " " hear i. For I will not hear thee There are (Isa. 15) ; (Jer. vii. 16).
: ;
instances in which skama has this sense. Remarks will now be presented to you on these metaphors and similes, which will quench your thirst, and explain to you all their meanings without
many
leaving a doubt.
CHAPTER XLVI
(VE have already stated, in one of the chapters of this treatise, that there is a great difference between bringing to view the existence of a thing and decan lead others to notice the existence of monstrating its true essence.
We
an object by pointing to
to other objects
:
e.g., if
accidents, actions, or even most remote relations you wish to describe the king of a country to one of
its
him, you can give a description and an account You will either say to him, the tall man with a fair complexion and grey hair is the king, thus describing him by his accidents or you will say, the king is the person round whom are seen a great multitude of men on horse and on foot, and soldiers with drawn swords, over whose head banners are waving, and before whom trumpets are sounded ; or
;
his subjects who does not know of his existence in many ways.
it is
or
it is
the person living in the palace in a particular region of a certain country ; the person who ordered the building of that wall, or the construction
of that bridge ; or by some other similar acts and things relating to him. His existence can be demonstrated in a still more indirect way, e.g., if you
are asked
whether
this
the
affirmative.
"
What
land has a king, you will undoubtedly answer in " " The fact that this proof have you ?
little
banker here, a weak and

gold
pieces,
person, stands
tall
before
this
large
mass of
and strong, who stands before him asking in vain for alms of the weight of a carob-grain, is rebuked and is compelled to go away by the mere force of words for had he not feared the king, he would, without hesitation, have killed the banker, or pushed him away and taken as much of the money as he could." Consequently, this is a proof that this country has a ruler and his existence is proved by the well-regulated affairs of the country, on account of which the king is respected and the punishments decreed by him are feared. In this whole example nothing is mentioned that indicated his characteristics, and his essential properties, by virtue of which he is king. The same is the case and that poor man,
;
with the information concerning the Creator given to the ordinary classes of men in all prophetical books and in the Law. For it was found necessary to teach all of them that God exists, and that He is in every respect the most perfect Being, that is to say, He exists not only in the sense in which the earth and the heavens exist, but He exists and possesses life, wisdom, powerv activity, and all other properties which our belief in His existence must inThat God exists was therefore shown to ordiclude, as will be shown below.
60
nary

men by means
a simile taken
by
as fully, truly,
of similes taken from physical bodies ; that He is living, from motion, because ordinary men consider only the body that which is connected with a and undoubtedly existing
;
not a body, although believed to exist, has a lower degree of existence on account of its dependence on the body for existence. That, however, which is neither itself a body, nor a force within a body, is not existent according to man's first notions, and is above all excluded from the range of imagination. In the same manner motion is considered by the ordinary man as identical with life ; what cannot move voluntarily from
is
body but
itself
place to place has no life, although motion is not part of the definition of life, but an accident connected with it. The perception by the senses, especially
by hearing and seeing, is best known to us ; we have no idea or notion of any other mode of communication between the soul of one person and that of another than by means of speaking, i.e., by the sound produced by lips,
tongue, and the other organs of speech. When, therefore, we are to be informed that God has a knowledge of things, and that communication is made
Him to the Prophets who convey it to us, they represent Him to us as seeing and hearing, i.e., as perceiving and knowing those things which can be seen and heard. They represent Him to us as speaking, i.e., that communications from Him reach the Prophets ; that is to be understood by the term
by
"
cause
prophecy," as will be fully explained. God is described as working, bewe do not know any other mode of producing a thing except by direct touch. He is said to have a soul in the sense that He is living, because all although the term soul living beings are generally supposed to have a soul
;
is,
as has
been shown,
homonym.
all
Again, since
we perform
these actions only
by means
of corporeal organs,
figuratively ascribe to God the organs of locomotion, as feet, and their soles ; organs of hearing, seeing, and smelling, as ear, eye, and nose ; organs
we
and substance of speech, as mouth, tongue, and sound ; organs for the performance of work, as hand, its fingers, its palm, and the arm. In short, these
organs of the body are figuratively ascribed to God, who is above all imperfection, to express that He performs certain acts ; and these acts are figurato express that He possesses certain perfections tively ascribed to different from those acts themselves. E.g., we say that He has eyes, ears, hands, a mouth, a tongue, to express that He sees, hears, acts, and speaks ;
Him
but seeing and hearing are attributed to

ceives.
Him
;
to indicate simply that
He
per-
You
is
thus find in
Hebrew
instances in
one sense
" See the word of the Lord as Hear the word of the Lord," for the (Jer. ii. 31), in the same meaning " " " sense of the phrase is, Perceive what He says See ; similarly the phrase, " " Smell the the smell of my son (Gen. xxvii. 27) has the same meaning as In the same smell of my son," for it relates to the perception of the smell " way are used the words, And all the people saw the thunders and the light-
named
instead of the other
"
which the perception
of the
"
thus,
(Exod. xx. 15), although the passage also contains the description of nings our a prophetical vision, as is well known and understood among
"
Action and speech are likewise figuratively applied to God, to express that a certain influence has emanated from Him, as will be explained The physical organs which are attributed to (chap. Ixv and chap. Ixvi.). God in the writings of the Prophets are either organs of locomotion, indipeople.
ON ANTHROPOMORPHISMS IN THE BIBLE

eating
life
;
6r
indicating action
organs of sensation, indicating perception ; organs of touch, or organs of speech, indicating the divine inspiration of
;
be explained. object of all these indications is to establish in our minds the notion of the existence of a living being, the Maker of everything, who also possesses a knowledge of the things which He has made. shall explain, when we
the Prophets,
as will
The
We
to speak of the inadmissibility of Divine attributes, that all these various attributes convey but one notion, viz., that of the essence of God. The
is to explain in what sense physical organs are Perfect Being, namely, that they are mere indications of the actions generally performed by means of these organs. Such actions
come
sole object of this
chapter
ascribed to the
Most
being perfections respecting ourselves, are predicated of God, because we wish to express that He is most perfect in every respect, as we remarked " above in explaining the Rabbinical phrase, The language of the Torah is like the of organs of locomotion being applied language of man." Instances " " " to the Creator occur as follows My footstool (Isa. Ixvi. i) ; the place " of the soles of my feet For of (Ezek. xliii. 7). organs of touch examples " " " to the hand of the Lord ix. with the God, (Exod. 3) ; applied comp.
:
ringer of
"
God"
"
And thou
"the work of thy fingers" (Ps. viii. 4), (ib. xxxi. 18) ; " " hast laid thine hand upon me The arm of (ib. cxxxix. 5) ;
"
the Lord Lord (Exod. xv. 6). In (Isa. liii. i) ; Thy right hand, " instances like the following, organs of speech are attributed to God : The mouth of the Lord has spoken " (Isa. i. 20) ; " And He would open His lips
against thee
"
"
"
"
(Job
his
xi. 5)
The
voice of the
fire
Lord
is
"
God in instances like the following " His eyes be" " His The eyes of the Lord which run to and hold, (Ps. xi. 4) ; eyelids try " " fro Bow down thine ear unto me, and hear " (2 Kings (Zech. iv. 10) ; " xix. 1 6) ; You have kindled a fire in my nostril " (Jer. xvii. 5). Of the inner parts of the human body only the heart is figuratively applied to God, " " " " it is besides because also intellect heart is a ; homonym, and denotes " " the source of animal life. In phrases like my bowels are troubled for him Ixiii. 15), the term xxxi. "The of bowels" 20); (Isa. (Jer. sounding thy " " " " " " is used bowels bowels is used in the sense of heart for the term ; " both in a general and in a specific meaning ; it denotes specifically bowels," but more generally it can be used as the name of any inner organ, including " heart." The correctness of this argument can be proved by the phrase " And thy law is within my bowels " (Ps. xl. 9), which is identical with " And thy law is within my heart." For that reason the prophet employed " " " in this verse the phrase my bowels are troubled (and the sounding of thy bowels ") the verb bamab is in fact used more frequently in connection with " " heart," than with any other organ ; comp. My heart maketh a noise " is never used as a figure in the shoulder me iv. (bomeh) (Jer. 19). Similarly, in reference to God, because it is known as a mere instrument of transport,
: ;
4) ; tongue tion are attributed to
And
as a
"
(Isa.
powerful
(Ps. xxix.
devouring
xxx. 27).
Organs of sensa-
and
also
comes into
close contact
with the thing which
it
carries.
With
far
greater reason the organs of nutrition are never attributed to God ; they are at once recognized as signs of imperfection. In fact all organs, both the external and the internal, are
some,
as e.g., all
employed in the various actions of the soul ; inner organs, are the means of preserving the individual for
62
a certain
time ; others, as the organs of generation, are the means of preserving the species ; others are the means of improving the condition of man and bringing his actions to perfection, as the hands, the feet, and the eyes,
all of which tend to render motion, action, and perception more perfect. Animate beings require motion in order to be able to approach that which is conducive to their welfare, and to move away from the opposite they require the senses in order to be able to discern what is injurious to them and what is beneficial. In addition, man requires various kinds of handiand he is compelled by work, to prepare his food, clothing, and dwelling his physical constitution to perform such work, namely, to prepare what is good for him. Some kinds of work also occur among certain animals, as far as such work is required by those animals. I do not believe that any man can doubt the correctness of the assertion that the Creator is not in need of
; ;
anything for the continuance of His existence, or for the improvement of His condition. Therefore, God has no organs, or, what is the same, He is not corporeal ; His actions are accomplished by His Essence, not by any organ, and as undoubtedly physical forces are connected with the organs,
does not possess any such forces, that is to say, He has, besides His Essence, nothing that could be the cause of His action, His knowledge, or His will, for attributes are nothing but forces under a different name. It is not my intention to discuss the question in this chapter. Our Sages laid down a
general principle, by which the literal sense of the physical attributes of God mentioned by the prophets is rejected ; a principle which evidently shows that our Sages were far from the belief in the corporeality of God, and that
He
they did not think any person capable of misunderstanding it, or entertaining any doubt about it. For that reason they employ in the Talmud and the Midrashim phrases similar to those contained in the prophecies, without any circumlocution ; they knew that there could not be any doubt about their metaphorical character, or any danger whatever of their being misunderstood ; and that all such expressions would be understood as figurative [language], employed to communicate to the intellect the notion of His existence. Now, it was well known that in figurative language God is compared to a king who commands, cautions, punishes, and rewards, his subjects, and whose servants and attendants publish his orders, so that they might be acted upon, and they also execute whatever he wishes. Thus the Sages adopted that figure, used it frequently, and introduced such speech, consent, and refusal of a king, and other usual acts of kings, as became necessary b; that figure. In all these instances they were sure that no doubt or confusion would arise from it. The general principle alluded to above is contained in the following saying of our Sages, mentioned in Bereshith Rabba " Great was the power of the Prophets (c. xxvii.), they compared the
;
Creator ; comp. And over the resemblance of the throne ' " was a resemblance like the appearance of man (Ezek. i. 26). They have thus plainly stated that all those images which the Prophets perceived, i.e. in prophetic visions, are images created by God. This is perfectly correct ;
creature to
its
'
image in our imagination has been created. How pregnant is the " " Great is their boldness They indicated by it, that they expression, themselves found it very remarkable for whenever they perceived a word
for every
!
or act difficult to explain, or apparently
objectionable, they
used
that
SENSATION ATTRIBUTED TO
phrase
;
G0l>
"
63
e.g., a
certain
a slipper, alone and by night. great is his boldness to have
Rabbi has performed the act (of hali ah ") with " Another Rabbi, thereupon exclaimed How
followed the opinion of the minority."
The
Chaldee phrase rab gubreh in the original of the latter quotation, and the Hebrew gadol koho in that of the former quotation, have the same meaning, viz., Great is the power of (or the boldness of). Hence, in the preceding quotation, the sense is, How remarkable is the language which the Prophets were obliged to use when they speak of God the Creator in terms signifying This deserves attention. Our Sages properties of beings created by Him. have thus stated in distinct and plain terms that they are far from believing in the corporeality of God ; and in the figures and forms seen in a prophetical vision, though belonging to created beings, the Prophets, to use the words " of our Sages, compared the creature to its Creator." If, however, after these explanations, any one wishes out of malice to cavil at them, and to find fault with them, though their method is neither comprehended nor understood by him, the Sages o.b.m. will sustain no injury by
it.
CHAPTER XLVII
WE
have already stated several times that the prophetic books never attribute to God anything which ordinary men consider a defect, or which they cannot in their imagination combine with the idea of the Almighty, although such terms may not otherwise be different from those which were employed as metaphors in relation to God. Indeed all things which are attributed to God are considered in.some way to be perfection, or can at least be imagined
[as
appertaining to Him].
must now show why, according to this principle, the senses of hearing, and smell, are attributed to God, but not those of taste and touch. He is equally elevated above the use of all the five senses ; they are all defective as regards perception, even for those who have no other source of knowledge because they are passive, receive impressions from without, and are subject to interruptions and sufferings, as much as the other organs of
sight
;
We
the body.
visible things
By " saying that God sees, we mean He hears " is identical with
;
in the same way we might say, things " the sense of He perceives objects which
;
"
"
saying
He man perceives by means
He perceives perceives audible tastes and He touches," in

to state that
"
He
of taste
and touch."
tions,
For, as regards perception, the senses are identical ; if we deny the existence of one sensation in God, we must deny that of all other sensai.e., the perceptions of the five senses ; and if we attribute the existence of one sensation to Him, i.e., the perception appertaining to one of the
senses,
Holy Writ,
;
attribute all the five sensations. Nevertheless, we find in And God saw " (Gen. vi. 5) " And God heard " (Num. xi. " And God smelt " (Gen. viii. 21) but we do not meet with the exi) " And God tasted," " And God touched." According to our opinion pressions,
we must
"
is to be found in the idea, which has a firm hold in the men, that God does not come into contact with a body in the same manner as one body comes into contact with another, since He is not even seen by the eye. While these two senses, namely, taste and touch, only act when in close contact with the object, by sight, hearing, and smell, even distant
the reason of this
minds of
all
64
objects are perceived.
These, therefore, were considered by the multitude appropriate expressions [to be figuratively applied to God]. Besides, the object in figuratively applying the sensations to Him, could only have been to express that He perceives our actions ; but hearing and sight are
Sages,
sufficient for that,
Thus our
:
warning (Mishnah Abot, ii. I.) You, however, know that,

sations
is
namely, for the perception of what a man does or says. the following advice and " Know what is above thee, a seeing eye, and a hearing ear."
among other admonitions, gave
strictly speaking, the condition of all the senthe same, that the same argument which is employed against the existence of touch and taste in God, may be used against sight, hearing, and smell ; for they all are material perceptions and impressions which are
subject to change.
taste, are at as
There is only this difference, that the former, touch and once recognized as deficiencies, while the others are considered In a similar manner the defect of the imagination is easily perfections.
less easily
seen,
that of
thinking
and reasoning.
Imagination (raâyon)
therefore,
was never employed
as a figure in
figuratively ascribed to Him. Comp. The thoughts which " And with his understanding he Lord thought " (Jer. xlix. 20) The inner senses were thus stretched out the heavens" (ib. x. 12). some are figuratively applied to treated in the same way as the external God, some not. All this is according to the language of man he ascribes to God what he considers a perfection, and does not ascribe to Him what he
and reason are

the
speaking of God, while thought "
In truth, however, no real attribute, implying an addition to His essence, can be applied to Him, as will be proved.
considers a defect.
CHAPTER XL VIII
WHENEVER
los,
is applied to God, Onkethe Proselyte, does not translate it literally, but paraphrases it, merely reached Him, i.e., He perceived it, or that expressing that a certain speech He accepted it or did not accept, when it refers to supplication and prayer " The words God heard " are therefore paraphrased by him as its object. " " It was heard before the Lord," or He accepted " when regularly either,
in the Pentateuch the
term
"
to hear
"
I will surely supplication and prayer ; [e.g.] " I will surely hear xxii. 22). This lit. (Exod. principle is followed accept," by Onkelos in his translation of the Pentateuch without any exception. But
employed
in reference to
"
"
as regards
the verb
I
"
to see," (raati), his
renderings
vary in a remarkable
was unable to discern his principle or method. In some " and God saw " ; in others he paraphrases instances he translates literally, " The use of the phrase va-baza adonai before the Lord." it was revealed is sufficient evidence that the term baza in Chaldee is Onkelos homonyby mous, and that it denotes mental perception as well as the sensation of sight. This being the case, I am surprised that, in some instances avoiding the " And it was revealed before the literal rendering, he substituted for it Lord." When I, however, examined the various readings in the version of Onkelo.% which I either saw myself or heard from others during the time of " " my studies, I found that the term to see when connected with wrong, was "It was manifest before the Lord." paraphrased, injury, or violence,
manner, and
SENSATION ATTRIBUTED TO GOD

There
65
is no doubt that the term fyaza in Chaldee denotes complete apprehension and reception of the object in the state in which it has been perWhen Onkelos, therefore, found the verb " to see " connected ceived. " with the object wrong," he did not render it literally, but paraphrased it, " It was revealed before the Lord." Now, I noticed that in all instances of
the Pentateuch where seeing is ascribed to God, he translated it literally, " : For my affliction was except those instances which I will mention to you " " For all that Laban doeth revealed before the Lord (Gen. xxix. 32) ; " unto thee is revealed before me (ib. xxxi. 12) ; although the first person in the sentence refers to the angel [and not to God], Onkelos does not ascribe
to him that perception which implies complete comprehension of the object, " " " The because the object is oppression of the children of iniquity " " The oppression of my Israel was known to the Lord (Exod. ii. 25) ;
people was surely
me"
(ib.
is
" And God saw the children of Israel " comp. the Targum of the passage, " He saw their affliction and their trouble " (ih. ii. 25), which is equal to " And it was known to the Lord, and he abhorred them " (Deut. xxxii. 19) ; " " It was known to him that their power was gone (ib. 36) ; in this instance the object of the perception is likewise the wrong done to the Israelites, and In all these examples Onkelos is conthe increasing power of the enemy. " Thou canst not look sistent, following the maxim expressed in the words, " " on iniquity to see," when (Hab. i. 13) ; wherefore he renders the verb It is revealed or before to rebellion, him, etc. This referring oppression appropriate and satisfactory explanation, the correctness of which I do not doubt, is weakened by three passages, in which, according to this view, I " " " to see to be revealed before expected to find the verb paraphrased " " found instead the literal see in the various copies but to him," rendering of the Targum. The following are the three passages " And God saw that " " the wickedness of man was great upon the earth And the (Gen. vi. 6) ; " " Lord saw the earth, and behold it was corrupt and God (ib. vi. 12) ; saw that Leah was hated" (ib. xxx. 31). It appears to me that in these passages there is a mistake, which has crept into the copies of the Targum, since we do not possess the Targum in the original manuscript of Onkelos, for in that case we should have assumed that he had a satisfactory explanation
:
people
" The affliction is known to known to me " (ib. iii. 7) is known to me" "This "Their (ib. iv. 31); oppression 9); known to me " (ib. xxxii. 9), i.e., their rebellion is known to me
;
of
it.
In rendering Genesis xxii. 8, the lamb is known to the Lord," he either wished to indicate that the Lord was not expected to seek and to bring it, or he considered it inappropriate, in Chaldee to connect the divine perception with one of the lower animals. However, the various copies of the Targum must be carefully examined with regard to this point, and if you still find those passages the same as I quoted them, I cannot explain what he meant.
"
CHAPTER XLIX
THE
angels are likewise incorporeal they are intelligences without matter, but they are nevertheless created beings, and God created them, as will be
;
66
explained below. In Bereshith Kabbah (on Gen. iii. 24) we read the follow" The angel is called ' the flame of the sword which ing remark of our Sages ' turned every way (Gen. iii. 24), in accordance with the words, ' His minis:
flaming fire (Ps. civ. 4) ; the attribute, which turned every way is added, because angels are changeable in form ; they appear at one time as males, at another as females ; now as spirits ; now as angels." By this
ters a
'
'
'
remark they clearly stated that angels are incorporeal, and have no permanent bodily form independent of the mind [of him who perceives them], they exist entirely in prophetic vision, and depend on the action of the imaginative power, as will be explained when speaking on the true meaning of prophecy. As to the words '' at another time as females," which imply that the Prophets in prophetical vision perceived angels also in the form of " women, they refer to the vision of Zechariah (v. 9), And, behold, there came out two women, and the wind was in their wings." You know very well how difficult it is for men to form a notion of anything immaterial, and entirely devoid of corporeality, except after considerable training it is especially difficult for those who do not distinguish between objects of the intellect and objects of the imagination, and depend mostly on the mere
:
imaginative power. They believe that all imagined things exist or at least have the possibility of existing ; but that which cannot be imagined does not For persons of this class and the majority of exist, and cannot exist.
thinkers belong to
it
at the explanation of anything doubtful.
cannot arrive at the true solution of any question, or On account of this difficulty the
prophetic books contain expressions which, taken literally, imply that angels are corporeal, moving about, endowed with human form, receiving commands of God, obeying His word and performing whatever He wishes, according to His
command.
All this only serves to lead to the belief that
angels exist, and are alive and perfect, in the same way as we have explained in reference to God. If the figurative representation of angels were limited to this, their true essence would be believed to be the same as the essence of
God, since, in reference to the Creator expressions are likewise employed, which literally imply that He is corporeal, living, moving and endowed with
form. In order, therefore, to give to the mind of men the idea that the existence of angels is lower than the existence of God, certain forms of It was lower animals were introduced in the description of angels. thereby shown, that the existence of God is more perfect than that of angels, as much as man is more perfect than the lower animals.
human
Nevertheless no organ of the brute creation was attributed to the angels Without wings the act of flying appears as impossible as except wings. that of walking without legs ; for these two modes of motion can only be
imagined in connection with these organs. The motion of flying has been chosen as a symbol to represent that angels possess life, because it is the most Men consider perfect and most sublime movement of the brute creation. this motion a perfection to such an extent that they themselves wish to be
able to
fly,
what
is
useful,
in order to escape easily what is injurious, and to obtain quickly though it be at a distance. For this reason this motion has
been attributed to the angels. There is besides another reason. The bird in its flight is sometimes visible, sometimes withdrawn from our sight ; one moment near to us, and in the
ON THE ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

;
67
next far off and these are exactly the circumstances which we must associate with the idea 01 angels, as will be explained below. This imaginary perfection, the motion of flight, being the exclusive property of the brute creaYou must not be misled by the tion, has never been attributed to God. " (Ps. xviii. 10), for it is passage, "And he rode upon a cherub, and he did fly the cherub that did fly, and the simile only serves to denote the rapid arrival " of that which is referred to in that passage. Behold, the Lord Comp.":
rideth
upon
a swift cloud,
and
shall
come
into
Egypt
(Isa. xix. i)
that
is,
" the sole of the foot of a calf," found in the prophecies of Ezekiel (i. 10 and 7) mislead you ; for all these are explained in a different manner, as you will learn later, and besides, the prophet only describes the animals (hayyot). The subject will be explained (III. i.), though by mere hints, as far as necessary, for directing your attention to the true interpretation. The motion of flying, frequently mentioned in the Bible, necessitates,
eagle,"
the punishment alluded to will come down quickly upon Egypt. Nor should " " " the face of an the face of a lion," the face of an ox," expressions like
according to our imagination, the existence of wings ; wings are therefore given to the angels as symbols expressive of their existence, not of their true essence. You must also bear in mind that whenever a thing moves very
term implies great velocity of motion. Comp. (Deut. xxviii. 49). The eagle flies and moves with greater velocity than any other bird, and therefore it is introduced in this simile. Furthermore, the wings are the organs [lit. causes] of flight ; hence the number of the wings of angels in the prophetic vision corresponds to the number of the causes which set a thing in motion, but this does not belong
quickly, " As the eagle
it is
said to fly, as that

flieth
"
to the
theme
of this chapter.
(Comp.
II. iv.
and
x.)
CHAPTER L
" " we faith do not reading my present treatise, bear in mind that by understand merely that which is uttered with the lips, but also that which is apprehended by the soul, the conviction that the object [of belief] is exIf, as regards real or supposed truths, you content actly as it is apprehended. yourself with giving utterance to them in words, without apprehending them or believing in them, especially if you do not seek real truth, you have a very
WHEN
easy task as, in fact, you will find many ignorant people professing articles of faith without connecting any idea with them.
tion,
however, you have a desire to rise to a higher state, viz., that of reflecand truly to hold the conviction that God is One and possesses true unity, without admitting plurality or divisibility in any sense whatever, you must understand that God has no essential attribute in any form or in any sense whatever, and that the rejection of corporeality implies the rejection
If,
of essential attributes.
Those who
is
believe that
God
lips,
is
has
many
is
attributes, declare the unity
with their
One, and that He and assume plurality
in their thoughts.
This
three,
like
He
is
one and
He
is
and that the three are one.
the doctrine of the Christians, who say that Of the same character
who say that God is One, but that He has many and that He with His attributes is One, although they deny corporeality and affirm His most absolute freedom from matter ; as if our
the doctrine of those
;
attributes
68
For belief is object were to seek forms of expression, not subjects of belief. only possible after the apprehension of a thing ; it consists in the conviction that the thing apprehended has its existence beyond the mind [in reality] If in addition to this we are convinced exactly as it is conceived in the mind.
that the thing cannot be different in any way from what we believe it to be, and that no reasonable argument can be found for the rejection of the belief or for the admission of any deviation from it, then the belief is true. Renounce desires and habits, follow your reason, and study what I am going to say in the chapters which follow on the rejection of the attributes you will then be fully convinced of what we have said you will be of those who truly conceive the Unity of God, not of those who utter it with their lips without " Thou art near in their mouth, thought, like men of whom it has been said, and far from their reins " (Jer. xii. 2). It is right that a man should belong to that class of men who have a conception of truth and understand it, though " Comthey do not speak of it. Thus the pious are advised and addressed, mune with your own heart upon your bed and be still. Selah." (Ps. iv. 5.)
; ;
CHAPTER
THERE
LI
some and
of
in
are many things whose existence is manifest and obvious ; these are innate notions or objects of sensation, others are nearly so
fact they would require no proof if man had been left in his primitive state. Such are the existence of motion, of man's free will, of phases of production
and destruction, and of the natural properties perceived by the senses, e.g., the heat of fire, the coldness of water, and many other similar things. False notions, however, may be spread either by a person labouring under error, or by one who has some particular end in view, and who establishes theories
contrary to the real nature of things, by denying the existence of things perceived by the senses, or by affirming the existence of what does not exist.
Philosophers are thus required to establish by proof things which are selfevident, and to disprove the existence of things which only exist in man's imagination. Thus Aristotle gives a proof for the existence of motion,
because
it
had been denied

class
it is a
he disproves the reality of atoms, because
it
had been
asserted.
To
to
the same
God.
For
belongs the rejection of essential attributes in reference self-evident truth that the attribute is not inherent in
the object to which it is ascribed, but it is superadded to its essence, and is consequently an accident ; if the attribute denoted the essence [TO TI rjv etvai] of the object, it would be either mere tautology, as if, e.g., one would say " man is man," or the explanation of a name, as, e.g., " man is a speaking " " include the " true essence of animal ; for the words speaking animal man, and there is no third element besides life and speech in the definition of man ; when he, therefore, is described by the attributes of life and speech, " these are nothing but an explanation of the name man," that is to say, that
It will now be the thing which is called man, consists of life and speech. clear that the attribute must be one of two things, either the essence of the
object described
in that case it
is
mere explanation
of a
name, and on that
account we might admit the attribute in reference to God, but we reject it from another cause as will be shown or the attribute is something different
69
from the object described, some extraneous superadded element ; in that case the attribute would be an accident, and he who merely rejects the " " in reference to the attributes of accidents God, does not appellation
thereby alter their character ; for everything superadded to the essence of joins it without forming part of its essential properties, and that constitutes an accident. Add to this the logical consequence of admitting many attributes, viz., the existence of many eternal beings. There cannot be any belief in the unity of God except by admitting that He is one simple
an object
substance, without any composition or plurality of elements ; one from whatever side you view it, and by whatever test you examine it ; not divisible into
two parts in any way and by any cause, nor capable of any form of plurality either objectively or subjectively, as will be proved in this treatise. Some thinkers have gone so far as to say that the attributes of God ale
assertion of
neither His essence nor anything extraneous to His essence. This is like the some theorists, that the ideals, i.e., the univtrsalia, are neither
fill
existing nor non-existent, and like the views of others, that the atom does not a definite place, but keeps an atom of space occupied ; that man has no
Such things are only said ; all, but has acquirement. they exist only in words, not in thought, much less in reality. But as you know, and as all know who do not delude themselves, these theories are prefreedom of action at
served by a multitude of words, by misleading similes sustained by declama-
and invective, and by numerous methods borrowed both from dialectics If after uttering them and supporting them by such words, examine for himself his own belief on this subject, he would see nothing but confusion and stupidity in an endeavour to prove the existence of things which do not exist, or to find a mean between two opposites that have no mean. Or is there a mean between existence and non-existence, or between the identity and non-identity of two things ? But, as we said, to such absurdities men were forced by the great licence given to the imagination, and by the fact that every existing material thing is necessarily
tion
and
sophistry. a man were to
imagined as a certain substance possessing several attributes ; for nothing has ever been found that consists of one simple substance without any attribute. Guided by such imaginations, men thought that God was also composed of many different elements, viz., of His essence and of the attributes superadded to His essence. Following up this comparison, some believed that God was corporeal, and that He possessed attributes others, abandoning this theory, denied the corporeality, but retained the attributes. The adherence to the literal sense of the text of Holy Writ is the source of all this error, as I shall show in some of the chapters devoted to this theme.
;
CHAPTER
EVERT
LII
description ofan object by an affirmative attribute, which includes the assertion that an object is of a certain kind, must be made in one of the
:
following five ways

First,
is described by its definition, as e.g., man is described being that lives and has reason ; such a description, containing the true essence of the object, is, as we have already shown, nothing else but the ex-
The
object
as a
planation of a name.
All agree that this kind of description cannot be given
70
of

;
no previous causes to His existence, by which He could and on that account it is a well-known principle, received by all the philosophers, who are precise in their statements, that no definition can be given of God.
God
for there are

:
be denned
Secondly. An object is described by part of its definition, as when, e.g., This kind of is described as a living being or as a rational being. description includes the necessary connection [of the two ideas] ; for when
man
we
say that every man is rational we meafi by it that every being which has the characteristics of man must also have reason. All agree that this kind of description is inappropriate in reference to God ; for if we were to speak
of a portion of His essence, we should consider His essence to be a The inappropriateness of this kind of description in reference to same as that of the preceding kind.
compound.
God
is
the
Thirdly.
essence,
An object is described by something different from its true by something that does not complement or establish the essence of
;
The description, therefore, relates to a quality but quality, most general sense, is an accident. If God could be described in this way, He would be the substratum of accidents a sufficient reason for rejecting the idea that He possesses quality, since it diverges from the true conception of His essence. It is surprising how those who admit the application of attributes to God can reject, in reference to Him, comparison and " He cannot be qualified," they can only For when they say qualification. mean that He possesses no quality ; and yet every positive essential attribute of an object either constitutes its essence, and in that case it is identical with the essence, or it contains a quality of the object. There are, as you know, four kinds of quality ; I will give you instances of attributes of each kind, in order to show you that this class of attributes cannot (a) A man is described by any of his intellectual possibly be applied to God. or moral qualities, or by any of the dispositions appertaining to him as an
the object.
its
in
animate being, when,

shrinks
e.g.,
we
speak of a person
It
;
who
we
is
a carpenter, or
who
from
sin,
or
who
is ill.
makes no difference whether we
say, a
carpenter, or a sage, or a physician

sical dispositions
"
fearing habit of
or
"
nor does
merciful."
" whether we say sinand Every trade, every profession, every settled
it
by
all
these
represent certain phy-
make any
difference
are certain physical dispositions. All this is clear to those who have occupied themselves with the study of Logic. () thing is described
man
by some physical quality

being soft or hard. It
"
man
in both cases we speak of physical conditions, ; strong or weak (c) A is described by his passive qualities, or by his emotions ; we speak, e.g.,
"
by the absence of the same, e.g., as " makes no difference whether we say soft or hard," or
it
possesses, or
of a person who is passionate, irritable, timid, merciful, without implying that these conditions have become permanent. The description of a thing by its colour, taste, heat, cold, dryness, and moisture, belongs also to this
class of attributes,
(d)
;
A
we
thing
is
described by any of
its
is
qualities resulting
from quantity
straight, etc.
as
such
speak, e.g., of a thing
which
long, short, curved,
Consider all these and similar attributes, and you will find that they cannot be employed in reference to God. He is not a magnitude that any quality He is not resulting from quantity as such could be possessed by Him
;

affected
71
by external influences, and therefore does not possess any quality He is not subject to physical conditions, and resulting from emotion. therefore does not possess strength or similar qualities ; He is not an animate being, that He should have a certain disposition of the soul, or acquire certain
properties, as meekness, modesty, etc., or be in a state to which animate Hence it beings as such are subject, as, e.g., in that of health or of illness.
no attribute coming under the head of quality in its widest can be predicated of God. Consequently, these three classes of attributes, describing the essence of a thing, or part of the essence, or a quality
follows that
sense,
it, are clearly inadmissible in reference to God, for they imply composition, which, as we shall prove, is out of question as regards the Creator. We say, with regard to this latter point, that He is absolutely One. A thing is described by its relation to another thing, e.g., to Fourthly. time, to space, or to a different individual ; thus we say, Zaid, the father of
of
A, or the partner of B, or who dwells at a certain place, or who lived at a stated time. This kind of attribute does not necessarily imply plurality or change in the essence of the object described ; for the same Zaid, to whom reference is made, is the partner of Amru, the father of Beer, the master of Khalid, the friend of Zaid, dwells in a certain house, and was born in a certain year. Such relations are not the essence of a thing, nor are they so intimately connected with it as qualities. At first thought, it would seem that they may be employed in reference to God, but after careful and thorough consideration we are convinced of their inadmissibility. It is quite clear that there is no relation between God and time or space. For time is an accident connected with motion, in so far as the latter includes the relation
of anteriority and posteriority, and is expressed by in books devoted to this subject ; and since motion
to,
number, as is explained is one of the conditions
which only material bodies are subject, and God is immaterial, there can be no relation between Him and time. Similarly there is no relation between Him and space. But what we have to investigate and to examine is this whether some real relation exists between God and any of the substances created by Him, by which He could be described ? That there is no correlation between Him and any of His creatures can easily be seen ; for the characteristic of two objects correlative to each other is the equality of
:
their reciprocal relation.
Now,
as
God
as
other beings have only possible existence,
has absolute existence, while all we shall show, there consequently
cannot be any correlation [between
God and
is
kind of relation does exist between them
wrongly. It is impossible to imagine a although, as we believe, the same kind of existence is common to both ; how, then, could a relation be imagined between any creature and God, who
has nothing in common with any other being ; for even the term existence is applied to Him and other things, according to our opinion, only by way
of pure
His creatures]. That a certain by some considered possible, but relation between intellect and sight,
Him
homonymity. Consequently there is no relation whatever between and any other being. For whenever we speak of a relation between two things, these belong to the same kind ; but when two things belong to different kinds though of the same class, there is no relation between them. We therefore do not say, this red compared with that green, is more, or less, or equally intense, although both belong to the same class colour ;
72
to two different classes, there does not appear to exist any between them, not even to a man of ordinary intellect, although the two things belong to the same category e.g., between a hundred cubits and the heat of pepper there is no relation, the one being a quality, the other a quantity ; or between wisdom and sweetness, between meekness and bitterness, although all these come under the head of quality in its more general How, then, could there be any relation between God and signification. His creatures, considering the important difference between them in respect
relation
;
when they belong
all differences. Besides, if any relation exbetween them, God would be subject to the accident of relation ; and although that would not be an accident to the essence of God, it would still You would, therefore, be wrong be, to some extent, a kind of accident.
to true existence, the greatest of
isted
you applied affirmative attributes in their literal sense to God, though they contained only relations ; these, however, are the most appropriate of all attributes, to be employed, in a less strict sense, in reference to God, because
if
they do not imply that a plurality of eternal things exists, or that any change takes place in the essence of God, when those things change to which God is
in relation.
I do not mean by its thing is described by Its actions " actions the inherent capacity for a certain work, as is expressed in car" " " smith for these belong to the class of qualities penter," painter," or which have been mentioned above but I mean the action the latter has
Fifthly.
"
"
performed
of the
we
speak,
e.g.,
of Zaid,
who made
is
this door, built that wall,
wove that garment.
This kind of attributes
separate from the essences
thing described, and, therefore, appropriate to be employed in describing the Creator, especially since we know that these different actions do not imply that different elements must be contained in the substance of
the agent, by which the different actions are produced, as will be explained. On the contrary, all the actions of God emanate from His essence, not from
any extraneous thing superadded to His essence, as we have shown. What we have explained in the present chapter is this that God is one in every respect, containing no plurality or any element superadded to His essence and that the many attributes of different significations applied in Scripture to God, originate in the multitude of His actions, not in a plurality existing in His essence, and are partly employed with the object of conveying to us some notion of His perfection, in accordance with what we consider The possibility of one simple subperfection, as has been explained by us. stance excluding plurality, though accomplishing different actions, will be
: :
illustrated
by examples
in the next chapter.
CHAPTER
THE
of
LIII
circumstance which caused

is
men
to believe in the existence of divine

in the corporeality
attributes
similar to that
latter
which caused others to believe
have not arrived at that belief by speculation, but by following the literal sense of certain passages in the Bible. The same is the case with the attributes when in the books of the Prophets and of the Law,
God.
The
God
and
is
it
described by attributes, such passages are taken in their Xteral sense, as if He were to be is then believed that God possesses attributes ;
ON THE ATTRIBUTES OF COD

i.e.,
73
exalted above corporeality, and not above things connected with corporeality, the accidents, I mean psychical dispositions, all of which are qualities
to-
[and connected with corporeality]. this doctrine assume to be essential although they do not distinctly say
are
Every attribute which the followers of the Creator, you will find to express, so, a quality similar to those which they
accustomed to notice in the bodies of all living beings. We apply to all " The Torah speaketh in the language of man," such passages the principle, and say that the object of all these terms is to describe God as the most perfect being, not as possessing those qualities which are only perfections in relation to created living beings. Many of the attributes express different acts of God, but that difference does not necessitate any difference as regards
Him
more
from
so
whom
different effects
if it
the acts proceed. This fact, viz., that from one agency result, although that agency has not free will, and much has free will, I will illustrate by an instance taken from our own
may
Fire melts certain things and makes others hard, it boils and burns, sphere. it bleaches and blackens. If we described the fire as bleaching, blackening,
burning, boiling, hardening and melting, we should be correct, and yet he who does not know the nature of fire, would think that it included six different
elements, one by which it blackens, another by which it bleaches, a third by which it boils, a fourth by which it consumes, a fifth by which it melts, a sixth by which it hardens things actions which are opposed to one another, and of which each has its peculiar property. He, however, who knows the nature cf fire, will know that by virtue of one quality in action,- namely, by heat, it produces all these effects. If this is the case with that which is done by nature, how much more is it the case with regard to beings that act by free If we, will, and still more with regard to God, who is above all description.
therefore, perceive in God certain relations of various kinds in us is different from power, and power from will it does
for
wisdom
by no means
follow that different elements are really contained in
Him, that He contains
one element by which He knows, another by which He wills, and another by which He exercises power, as is, in fact, the signification of the attributes
of
God] according
to the Attributists.
as
Some
of
them
express
it
plainly,
and enumerate the attributes
elements added to the essence.
Others,
however, are more reserved with regard to this matter, but indicate their opinion, though they do not express it in distinct and intelligible words. " God is omnipotent by His essence, wise by Thus, e.g., some of them say His essence, living by His essence, and endowed with a will by His essence." (I will mention to you, as an instance, man's reason, which being one faculty
:
and implying no plurality, enables him to know many arts and sciences by the same faculty man is able to sow, to do carpenter's work, to weave, to build, to study, to acquire a knowledge of geometry, and to govern a state. These various acts resulting from one simple faculty, which involves no their number, that is, the number of the plurality, are very numerous
; ;
actions originating in man's reason, is almost infinite. It is therefore intelligible how in reference to God, those different actions can be caused by one
simple substance, that does not include any plurality or any additional elesient.
The
attributes
found in Holy Scripture are either qualifications of
His actions, without any reference to His essence, or indicate absolute perfection, but do not imply that the essence of God is a compound of various
74

"
For in not admitting the term compound," they do not reject elements.) the ifca of a compound when they admit a substance with attributes. There still remains one difficulty which led them to that error, and which
Those- who assert the existence of the attriI am now going to mention. butes do not found their opinion on the variety of God's actions ; they say it is true that one substance can be the source of various effects, but His essenattributes cannot be qualifications of His actions, because it is impossible to imagine that the Creator created Himself. They vary with regard to the I mean as regards their number so-called essential attributes according
tial
I will enumerate to the text of the Scripture which each of them follows. those on which all agree, and the knowledge of which they believe that they
have derived from reasoning, not from some words of the Prophets, namely, the following four life, power, wisdom, and will. They believe that these are four different things, and such perfections as cannot possibly be absent from the Creator, and that these cannot be qualifications of His actions. This
:
you must know that wisdom and life in reference to from each other ; for in every being that is conscious of itself, life and wisdom are the same thing, that is to say, if by wisdom we understand the consciousness of self. Besides, the subject and the object
is
God
their opinion. But are not different
of that consciousness are undoubtedly identical [as regards God] ; for according to our opinion, He is not composed of an element that apprehends, and another that does not apprehend ; He is not like man, who is a combination
and an unconscious body. If, therefore, by wisdom the faculty of self-consciousness, wisdom and life are one and the same thing. They, however, do not speak of wisdom in this sense, but of
of a conscious soul
"
"
we mean
His power to apprehend His creatures. There is also no doubt that power and will do not exist in God in reference to Himself ; for He cannot have power or will as regards Himself; we cannot imagine such a thing. They take these attributes as different relations between God and His creatures,
signifying that He has power in creating things, will in giving to things existence as He desires, and wisdom in knowing what He created. Consequently, these attributes do not refer to the essence of God, but express
between Him and His creatures. Therefore we, who truly believe in the Unity of God, declare, that as we do not believe that some element is included in His essence by which He created the heavens, another by which He created the [four] elements, a third by which He created the ideals, in the same way we reject the idea that His essence contains an element by which He has power, another element by which He has will, and a third by which He has a knowledge of His creatures. On the contrary, He is a simple essence, without any additional element whatever He created the universe, and knows it, but not by any extraneous force. There is no difference whether these various attributes refer to His actions or to relations between Him and His works in fact, these relations, as we have also shown, exist only in the thoughts of men. This is what we must believe concerning the attributes occurring in the books of the Prorelations
; ;
phets
some may
also
be taken
as expressive as
way
of comparison with
what we consider
of the perfection of us. as perfections in
God by
we
shall
explain.

CHAPTER LIV
75
man, our Teacher Moses, asked two things of God, and received The one thing he asked was, that God should let him know His true essence the other, which in fact he asked first, that God should let him know His attributes. In answer to both these petitions God promised that He would let him know all His attributes, and that these were nothing but His actions. He also told him that His true essence could not be perceived, and pointed out a method by which he could obtain the utmost
wisest
a reply respecting both.
;
THE
knowledge of God possible for man to acquire. The knowledge obtained by Moses has not been possesssed by any human being before him or after him. His petition to know the attributes of God is contained in the follow" Show me now thy way, that I may know thee, that I may ing words find grace in thy sight" (Exod. xxxiii. 13). Consider how many excellent " ideas found expression in the words, Show me thy way, that I may know thee." We learn from them that God is known by His attributes, for Moses believed that he knew Him, when he was shown the way of God. The words " That I may find grace in thy sight," imply that he who knows God finds grace in His eyes. Not only is he acceptable and welcome to God who fasts and prays, but everyone who knows Him. He who has no knowledge of God is the object of His wrath and displeasure. The of the and the to Him and the withGod, pleasure displeasure approach drawal from Him are proportional to the amount of man's knowledge or ignorance concerning the Creator. We have already gone too far away from our subject, let us now return to it. Moses prayed to God to grant him knowledge of His attributes, and also pardon for His people when the latter had been granted, he continued to " Show me thy glory " pray for the knowledge of God's essence in the words, " 1 then his and first Show me thy way," received, respecting (ib. 8), request,
: ;
" the following favourable reply, I will make all my goodness to pass before " " the thee as second Thou (ib. 19) ; regards request, however, he was told, " " " canst not see my face The words all my goodness imply that (ib. 20).
God
promised to show him the whole creation, concerning which it has " been stated, And God saw everything that he had made, and, behold, it " " was very good (Gen. i. 31) ; when I say to show him the whole creation," I mean to imply that God promised to make him comprehend the nature of all things, their relation to each other, and the way they are governed by God both in reference to the universe as a whole and to each creature in This knowledge is referred to when we are told of Moses, " he particular. " " is firmly established in all mine house (Num. xii. 7) ; that is, his know" of all the creatures in universe is and established
ledge
My
corrtct
firmly
for false opinions are not firmly established. Consequently the of the works of God is the knowledge of His attributes, by which
knowledge He can be
known.
His works,
The fact that God promised Moses to give him a knowledge of may be inferred from the circumstance that God taught him such
"
attributes as refer exclusively to His works, viz., merciful and gracious, It is therelongsuffering and abundant in goodness," etc., (Exod. xxxiv. 6).
fore clear that the
ways which Moses wished to know, and which God taught Our Sages call them middot him, are the actions emanating from God.
and speak of the thirteen middoth oi God (Talm. B. Rosh ha-shanah, " there are they used the term also in reference to man ; comp. four different middoth (characters) among those who go to the house of " " There are four different middoth (characters) among those who ; learning give charity" (Mishnah Abot, v. 13, 14). They do not mean to say that
(qualities),
;
p. l"jb)
really possesses middot (qualities), but that He performs actions similar to such of our actions as originate in certain qualities, i.e., in certain psy-
God
not that God has really such dispositions. Although His goodness," i.e., all His works, only the thirteen middot are mentioned, because they include those acts of God which refer to the creation and the government of mankind, and to know these acts was the principal object of the prayer of Moses. This is shown by the conclusion " of his prayer, that I may know thee, that I may find grace in thy sight, and consider that this nation is thy people " (Exod. xxxiii. 16), that is to say, the people whom I have to rule by certain acts in the performance of which I must be guided by Thy own acts in governing them. We have thus shown that " the ways " used in the Bible, and " middot " used in the
chical dispositions
;
Moses was shown
"
all
identical, denoting the acts to the universe.
Mishnah, are
emanating from
God
in reference
Whenever any one

that emotion which
call
is
of His actions is perceived by us, we ascribe to God the source of the act when performed by ourselves, and
Him by an epithet which is
formed from the verb expressing that emotion.

;
We see, e.g., how well He provides for the life of the embryo of living beings
how He endows with
certain faculties both the
and those who have to rear it after its birth, in order that it may be protected from death and destruction, guarded against all harm, and assisted in the performance of all that is required [for its development]. Similar acts, when performed by us, are due to a certain emotion and tenderness called mercy and pity. "
embryo
itself
God
is,
therefore, said to be merciful
e.g.,
Like
as a father
is
merciful to
;
his children, so
the Lord
is
merciful to
them
that fear
Him
"
(Ps. ciii. 13)
"And
by
I will
him " (Mai.
spare them, as a
iii.
17).
spareth (yabamol) his own son that serveth Such instances do not imply that God is influenced
man
a feeling of mercy,
but that acts similar to those which a father performs
for his son, out of pity, mercy and real affection, emanate from God solely for the benefit of His pious men, and are by no means the result of any im-
pression or change [produced in God]. When we give something to a per" son who has no claim upon us, we perform an act of grace ; e.g., Grant
them
graciously unto us (Judges xxi. 22). [The same term is used in " reference to God, e.g.] which God hath graciously given " (Gen. xxxiii.
"
Because hath dealt graciously with 5) ; (ib. 1 1). this kind are numerous. creates and guides beings who
"
God
me
"
Instances of
God
have no claim
Him to be created and guided by Him ; He is therefore called gracious His actions towards mankind also include great calamities, which (hannun). overtake individuals and bring death to them, or affect whole families and
upon
even entire regions, spread death, destroy generation after generation, and Hence there occur inundations, earthquakes, spare nothing whatsoever. destructive storms, expeditions of one nation against the other for the sake of destroying it with the sword and blotting out its memory, and many other evils of the same kind. Whenever such evils are caused by us to any person,
ON EXODUS XXXIIL
is
13
AND XXXIV.
77
they originate in great anger, violent jealousy, or a desire for revenge. God " " " wraththerefore called, because of these acts, revengeful," jealous," " " that is to He acts i. 2) ; ful," and (Nah. say, anger performs keeping similar to those which, when performed by us, originate in certain psychical
dispositions, in jealousy, desire for retaliation, revenge, or anger ; they are in accordance with the guilt of those who are to be punished, and not the
The same is the case with any emotion for He is above all defect though resembling those acts which emanate from our passions and psychical dispositions, they are not due to anything superadded to His essence. The governor of a country, if he is a prophet, should conform to these attributes. Acts [of punishment] must be performed by him moderately and in accordance with justice, not merely as an outlet of his He must not let loose his anger, nor allow his passion to overcome passion. him for all passions are bad, and they must be guarded against as far as it lies in man's power. At times and towards some persons he must be merciful and gracious, not only from motives of mercy and compassion, but according to their merits ; at other times and towards other persons he must evince anger, revenge, and wrath in proportion to their guilt, but not from motives of passion. He must be able to condemn a person to death by fire without anger, passion, or loathing against him, and must exclusively be guided by what he perceives of the guilt of the person, and by a sense of the great benefit which a large number will derive from such a sentence. You have, no doubt, noticed in the Torah how the commandment to annihilate " " the seven nations, and to save alive nothing that breatheth (Deut. xx. 16) " is followed That they teach you not to do after immediately by the words, all their abominations, which they have done unto their gods so should you " sin against the Lord your God that is to say, you shall not think (ib. 18) that this commandment implies an act of cruelty or of retaliation ; it is an
result of
all
;
!
divine acts-,
act
demanded by the tendency of man to remove everything that might turn him away from the right path, and to clear away all obstacles in the road to perfection, that is, to the knowledge of God. Nevertheless, acts of
;
it is said that (Isa. iii. 26). visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children, this refers exThat this is the case clusively to the sin of idolatry, and to no other sin.
mercy, pardon, pity, and grace should more frequently be performed by the governor of a country than acts of punishment seeing that all the thirteen middoth of God are attributes of mercy with only one exception, namely, " " visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children (Exod. xxxiv. 7) ; for the meaning of the preceding attribute (in the original ve-nakkeh lo " " and he will not utterly destroy " ; (and not He will by no yenakketi) is " means clear the guilty ") And be she will utterly destroyed (vecomp. " she shall
;
nikketab),
sit
upon the ground
When
God
is
may be
third
Lord,
inferred from what is said in the ten commandments, " upon the and fourth generation of my enemies " (Exod. xx. 5), none except " " " idolaters being called enemy every abomination to the comp. also " which he hateth xii. It
;
(Deut.
31).
was, however, considered
suffi-
cient to extend the
generation is the idolaters of a place arc destroyed, the old

his son, his
punishment to the fourth generation, because the fourth the utmost a man can see of his posterity ; and when, therefore,
man worshipping idols is killed, grandson, and his great-grandson, that is, the fourth generation.
78
the mention of this attribute we are, as it were, told that His commandments, undoubtedly in harmony with His acts, include the death even of the little children of idolaters because of the sin of their fathers and grand-
By
This principle we find frequently applied in the Law, as, e.g., we " read concerning the city that has been led astray to idolatry, destroy it " and all that is therein xiii. All this has been ordained utterly, (Deut. 15).
fathers.
in order that every vestige of that
which would lead to great injury should
be blotted out, as we have explained. We have gone too far away from the subject of this chapter, but we have shown why it has been considered sufficient to mention only these (thirteen) out of all His acts ; namely, because they are required for the good government of a country for the chief aim of man should be to make himself, as
;
far as possible, similar to that is to say, to make his acts similar to the : " acts of God, or as our Sages expressed it in explaining the verse, Ye shall " " be holy is is (Lev. xxi. 2) : gracious, so be you also gracious ;
God
He
He
merciful, so be
you
also merciful."
to
The principal object of this chapter was to show that all attributes ascribed God are attributes of His acts, and do not imply that God has any quali-
ties.
CHAPTER LV
WE have already, on several occasions, shown

that implies corporeality or passiveness,
is
in this treatise that everything
God,
is
by it ; and if God could be affected in any way whatever, another being beside Him would act on Him and cause change in Him. All kinds of non-existence must likewise be negatived in reference to Him ; no perfection whatever can therefore be imagined to be at one time absent from Him, and at another present in Him for if this were the case, He would [at a certain time] only be potentially
:
for all passiveness implies change ; undoubtedly different from the object affected
to be negatived in reference to and the agent producing that state
perfect. Potentiality always implies non-existence, and when anything has to pass from potentiality into reality, another thing that exists in reality is
required to effect that transition.

really exist in
God, and none

likewise to
Another thing
Hence it follows that all perfections must them must in any way be a mere potentiality. be denied in reference to God, is similarity to any
of
This has existing being. the books of the Prophets

xl.
been generally accepted, and

"
;
is
also
There is none then, will ; " like unto Thee (Jer. x. 6). Instances of this kind are frequent. In short, it is necessary to demonstrate by proof that nothing can be predicated of God that
25)
;
"
e.g.,
To whom,
To whom, then, will you " you liken God ? (ib. 18)
liken
mentioned in me "
?
"
(Isa.
implies any of the following four things corporeality, emotion or change, nonexistence, e.g., that something would be potential at one time and real at another and similarity with any of His creatures. In this respect our know:
For he who is ignorant ledge of God is aided by the study of Natural Science. of the latter cannot understand the defect implied in emotions, the
difference between potentiality and reality, the non-existence implied in all potentiality, the inferiority of a thing that exists in potentia to that which moves in order to cause its transition from potentiality into reality, and the
ON EXODUS XXXIII.
13
AND XXXIV.
79
with its condition inferiority of that which moves for this purpose compared who knows these things, but when the transition has been effected. without their proofs, does not know the details which logically result from
He
these general propositions and therefore he cannot prove that God exists, or that the [four] things mentioned above are inadmissible in reference to God.
;
Having premised these remarks,

of those
who
believe that
God
I shall explain in the next chapter the error has essential attributes ; those who have some
knowledge of Logic and Natural Science
will
understand
it.
CHAPTER LVI
SIMILARITY is based on a certain relation between two things ; if between two things no relation can be fo.und, there can be no similarity between them, and there is no relation between two things that have no similarity to each other ; e.g., we do not say this heat is similar to that colour, or this voice is
This is self-evident. Since the existence of a and man, or between Him and other beings has been You must know that two things denied, similarity must likewise be denied. of the same kind i.e., whose essential properties are the same, and which are distinguished from each other by greatness and smallness, strength and are necessarily similar, though different in this one way weakness, etc. e.g., a grain of mustard and the sphere of the fixed stars are similar as regards the three dimensions, although the one is exceedingly great, the other exceedingly small, the property of having [three] dimensions is the same in both or the heat of wax melted by the sun and the heat of the element of fire, are similar as regards heat although the heat is exceedingly great in the one case, and exceedingly small in the other, the existence of that quality (heat) is the same in both. Thus those who believe in the presence of essential attributes in God, viz., Existence, Life, Power, Wisdom, and Will, should know that these attributes, when applied to God, have not the same meaning as when applied to us, and that the difference does not only consist in magnitude, or in the degree of perfection, stability, and durability. It cannot be said, as they practically believe, that His existence is only more
similar to that sweetness.
relation
between
God
more permanent, His power greater, His wisdom more permore general than ours, and that the same definition " This is in no way admissible, for the expression more applies to both. " than is used in two a as certain attribute comparing things regards predicated of both of them in exactly the same sense, and consequently implies When they ascribe to God similarity [between God and His creatures].
stable,
fect,
His
life
and His
will
essential attributes, these so-called essential attributes should
not have any
similarity to the attributes of other things, and should according to their own opinion net be included in one of the same definition, just as there is no
similarity
God and that of other beings. They do they hold that one definition may include them, and that, nevertheless, there is no similarity between them. Those who are familiar with the meaning of similarity will certainly understand that the term existence, when applied to God and to other beings, is perfectly homonymous. In like manner, the terms Wisdom, Power, Will, and Life are applied to God and to other beings by wav of perfect homonymity, admitting
between the essence of
this principle, for
not follow
8o
of
no comparison whatever. Nor must you think that these attributes employed as hybrid terms ; for hybrid terms are such as are applied to two things which have a similarity to each other in respect to a certain property which is in both of them an accident, not an
are
essential, constituent
element.
The
attributes of
God, however,
all
are not
considered as accidental by any intelligent person, while to man are accidents, according to the Mutakallemim.
loss
attributes applied I am therefore at a
to see
how
and those of man] fications the same

anything
they can find any similarity [between the attributes of God how their definitions can be identical, and their signi;
!
This
is
a decisive proof that there
is,
in
no way or
sense,
to the attributes predicated of God, and those used in reference to ourselves ; they have only the same names, and nothing else is
common
common to them.
Such being the
case, it
is
not proper to believe, on account
of the use of the same attributes, that there is in God something additional to His essence, in the same way as attributes are joined to our essence. This
is
most important
it
for those
who
understand
it.
Keep
it
in
memory, and
I
study
thoroughly, in order to be well prepared for that which
am
going to explain to you.
CHAPTER
ON
attributes
;
LVII
remarks more recondite than the preceding. It is known an accident appertaining to all things, and therefore an element superadded to their essence. This must evidently be the case as regards everything the existence of which is due to some cause ; its existence is an element superadded to its essence. But as regards a being whose existence is not due to any cause God alone is that being, for His existence, as we have said, is absolute existence and essence are perfectly identical ; He is not a substance to which existence is joined as an accident, as an additional element. His existence is always absolute, and has never been a new element or an accident in Him. Consequently God exists without possessing the attribute of existence. Similarly He lives, without possessing the attribute of life ; knows, without possessing the attribute of knowledge is is wise, omnipotent without possessing the attribute of omnipotence without possessing the attribute of wisdom all this reduces itself to one and the same entity ; there is no plurality in Him, as will be shown. It is
that existence
is
; ; ;
further necessary to consider that unity and plurality are accidents supervening to an object according as it consists of many elements or of one. This is fully explained in the book called Metaphysics. In the same way as number is not the substance of the things numbered, so is unity not the substance of the thing which has the attribute of unity, for unity and plurality
are accidents belonging to the category of discrete quantity, to such objects as are capable of receiving them.
and supervening
that being, however, which has truly simple, absolute existence, and in is inconceivable, the accident of unity is as inadmissible as the accident of plurality ; that is to say, God's unity is not an element
To
which composition
superadded, but
He
is
One without
which
is
investigation of this subject,
The possessing the attribute of unity. almost too subtle for our understanding,
in describing
it,
must not be based on current expressions employed
for these
ATTRIBUTES OF GOD
are the great source of error.
in
81
It would be extremely difficult for us to find, any language whatsoever, words adequate to this subject, and we can only employ inadequate language. In our endeavour to show that God does not " include a plurality, we can only say He is one," although " one " and " " many are both terms which serve to distinguish quantity. We therefore make the subject clearer, and show to the understanding the way of truth by saying He is one but does not possess the attribute of unity. The same is the case when we say God is the First (Kadmon), to express " " that He has not been created ; the term First is decidedly inaccurate, for it can in its true sense only be applied to a being that is subject to the relation of time the latter, however, is an accident to motion which again " " is connected with a first is a relative term, body. Besides the attribute " " " " are in in the terms and short to time the same as being long regard " " " first and created," are equally regard to a line. Both expressions, inadmissible in reference to any being to which the attribute of time is not " " " in " reference to crooked or applicable, just as we do not say straight " " " " salted in These subjects reference to the voice. or taste, insipid are not unknown to those who have accustomed themselves to seek a true understanding of the things, and to establish their properties in accordance with the abstract notions which the mind has formed of them, and who are not misled by the inaccuracy of the words employed. All attributes, such
;
as the First," the Last," occurring in the Scriptures in reference to God, " " and " are as metaphorical as the expressions ear eye." They simply signify that God is not subject to any change or innovation whatever ; they
"
"
do not imply that God can be described by time, or that there is any comparison between Him and any other being as regards time, and that He is " " and " the called on that account the first In short, all similar last."
expressions are borrowed from the language commonly used among the " In the same way we use One " in reference to God, to express people. that there is nothing similar to Him, but we do not mean to say that an
attribute of unity
is
added to His
essence.
CHAPTER
THIS chapter
LVIII
is even more recondite than the Know that the preceding. negative attributes of God are the true attributes they do not include any incorrect notions or any deficiency whatever in reference to God, while positive attributes imply polytheism, and are inadequate, as we have already shown. It is now necessary to explain how negative expressions can in a
:
certain sense be
employed
as attributes,
I shall
positive attributes.
Then
and how they are distinguished from show that we cannot describe the Creator
by any means except by negative attributes. An attribute does not exwhile qualifying clusively belong to the one object to which it is related one thing, it can also be employed to qualify other things, and is in that case not peculiar to that one thing. E.g., if you see an object from a distance, and on enquiring what it is, are told that it is a living being, you have certainly learnt an attribute of the object seen, and although that attribute
;
object
does not exclusively belong to the object perceived, it expresses that the is not a plant or a mineral. Again, if a man is in a certain house, and
82
is
you know that something is in the house, but not exactly what, you ask what in that house, and you are told, not a plant nor a mineral. You have some of the obtained have learnt that knowledge special thing you thereby it is a living being, although you do not yet know what kind of a living being The negative attributes have this in common with the positive, that it is.
;
they necessarily circumscribe the object to some extent, although such circumscription consists only in the exclusion of what otherwise would not be excluded. In the following point, however, the negative attributes are The positive attributes, although not distinguished from the positive.
some part
to
peculiar to one thing, describe a portion of what we desire to know, either of its essence or some of its accidents ; the negative attributes, on
the other hand, do not,
as
regards the essence of the thing which
we
desire
know, in any way
tell us
what
it is,
except
it
be indirectly,
as has
been
shown
in the instance given
I as has already been shown that, God's existence is absolute, that it includes no composition, as will be proved, and that we comprehend only the fact that He exists, not His
After this introduction,
by us. would observe
essence.
Consequently
it
is
a false
assumption to hold that
He
has any
positive attribute ; for He does not possess existence in addition to His essence ; it therefore cannot be said that the one may be described as an
attribute [of the other]
compound
much less has He [in addition to His existence] a ; essence, consisting of two constituent elements to which the attribute could refer ; still less has He accidents, which could be described by an attribute. Hence it is clear that He has no positive attribute what-
ever.
The
direct the
mind
negative attributes, however, are those which are necessary to to the truths which we must believe concerning God ; for,
on the one hand, they do not imply any plurality, and, on the other, they convey to man the highest possible knowledge of God ; e.g., it has been established by proof that some being must exist besides those things which can be perceived by the senses, or apprehended by the mind ; when we say
of this being, that it exists, we mean that its non-existence is impossible. then perceive that such a being is not, for instance, like the four elements, which are inanimate, and we therefore say that it is living, expressing thereby
We
it is
not dead. call such a being incorporeal, because we notice that unlike the heavens, which are living, but material. Seeing that it is also different from the intellect, which, though incorporeal and living, owes its existence to some cause, we say it is the first, expressing thereby that its
that
it is
is
We
not due to any cause. We further notice, that the existence, that is is not limited to its own existence ; many existences emanate from it, and its influence is not like that of the fire in producing heat, or that of the sun in sending forth light, but consists in constantly giving them stability and order by well-established rule, as we shall show
existence
the essence, of this being
we
has power, wisdom, and will, i.e., it is not feeble or ignorant, or hasty, and does not abandon its creatures ; when we say that it is not feeble, we mean that its existence is capable of producing the existsay,
it
on that account,
ence of
perceives
many other " or " it
things
lives,"
by saying that
it
is
not ignorant, we mean

is
"
it
it is not hasty, and does not abandon its creatures," we mean that all these creatures preserve a certain order and arrangement ; they are not left to
"
for everything that perceives
living
by saying
ATTRIBUTES OF GOD
fnemselves
;
83
they are not produced aimlessly, but whatever condition they from that being is given with design and intention. We thus learn that there is no other being like unto God, and we say that He is One, i.e., there are not more Gods than one. It has thus been shown that every attribute predicated of God either dereceive
some
notes the quality of an action, or when the attribute is intended to convey idea of the Divine Being itself, and not of His actions the negation of
the opposite. Even these negative attributes must not be formed and applied to God, except in the way in which, as you know, sometimes an attribute is negatived in reference to a thing, although that attribute can natu" This wall does rally never be applied to it in the same sense, as, e.g., we say, not see." Those who read the present work are aware that, notwithstanding
all
heavens
the efforts of the mind, we can obtain no knowledge of the essence of the a revolving substance which has been measured by us in spans and
cubits, and examined even as regards the proportions of the several spheres to each other and respecting most of their motions although we know that
they must consist of matter and form ; but the matter not being the same sublunary matter, we can only describe the heavens in terms expressing negative properties, but not in terms denoting positive qualities. Thus we say that the heavens are not light, not heavy, not passive and therefore not
as
subject to impressions, and that they do not possess the sensations of taste and smell ; or we use similar negative attributes. All this we do, because
we do not know their substance. What, then, can be the result of our efforts, when we try to obtain a knowledge of a Being that is free from substance,
is most simple, whose existence is absolute, and not due to any cause, whose perfect essence nothing can be superadded, and whose perfection All we understand consists, as we have shown, in the absence of all defects. is the fact that He exists, that He is a Being to whom none of His creatures is similar, who has nothing in common with them, who does not include plurality, who is never too feeble to produce other beings, and whose relation to the universe is that of a steersman to a boat ; and even this is not a real relation, a real simile, but serves only to convey to us the idea that God rules the universe that is, that He gives it duration, and preserves its necessary arrangement. This subject will be treated more fully. Praised be He In the contemplation of His essence, our comprehension and knowledge
that
to
prove insufficient ; in the examination of His works, how they necessarily result from His will, our knowledge proves to be ignorance, and in the endeavour to extol Him in words, all our efforts in speech are mere weakness
and
failure
CHAPTER LIX
THE
Since there is no possibility following question might perhaps be asked of obtaining a knowledge of the true essence of God, and since it has also been proved that the only thing that man can apprehend of Him is the fact that
:
He
exists,
is
and that
all
positive attributes are inadmissible, as has
been shown
what
obtained a knowledge of God ? Must not the knowledge obtained by our teacher Moses, and by Solomon, be the same as that obtained by any one of the lowest class of philosophers, since
the difference
among
those
who have
84

?
there can be no addition to this knowledge
But, on the other hand,
it is
generally accepted among theologians and also among philosophers, that there can be a great difference between two persons as regards tht. knowKnow that this is really the case, that thos< ledge of God obtained by them.
obtained a knowledge of God differ greatly from each other for same way as by each additional attribute an object is more specified, and is brought nearer to the true apprehension of the observer, so by each additional negative attribute you advance toward the knowledge of God, and you are nearer to it than he who does not negative, in reference to God, those qualities which you are convinced by proof must be negatived. There
who have
in the
suit of
man who after having earnestly devoted many years to the purone science, and to the true understanding of its principles, till he is fully convinced of its truths, has obtained as the sole result of this study the conviction that a certain quality must be negatived in reference to God, and the capacity of demonstrating that it is impossible to apply it to Him. Superficial thinkers will have no proof for this, will doubtfully And those who are ask, Is that thing existing in the Creator, or not ? deprived of sight will positively ascribe it to God, although it has been
may
thus be a
clearly
shown that He does not possess it. E.g., while I show that God is incorporeal, another doubts and is not certain whether He is corporeal or incorporeal ; others even positively declare that He is corporeal, and see how great the appear before the Lord with that belief.
Now
undoubtedly nearest to the Almighty ; the second is remote, and the third still more distant from Him. If there be a fourth person who holds himself convinced by proof that emotions are impossible in God, while the first who rejects the cordifference
is
;
between these three men
the
first is
poreality, is not convinced of that impossibility, that fourth person is undoubtedly nearer the knowledge of God than the first, and so on, so that a person who, convinced by proof, negatives a number of things in reference to God, which according to our belief may possibly be in Him or emanate from Him, is undoubtedly a more perfect man than we are, and would surpass us still more if we positively believed these things to be properties of God. It will now be clear to you, that every time you establish by proof
the negation of a thing in reference to God, you become more perfect, while with every additional positive assertion you follow your imagination and
recede from the true knowledge of God. Only by such ways must we approach the knowledge of God, and by such researches and studies as would
show us the
inapplicability of
what
is
inadmissible as regards the Creator,
not by such methods as would prove the necessity of ascribing to Him anything extraneous to His essence, or asserting that He has a certain perfecThe perfections tion, when we find it to be a perfection in relation to us. are all to some extent acquired properties, and a property which must be acquired does not exist in everything capable of making such acquisition. You must bear in mind, that by affirming anything of God, you are removed from Him in two respects first, whatever you affirm, is only a perfection in relation to us secondly, He does not possess anything superadded to this essence ; His essence includes all His perfections, as we have shown. Since it is a well-known fact that even that knowledge of God which ii accessible to man cannot be attained except by negations, and that negations
; ;
ATTRIBUTES OF GOD
85
do not convey a true idea of the being to which they refer, all people, both of past and present generations, declared that God cannot be the object of human comprehension, that none but Himself comprehends what He is, and that our knowledge consists in knowing that we are unable truly to compre" hend Him. All philosophers say, He has overpowered us by His grace, and is invisible to us through the intensity of His light," like the sun which cannot be perceived by eyes which are too weak to bear its rays. Much more has been said on this topic, but it is useless to repeat it here. The idea
Silence is praise to Thee best expressed in the book of Psalms, (kv. 2). It is a very expressive remark on this subject ; for whatever we utter with the intention of extolling and of praising Him, contains something that cannot
is
"
"
be applied to God, and includes derogatory expressions ; it is therefore more becoming to be silent, and to be content with intellectual reflection, as has " been recommended by men of the highest culture, in the words Commune with your own heart upon your bed, and be still " (Ps. iv. 4). You must would that surely know the following celebrated passage in the Talmud all although it is known to you, I passages in the Talmud were like that quote it literally, as I wish to point out to you the ideas contained in it " A certain person, reading prayers in the presence of Rabbi Haninah, said, God, the great, the valiant and the tremendous, the powerful, the strong, and the mighty.' The rabbi said to him, Have you finished all the praises of your Master ? The three epithets, God, the great, the valiant and the tremendous,' we should not have applied to God, had Moses not mentioned them in the Law, and had not the men of the Great Synagogue come forward subsequently and established their use in the prayer and you say all this Let this be illustrated by a parable. There was once an earthly he was praised for owning millions of king, possessing millions of gold coin " Thus far the silver coin ; was this not really dispraise to him ? opinion of
! :
'
'
the pious rabbi.

lation of
if
we
Consider, first, how repulsive and annoying the accumuthese positive attributes was to him ; next, how he showed that, had only to follow our reason, we should never have composed these
all
and we should not have uttered any of them. become necessary to address men in words that should
prayers,
It
has,
however,
leave
their minds, and, in accordance with the saying of our Sages, speaks in the language of men," the Creator has been described to us in
some idea in " The Torah
terms of our own perfections ; but we should not on that account have uttered any other than the three above-mentioned attributes, and we should not have used them as names of God except when meeting with them in
reading the Law. Subsequently, the men of the Great Synagogue, who were prophets, introduced these expressions also into the prayer, but we
The
should not on that account use [in our prayers] any other attributes of God. principal lesson to be derived from this passage is that there* are two reasons for our employing those phrases in our prayers first, they occur in the Pentateuch ; secondly, the Prophets introduced them into the prayer.
1
it not for the first reason, we should never have uttered them and were it not for the second reason, we should not have copied them from the Pentateuch to recite them in our prayers how then could we approve of the use of those numerous attributes You also learn from this that we ought not to mention and employ in our prayers all the attributes we find applied
Were
86
to

God
"
in the books of the Prophets ; for he does not say, Were it not that " Moses, our Teacher, said them, we should not have been able to use them ; " but he adds another condition and had not the men of the Great Syna-
gogue come forward and established their use

for that reason are
in the prayer," because only
we allowed to
use
them in our
prayers.
We cannot approve
do who are extravagant in praise, fluent and prolix in the prayers they compose, and in the hymns they make in the desire to approach the Creator. They describe God in attributes which would be an offence if applied to a human being ; for those persons have no knowledge of these great and important principles, which are not accessible to the ordinary intelligence of man. Treating the Creator as a familiar object, they describe Him and speak of Him in any expressions they think proper ; they eloquently continue to praise Him in that manner, and believe that they can thereby influence Him and produce an effect on Him. If they find some phrase suited to their object in the words of the Prophets they are still more inclined to consider that they are free to make use of such texts which
of
what those
foolish persons
to employ them in their literal sense, to derive from them, to form from them numerous variations, and to found whole compositions on them. This license is frequently met with in the compositions of the singers, preachers, and others who imagine themselves to be able to compose a poem. Such authors write things which partly are real heresy, partly contain such folly and absurdity that they naturally cause those who hear them to laugh, but also to feel grieved at the thought that such things can be uttered in reference to God. Were it not that I pitied the authors for their defects, and did not wish to injure them, I should have cited some passages to show you their mistakes ; besides, the fault of their compositions is obvious to all intelligent persons. You must consider it, and think thus If slander and libel is a great sin, how much
should at least be explained
new
expressions
greater
is
the sin of those
who
speak with looseness of tongue in reference to
God, and describe
Him by
attributes
which
are far
below
Him
and
declare that they not only commit an ordinary sin, but unconsciously at least incur the guilt of profanity and blasphemy. This applies both to the multitude that listens to such prayers, and to the foolish man that recites
them.
Men, however, who understand the
fault of such compositions, and,
" used words that were not right against the Lord their God (2 Kings " " and If utter error against the Lord ; (Isa. xxxii. 6). you are of those who regard the honour of their Creator, do not listen in any way to them, much less utter what they say, and still less compose such prayers, knowing how great is the offence of one who hurls aspersions against the
Israel
xvii. 9)
nevertheless, recite them, may be classed, according to opinion, among " those to the following words are applied : And the children of
my
whom
There is no necessity at all for you to use positive attributes with the view of magnifying Him in your thoughts, or to go beyond the limits which the men of the Great Synagogue have introduced in the prayers and in the blessings, for this is sufficient for all purposes, and even more than sufficient, as Rabbi Haninah said. Other attributes, such as occur in the books of the Prophets, may be uttered when we meet with them in reading those books ; but we must bear in mind what has already been
Supreme Being.
of
God
explained, that they are either attributes of God's actions, or expressions
ATTRIBUTES OF GOD
87
implying the negation of the opposite. This likewise should not be divulged to the multitude ; but a reflection of this kind is fitted for the few only who
believe that the glorification
of
God
does not consist
in
uttering that
which is not to be uttered, but in reflecting on that on which man should reflect. We will now conclude our exposition of the wise words of R. Haninah.
He
does not employ any such simile as

is
"A king
"
;
gold denarii, and

are
praised as having hundreds
who possesses millions of for this would imply that
God's perfections, although more perfect than those ascribed to man still of the same kind ; but this is not the case, as has been proved. The " who possesses golden excellence of the simile consists in the words " this implies that these denarii, and is praised as having silver denarii ; attributes, though perfections as regards ourselves, are not such as regards God in reference to Him they would all be defects, as is distinctly suggested " " in the remark, Is this not an offence to Him ? I have already told you that all these attributes, whatever perfection they may denote according to your idea, imply defects in reference to God, if applied to Him in the same sense as they are used in reference to ourselves.
: ;
For few "
"
Solomon has already given
us sufficient instruction
;
God
is
in heaven,
and thou upon earth
on this subject by saying, therefore let thy words be
(Eccles. v. 2).
CHAPTER LX
WILL give you in this chapter some illustrations, in order that you may better understand the propriety of forming as many negative attributes as possible, and the impropriety of ascribing to God any positive attributes.
I
in existence, but he may not know to what object that name is applied, whether to a substance or to an accident ; a second person then learns that the ship is not an accident ; a third, that it is not a mineral ; a fourth, that it is not a plant growing in the
person
may know
for certain that a
"
"
ship
is
earth
a fifth, that it
it is
;
is
a sixth, that
not a
not a body whose parts are joined together by nature ; flat object like boards or doors ; a seventh, that it is
; ;
a ninth, that it is not roundnot a sphere an eighth, that it is not pointed nor equilateral a tenth, that it is not solid. It is clear that this shaped " " tenth person has almost arrived at the correct notion of a ship by the if as he had the same notion as those foregoing negative attributes, exactly have who imagine it to be a wooden substance which is hollow, long, and
;
composed of many
attributes.
pieces of
Of the other
wood, that is to say, who know it by positive persons in our illustration, each one is more remote
from the correct notion of a ship than the next mentioned, so that the first knows nothing about it but the name. In the same manner you will come nearer to the knowledge and comprehension of God by the negative attributes. But you must be careful, in what you negative, to negative by proof, not by mere words, for each time you ascertain by proof that a certain thing, believed to exist in the Creator, must be negatived, you have undoubtedly come one step nearer to the knowledge of God. It is in this senst that some men come very near to God, and others remain exceedingly remote from Him, not in the sense of those who are deprived of vision, and believe that God occupies a place, which man can physically
88
approach or from which he can recede. Examine this well, know it, and be The way which will bring you nearer to God has been content with it. to shown walk in it, if you have the desire. On the other hand, you clearly there is a great danger in applying positive attributes to God. For it has been shown that every perfection we could imagine, even if existing in God in accordance with the opinion of those who assert the existence of attributes, would in reality not be of the same kind as that imagined by us, but would only be called by the same name, according to our explanation ; it would in fact amount to a negation. Suppose, e.g., you say He has knowledge, and that knowledge, which admits of no change and of no plurality, embraces His knowledge remains unaltered, while new many changeable things things are constantly formed, and His knowledge of a thing before it exists, while it exists, and when it has ceased to exist, is the same without the least change you would thereby declare that His knowledge is not like ours and similarly that His existence is not like ours. You thus necessarily arrive at some negation, without obtaining a true conception of an essential attribute ; on the contrary, you are led to assume that there is a plurality in God, and to believe that He, though one essence, has several unknown attributes. For if you intend to affirm them, you cannot compare them with those attributes known by us, and they are consequently not of the same kind.
; ;
:
You
are, as it
were, brought by the belief in
the. reality
of the attributes, to
say that God is one subject of which several things are predicated ; though the subject is not like ordinary subjects, and the predicates are not like ordinary predicates. This belief would ultimately lead us to associate other
For of every subject things with God, and not to believe that He is One. certain things can undoubtedly be predicated, and although in reality subject and predicate are combined in one thing, by the actual definition they
same
in the subject not being the contained in the predicate. In the course of this treatise it will be proved to you that God cannot be a compound, and that He is simple in the strictest sense of the word.
consist of
as that
two elements, the notion contained
do not merely declare that he who affirms attributes of God has not suffiknowlenge concerning the Creator, admits some association with God, or conceives Him to be different from what He is but I say that he unconFor he whose knowledge concerning a thing sciously loses his belief in God. is insufficient, understands one part of it while he is ignorant of the other, as, e.g., a person who knows that man possesses life, but does not know that man possesses understanding but in reference to God, in whose real existence there is no plurality, it is impossible that one thing should be known, and another unknown. Similarly he who associates an object with [the properties of] another object, conceives a true and correct notion of the one while those who admit object, and applies that notion also to the other the attributes of God, do not consider them as identical with His essence, but as extraneous elements. Again, he who conceives an incorrect notion of an object, must necessarily have a correct idea of the object to some exI
cient
; he, however, who says that taste belongs to the category of quantity has not, according to my opinion, an incorrect notion of taste, but is entirely " " taste ignorant of its nature, for he does not know to what object the term
tent
is
to be applied.
This
is
a very difficult subject
consider
it
well.
ATTRIBUTES OF GOD
According to
this explanation
89
you
will understand, that those
who do not
recognize, in reference to God, the negation of things, which others negative by clear proof, are deficient in the knowledge of God, and are remote from
comprehending Him. Consequently, the smaller the number of things is which a person can negative in relation to God, the less he knows of Him, as has been explained in the beginning of this chapter ; but the man who affirms an attribute of God, knows nothing but the name; for the object to which, in his imagination, he applies that name, does not exist ; it is a mere fiction and invention, as if he applied that name to a non-existing being, for there is, in reality, no such object. E.g., some one has heard of the elephant, and knows that it is an animal, and wishes to know its form and nature. A person, who is either misled or misleading, tells him it is an animal with one
wings, lives in the depth of the sea, has a transparent body ; its wide like that of a man, has the same form and shape, speaks like a I should man, flies sometimes in the air, and sometimes swims like a fish. not say, that he described the elephant incorrectly, or that he has an insufficient knowledge of the elephant, but I would say that the thing thus described is an invention and fiction, and that in reality there exists nothing
face
is
leg, three
it is a non-existing being, called ; by the name of a really existing being, and like the griffin, the centaur, and similar imaginary combinations
like it
which simple and compound names have been borrowed from real things. present case is analogous namely, God, praised be His name, exists, and His existence has been proved to be absolute and perfectly simple, as I shall explain. If such a simple, absolutely existing essence were said to have attributes, as has been contended, and were combined with extraneous elements, it would in no way be an existing thing, as has been proved by us " and when we say that that essence, which is called God," is a substance with many properties by which it can be described, we apply that name to an object which does not at all exist. Consider, therefore, what are the As to those attributes of God consequences of affirming attributes to God which occur in the Pentateuch, or in the books of the Prophets, we must assume that they are exclusively employed, as has been stated by us, to convey to us some notion of the perfections of the Creator, or to express qualities of actions emanating from Him.
for
The
CHAPTER LXI
IT is well known that all the names of God occurring in Scripture are derived from His actions, except one, namely, the Tetragrammaton, which consists of the letters yod, be, van and be. This name is applied exclusively
on that account called Shem ha-meforash, The nomen prothe distinct and exclusive designation of the Divine Being prium." whilst His other names are common nouns, and are derived from actions, to which some of our own are similar, as we have already explained. Even " the name Adonay, Lord," which has been substituted for the Tetragram" " " lord The man who is maton, is derived from the appellative ; comp.
to
God, and
It
"
is
is
the lord (adone) of the land spake roughly to us (Gen. xliii. 30). The " difference between Adoni, or my lord," (with hirek under the " nun), Adonay with kame%.}, is similar to the difference between Sari, my prince," and
"
90
Sara'/,

Abraham's wife
(ib.
is
xvi.
i),
the latter form denoting majesty and
distinction.
lord), puss
An
angel
also addressed as
"
"
not away, I pray thee I have restricted my ex(ib. xviii. 3). planatien to the term Adonay, the substitute for the Tetragrammaton, because it is more commonly applied to God than any of the other names " " which are in frequent use, like dayyan, judge," sbadday, almighty," " " " merciful," and elohim %addik, righteous," frannun, gracious," rahum " " all these terms are chief ; unquestionably appellations and derivatives. The derivation of the name, consisting of yod, be, vau, and he, is not positively known, the word having no additional signification. This sacred name, which, as you know, was not pronounced except in the sanctuary by the appointed priests, when they gave the sacerdotal blessing, and by the high priest on the Day of Atonement, undoubtedly denotes something which is It is possible that in peculiar to God, and is not fourfd in any other being. the Hebrew language, of which we have now but a slight knowledge, the Tetragrammaton, in the way it was pronounced, conveyed the meaning of " In short, the majesty of the name and the great dread absolute existence." of uttering it, are connected with the fact that it denotes God Himself, without including in its meaning any names of the things created by Him. " Thus our Sages say My name (Num. vi. 27) means the name which is All other names of God have reference to qualities, and peculiar to Me." do not signify a simple substance, but a substance with attributes, they being On that account it is believed that they imply the presence of a derivatives. in I mean to say, the presence of attributes, that is, of some God, plurality extraneous element superadded to His essence. Such is the meaning of all derivative names ; they imply the presence of some attribute and its substratum, though this be not distinctly named. As, however, it has been proved, that God is not a substratum capable of attributes, we are con' ' :
"
Adonay
e.g.,
"Adonay (My
vinced that those appellatives when employed as names of God, only indicate the relation of certain actions to Him, or they convey to us some notion of
His perfection. " Hence R. Haninah would have objected to the expression the great, the and the had been for it not the two reasons mentremendous," mighty, tioned by him ; because such expressions lead men to think that the attributes are essential, i.e., they are perfections actually present in God. The frequent use of names of God derived from actions, led to the belief that He had as many [essential] attributes as there were actions from which the names
were derived.
The following promise was therefore made, implying that mankind will at a certain future time understand this subject, and be free " from the error it involves In that day will the Lord be One, and His
:
name One " (Zech.
xiv. 9).
The meaning
of this
prophecy
is
this
He
being One, will then be called by one name, which will indicate the essence of God ; Hut it does not mean that His sole name will be a derivative [viz., " One "]. In the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer (chap, iii.) occurs the following " Before the universe was created, there was only the Almighty passage
:
and His name."

latives
Observe how clearly the author

as
employed
names of
God came
states that all these appelinto existence after the Creation

If,
all
This
is true ; for they all refer to actions manifested in the Universe. however, you consider His essence as separate and as abstracted from
THE NAMES OF GOD
gi
actions, you will not describe it by an appellative, but by a proper noun, which exclusively indicates that essence. Every other name of God is a derivative, only the Tetragrammaton is a real nomen proprium, and must not be considered from any other point of view. You must beware of sharing the error of those who write amulets (kameof). Whatever you hear from them, or read in their works, especially in reference to the names which they form by combination, is utterly senseless they call these combinations sbemot (names) and believe that their pronunciation demands sanctification and purification, and that by using them they are enabled to work miracles. Rational persons ought not to listen to such men, nor in any way believe their assertions. No other name is called shem ha-meforash except this Tetragrammaton, which is written, but is not pronounced " Thus shall ye bless the children of according to its letters. The words, " ' " Israel vi. in are Thus? in the holy (Num. ' 23) interpreted Siphri as follows The language again thus,' with the Shem ha-meforash." following remark " i also found there In the sanctuary [the name of God is pronounced] as it is spelt, but elsewhere by its substitutes." In the Talmud, the follow" You Thus,' i.e., with the sbem ba-meforash. ing passage occurs say [that the priests, when blessing the people, had to pronounce] the shem ha-m.sjora.sh ; this was perhaps not the case, and they may have used other ' names instead. We infer it from the words And they shall put My name (Num. vi. 27), i.e., My name, which is peculiar to Me." It has thus been shown that the shem ha-meforash (the proper name of God) is the Tetragrammaton, and that this is the only name which indicates nothing but His " ' essence, and therefore our Sages in referring to this sacred term said My ' name means the one which is peculiar to Me alone." In the next chapter I will explain the circumstances which brought men to a belief in the power of Shemot (names of God) ; I will point out the main subject of discussion, and lay open to you its mystery, and then not any doubt will be left in your mind, unless you prefer to be misguided.
; : ; : '
:
'
CHAPTER LXII
WE
were commanded
that, in the sacerdotal blessing, the
name of
the
Lord
should be pronounced as it is written in the form of the Tetragrammaton, the shem ha-meforash. It was not known to every one how the name was to be pronounced, what vowels were to be given to each consonant, and whether
some
of the letters capable of reduplication should receive a dagesh.
Wise
a
successively transmitted the pronunciation of the only once in seven years that the pronunciation was
men
name
it
occurred
The I must, however, add that the statement, distinguished disciple. wise men communicated the Tetragrammaton to their children and their
disciples once in seven years," does not only refer to the pronunciation but also to its meaning, because of which the Tetragrammaton was made a
communicated to "
nomen proprium of God, and which includes certain metaphysical principles. Our Sages knew in addition a name of God which consisted of twelve I believe that this was letters, inferior in sanctity to the Tetragrammaton. not a single noun, but consisted of two or three words, the sum of their letters being twelve, and that these words were used by our Sages as a sub-
92
stitute for the

Tetragrammaton, whenever they met with
it
in the course of
their reading the Scriptures, in the same manner as " for it aleph, daletb, etc. [i.e., Adonay, the Lord "].
this
we
at present substitute
is
There
no doubt that
twelve letters, was in this sense more distinctive than the name Adonay it was never withheld from any of the students whoever wished to learn it, had the opportunity given to him without any reserve not so the Tetragrammaton ; those who knew it did not communialso, consisting of
: ; :
name
cate
When, however, except to a son or a disciple, once in seven years, unprincipled men had become acquainted with that name which consists of twelve letters and in consequence had become corrupt in faith as is someit
persons with imperfect knowledge become aware that they had imagined the Sages concealed also that name, and only communicated it to the worthiest among the priests, that they should pronounce it when they blessed the people in the Temple ; for the
times the case

a thing
is
when
as
not such
Tetragrammeton was then no longer uttered in the sanctuary on account of the corruption of the people. There is a tradition, that with the death of Simeon the Just, his brother priests discontinued the pronunciation of the
in the blessing ; they used, instead, this name of twelve further stated, that at first the name of twelve letters was communicated to every man ; but when the number of impious men in-
Tetragrammaton
letters.
It
is
it was only entrusted to the worthiest among the priests, whose voice, pronouncing it, was drowned amid the singing of their brother priests. " Rabbi Tarphon said, Once I followed my grandfather to the dais [where the blessing was pronounced] ; I inclined my ear to listen to a priest [who pronounced the namel, and noticed that his voice was drowned amid the
creased
in
known among them. Every one word of forty-two letters is impossible. words which had together forty-two letters. There is no doubt that the words had such a meaning as to convey a correct This phrase of so notion of the essence of God, in the way we have stated.
intelligent person knows that But it was a phrase of several
singing of his brother priests." There was also a name of forty-two letters
many letters is called a name because, like other proper nouns, they represent one single object, and several words have been employed in order to explain more clearly the idea which the name represents ; for an idea can
more
observe
if expressed in many words. Mark this and that the instruction in regard to the names of God extended to the signification of each of those names, and did not confine itself to the pro-
easily
be comprehended
now
nunciation of the single letters which, in themselves, are destitute of an idea. Sbem ba-meforasb applied neither to the name of forty- two letters nor to that
of twelve, but only to the
we have
ledge,
explained.
It
sical ideas.
Tetragrammaton, the proper name of God, as Those two names must have included some metaphycan be proved that one of them conveyed profound knowlaid
from the following rule
down by our
him who forty-two letters is exceedingly holy ; it is modest, in the midway of life, not easily provoked to anger, temperate, He who understands it, gentle, and who speaks kindly to his fellow men. is cautious with it. and keeps it in purky, is loved above and is liked here
below he is respected by his fellow men ; his learning remaineth with him, and he enjoys both this world and the world to come." So far in the Tal;
The Sages can only be entrusted to

:
"
name
of
THE NAMES OF GOD

mud.
93
!
Many begrievously has this passage been misunderstood the forty-two letters are merely to be pronounced mechanically; that by knowledge of these, without any further interpretation, they can attain to these exalted ends, although it is stated that he who desires to obtain a knowledge of that name must be trained in the virtues named be'ieve that
How
the great preparations which are mentioned in that it is evident that all this preparation aims at a " knowledge of Metaphysics, and includes ideas which constitute the secrets of the Law," as we have explained (chap. xxxv.). In works on Metaphysics
fore,
and go through
all
passage.
On
the contrary,
it
intellect,
shown that such knowledge, i.e., the perception of the active " can never be forgotten ; and this is meant by the phrase his learning remaineth with him." When bad and foolish men were reading such passages, they considered
has been
to be a support of their false pretensions and of their assertion that they by means of an arbitrary combination of letters, form a shem (" a ") which would act and operate miraculously when written or spoken
them
could,
name
in a certain particular way. Such fictions, originally invented by foolish men, were in the course of time committed to writing, and came into the
hands of good but weak-minded and ignorant persons who were unable to discriminate between truth and falsehood, and made a secret of these shemot When after the death of such persons those writings were dis(names). covered among their papers, it was believed that they contained truths ; " The believeth word "
for,
simple
every
(Prov. xiv. 15).
have already gone too far away from our interesting subject and recondite inquiry, endeavouring to refute a perverse notion, the absurdity of which every one must perceive who gives a thought to the subject. We have, however, been compelled to mention it, in treating of the divine names, their meanings, and the opinions commonly held concerning them. We shall now return to our theme. Having shown that all names of God, with
We
we must now,
the exception of the Tetragrammaton (Shem ha-meforasb), are appellatives, in a separate chapter, speak on the phrase Ehyeh asber Ehyeh, (Exod. iii. 14), because it is connected with the difficult subject under
discussion, namely, the inadmissibility of divine attributes.
CHAPTER
LXIII
BEFOR-E approaching the subject of this chapter, we will first consider the " words of Moses, And they shall say unto me, What is His name ? what shall " I say unto them ? (Exod. iii. 13), How far was this question, anticipated by Moses, appropriate, and how far was he justified in seeking to be prepared " with the answer ? Moses was correct in declaring, But, behold, they will " not believe me, for they will say, The Lord hath not appeared unto thee for any man claiming the authority of a prophet must expect to (ib. iv. i) meet with such an objection so long as he has not given a proof of his mission. Again, if the question, as appears at first sight, referred only to the name, as a mere utterance of the dilemma would present itself lips, the following either the Israelites knew the name, or they had never heard it ; if the name was known to them, they would perceive in it no argument in favour of the mission of Moses, his knowledge and their knowledge of the divine name
; :
94
answered, said, In order to obviate this dilemma, you must understand what I am about to tell you. You know how widespread were in those days the opinions of the Sabeans ; all men, except a few individuals, were idolaters,
being the same. If, on the other hand, they had never heard it mentioned, and if the knowledge of it was to prove the mission of Moses, what evidence would they have that this was really the name of God ? Moreover, after God had made known that name to Moses, and had told him, " Go and gather the elders of Israel, and they shall hearken to thy voice" (ib. xvi. 18), " he replied, Behold, they will not believe me nor hearken unto my voice," " And they will hearken to thy voice " ; wherealthough God had told him, " " What is that in thine hand ? " and he God A rod "
.
upon
(ib. iv. 2).
that
is
to say, they believed in spirits, in man's
power
to direct the influences
of the heavenly bodies, and in the effect of talismans. Any one who in those days laid claim to authority, based it either, like Abraham, on the fact that, by reasoning and by proof he had been convinced of the existence of a
whole Universe, or that some spiritual power was conby an angel, or by a similar agency ; but no one could establish his claim on prophecy, that is to say, on the fact that God had spoken to him, or had entrusted a mission to him ; before the days of Moses no such assertion had ever been made. You must not be misled by the statements that God spoke to the Patriarchs, or that He had appeared For you do not find any mention of a prophecy which appealed to them. to others, or which directed them. Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob, or any other " God said unto me, you shall do person before them did not tell the people, " this thing, or you shall not do that thing." or God has sent me to you." Far from it for God spoke to them on nothing but of what especially concerned them, i.e., He communicated to them things relating to their perfection, directed them in what they should do, and foretold them what the condition of their descendants would be ; nothing beyond this. They guided their fellow-men by means of argument and instruction, as is imBeing
rules the
who
ferred
upon him by
a star,
plied, according to the interpretation generally received amongst us, in the " " words and the souls that they had gotten in Haran (Gen. xii. 5).
When
God
appeared to our Teacher Moses, and commanded him to address the people and to bring them the message, Moses replied that he might first be
asked to prove the existence of God in the Universe, and that only after doing he would be able to announce to them that God had sent him. For all
so
men, with few exceptions, were ignorant of the existence of highest thoughts did not extend beyond the heavenly sphere,
its
God
its
their
forms or
influences. They could not yet emancipate themselves from sensation, and had not yet attained to any intellectual perfection. Then God taught Moses how to teach them, and how to establish amongst them the belief in
the existence of Himself, namely, by saying Ehyeh asher Ehyeh, a name derived " from the verb bayah in the sense of existing," for the verb bayab denotes " " " to be," and in Hebrew no difference is made between the verbs to be " to exist." The principal point in this phrase is that the same word and " The word asher, which denotes existence," is repeated as an attribute. " that," corresponds to the Arabic illadi and illati, and is an incomplete noun that must be completed by another noun it may be considered as the subject of the predicate which follows. The first noun which is to be de;
THE NAMES OF GOD

scribed
95
is ehyeh ; the second, by which the first is described, is likewise ehyeh, the identical word, as if to show that the object which is to be described and the attribute by which it is described are in this case necessarily identical.
Phis is, therefore, the expression of the idea that God exists, but not in the " the existing Being ordinary sense of the term ; or, in other words, He is which is the the existing Being," that is to say, the Being whose existence is The proof which he was to give consisted in demonstrating that absolute.
there is a Being of absolute existence, that has never been and never will be without existence. This I will clearly prove (II. Introd. Prop. 20 and
chap.
i.).
thus showed Moses the proofs by which His existence would be Therefore the exfirmly established among the wise men of His people. " Go, gather the elders of planation of the name is followed by the words,
Israel,"
God
God had shown " And they will

They will
and by the assurance that the elders would understand what to him, and would accept it, as is stated in the words, hearken to thy voice." Then Moses replied as follows
:
accept the doctrine that God exists convinced by these intelligible But, said Moses, by what means shall I be able to show that this exproofs. isting God has sent me ? Thereupon God gave him the sign. We have
shown that the question, " What is His name ? " means " Who is that " " The What sentence, Being, which according to thy belief has sent thee ?
thus
his
is
name "
(instead of,
as
Who
is
praise
; if, nevertheless, I ask what is Thy to be expressed by the name ? (Moses considered it inappropriate to say to God that any person was ignorant of God's existence, and therefore described the Israelites as ignorant of God's name, not as ignorant of Him who was called by that name.) The name Jab
Thy
and homage, essence and of

I
though
is
it
had been
He), has here been used as a tribute of said, Nobody can be ignorant of
Thy
real existence
name,
mean, What idea
likewise implies eternal existence. Shadday, however, is derived from day, " " " " enough ; comp. for the stuff they had was sufficient (f'ayyam, Exod. " " xxxvi. 7) ; the shin is equal to asber, as in which which," ihe-kebar,
already
is
The name Shadday, therefore, signifies he who (Eccles. ii. 1 6). " sufficient that is to say, does not require any other being for effecting ;
"
"
He
the existence of
what He
as
created, or
its
conservation
cient for that. In a similar
manner the name basin

the oaks
as
" he was strong (hason) "

rock," which
is
"
implies
(Amos
ii.
9).
The
His existence is suffi" " strength ; comp. same is the case with
homonym,
we have
names of God by way of homonymy, like zur and others, the only exception being the tetragrammaton, the Shem ha-meforash (the nomen proprium of God), which is not an it does not denote any attribute of God, nor does it appellative imply anything except His existence. Absolute existence includes the idea of eternity, i.e., the necessity of existence. Note well the result at which we have arrived in this chapter.
fore, clear that all these
;
explained (chap. xvi.). It is, thereare appellatives, or are applied to God
CHAPTER LXIV
KNOW that in some instances by
but the name alone
is
the phrase
;
"
the
name
"
to be understood
comp.
Thou
of the Lord," nothing shalt not take the
96

of the
;
" Lord thy God in vain " (Exod. xx. 7) And he that bias" name of the Lord xxiv. This the occurs in numerous (Lev. 16). phemeth other passages. In other instances it means the essence and reality of God " " is his name ? SomeHimself, as in the phrase They shall say to me, What " " " the word of God," so that the name of God," times it stands for tht " word of God," and the command of God," are identical phrases conap. " " for my name is in him (Exod. xxiii. 21), that is, My word or My command is in him i.e., he is the instrument of My desire and will. I shall " " angel (II explain this fully in treating of the homonymity of the term " The glory of the Lord." chap. vi. and xxxiv.). The same is the case with " The phrase sometimes signifies the material light," which God caused to rest on a certain place in order to show the distinction of that place, e.g., " And the glory of the Lord (kebod adonay) abode upon Mount Sinai and the " " And the glory of the Lord filled the cloud covered it (Exod. xxiv. 16) " the Sometimes tabernacle xl. essence, the reality of God is meant 35). (ib. " " by that expression, as in the words of Moses, Show me thy glory (ib. xxxiii. was "For the no man shall see which me and live" 1 to given, reply 8), This shows that the glory of the Lord in this instance is the same (ib. xx.). " " " as He Himself, and that Thy glory has been substituted for Thyself," an explanation which we also gave of the words, as a tribute of homage " And they shall say unto me, What is his name ? " Sometimes the term " " denotes the glorification of the Lord by man or by any other being. glory For the true glorification of the Lord consists in the comprehension of His greatness, and all who comprehend His greatness and perfection, glorify
name
according to their capacity, with this difference, that man alone magGod in words, expressive of what he has received in his mind, and what he desires to communicate to others. Things not endowed with comprehension, as e.g., minerals, may also be considered as glorifying the Lord, for
Him
nifies
by
their natural properties they testify to the
omnipotence and wisdom of
their Creator, and cause him who examines them to praise God, by means of speech or without the use of words, if the power of speech be wanting. In Hebrew this licence has been extended still further, and the use of the
verb
"
to speak
" has been admitted
as applicable in
such a case
"
things
e.g.,
which have no comprehension are therefore " who
said to give utterance to praise,
is like unto thee ? All my bones shall say, Lord, (Ps. xxxv. 10). Because a consideration of the properties of the bones leads to the discovery
and it is through them that it became known, they are represented as having uttered the divine praise ; and since this [cause of God's " " the fulness of the whole praise," it has been said praise] is itself called " " the earth is full of his earth is his praise (Isa. vi. 3), in the same sense as " As kabod iii. to (Hab. 3). being employed in the sense of praise, praise " " " comp. Give praise (kabod) to the Lord your God (Jer. xiii. 16) ; also and " xxix. in his temple does every one speak of his praise (kabod) (Ps. 9), etc. Consider well the homonymity of this term, and explain it in each instance
of that truth,
in accordance
with the context
you
will thus escape great
embarrassment.
CHAPTER LXV
AFTER you have advanced thus
far,
and truly comprehended that
God
exists
GOD SPAKE
97
without having the attribute of existence, and that He is One, without having the attribute of unity, I do not think that I need explain to you the inadmissibility of the attribute of speech in reference to God, especially since our people generally believe that the Law, i.e., the word ascribed to Him, was created. Speech is attributed to Him, in so far as the word which Moses heard, was produced and brought to existence by God in the same manner as He produced all His other works and creations. As we shall have to speak
more
to
fully
on prophecy, we
shall here
merely show that speech
is
attributed
God in the same way as all other actions, which are similar to our own. When we are told that God addressed the Prophets and spoke to them, our
minds are merely to receive a notion that there is a Divine knowledge to which the Prophets attain we are to be impressed with the idea that the things which the Prophets communicate to us come from the Lord, and are not altogether the products of their own conceptions and ideas. This subject, which we have already mentioned above, will receive further explana" " It is the object of this chapter to show that the words tion. speaking and " " " " are " saying synonymous terms denoting (a) Speech ; as, e.g., Moses " " shall speak (yedabber) And Pharaoh said (va-yomer) " (Exod. xix. 19) " " (ib. v. 5) (U) Thought as formed in the mind without being expressed " in words And I thought (ve-amarti) in my heart " (Eccles. ii. 15) e.g., " And I thought (vedibbarti) in my heart " (ib.) " And thy heart will im" " agine (yedabber) (Prov. xxiii. 33) ; Concerning Thee my heart thought " " And Esau thought (va-yomer) in his heart " (Gen. (Ps. xxvii. 8) (amar) " xxvii. 41) And he examples of this kind are numerous ; (c) Will ; e.g., " said (va-yomer) to slay David (2 Sam. xxi. 16), that is to say, he wished or " he intended to slay him Dost thou desire (omer) to slay me " (Exod. ii. " And the whole congragation intended (va-yomeru) to stone them " 14) xiv. Instances of this kind are likewise numerous. (Num. 10). The two terms, when applied to God, can only have one of the two lastmentioned significations, viz., he wills and he desires, or he thinks, and there is no difference whether the divine thought became known to man by means of an actual voice, or by one of those kinds of inspiration which I shall explain further on (II. chap, xxxviii.). We must not suppose that in speaking God voice or or that He has a soul in which the thoughts reside, sound, employed and that these thoughts are things superadded to His essence ; but we ascribe and attribute to Him thoughts in the same manner as we ascribe to Him any other attributes. The use of these words in the sense of will and desire, is based, as I have explained, on the homonymity of these terms. In addition they are figures borrowed from our common practices, as has been already pointed out. For we cannot, at a first glance, see how anything can be produced by a mere desire ; we think that he who wishes to produce a thing, must perform a certain act, or command some one else to
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
perform
it.
Therefore the
command
is
figuratively ascribed to
God when
that takes place which He wishes, and we then say that He commanded that a certain thing should be accomplished. All this has its origin in our comparing the acts of God to our own acts, and also in the use of the term amar
in the sense of
"
He said," occurring in the account of the creation, signify " He wished," or " He desired." This has already been stated bv other authors, and is well
He desired,"
as
we have already
explained.
The words " And
98

A
"
God said," in the first proof for this, namely that the phrase " He willed," and not chapter of Genesis, must be taken in a figurative sense in its literal meaning, is found in the circumstance that a command can
known.
mand.
" the breath of his mouth," are undoubtedly figurative expressions, and " " " and the same is the case with His word and His speech." The meaning heavens and all their of the verse is therefore that they [the host] exist through His will and desire. All our eminent authorities are cognisant of this and, I need not explain that in Hebrew amar and dibber have the same meaning, " For it has heard all the words (imre) of the as is proved by the passage, Lord which he spake (dibber) unto us " (Josh. xxiv. 27).
;
only be given to a being which exists and is capable of receiving the com" were the heavens made, and all Comp. By the word of the Lord " " His mouth," the host of them by the breath of his mouth (Ps. xxxiii. 6).
CHAPTER LXVI
the tables were the work of God (Exod. xxxii. 16), that is to say, for all natural things are called they were the product of nature, not of art " " These see the works of the Lord " (Ps. cvii. the work of the Lord," e.g., and the description of the several things in nature, as plants, animals, 24) " O Lord, how manifold winds, rain, etc., is followed by the exclamation, " Still more are thy works civ. striking is the relation between (Ps. 24). God and His creatures, as expressed in the phrase, " The cedars of Lebanon, the cedars being the product of nature, which he hath planted " (ib. 16) and not of art, are described as having been planted by the Lord. Similarly we explain, "And the writing was the writing of God " (Exod. xxxii. 16) the relation in which the writing stood to God has already been defined in " " the words written with the finger of God (ib. xxxi. 18), and the meaning " " the work of thy fingers of this phrase is the same as that of (Ps. viii. 4). of the latter it has been stated distinctly that this being said of the heavens " they were made by a word comp. By the word of the Lord were the " Hence heavens made xxxiii. (ib. 6). you learn that in the Bible, the crea" word " and tion of a thing is figuratively expressed by terms denoting *' " The same which to one has been made thing according passage speech " finger of by the word, is represented in another passage as made by the " God." The phrase written by the finger of God " is therefore identical " " with written by the word of God and if the latter phrase had been ; " it would have been to written used, by the will and desire of God." equal Onkelos adopted in this place a strange explanation, and rendered the words " " " he " written by the finger of the Lord the finger ; thought that literally " " is to was a certain thing ascribed to God ; so that the finger of the Lord " " be interpreted in the same way as the mountain of God (Exod. iii. i), " " the rod of God (ib. iv. 20), that is, as being an instrument created by Him, which by His will engraved the writing on the tables. I cannot see It would have been more reasonwhy Onkelos preferred this explanation. " " able to say written by the word of the Lord," in imitation of the verse By the of the word of Lord the heavens were made." Or was the creation the writing on the tables more difficult than the creation of the stars in the As the latter were made by the direct will of God, not by means spheres ?
"
AND
"
GOD RESTED
99
"
"
of an instrument, the writing may also have been produced by His direct You know what the Mishnah says, will, not by means of an instrument.
things were created on Friday in the twilight of the evening, and " is the writing one of the ten things. This shows how generally it was assumed by our forefathers that the writing of the tables was produced in the same manner as the rest of the creation, as we have shown in our Commentary
Ten
on the Mishnah (Aboth,
v. 6).
CHAPTER LXVII
SINCE the verb to say has been figuratively used to express the will of the " And he said " has repeatedly been employed in Creator, and the phrase " the account of all the things created in the six days of the beginning," the " " to rest has likewise been figuratively applied to God in referexpression ence to the Sabbath-day, on which there was no creation it is therefore " And he rested (ya-yisbbof) on the seventh day " (Gen. ii. 2). For said, " " to leave off speaking is, in Hebrew, likewise expressed by the same verb, " So these three men ceased (va-yishbetu) to answer Job " (Job as, e.g., " xxxii. l) ; also by nuah, as, in They spake to Nabal according to all those " words in the name of David, and ceased (va-yanuhu) In (i Sam. xxv. 9). " means ceased to they my opinion, (va-yanuhu) speak," and waited for the answer ; for no allusion to exertion whatever having previously been men" and they rested," in its primary signification, would have tioned, the words, been entirely out of place in that narrative, even if the young men who spoke had really used some exertion. The author relates that having delivered that whole speech, which, as you find, consisted of gentle expressions, they were silent, that is to say, they did not add any word or act by which the it being the object of the entire passage reply of Nabal could be justified In that sense to represent Nabal's conduct as extremely reprehensible.
;
;
"
"
"
[viz.,
"
to cease," or
"
to leave off "] the verb nuaJj
is
used in the phrase
on the seventh day." Our Sages, and some of the Commentators, took, however, nuah in its " to rest," but as a transitive form (hiphil), explaining the primary sense " and he gave rest to the world on the seventh day," i.e., no phrase thus further act of creation took place on that day. It is possible that the word va-yanah is derived either from yanah, a verb of the class pe-yod, or nahah, a verb of the class lamed-he, and has this mean" " or " he " the he established Universe in accordance with governed ing " that is to the properties it possessed on the seventh day ; say, while on each
he
left off (va-yanati)
: :
And
of the six days events took place contrary to the natural laws
now in operation on the was merely upthe seventh Universe the Universe, day throughout held and left in the condition in which it continues to exist. Our explanation is not impaired by the fact that the form of the word deviates from the
two classes for there are frequent exceptions to the and especially of the weak verbs and any interpretation which removes such a source of error must not be abandoned because of
rules of verbs of these
rules of conjugations,
; ;
know that we are ignorant of the sacred certain grammatical rules. language, and that grammatical rules only apply to the majority of cases. The same root is also found as a verb 'zyin-vav in the sense " to place " and
We
ioo
"

"
and it shall be established and she shall be placed (veto set," as e.g., bunnib,ah) there upon her own base" (Zech. v. n), and "she suffered
neither the birds of the air to settle (La-nualj) on them (2 Sam. xxi. 10). According to my opinion, the verb has the same signification in Hab. iii " that I might remain firm (anuab) in the day of trouble." 16,
of
"
The word (va-yinnafash) is a verb derived from nefesb, the homonymity which we have already explained (chap, xli.), namely, that it has the sig"
;
means that which he desired was accomplished, and what he wished had come into
nification of intention or will
(va-yinnafasti) accordingly
existence."
CHAPTER LXVIII
You God
are acquainted with the well-known principle of the philosophers that is the intellect, the em These intelligent, and the ens intelligibile.
one and the same, and do not in any way constitute mentioned it in our larger work, " Mishneb Torah," and we have explained there that it is a fundamental principle of our religion, namely, that He is absolutely one, that nothing combines with Him that is to say, there is no Eternal thing besides Him. On that account we " " " the Lord liveth (Ruth iii. 13), and not be adonay, the say bai adonay, life of the Lord," for His life is not a thing distinct from His essence, as we have explained in treating of the inadmissibility of the attributes. There is no doubt that he who has not studied any works on mental philosophy, who has not comprehended the nature of the mind, who has no knowledge of its essence, and considers it in no other way than he would consider the nature of whiteness and of blackness, will find this subject extremely difficult, and to him our principle that the intellect, the intelligens, and the and the same thing, will appear as unintelligible intelligibile, are in God one as if we said that the whiteness, the whitening substance, and the material which is whitened are one and the same thing. And, indeed, many ignorant people refute at once our principle by using such comparisons,. Even
three things are in
a plurality.
God
We have
also
amongst those who imagine that they are wise, many find this subject difficult, and are of opinion that it is impossible for the mind to grasp the truth of this proposition, although it is a demonstrated truth, as has been shown by Metaphysicians. I will tell you now what has been proved. Man, before
comprehending
a thing,
comprehends
it
in potentia
(Swa/m)
when,
however, he comprehends a thing, e.g., the form of a certain tree which is pointed out to him, when he abstracts its form from its substance, and reproduces the abstract form, an act performed by the intellect, he comprehends in reality (evepyeia), and the intellect which he has acquired in actuality, is For in such a case the intellect ihe abstract form of the tree in man's mind. is not a thing distinct from the thing comprehended. It is therefore clear to you that the thing comprehended is the abstract form of the tree, and at
it is the intellect in action and that the intellect and the form of the tree are not two different things, for the intellect in action is nothing but the thing comprehended, and that agent by which the form of the tree has been turned into an intellectual and abstract object, namely, that which comprehends, is undoubtedly the intellect in action.
the same time
abstract
INTELLECTUS, INTELLIGENS
All intellect
different
is
AND INTELLIGIBILE
the intellect in action
is
101
identical with
its
its
action
not a thing
intellect
is
from
action, for the true nature
and essence of the
comprehension, and you must not think that the intellect in action is a thing existing by itself, separate from comprehension, and that comprehension is a different thing connected with it for the very essence of the intellect is comprehension. In assuming an intellect in action you assume the comprehension of the thing comprehended. This is quite clear to all who have made themselves familiar with the figurative language common to this
;
You therefore accept it as proved that the intellect consists in which is its true nature and essence. Consequently the very thing by which the form of that tree has been made abstract and intelligible, viz., the intellect, is at the same time the intelligent, for the intellect is itself the agens which abstracts the form and comprehends it, and that is the action, on account of which it is called the intelligens ; but itself and its action are identical and that which is called intellect in action consists [in the abovementioned instance] of nothing else but of the form of the tree. It must now be obvious to you that whenever the intellect is found in action, the intellect and the thing comprehended are one and the same thing ; and
discipline.
its
action,
namely, the act of comprehending, is which comprehends and that which is comprehended, are therefore the same, whenever a real comprehension takes But, when we speak of the power of comprehension, we necesplace. the power itself, and the thing which can be sarily distinguish two things comprehended ; e.g., that hylic intellect of Zaid is the power of comprehension, and this tree is, in like manner, a thing which is capable of being comprehended ; these, undoubtedly, are two different things. When, however, the potential is replaced by the actual, and when the form of the tree has really been comprehended, the form comprehended is the intellect, and it is by that same intellect, by the intellect in action, that the tree has been converted into an abstract idea, and has been comprehended. For everything in which a real action takes place exists in reality. On the other hand, the power of comprehension, and the object capable of comprehension are two things ; but that which is only potential cannot be imagined otherwise than in connexion with an object possessing that capacity, as, e.g., man, and thus we have three things the man who possesses the power, and is that power itself, namely, the power of comcapable of comprehending prehension, and the object which presents itself as an object of comprehension, and is capable of being comprehended to use the foregoing example, the man, the hylic intellect, and the abstract form of the tree, are three different things. They become one and the same thing when the intellect is in action, and you will never find the intellect different from the comprehensible object, unless the power of comprehending and the power of being comprehended be referred to. Now, it has been proved, that God is an intellect which always is in action, and that as has been stated, and as will be proved hereafter there is in Him at no time a mere potentiality, that He does not comprehend at one time, and is without comprehension at another time, but He comprehends constantly ; consequently, He and the things comprehended are one and the same thing, that is to say, His essence and the act of comprehending because of which it is said that He comprealso that the function of all intellect,
its
essence.
The
intellect, that
102
hends,
is

the intellect
intellectus,
itself,
which
is
likewise His essence,
God
is
therefore
always the
the intelligent, and the intettigibile. We have thus shown that the identity of the intellect, the intelligens and the intelligibile, is not only a fact as regards the Creator, but as regards all
when in action. There is, however, this difference, that from time to time our intellect passes over from mere potentiality to reality, and that the pure intellect, i.e., the active intellect, finds sometimes obstacles, though not in itself, but accidentally in some external cause. It is not our present intention to explain this subject, but we will merely show that God alone, and none besides Him, is an intellect constantly in action, and there in anything beside Him, any obstacle whereby His is, neither in Himself nor comprehension would be hindered. Therefore He always includes the and the intelligibile, and His essence is at the same intelligens, the intellectus, time the intelligens, the intelligibile, and the intellectus, as is necessarily the
intellect,
case with
all
intellect in action.
this idea in the present
We
have reiterated
chapter because
will
it is
exceed-
confound inwith the reprotellectual comprehension with the representative faculty duction of the material image in our imagination, since this work is designed only for those who have studied philosophy, and who know what has already been said on the soul and its faculties.
ingly abstruse, and I
do not apprehend that the reader
CHAPTER LXIX
THE philosophers, as you know, call God
sibbah)
:
the First Cause (in

of
Hebrew 'illab and
are very to the use of that name, and call Him Agens, believing that there is a great difference whether we say that God is the Cause or that He is If we say that God is the Cause, the cothe Agens. They argue thus
but those
who
are
known by the name
Mutakallemim
much opposed
which was produced by that Cause would be implied this again would involve the belief that the Universe was eternal, and that it was inseparable from God. When, however, we say that God is the Agens, the co-existence of the Agens with its product is not we cannot even implied ; for the agens can exist anterior to its product imagine how. an agens can be in action unless it existed before its own production. This is an argument advanced by persons who do not distinguish between the potential and the actual. You, however, should know that in " " this case there is no difference whether you employ the term cause or " " " " in the sense of a mere potenfor if you take the term cause ; agens but if you mean the cause in action, then the tiality, it precedes its effect effect must necessarily co-exist with the cause in action. The same is the case with the agens ; take it as an agens in reality, the work must necessarily For the builder, before he builds the house, is not co-exist with its agens. in reality a builder, but has the faculty for building a house in the same
existence of the Cause with that
necessarily
; ; ;
way
as
the materials for the house before
it
is
in potentia but and his product
when
must
the house has been built, he
is
being built are merely the builder in reality,
likewise be in actual existence.
and rejecting the term cause." gained by choosing the term agens object here is to show that these two terms are equal, and in the same
"
"
Nothing
is
therefore
"
My
THE FIRST CAUSE

manner
doing
it
103
as
because there
the effect
God an Agens, although the work does not yet exist, only no hindrance or obstacle which might prevent Him from whenever He pleases, we may also call Him the Cause, although
we
call
is
the Cause, and did not call not to be sought in their belief that the universe is eternal, but in other motives, which I will briefly describe to you. It has been shown in the science of Physics that everything, except the Primal Cause, owes its the substance,, the form, the agens, the origin to the following four causes
reason
The
may not yet be in existence. why the philosophers called God

is
Him
the
A gens,
final cause.
by
itself is
are sometimes direct, sometimes indirect causes " a cause." They also believe called and I do not differ
These
but each from their
Himself is the agens, the form, and the end ; therefore the Cause," in order to express that He unites in Himself these three causes, viz., that He is the agens, the form, and the final cause of the universe. In the present chapter I only wish to show you in what sense
opinion
that
God
"
they
call
God
it
may
be said of
God
that
He
is
of the universe.
You need not
the agens, the form, and also the final cause trouble yourself now with the question
whether the universe has been created by God, or whether, as the philosophers have assumed, it is eternal, co-existing with Him. You will find [in the pages of this treatise] full and instructive information on the subject. Here " "
I
wish to show that God is the cause of every event that takes place in the world, just as He is the Creator of- the whole universe as it now exists. It has already been explained in the science of Physics, that a cause must
again be sought for each of the four divisions of causes. When we have found for any existing thing those four causes which are in immediate conagain causes, and for these again other arrive at the first causes. E.g., a certain production has its agens, this agens again has its agens, and so on and on until at last we arrive at a first agens, which is the true agens throughout all the inter-
nexion with
causes,
it,
we
find
for these
and
so
on
until
we
vening
dalet,
ler
links.
If
and
dalet
at
by he
he
the letter aleph be moved by bet, bet by gimel, gimel by and as the series does not extend to infinity,
there
dalet,
us
stop
aleph, bst, gimel,
and
no doubt that the he moves the letters is and we say correctly that the aleph is moved by
In that sense everything occurring in the universe, although directly he. produced by certain nearer causes, is ascribed to the Creator, as we shall He is the Agens, and He is therefore the ultimate cause. We shall explain. also find, after careful examination, that every physical and transient form must be preceded by another such form, by which the substance has been the previous form again has been preceded fitted to receive the next form and we arrive at another, length at that form which is necessary for the by existence of all intermediate forms, which are the causes of the present form. That form to which the forms of all existing things are traced is God. You must not imagine that when we say that God is the first form of all forms existing in the Universe, we refer to that first form which Aristotle, in the Book of Metaphysics, describes as being without beginning and without end, for he treats of a form which is a physical, and not a purely intellectual one. When we call God the ultimate form of the universe, we do not use this term in the sense of form connected with substance, namely, as the form of that It is not in this substance, as though God were the form of a material being.
;
104
sense that

:
we use it, but in the following Everything existing and endowed with a form, is whatever it is through its form, and when that form is destroyed its whole existence terminates and is obliterated. The same is the case as regards the relation between God and all distant causes of existing beings ; it is through the existence of God that all things exist, and it is He who maintains their existence by that process which is called emanation (in Hebrew shepha'), as will be explained in one of the chapters of the present work. If God did not exist, suppose this were possible, the universe would not exist, and there would be an end to the existence of the distant causes,
the final effects, and the intermediate causes.
Consequently
God
maintains
the same relation to the world as the form has to a thing endowed with a form ; through the form it is what it is, and on it the reality and essence of the thing depends. In this sense we may say that God is the ultimate form, that He is the form of all forms ; that is to say, the existence and continuance
of
all
forms in the
in the
last instance
depend on Him, the forms are maintained by
Him,
same way
as all things
endowed with forms
retain their existence
through their forms.

guage,
Ixxii.).
fre
On
"
the
that account
life
God
is
called, in
the sacred lan-
ha-'olamim,
The same argument
of the Universe," as will be explained (chap. holds good in reference to all final causes. If
you
assign to a thing a certain purpose, you can find for that purpose another mention, e.g., a (wooden) chair ; its substance is wood, the purpose.
We
joiner
is its it.
agens, the square its form,
and
its
purpose
is
that one should
sit
You may then ask, For what purpose does one sit upon it ? The answer will be that he who is sitting upon it desires to be high above the
upon
ground. If again you ask, For what purpose does he desire to be high above the ground, you will receive the answer that he wishes to appear high in the For what purpose does he wish to appear higher eyes of those who see him. in the eyes of those who see him ? That the people may respect and fear him. What is the good of his being feared ? His commands will be reFor what purpose are his commands to be respected ? That spected. people shall refrain from injuring each other. What is the object of this precaution ? To maintain order amongst the people. In this way one purpose necessitates the pre-existence of another, except the final purpose, which is the execution of the will of God, according to one of the opinions which have been propounded, as will be explained (III. xiii. and xvii.), and " the final answer will be, It is the will of God." According to the view of others, which will likewise be explained, the final purpose is the execution " of the decree of His wisdom, and the final answer will be, It has been decreed by His wisdom." According to either opinion, the series of the suc-
been shown, in God's will or wisdom, with His essence, and are not any thing separate from Himself or different from His essence. Consequently, God V the final purpose of everything. Again, it is the aim of everything to become, according to its faculties, similar to God in perfection ; this is meant by the expression, " His will, which is identical with His essence/' as will be shown below In this sense God is called the End of all (ibid.).
cessive purposes terminates, as has which, in our opinion, are identical
ends.
I
Form, and the End.
have thus explained to you in what sense God is said to be the A gens, the This is the reason why the philosophers not only call
"RIDING UPON THE

Him
"
" "
to the
'ARABOT*
105
the Maker Some of the scholars belonging but also the Cause." Mutakallemim (Mohammedan theologians), went so far in their folly
and in their vainglory as to say that the non-existence of the Creator, if that were possible, would not necessarily imply the non-existence of the things created by Him, i.e., the Universe for a production need not necessarily
:
cease to exist
exist.
and
if
the producer, after having produced it, has ceased to They would be right, if God were only the maker of the Universe, its permanent existence were not dependent on Him. The store-
when
house does not cease to exist at the death of the builder ; for he does not God, however, is Himself the give permanent existence to the building. form of the Universe, as we have already shown, and it is He who causes its continuance and permanency. It is therefore wrong to say that a thing can remain durable and permanent, after the being that makes it durable and
permanent has ceased to exist, since that thing can possess no more durability and permanency than it has received from that being. Now you understand the greatness of the error into which they have fallen through their assumption that God is only the Agens, and not the End or the Form.
CHAPTER LXX
THE
is
term rakab, In its primary signification it to ride," is a synonym. " Now he applied to man's riding on an animal, in the usual way ; e.g., It has then been figuwas riding (rokeb) upon his ass " (Num. xxii. 22).
"
dominion over a thing ratively used to denote " He and rules the animal he rides upon ; e.g.,
on the high places of the earth " (Deut.
ride (ve-hirkabtika)
is,
"
"
because the rider governs
made him
"
;
xxxii. 13)
and
"
I will
ride (yarkibehu) cause thee to
upon the high
places of the earth
(Isa. Iviii. 14),
that
I will you shall have dominion over the highest (people) on earth ; make Ephraim to ride (arkib) " (Hos. x. 1 1), i.e., I shall give him rule and " dominion. In this same sense it is said of God, who rideth (rokeb) upon
"
the heaven in thy help (Deut. xxxiii. 26), that is, who rules the heaven ; " and Him that rideth (la-rokeV) upon the 'arabot " (Ps. Ixviii. 4), i.e., who rules the 'arabot, the uppermost, all-encompassing sphere. It has
also
"
been repeatedly stated by our Sages that there are seven rekiim (firmaments, heavens), and that the uppermost of them, the all-surrounding, is called 'arabot. Do not object to the number seven given by them, although there are more rekfim, for there are spheres which contain several
circles (gilgallim),
and are counted
as
one
this
is
clear to those
who have
studied that subject, and I shall also explain it ; here I wish merely to point out that our Sages always assumed that 'arabot is the uppermost sphere. The
'arabot
is
also referred to in the
"
words,
'
who
rideth
p. 12,
help."
Thus we read
as
in
it
Talm. B. Hagigah,
is
the heaven upon "
in thy
The high and

upon
exalted
'
'
dwelleth on 'arabot,
(Ps. Ixviii. 4)
said,
How
is it
The one
upon made
(II.
who rideth rideth on 'arabot," the other the heaven." Hence it is clear that in all these passages reference is to the same all-surrounding sphere, concerning which you will hereafter
passage has
"
proved that
Extol "
Him
that rideth
'arabot
who
" " " heaven and 'arabot are identical "
"
xxiv.)
receive
more information.
dwelling over
it," is
used by them, and not
Consider well that the expression " dwelling in it." The latter
106
expression would have implied that God occupies a place or is a power in the sphere, as was in fact believed by the Sabeans, who held that God was the " soul of the sphere. By saying dwelling over it," they indicated that God
was separate from the sphere, and was not a power in it. Know also that " the term riding upon the heavens," has figuratively been applied to God
in order to
show the following excellent comparison. The rider is better than the animal upon which he rides the comparative is only used for the sake of convenience, for the rider is not of the same class as the animal upon which he rides furthermore, the rider moves the animal and leads it as he he likes it is as it were his instrument, which he uses according to his will is In like manner the separate from it, apart from it, not connected with it.
; ;
uppermost sphere, by the rotation of which everything moveable is set in motion, is moved by God, who is separate from the sphere, and is not a power in it. In Bereshit Rabba we read that in commenting on the Divine words, " The eternal God is a refuge " (lit., a dwelling, Deut. xxxiii. 27), our Sages " He is the dwelling of His world, the world is not His dwelling." said, " The horse is secondary to This explanation is then followed by the remark, the rider, the rider is not subservient to the horse ; this is meant by Thou wilt ride upon thy horses ' " (Hab. iii. 8). Consider and learn
'
how
is
they described the relation of God to the sphere, asserting that the latter His instrument, by means of which He rules the universe. For whenever you find our Sages saying that in a certain heaven are certain things, they do not mean to say that in the heavens there are any extraneous things, but that from a certain heaven the force emanates which is required for the production of certain things,
for
and
my
statement you
may
for their continuing in proper order. The proof " find in the following sayings of our Sages The
'arabot, in
justice, charity, right, treasures of life and peace, treasures of blessing, of the souls of the righteous, of the souls and the spirits of those to be born, and of the dew by which God will at some future time revive
which there are
It is clear that the things enumerated here are not material, " and do not occupy a place for dew " is not to be taken in its literal sense. " " in the 'arabot," Consider also that here the phrase in which," meaning " and over as if to that all the is used, not which," things existing in the say universe derive their existence from powers emanating from the 'arabot, which God made to be the origin and the place of these powers. They are " " the treasures of life a perfectly true and correct assersaid to include ; all in For that treasure of life, as will be mention existing life originates Reflect on the fact that the tioned below (chap. Ixii., and II. chap. x.). souls of the righteous as well as the souls and the spirits of those to be born are mentioned here How sublime is this idea to him who understands it
the dead, etc."
man, is not the soul that lives in a man when he is born the latter is a mere faculty, while that which has a again, the soul and the spirit of separate existence after death, is a reality man during his life are two different things ; therefore the souls and the named as existing in man but separate from the body only spirits are both one of them exists. We have already explained the homonymity of ruah in this work, and also at the end of Sefer ha madda' (Mishneh tor ah (spirit)
; ; ;
for the soul that remains after the death of
Hil. tfshubah,
viii.
Consider
how
3-4) we treated of the homonymity of these expressions. these excellent and true ideas, comprehended only by the
"RIDING UPON THE

greatest
'ARABOT'
107
philosophers,
are
found scattered in the Midrashim.
When
disavows truth reads them, he will at first sight deride them, as being contrary to the real state of things. The cause of this is the circumstance, that our Sages spoke of these subjects in metaphors ; they are too
student
who
difficult for
the
common
understanding of the people,

I
as
has been noticed
by us
several times.
I will
now
it
return to the subject which
commenced
to explain, in order
Sages commenced to adduce proofs from Scripture for their assertion that the things enumerated above are contained " in the 'arabot. As to justice and right they quote Justice and judgment " are the habitation of thy throne In the same way they (Ps. Ixxxix. 1 8).
to bring
to a conclusion.
Our
prove their assertion concerning all things enumerated by them, by showing that they are described as being related to God, as being near Him. Note this. In the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer it is said God created seven rekiim (heavens), and out of all of them He selected the 'araboth for His royal throne " " Exalt him who rideth upon the 'arabot These comp. (Ps. Ixviii. 4).
: ;
are his (Rabbi Eliezer's) words. Note them likewise. You must know that in Hebrew the collective noun denoting animals used " " for riding is And mercabah." Instances of this noun are not rare.
Joseph made ready "
in the second (merkabto) (Gen. xlvi. 29) ; " " chariot Pharaoh's chariots (be-mirkebet) (ib. xli. 43) (markebot) (Exod. xv. 4). The following passage especially proves that the Hebrew
his chariot
;
"
"
merkabah denotes a collection of animals And a merkabak came up and went out of Egypt for six hundred shekels of silver, and a horse for an hundred and fifty " (i Kings x. 21). Hence we may learn that mercabah denotes here four horses. Therefore I think that when it was stated, according to
:
"
the literal sense of the words, that four Hayyot (beasts) carry the Throne of " " mercabah on account of its similarity with Glory, our Sages called this the mercabah consisting of four single animals. So far has the theme of this carried and we shall be us, chapter compelled to make many further
remarks on this subject. Here, however, it is our object, and the aim of all we have said, to show that " who rideth upon heaven " (Deut. xxxiii. 26) " means who sets the all-surrounding sphere in motion, and turns it by His power and will." The same sense is contained in the conclusion of that verse " and in his excellency the spheres," i.e., who in His excellency moves the In reference to the first sphere, the 'arabot, the verb spheres (shehaktm). " " " to ride is used, in reference to the rest, the noun excellency," because through the motion of the uppermost sphere in its daily circuit, all the
:
spheres move, participating as parts in the motion of the whole ; and this " excelbeing that great power that sets everything in motion, it is called
lency."
Let
this subject constantly

;
what
is
am
going to say
for
it
i.e.,
remain in your memory when you study the motion of the uppermost sphere
as I shall
the greatest proof for the existence of God,
demonstrate.
Note
this.
CHAPTER LXXI
many branches of science relating to the correct solution of these problems, were once cultivated by our forefathers, but were in the course of
that
KNOW
io8
time neglected, especially in consequence of the tyranny which barbarous nations exercised over us. Besides, speculative studies were not open to all men, as we have already stated (Introd. p. 2, and I. chap, xxxi.), only the Even the traditional subjects taught in the Scriptures were accessible to all. Law, as you are well aware, was not originally committed to writing, in con" formity with the rule to which our nation generally adhered, Things which I hav communicated to you orally, you must not communicate to others in writing." With reference to the Law, this rule was very opportune for while it remained in force it averted the evils which happened subsequently, viz., great diversity of opinion, doubts as to the meaning of written words, the people, formation of new sects, and slips of the pen, dissensions among confused notions about practical subjects. The traditional teaching was in fact, according to the words of the Law, entrusted to the Great Tribunal, as we have already stated in our works on the Talmud. (Introd. to Mishneh Torah and Introd. to Commen. on the Mishnah). Care having been taken, for the sake of obviating injurious influences, that the Oral Law should not be recorded in a form accessible to all, it was but " " natural that no portion of the secrets of the Law (i.e., metaphysical problems) would be permitted to be written down or divulged for the use of all men. These secrets, as has been explained, were orally communicated by a few able men to others who were equally distinguished. Hence the " The secrets of the Law can only be enprinciple applied by our teachers,
;
a councillor, a cunning artificer, etc." The natural was that our nation lost the knowledge of those important disciplines. Nothing but a few remarks and allusions are to be found in the Talmud and the Midrashim, like a few kernels enveloped in such a quantity of husk, that the reader is generally occupied with the husk, and
trusted to
him who
is
effect of this practice
forgets that
it
encloses a kernel.
In addition you will find that in the few works composed by the Geonim and the Karaites on the unity of God and on such matter as is connected with this doctrine, they followed the lead of the Mohammedan Mutakallemim, and what they wrote is insignificant in comparison with the kindred works of the Mohammedans. It also happened, that at the time when the Mohammedans adopted this method of the Kalam, there arose among them a certain sect, called Mu'tazilah, i.e., Separatists. In certain things our scholars followed the theory and the method of these Mu'tazilah. Although another sect, the Asha'ariyah, with their own peculiar views, was subsequently established amongst the Mohammedans, you will not find any of these views in the writings of our authors not because these authors preferred the opinions of the first-named sect to those of the latter, but because they chanced first to become acquainted with the theory of the Mu'tazilah, which they adopted and treated as demonstrated truth. On the other hand our Andalusia u icholars followed the teachings of the philosophers, from whom they accepted those opinions which were not opposed to our own religious principles. You will find that they did not adopt any of the methods of the Mutakallemim in many respects they approached the view expressed in the present treatise, as may be noticed in the few works which were recently written by authors of that school. You should also know that whatever the Moham; ;
medans, that
is,
the Mu'tazilah and the Asha'ariyah, said on those subjects,
THE RALAM
consists in
109
nothing but theories founded on propositions which are taken from the works of those Greek and Syrian scholars who attempted to oppose the system of the philosophers, and to refute their arguments. The following was the cause of that opposition At the time when the Christian Church brought the Greeks and Syrians into its fold, and promulgated its well-known dogmas, the opinions of the philosophers were current amongst those nations ; and whilst philosophy flourished, kings became defenders of the Christian faith. The learned Greek and Syrian Christians of the age, seeing that their dogmas were unquestionably exposed to severe attacks from the existing
:
philosophical systems, laid the foundation for this science of Dogmatics ; they commenced by putting forth such propositions as would support their
and be useful for the refutation of opinions opposed to the fundamental principles of the Christian religion. When the Mohammedans caused Arabic translations of the writings of the Philosophers to be made, those criticisms were likewise translated. When the opinions of John the Grammarian, of Ibn Adi, and of kindred authors on those subjects were made accessible to them, they adopted them, and imagined that they had arrived at the solution of important problems. Moreover, they selected from the opinions of the ancient philosophers whatdoctrines,
ever seemed serviceable to their purposes, although later critics had proved that those theories were false ; as, e.g., the theories of atoms and of a vacuum.
believed that the discussions of those authors were of a general charand contained propositions useful for the defence of positive religion. At a subsequent period the same theories were more fully developed, and presented an aspect unknown to those Theologians of the Greeks and other nations who were the immediate successors of the Philosophers. At a later
They
acter,
when the Mohammedans adopted certain peculiar theological theories were they naturally obliged to defend them ; and when their new theories, again became the subject of controversy among them, each party laid down
time,
such propositions as suited their special doctrine. Their arguments undoubtedly involved certain principles which concerned the three communities Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, such as the
creatio ex nihilo, which afforded support to the belief in miracles and to various other doctrines. There are, however, other subjects of belief which the Christians and Mohammedans have undertaken to defend, such as the
the doctrine of the Trinity in the theological works of the former, and Word " in :he works of some Mohammedan sects ; in order to prove the
"
dogmas which they thus desired to

to
certain
establish, they were compelled to resort not our object to criticize things which are peculiar to either creed, or books which were written exclusively in the interest of the one community or the other. We merely maintain that the earlier Theologians, both of the Greek Christians and of the Mohammedans, when they laid down their propositions, did not investigate the real profirst of all perties of things they considered what must be the properties of the things which should yield proof for or against a certain creed and when this was found they asserted that the thing must be endowed with those then they employed the same assertion as a proof for the idenproperties
hypotheses.
It
is
arguments which had led to the supported or refuted a certain opinion.

tical
assertion,
and by which they either This course was followed by able
no
men who originated this method, and adopted it in their writings. They professed to be free from preconceived opinions, and to have been led to < stated result by actual research. Therefore when philosophers of a subsequent date studied the same writings they did not perceive the true character of the arguments on the contrary, they found in the ancient works strong proofs and a valuable support for the acceptance or the rejection of certain opinions, and thus thought that, so far as religious principles were concerned, there was no necessity whatever to prove or refute any of their propositions, and that the first Mutakallemim had discussed those subjects with the sole object of defeating certain views of the philosophers, and demonstrating the Persons who hold this opinion, do not suspect insufficiency of their proofs.
,
for the first Mutakallemim tried to prove a ; was expedient to demonstrate its truth and to disrejection was desirable, and when it was contrary to the prove it, opinion which they wished to uphold, although the contradiction might only become obvious after the application of a hundred successive proposiIn this manner the earlier Mutakallemim effected a radical cure of tions. the malady I tell you, however, as a general rule, that Themistius was right in saying that the properties of things cannot adapt themselves to our opinions, but our opinions must be adapted to the existing properties. Having studied the works of these Mutakallemim, as far as I had an opportunity, just as I had studied the writings of the philosophers according to the best of my ability, I found that the method of all Mutakallemim was the same in its general characteristics, namely, they assume that the really existing form of things proves nothing at all, because it is merely one of the various phases of the things, the opposite of which is equally admissible to our minds. In many instances these Theologians were guided by their imagination, and thought that they were following the dictates of the intellect. They set forth the propositions which I shall describe to you, and demonstrated by their peculiar mode of arguing that the Universe had a beginning. The theory of the creatio ex nihilo being thus established, they asserted, as a logical consequence, that undoubtedly there must be a Maker who created the Universe. Next they showed that this Maker is One, and from the Unity of the Creator they deduced His Incorporeality. This method was adopted by every Mohammedan Mutakallem in the discussion of this subject, and by those of our co-religionists who imitated them and walked in their Although the Mutakallemim disagree in the methods of their footsteps proofs, and employ different propositions in demonstrating the act of ere ation or in rejecting the eternity of the Universe, they invariably begin with proving the creatio ex nihilo, and establish on that proof the existence ol God. I have examined this method, and find it most objectionable. It must be rejected, because all the proofs for the creation have weak points, and cannot be considered as convincing except by those who do not know the difference between a proof, a dialectical argument, and a sophism. Those who understand the force of the different methods will clearly see
how much
they are mistaken

it
proposition
when when its
all the proofs for the creation are questionable, because proposition^ have been employed which have never been proved. I think that the utmost that can be effected by believers in the truth of Revelation is to expose the shortcomings in the proofs of philosophers who hold that the Universe is
that
THE KALAM
eternal,
in
deed
and For
if
forsooth a
well
man
to
it is
known
has effected this, he has accomplished a great all clear and correct thinkers who do not wish
to deceive themselves, that this question, namely,

eternal, cannot be here human intellect must pause. on this subject, but for the present it
is
been created or
whether the Universe has answered with mathematical certainty We shall have occasion to speak more fully
;
may suffice to state that the philosophers three thousand years been continually divided on that subject, as far as we can learn from their works and the record of their opinions. Such being the nature of this theory, how can we employ it as an axiom
have for the
last
it the existence of the Creator ? In that case the existence be uncertain if the universe had a beginning, God does exist ; if it be eternal, God does not exist ; the existence of God would therefore remain either an open question, or we should have to declare that the creation had been proved, and compel others by mere force to accept this doctrine, in order thus to be enabled to declare that we have proved the
and
establish
on
of
God would
The true method, is utterly inadmissible. and indubitable proof, consists, according to my opinion, in demonstrating the existence of God, His unity, and His incor poreality by such philosophical arguments as are founded on the theory of the eternity of the Universe. I do not propose this method as though I believed in the eternity of the Universe, for I do not follow the philosophers on this point, but because by the aid of this method these three principles, viz., the existence of God, His unity and His incorporeality can be fully proved and verified, irrespectively of the question whether the universe has had a beginning or not. After firmly establishing these three principles by an exact proof, we shall treat of the problem of creation and discuss it as fully as possible. You are at liberty to content yourself with the declaration of the Mutakallemim, and to believe that the act of creation has been demonstrated by proof nor can there be any harm if you consider it unproven that the universe had a beginning, and accept this theory as supported by the authority of the Prophets. Before you learn our opinion on prophecy, which will be given in the present work, do not ask, how could the belief in prophecy be justified, if it were assumed that the universe was eternal, We will not now expatiate on that subject. You should, however, know that some of the propositions, started and proved by the Radicals, i.e., the Mutakallemim, in order to prove the act of creation, imply an order of things contrary to that which really exists, and involve a complete change in the laws of this fact will be nature pointed out to you, for it will be necessary to mention their propositions and their argumentation. My method, as far as I
existence of
God.
Such
a process
which
is
based on
a logical
now can
explain
it in
general terms,
is
as follows.
The
universe
is
either
had a beginning ; if it had a beginning, there must necessarily exist a being which caused the beginning ; this is clear to common sense for a thing that has had a beginning, cannot be the cause of its own beginning, another must have caused it. The universe was, therefore, created by God. If on the other hand the universe were eternal, it could in various ways be proved that apart from the things which constitute the universe, there exists a being which is neither body nor a force in a body, and which is one, eternal, not preceded by any cause, and immutable. That being is God. You see that the proofs for the Existence, the Unity and the Incorporeality of God
eternal or has
;
H2
can

we
to the propositions admitted by us. Only in this way succeed in obtaining a perfect proof, whether we assume the eternity For this reason you will find in my works or the creation of the universe. on the Talmud, whenever I have to speak of the fundamental principles of our religion, or to prove the existence of God, that I employ arguments which imply the eternity of the universe. I do not believe in that eternity, but I
proof,
must vary according
wish to establish the principle of the exigence of God by an indisputable and should not like to see this most important principle founded on a basis which every one could shake or attempt to demolish, and which others
as not being established at all ; especially when I see that the the philosophers are based on those visible properties of things, which can only be ignored by persons possessing certain preconceived notions, while the Mutakallemim establish their arguments on propositions which are to such an extent contrary to the actual state of things as to compel these
might consider
proofs of
When I arguers to deny altogether the existence of the laws of nature. have to treat of the creation, I shall in a special chapter prove my opinion to some extent, and shall attain the same end which every one of the
shall
in view, yet I shall not contradict the laws of nature, or such reject any part of the Aristotelean theory as has been proved to be Even the most cogent of the proofs offered by the Mutakallemim correct. respecting the act of creation, has only been obtained by reversing the whole order of things and by rejecting everything fully demonstrated by the philoI, however, shall be able to give a similar proof without ignoring sophers. the laws of nature and without being forced to contradict facts which have
Mutakallemim had
been clearly perceived. I find it necessary to mention to you the general propositions of the Mutakallemim, by which they prove the act of creation, I intend to explain the Existence of God, His Unity and His Incorporeality. their method, and also to point out the inferences which are to be drawn from each proposition. After this, I shall describe those theories of the philosophers which are closely connected with our subject, and I shall then explain their method. Do not ask me to prove in this work the propositions of the philosophers, which I shall briefly mention to you ; they form the principal part of Physics and Metaphysics. Nor must you expect that I should repeat the arguments of the Mutakallemim in support of their propositions, with which they wasted their time, with which the time of future generations will likewise be wasted, and on which numerous books have been written. Their proof positions, with few exceptions, are contradicted by the visible properties were with numerous For this reason and beset objections. they things, obliged to write many books and controversial works in defence of their theories, for the refutation of objections, and for the reconciliation of all apparent contradictions, although in reality this object cannot be attained
by any sophistical contrivance. As to the propositions of the philosophers which I shall briefly explain, and which are indispensable for the demonthe Existence, the Unity, and the Incorstration of the three principles
God, they will for the greater part be admitted by you as soon whilst in the dishear them and understand their meaning you cussion of other parts reference must be made for their proofs to works on Physics and Metaphysics, and if you direct your attention to such passages
poreality of
as
shall
THE KALAM
as will
113
be pointed out to you, you
will find everything verified that requires
verification.
I have already told you that nothing exists except God and this universe, and that there is no other evidence for His Existence but this universe in its entirety and in its several parts. Consequently the universe must be examined as it is ; the propositions must be derived from those properties of the universe which are clearly perceived, and hence you must know its Then only will you find in the universe evivisible form and its nature. dence for the existence of a being not included therein. I have considered
it,
therefore, necessary to discuss first in a merely colloquial
manner, in the
next chapter, the totality of existing things, and to confine our remarks to such as have been fully proved and established beyond all doubt. In sub-
sequent chapters I shall treat of the propositions of the Mutakallemim, and the method by which they explain the four fundamental prinIn the chapters which will follow, I propose to expound the prociples. positions of the philosophers and the methods applied by them in verifying
describe
by
those principles. In the last place, I shall explain to you the method applied me in proving those four principles, as I have stated to you.
CHAPTER LXXII
KNOW
that this Universe, in
its
entirety,
is
nothing
else
but one individual
being ; that is to say, the outermost heavenly sphere, together with all included therein, is as regards individuality beyond all question a single being like Said and Omar. The variety of its substances I mean the substances
of that Sphere
and
all its
component
:
stances of a
human
being
parts just as, e.g., Said
is is
like
the variety of the sub-
various solid substances, such as flesh, and of various spiritual elements ; in like
is
one individual, consisting of bones, sinews, of various humours,

;
manner this sphere in its totality composed of the celestial orbs, the four elements and their combinations there is no vacuum whatever therein, but the whole space is filled up with
matter.
air
Its centre is occupied by the earth, earth is surrounded by water, encompasses the water, fire envelopes the air, and this again is enveloped
fifth
substance (quintessence). These substances form numerous one being enclosed within another so that no intermediate empty One sphere surrounds and closely joins the other. space, no vacuum, is left. All the spheres revolve with constant uniformity, without acceleration or retardation ; that is to say, each sphere retains its individual nature as regards its velocity and the peculiarity of its motion ; it does not move at one time quicker, at another slower. Compared with each other, however, some of the spheres move with less, others with greater velocity. The outerit commost, all-encompassing sphere, revolves with the greatest speed pletes its revolution in one day, and causes everything to participate in its motion, just as every particle of a thing moves when the entire body is in motion for existing beings stand in the same relation to that sphere as a These spheres have not a common part of a thing stands to the whole. centre the centres of some of them are identical with the centre of the Some of the spheres Universe, while those of the rest are different from it.
by the
spheres,
H4
have a motion independent of that of the whole Universe, constantly revolving from East to West, while other spheres move from West to East. The stars contained in those spheres are part of their respective orbits ; they are fixed in them, and have no motion of their own, but participating in the
motion of the sphere of which they are a part, they appear themselves to move. The entire substance of this revolving fifth element is unlike the substance of those bodies which consist of the other four elements, and arc
enclosed by the fifth element. The number of these spheres encompassing the Universe cannot possibly be less than eighteen ; it may even be larger ; but this is a matter for further
It also remains an open question whether there are spheres which, without moving round the centre of the Universe, have nevertheless a circular motion. Within that sphere which is nearest to us, a substance is contained which is different from the substance of the fifth element ; it first
investigation.
received four primary forms, and then became in these four forms, four Each of the four elements occupies earth, water, air, fire. a certain position of its own assigned to it by nature ; it is not found in
kinds of matter
:
another place, so long as no other but

is
its
own
natural force acts
upon
it
it
dead body ; it has no life, no perception, no spontaneous motion, and remains at rest in its natural place. When moved from its place by some external force, it returns towards its natural place as soon as that force ceases to operate. For the elements have the property of moving back to their place in a straight line, but they have no properties which would cause them The to remain where they are, or to move otherwise than in a straight line. rectilinear motions of these four elements when returning to their original place are of two kinds, either centrifugal, viz., the motion of the air and the fire ; or centripetal, viz., the motion of the earth, and the water ; and when the elements have reached their original place, they remain at rest. The spherical bodies, on the other hand, have life, possess a soul by which they move spontaneously they have no properties by which they could at any time come to a state of rest ; in their perpetual rotations they are not subject to any change, except that of position. The question whether they are endowed with an intellect, enabling them to comprehend, cannot be solved without deep research. Through the constant revolution of the fifth element, with all contained therein, the four elements are forced to move and to change their respective positions, so that fire and air are driven into the water, and again these three elements enter the depth of the earth. Thus are the elements mixed together ; and when they return to their
a
;
respective places, parts of the earth, in quitting their places,
move together
with the water, the air and the fire. In this whole process the elements act and react upon each other. The elements intermixed, are then combined, and form at first various kinds of vapours ; afterwards the several kinds of minerals, every species of plants, and many species of living beings, according to the relative proportion of the constituent parts. All transient beings have their origin in the elements, into which again they resolve when their existence comes to an end. The elements themselves are subject to being
transformed from one into another ; for although one substance is common to all, substance without form is in reality impossible, just as the physical form of these transient beings cannot exist without substance. The forma-
PARALLEL BETWEEN THE UNIVERSE AND

tion
MAN
115
and the dissolution of the elements, together with the things composed of them, and resolving into them, follow each other in rotation. The changes of the finite substance, in successively receiving one form after the
may therefore be compared to the revolution of the sphere in space, when each part of the sphere periodically reappears in the same position. As the human body consists both of principal organs and of other members which depend on them and cannot exist without the control of those organs,
other,
so does the universe consist both of principal parts, viz., the quintessence, which encompasses the four elements and of other parts which are subor-
dinated and require a leader,

of them.
viz.,
the four elements and the things composed
Again, the principal part in the human body, namely, the heart, is in constant motion, and is the source of every motion noticed in the body ; it rules over the other members, and communicates to them through its own
The outermost sphere pulsations the force required for their functions. by its motion rules in a similar way over all other parts of the universe, and supplies all things with their special properties. Every motion in the unianimated being derives
and the soul of every same sphere. The forces which communicated by the spheres to this sublunary world are four in number, viz., (a) the force which effects the mixture and the composition of the elements, and which undoubtedly suffices to form the minerals ; (&) the force which supplies every growing thing with its vegetative functions ; (c) the force which gives to each living being its vitality, and (d) the force which endows rational beings with intellect. All this is effected through the action of light and darkness, which are regulated by the position and the motion of the spheres round the
verse has thus
its
origin in the
its
motion of that sphere
origin from the soul of that according to this explanation are
earth.
When for one instant the beating of the heart is interrupted, man dies, and all his motions and powers come to an end. In a like manner would the whole universe perish, and everything therein cease to exist if the spheres were to come to a standstill. The living being as such is one through the action of its heart, although some parts of the body are devoid of motion and sensation, as, e.g., the bones, the cartilage, and similar parts. The same is the case with the entire universe although it includes many beings without motion and without lift, it is a single being living through the motion of the sphere, which may be compared to the heart of an animated being. You must therefore consider the entire globe as one individual being which is endowed with life, motion, and a soul. This mode of considering the universe is, as will be explained,
;
indispensable, that
God
it
of is to say, it is very useful for demonstrating the unity also helps to elucidate the principle that who is One has created
He
only one being.
Again,
exist
it is impossible that any of the members of a human body should by themselves, not connected with the body, and at the same time
should actually be organic parts of that body, that is to say, that the liver should exist by itself, the heart by itself, or the flesh by itself. In like
manner, it is impossible that one part of the Universe should exist independently of the other parts in the existing order of things as here considered,
n6
viz.,

that the
fire
should exist without the co-existence of the earth, 01 the
'
earth without the heaven, or the heaven without the earth. In man there is a certain force which unites the members of the body, controls them, and gives to each of them what it requires for the conservation of
its
tinctly call it the leading force in the
" nature." The Universe likewise possesses a force which unites they call it the several parts with each other, protects the species from destruction, maintains the individuals of each species as long as possible, and endows some
condition, and for the repulsion of injury the physicians disbody of the living being ; sometimes
Whether this force operates individual beings with permanent existence. through the medium of the sphere or otherwise remains an open question. Again, in the body of each individual there are parts which are intended
for a certain purpose, as the organs of nutrition for the preservation of the individual, the organs of generation for the preservation of the species, the
hands and eyes for administering to certain wants, as to food, etc. ; there are also parts which, in themselves, are not intended for any purpose, but
are
mere
accessories
and adjuncts to the constitution of the other
parts.
The
peculiar constitution of the organs, indispensable for the conservation of their particular forms and for the performance of their primary functions, produces, whilst it serves its special purpose, according to the nature of the
substance, other things, such as the hair and the complexion of the body. Being mere accessories, they are not formed according to a fixed rule ; some
This
are altogether absent in many individuals ; and vary considerably in others. You never find that the is not the case with the organs of the body. liver of one person is ten times larger than that of another person, but you
may find a person without a beard, or without hair on certain parts of his body, or with a beard ten times longer than that of another man. Instances of this phenomenon, viz., great variation as regards hair and colour, are not
rare.
The same
differences
occur in the constitution of the Universe
species exist as an integral part of the whole system ; these are constant and follow a fixed law ; though they vary as far as their nature permits, Other species do not this variation is insignificant in quantity and quality.
Some
serve any purpose ; they are the mere result of the general nature of transient things, as, e.g., the various insects which are generated in dunghills,
the animals generated in rotten fruit, or in fetid liquids, and worms generated in the intestines, etc. In short, everything devoid of the power of generation belongs to this class. You will, therefore, find that these things
do not follow
as the
a fixed law, although their entire absence is just as impossjble absence of different complexions and of different kinds of hair amongst
human beings. In man there
are substances the individual existence of
which
is
perma-
nent, and there are other substances which are only constant in the species not in the individuals, as, e.g., the four humours. The same is the case in
the Universe
as
the fifth element, which is constant in stances which are constant in the species,
that
there are substances which are constant in individuals, such all its formations, and other subas, e.g.,
the four elements and
all
composed of them. The same forces which operate

is
of the
human
in the birth and the temporal existence being operate also in his destruction and death. This truth
MAN 117
holds good with regard to this whole transient world. The causes of production are at the same time the causes of destruction. This may be illusIf the four forces which are present in trated by the following example.
every being sustained by food, viz., attraction, retention, digestion, and secretion, were, like intelligent forces, able to confine themselves to what is necessary, and to act at the proper time and within the proper limits, man
would be exempt from those great sufferings and the numerous diseases [to which he is exposed]. Since, however, such is not the case, and since the forces perform their natural functions without thought and intelligence, without any consciousness of their action, they necessarily cause dangerous maladies and great pains, although they are the direct cause of the birth and
follows
the temporal existence of the human being. This fact is to be explained as if the attractive force would absorb nothing but that which is
:
absolutely beneficial, and nothing but the quantity
would be
case
;
free
from many such
the attractive
which is required, man But such is not the force absorbs any humour that comes within the range
sufferings
and
disorders.
humour be ill-adapted in quality or in quantity. therefore, natural that sometimes a humour is absorbed which is too warm, too cold, too thick, or too thin, or that too much humour is absorbed, and thus the veins are choked, obstruction and decay ensue, the quality of
of
It
its
is,
action, although such
the
humour
is
deteriorated,
its
quantities altered, diseases are originated,
such
as scurvy, leprosy, abscess, or a phantiasis, gangrene, and at last the

is
same
dangerous illness, such as cancer, eleorgan or organs are destroyed. The the case with every one of the four forces, and with all existing beings.
The same
force that originates all things, and causes them to exist for a certain time, namely, the combination of the elements which are moved and penetrated by the forces of the heavenly spheres, that same cause becomes
throughout the world

snow-storms,
laid waste,
hail, hurricanes,
a source of calamities, such as devastating rain, showers, thunder, lightning, malaria, or other terrible
catastrophes by which a place or
many places or an entire country may be such as landslips, earthquakes, meteoric showers and floods issuing forth from the seas and from the interior of the earth. Bear in mind, however, that in all that we have noticed about the similarity between the Universe and the human being, nothing would warrant us to
assert that
man
is
applies to the Universe
microcosm and any

;
for although the comparison in all its parts living being in its normal state, we never
heard that any ancient author called the ass or the horse a microcosm. This attribute has been given to man alone on account of his peculiar faculty of thinking, I mean the intellect, viz., the hylic intellect which appertains to no other living being. This may be explained as follows. An animal does not require for its sustenance any plan, thought or scheme ; each animal
moves and acts by its nature, eats as much as it can find of suitable things, it makes its resting-place wherever it happens to be, cohabits with any mate
meets while in heat in the periods of its sexual excitement. In this manner does each individual conserve itself for a certain time, and perpetuates the existence of its species without requiring for its maintenance the assistance or
it
support of any of its fellow creatures ; for all the things to which it has to attend it performs by itself. With man it is different ; if an individual had a solitary existence, and were, like an animal, left without guidance, he
n8
would soon perish, he would not endure even one day, unless it were by mere chance, unless he happened to find something upon which he might feed. For the food which man requires for his subsistence demands much work and
preparation, which can only be accomplished by reflection and by plan ; many vessels must be used, and many individuals, each in his peculiar work, must be employed. It is therefore necessary that one person should organize
the work and direct
men
in such a
manner that they should properly co-
operate, and that they should assist each other. in summer and from cold in winter, and shelter
The
from
protection from heat

rain,
snow, and wind,
require in the same
manner the preparation
of
many
things,
none of which
can properly be done without design and thought. For this reason man has been endowed with intellectual faculties, which enable him to think, consider,
and act, and by various labours to prepare and procure for himself food, dwelling and clothing, and to control every organ of his body, causing both the principal and the secondary organs to perform their respective functions.
Consequently,
if
man, being deprived of
his intellectual faculties,
only
possessed vitality, he would in a short time be lost. The intellect is the highest of all faculties of living creatures ; it is very difficult to comprehend,
and
its
true character cannot
be understood
as
easily
as
man's other
faculties.
There also exists in the Universe a certain force which controls the whole, which sets in motion the chief and principal parts, and gives them the motive power for governing the rest. Without that force, the existence of this It is sphere, with its principal and secondary parts, would be impossible.
the source of the existence of the Universe in all its parts. That force is It is on account of this force that man is called God ; blessed be His name
!
for he likewise possesses a certain principle which governs all " the the forces of the body, and on account of this comparison God is called
microcosm
life
of the Universe
xii. 7).
"
"
comp.
and he swore by the
life
of the Universe
"
(Dan.
You must understand
that in the parallel which
we have drawn between
the whole universe, on the one hand, and the individual man, on the other, there is a complete harmony in all the points which we mentioned above ; only in the following three points a discrepancy may be noticed.
organ of any living being which has a heart, derives a from the organs under the control of the heart, and the benefits of the organs thus become the benefits of the heart. This is not the case in the constitution of the universe. That part which bestows authority or distributes power, does not receive in return any benefit from the things under its control whatever it grants, is granted in the manner of a generous benefector, not from any selfish motive, but from a natural generosity and
First, the principal
benefit
kindliness
only for the sake of imitating the ways of the Most High. Secondly, living creatures endowed with a heart have it within the body and in the midst thereof ; there it is surrounded by organs which it governs.
;
Thus
it derives a benefit from them, for they guard and protect it, and they do not allow that any injury from without should approach it. The reverse
occurs in the case of the Universe.

ferior parts, it
other being
The superior part encompasses the inbeing certain that it cannot be affected by the action of any and even if it could be affected, there is nobody without it

that could affect
it.
MAN
it is
119
not
While
it
influences
all
that
is
contained within,
influenced by any act or force of any material being. There is, however, some similarity [between the universe and man] in this point. In the body of animals, the organs more distant from the principal organ are of less im-
How God rules the universe and universe, but is separate from all its parts. man is unable to solve it. For, on provides for it is a complete mystery the one hand, it can be proved that God is separate from the universe, and
;
portance than those nearer to it. Also in the universe, the nearer the parts are to the centre, the greater is their turbidness, their solidity, their inertness, their dimness and darkness, because they are further away from the loftiest element, from the source of light and brightness, which moves by itself and the substance of which is the most rarefied and simplest : from the outermost sphere. At the same ratio at which a body is nearer this sphere, it derives properties from it, and rises above the spheres below it. Thirdly. The faculty of thinking is a force inherent in the body, and is not separated from it, but God is not a force inherent in the body of the
no contact whatever with it but, on the other hand, His rule and providence can be proved to exist in all parts of the universe, even in the smallest. Praised be He whose perfection is above our comprehension. It is true, we might have compared the relation between God and the universe, to the relation between the absolute acquired intellect and man ; it is not a power inherent in the body, but a power which is absolutely separate from the body, and is from without brought into contact with the body. The rational faculty of man may be further compared to the intelliin
;
gence of the spheres, which are, as it were, material bodies. But the intelligence of the spheres, purely spiritual beings, as well as man's absolute and the proof of acquired intellect, are subjects of deep study and research their existence, though correct, is abstruse, and includes arguments which present doubts, are exposed to criticism, and can be easily attacked by
;
objectors. to the universe

in
We
by
have, therefore, preferred to illustrate the relation of God a simile which is clear, and which will not be contradicted
any of the points which have been laid down by us without any qualifiThe opposition can only emanate either from an ignorant man, who contradicts truths even if they are perfectly obvious, just as a person unacquainted with geometry rejects elementary propositions which have been clearly demonstrated, or from the prejudiced man who deceives himself. Those, however, who wish to study the subject must persevere in their studies until they are convinced that all our observations are true, and until they understand that our account of this universe unquestionably agrees with the existing order of things. If a man is willing to accept this theory from one who understands how to prove things which can be proved, let him If, on the accept it, and let him establish on it his arguments and proofs. other hand, he refuses to accept without prdof even the foregoing principles, let him inquire for himself, and ultimately he will find that they are correct. " Lo this, we have searched it, so it is ; hear it, and know thou it for thy " good (Job v. 27). After these preliminary remarks, we will treat of the subject which we promised to introduce and to explain.
cation.
120

CHAPTER LXXIII
THERE
are twelve propositions common to all Mutakallemim, however different their individual opinions and methods may be ; the Mutakallemim I shall require them in order to establish their views on the four principles.
first enumerate these propositions, and then discuss each separately, together with the inferences which may be drawn from it. PROPOSITION I. All things are composed of atoms. PROPOSITION II. There is a vacuum. PROPOSITION III. Time is composed of time-atoms. PROPOSITION IV. Substance cannot exist without numerous accidents. PROPOSITION V. Each atom is completely furnished with the accidents (which I will describe), and cannot exist without them. PROPOSITION VI. Accidents do not continue in existence during two time-
atoms.
PROPOSITION VII. Both positive and negative properties have a real existand are accidents which owe their existence to some causa efficient. PROPOSITION VIII. All existing things, i.e., all creatures, consist of substance and of accidents, and the physical form of a thing is likewise an accience,
dent.
PROPOSITION IX.
dent.
No accident
The
can form the substratum for another acci-
test for the possibility of an imagined object does not with the existing laws of nature. PROPOSITION XL The idea of the infinite is equally inadmissible, whether the infinite be actual, potential, or accidental, i.e., there is no difference whether the infinite be formed by a number of co-existing things, or by a series of things, of which one part comes into existence when another has ceased to exist, in which case it is called accidental infinite ; in both cases the
PROPOSITION X.
consist in its conformity
infinite
is rejected by the Mutakallemim as fallacious. PROPOSITION XII. The senses mislead, and are in many cases inefficient their perceptions, therefore, cannot form the basis of any law, or yield data
for
any proof.
FIRST PROPOSITION.
"The
very
Universe, that is, everything small parts [atoms] which are

;
contained in
indivisible
;
smallness
such
the
an atom has
combine,
sum
has
magnitude,
no magnitude and thus
it, is composed of on account of their but when several atoms
forms a
body."
If,
therefore,, two atoms were joined together, each atom would become a body, and they would thus form two bodies, a theory which in fact All these atoms are perfectly has been proposed by some Mutakellemim.
alike
;
they do not differ from each other in any point.

it is
The
is
mim
further assert, that
impossible to find a body that
Mutakallenot composed
of such equal atoms

genesis J.nd
sition.
sis
These implies composition and decomposition, motion and rest. atoms, they believe, are not, as was supposed by Epicurus and other Atomists
"
which are placed side by side. According to this view destruction is the same as decompocomposition are identical " " They do not use the term destruction," for they hold that gene;
THE KALAM
numerically constant
their annihilation
is
;
121
it
but are created anew whenever
therefore not impossible. their opinion concerning the vacuum.
Now
pleases the Creator ; will explain to you
SECOND PROPOSITION.
On
the vacuum.
i.e.,
The
original
Mutakallemim
also believe that there
is
one space, or several spaces which contain nothing, which are not occupied by anything whatsoever, and which are devoid of all substance. This proposition is to them an indispensable sequel to the first. For, if the Universe were full of such atoms, how could any of them move ? For it is impossible to conceive that one atom should move into another. And yet the composition, as well as the decomposition of things, can only be effected Thus the Mutakallemim are compelled to assume by the motion.of atoms a vacuum, in order that the atoms may combine, separate, and move in that vacuum which does not contain any thing or any atom.
vacuum,
THIRD PROPOSITION.
many parts, which on account This proposition also is a logical consequence of the first. The Mutakallemim undoubtedly saw how Aristotle proved that time, space, and locomotion are of the same nature, that is to say, they can be divided into parts which stand in the same proportion to each other if one of them is divided, the other is divided in the same proThey, therefore, knew that if time were continuous and divisible portion. ad infinitum, their assumed atom of space would of necessity likewise be divisible. Similarly, if it were supposed that space is continuous, it would necessarily follow, that the time-element, which they considered to be inThis has been shown by Aristotle in the divisible, could also be divided. Hence they concluded that space was not continutreatise called Acroasis. ous, but was composed of elements that could not be divided ; and that time could likewise be reduced to time-elements, which were indivisible. An hour is, e.g., divided into sixty minutes, the minute into sixty seconds, the second into sixty parts, and so on ; at last after ten or more successive divisions by sixty, time-elements are obtained, which are not subjected to diviTime would sion, and in fact are indivisible, just as is the case with space. thus be an object of position and order. The Mutakallemim did not at all understand the nature of time. This is a matter of course ; for if the greatest philosophers became embarrassed when they investigated the nature of time, if some of them were altogether unable to comprehend what time really was, and if even Galenus declared time to be something divine and incomprehensible, what can be expected of those who do not regard the nature of things ? Now, mark what conclusions were drawn from these three propositions, and were accepted by the Mutakallemim as true. They held that locomotion consisted in the translation of each atom of a body from one point to the next one ; accordingly the velocity of one body in motion cannot be greater than that of another body. When, nevertheless, two bodies are observed to move during the same time through different spaces, the cause of this difference is not attributed bv them to the fact that the body which has moved through
is
"
Time
composed
of time-atoms,"
i.e.,
of
of their short duration cannot be divided.
122
a larger distance had a greater velocity, but to the circumstance that motion which in ordinary language is called slow, has been interrupted by more moments of rest, while the motion which ordinarily is called quick has been
interrupted by fewer
of an arrow,
moments
of rest.
When
it is
shown that the motion
shot from a powerful bow, is in contradiction to their theory, they declare that in this case too the motion is interrupted by moments of rest. They believe that it is the fault of man's senses if he believes
which
is
that the arrow moves continuously, for there are many things which cannot be perceived by the senses, as they assert in the twelfth proposition. But we ask them " Have you observed a complete revolution of a millstone ?
:
extreme circumference of the stone describes a large circle in the very same time in which a point nearer the centre describes a small circle ; the velocity of the outer circle is therefore greater than that of the inner circle. You cannot say that the motion of the latter was interrupted
in the
Each point
whole moving body, i.e., the millstone, is " During the circular motion, the parts of the millstone separate from each other, and the moments of rest interrupting the motion of the portions nearer the centre are more than those which " How is it that interrupt the motion of the outer portions." We ask again, the millstone, which we perceive as one body, and which cannot be easily broken, even with a hammer, resolves into its atoms when it moves, and becomes again one coherent body, returning to its previous state as soon as it comes to rest, while no one is able to notice the breaking up [of the stone] ? " Again their reply is based on the twelfth proposition, which is to the effect that the perception of the senses cannot be trusted, and thus only the evidence of the intellect is admissible. Do not imagine that you have seen in the foregoing example the most absurd of the inferences which may be drawn the proposition relating to the existence of from these three propositions a vacuum leads to more preposterous and extravagant conclusions. Nor must you suppose that the aforegoing theory concerning motion is less irrational than the proposition resulting from this theory, that the diagonal of a square is equal to one of its sides, and some of the Mutakallemim go so
rest
;
by more moments of one coherent body."
for the
They
reply,
the square is not a thing of real existence. In short, the adoption of the first proposition would be tantamount to the rejection of all that has been proved in Geometry. The propositions in Geometry some would be absolutely would, in this respect, be divided into two classes
far as to declare that
:
those which relate to properties of the incommensurability and the commensurability of lines and planes, to rational and irrational lines,
rejected
all
;
e.g.,
and
e.g.,
similar works.
other propositions contained in the tenth book of Euclid, and in Other propositions would appear to be only partially correct ; the solution of the problem to divide a line into two equal parts, if the
an odd number of atoms ; according to the theory of the Mutakallemim such a line cannot be bisected. Furthermore, in the wellknown book of problems by the sons of Shakir are contained more than a hundred problems, all solved and practically demonstrated but if there really were a vacuum, not one of these problems could be solved, and many
line consists of
;
The
of the waterworks [described in that book] could not have been constructed. refutation of such propositions is a mere waste of time. I will now pro-
ceed to treat of the other propositions mentioned above.
THE KALAM
FOURTH PROPOSITION.
**
123
accidents of things have real existence ; they are elements superadded to the substance itself, and no material thing can be without them."
this proposition been left by the MutakaUemim in this form it would have been correct, simple, clear, and indisputable. They have, however, gone further, asserting that a substance which has not the attribute of life, must necessarily have that of death ; for it must always have one of two con-
The
Had
According to their opinion, colour, taste, motion or combination or separation, etc., can be predicated of all substances, and, if a substance have the attribute of life, it must at the same time possess such other kinds of accidents, as wisdom or folly, freewill or the reverse,
trasting properties.
rest,
power or weakness, perception or any of its opposites, and, in short, the substance must have the one or the other of all correlative accidents appertaining to a living being.
FIFTH PROPOSITION.
provided with all these foregoing accidents, and cannot exist if any be wanting." The meaning of the proposition is this : The Mutakallemim say that each of the atoms created by God must have acciis
"
The atom
fully
dents, such as colour, smell, motion, or rest, except the accident of quantity : for according to their opinion an atom has no magnitude ; and they do not
it the laws of acciIn accordance with this proposition, they do not say, when an accident is noticed in a body, that it is peculiar to the body as such, but that it exists in each of the atoms which form the constituent elements of that body. the whiteness does not exist in that heap E.g., take a heap of snow ; as a whole, but each atom of the snow is white, and therefore the aggregate
designate quantity as an accident, nor do they apply to
dents.
each atom of
likewise white. Similarly they say that when a body moves moves, and thus the whole body is in motion. Life likewise The same is exists, according to their view, in each atom of a living body. the case according to their opinion with the senses ; in each atom of the
of these atoms
is
it
aggregate they notice the faculty of perception. Life, sensation, intellect and wisdom are considered by them as accidents, like blackness and whiteness, as will be shown in the further discussion of their theory.
The view most predominant soul, they do not agree. the following The soul is an accident existing in one of the atoms of which, e.g., man is composed ; the aggregate is called a being endowed with a soul, in so far as it includes that atom. Others are of opinion
Concerning the
is
among them
is composed of ethereal atoms, which have a peculiar faculty by virtue of which they constitute the soul, and that these atoms are mixed with the atoms of the body. Consequently they maintain that the soul is an accident. As to the intellect, I found that all of them agreed in considering it to be an accident joined to one of the atoms which constitute the whole of the But there is a confusion among them about knowledge intelligent being. they are uncertain whether it is an accident to each of the atoms which form the knowing aggregate, or whether it belongs only to one atom. Both views can be disproved by a reductio ad absurdum, when the following facts are pointed out to them. Generally metals and stones have a peculiar colour
that the soul
124
which
Vitriol,
is

strongly pronounced, but disappears
is
when they
are pulverised.
;
which
intensely green,
becomes white dust when pounded

:
this
shows that that accident exists only in the aggregate, not in the atoms. when parts of a living This fact is more striking in the following instance being are cut off they cease to live, a proof that the accident [of life] belongs In order to meet to the aggregate of the living being, not to each atom. this objection they say that the accident is of no duration, but is constantly renewed. In discussing the next proposition I shall explain their view on
this subject.
SIXTH PROPOSITION.
"
The
accidents
is
do not
:
exist
during two time-atoms."
The
sense of the
proposition
this
They
believe that
God
taneously its accidents ; that the Creator is devoid of an accident, for that is impossible ; that the essential characteristic of an accident is its incapability of enduring for two periods, for two timeatoms ; that immediately after its creation it is utterly destroyed, and another accident of the same kind is created ; this again is destroyed and a third
accident of the same kind is created, and so on, so long as God is pleased ta preserve [in that substance] this kind of accident ; but He can at His will create in the same substance an accident of a different kind, and if He were
creates a substance, and simulincapable of creating a substance
and not produce a new accident, that substance This is one of the opinions held by the Mutakallemim it has been accepted by most of them, and it is the so-called " theory of the creation of the accidents." Some of them, however, and they belong to the sect of the Mu'tazilah, say that there are accidents which endure for a certain period, and other accidents which do not endure for two atoms of time they do not follow a fixed principle in deciding what class The object of of accidents has and what class has not a certain duration. this proposition is to oppose the theory that there exists a natural force from which each body derives its peculiar properties. They prefer to assume that God himself creates these properties without the intervention of a a theory which implies that no accident natural force or of any other agency can have any duration. For suppose that certain accidents could endure for a certain period and then cease to exist, the question would naturally be asked, What is the cause of that non-existence ? They would not be satisfied with the reply that God by His will brought about this non-existence, and non-existence does not at all require any agens whatever ; for as soon as the This agens leaves off acting, the product of the agens ceases likewise to exist. is true to some extent. Having thus chosen to establish the theory that there does not exist any natural force upon which the existence or non-existence of a thing depends, they were compelled to assume that the properties When God desires to deprive a thing of things were successively renewed. of its existence, He, according to some of the Mutakallemim, discontinues the creation of its accidents, and eo ipso the body ceases to exist. Others, however, say that if it pleased the Almighty to destroy the world, He would create the accident of destruction, which would be without any substratum. The destruction of the Universe would be the correlative accident to that of In accordance with this [sixth] proposition they say, that the existence.
to discontinue the creation
would
at once cease to exist.

;
THE KALAM
cloth
all,
125
which according to our belief we dyed red, has not been dyed by us at but God created that colour in the cloth when it came into contact with the red pigment we believe that colour to have penetrated into the cloth, but they assert that this is not the case. They say that God generally acts in such a way, that, e.g., the black colour is not created unless the cloth is but this blackness, which God creates in brought into contact with indigo the instant when the cloth touches the black pigment is of no duration, and another creation of blackness then takes place they further say that after the blackness is gone, He does not create a red or green colour, but again a
; ; ;
black colour.
According to this principle, the knowledge which we have of certain things is not the same which we had of them yesterday ; that knowledge is gone, and another like it has been created. They positively believe that this does take place, knowledge being an accident. In like manner it would follow that the soul, according to those who believe that it is an accident, is renewed each moment in every animated being, say a hundred thousand times; In accordance with this for, as you know, time is composed of time-atoms. principle they assert that when man is perceived to move a pen, it is not he who has really moved it the motion produced in the pen is an accident which God has created in the pen the apparent motion of the hand which moves the pen is likewise an accident which God has created in the moving hand but the creative act of God is performed in such a manner that the motion of the hand and the motion of the pen follow each other closely ; but the hand does not act, and is not the cause of the pen's motion for, as they say, an accident cannot pass from one thing to another. Some of the Mutakallemim accordingly contend that this white cloth, which <s coloured when put into the vessel filled with indigo, has not been blackened by the for blackness being an attribute of indigo, does not pass from one indigo object to another. There does not exist any thing to which an action could be ascribed the real agens is God, and He has [in the foregoing instance]
to-day,
; ; ; ; ; ;
created the blackness in the substance of the cloth
when it came into contact method adopted by Him. In short, most of the Mutakallemim believe that it must never be said that one thing is the cause of another some of them who assumed causality were blamed for
with the indigo, for this
is
the
doing
Most
pen
is
regards, however, the acts of man their opinions are divided. of them, especially the sect of the Asha'ariyah, assume that when the
so.
As
set in
motion
God
has created four accidents, none of
which
is
the
cause of any of the rest, they are only related to each other as regards the time of their co-existence, and have no other relation to each other. The
first
accident
is
man's will to move the pen, the second

itself, i.e.,
is
man's power to do
so,
the third
is
fourth
to
the bodily motion the motion of the pen.

is
They
the motion of the hand, and the believe that when a man has the will
thing and, as he believes, does it, the will has been created for him, then the power to conform to the will, and lastly the act itself. The act is not accomplished by the power created in man ; for, in reality, no act can be ascribed to that power. The Mu'tazilah contend that man acts by virtue of the power which has been created in him. Some of the Asha'ariyah assert
a
do
that the
power created in man participates in the act, and is connected with it, n opinion which has been rejected by the majority of them. The will and the
126
power created in man, according to the concurrent belief of the Mutakallemim, together with the act created in him, according to some of them, are In the instance of the pen, God continually accidents without duration. creates one motion after the other so long as the pen is in motion ; it only then ceases to move when God has created in it the accident of rest ; and so long as the pen is at rest, God continually renews in it that accident. Consequently in every one of these moments, i.e., of the time-atoms, God
creates
some accident
spheres and in other things
in every existing individual, e.g., in the angels, in the this creation takes place continually and without ;
Such is, according to their opinion, the right interpretation interruption. of the creed that God is the causa efficien;. But I, together with all rational " Will you mock at Him, as you persons, apply to those theories the words,
mock
"
at
man
" for their words are indeed nothing but mockery.
SEVENTH PROPOSITION.
is itself a property that exists in the body, a something superadded to its substance, an actual accident, which is constantly renewed ; as soon as it is destroyed it is reproduced." The reason why they hold this opinion is this they do not understand that rest is the absence of that blindness is the absence of sight, motion ; death the absence of life
The
absence of a property
and that
latives.
similar negative properties are the absence of the positive correThe relation between motion and rest is, according to their theory,
all
the same as the relation between heat and cold, namely, as heat and cold are two accidents found in two objects which have the properties of heat and
motion is an accident created in the thing which moves, and rest an accident created in the thing which rests ; it does not remain in existence during two consecutive time-atoms, as we have stated in treating of the previous proposition. Accordingly, when a body is at rest, God has created the rest
cold, so
atom of that body, and so long as the body remains at rest God continurenews that property. The same, they believe, is the case with a man's wisdom and ignorance the latter is considered by them as an actual accident, which is subject to the constant changes of destruction and creation, so long as there remains a thing of which such a man is ignorant. Death and life are likewise accidents, and as the Mutakallemim distinctly state, life is constantly destroyed and renewed during the whole existence of a living being when God decrees its death, He creates in it the accident of death after the accident of life, which does not continue during two time-atoms, has ceased
in each
ally
; ;
to exist.
The
logical
All this they state clearly. consequence of this proposition
is
is
that the accident of death
created by
God
is
instantly ceases to exist,
which again
is
created by
God
replaced by another death otherwise death could not continue. Death
and
thus continually created in the same manner as life is renewed every moment. But I should wish to know how long God continues to create death in a dead body. Does He do so whilst the form remains, or whilst one
exists
?
of the atoms death which
God
creates
For in each of the atoms of the body the accident of is produced, and there are to be found teeth of
who died thousands of years ago ; we see that those teeth have not been deprived of existence, and therefore the accident of death has during all these thousands of years been renewed, and according to the opinion
persons
THE KALAM
127
prevailing amongst those theorists, death was continually replaced by death. Some of the Mu'tazilah hold that there are cases in which the absence of a
physical property
is
not a
real
property, that weariness

:
is
the absence of
strength, and ignorance the absence of knowledge ; but this cannot be said in every case of negative properties it cannot be said that darkness is the mere absence of light, or that rest is the absence of motion. Some negative
properties are thus considered by them as having a real existence, while other negative properties are considered as non-existing, just as suits their belief.
in the same manner as they proceed respecting the duration of accidents, and they contend that some accidents exist a long time, and other accidents do not last two time-atoms. Their sole object is to
Here they proceed
fashion the Universe according to their peculiar opinions
and
beliefs.
EIGHTH PROPOSITION.
" There
exists
nothing but substance and accident, and the physical form
It is the object of this proposition of things belong to the class of accidents." to show that all bodies are composed of similar atoms, as we have pointed out
in explaining the first proposition.

is
The
difference of bodies
else.
from each other
caused by the accidents, and by nothing
Animality, humanity, sen-
and speech, are denoted as accidents like blackness, whiteness, bitterand sweetness, and the difference between two individuals of two classes is the same as the difference of two individuals of the same class. Also the body of the heaven, the body of the angels, the body of the Divine Throne such as it is assumed to be the body of anything creeping on the earth, and the body of any plant, have one and the same substance they only differ in the peculiarity of the accidents, and in nothing else : *he substance of all
sibility,
ness,
things
is
made up
of equal atoms.
NINTH PROPOSITION.
"
None
of the accidents
said,
cannot be
substance.
form the substratum of another accident ; it an accident to a thing which is itself an accident to a All accidents are directly connected with the substance." The
This
is
Mutakallemim deny the indirect relation of the accident to the substance, because if such a relation were assumed it would follow that the second accident could only exist in the substance after another accident had preceded it, a conclusion to which they would object even with regard to some special accidents ; they prefer to show that these accidents can exist in every possible substance, although such substance is not determined by any other accident ;
for they hold that all the accidents collectively determine the thing. They advance also another proof [in support of this proposition], namely : The substratum which is the bearer of certain attributes must continue to exist
time ; how, then, could the accident; which according to their opinion does not remain in existence for two moments, become the substratum of something else ?
for a certain
TENTH PROPOSITION. This proposition concerns the theory of " admissibility," which is mentioned by the Mutakallemim, and forms the principal support of their doctrine. Mark its purport they observe that everything conceived by the
:
128
imagination is admitted by the intellect as possible ; e.g., that the terrestrial globe should become the all-encompassing sphere, or that this sphere should become the terrestrial globe ; reason does not find here an impossibility ;
or that the sphere of fire should move towards the centre, and the sphere of Human intellect does not perceive any earth towards the circumference. reason why a body should be in a certain place instead of being in another. In the same manner they say that reason admits the possibility that an existing
being should be larger or smaller than
it
really
is,
or that
it
should be
form and position from what it really is ; e.g., a man might have the height of a mountain, might have several heads, and fly in the air or an elephant might be as small as an insect, or an insect as huge as an elephant. This method of admitting possibilities is applied to the whole Universe.
different in
;
Whenever they
bilities,
affirm that a thing belongs to this class of admitted possiit can have this form, and that it is also possible that it be found differently, and that the one form is not more possible than the
they say that
but they do not ask whether the reality confirms their assumption. which exists with certain constant and permanent They forms, dimensions, and properties, only follows the direction of habit, just as the king generally rides on horseback through the streets of the city, and is never found departing from this habit; but reason does not find it impossible that he should walk on foot through the place ; there is no doubt that he may do so, and this possibility is fully admitted by the intellect. Similarly, earth moves towards the centre, fire turns away from the centre ; fire causes heat, water causes cold, in accordance with a certain habit but it is a deviation from this habit should occur, namely, that not logically impossible that fire should cause cold, move downward, and still be fire that the water should cause heat, move upward, and still be water. On this foundation their whole fabric is constructed. They admit, however, the impossiat the same time in one subtwo of coexisting bility opposite properties This is impossible ; reason would not admit this possibility. Again, stance. reason does not admit the possibility of a substance existing without an accident, or an accident existing without a substance, a possibility admitted by some of the Mutakallemim. It is also impossible that a substance should become an accident, that an accident should become a substance, or that one substance should penetrate another. They admit that reason rejects all It is perfectly true that no notion whatever can these things as impossible. be formed of those things which they describe as impossible whilst a notion can be formed of those things which they consider as possible. The philosophers object to this method, and say, You call a thing impossible because it cannot be imagined, or possible because it can be imagined ; and thus you consider as possible that which is found possible by imagination, not by the intellect, consequently you determine that a thing is necessary, possible, or
other
;
say that the thing
not by the inimpossible in some instances, by the aid of the imagination tellect and in other instances by the ordinary common sense, as Abu Nasr
says in speaking of that
which the Mutakallemim
call intellect.
It
is
clear
that they describe as possible that which can be imagined, whether the reality correspond to it or not, and as impossible that which cannot be imagined. This proposition can only be established by the nine aforementioned propositions,
and no doubt these were exclusively required
for the support of
THE KALAM
129
This you will see clearly when I shall show and explain to this proposition. you some important parts of this theory, which I shall now introduce in the form of a discussion supposed to have taken place between a Mutakallem and a philosopher. The Mutakallem said to the philosopher What is the reason that we find the substance of iron extremely hard and strong, with a dark colour ; the substance of cream, on the other hand, extremely soft and white ? The All physical bodies have two kinds of acciphilosopher replied as follows dents those which concern their substance, as, e.g., the health and the and those which concern their form, as, e.g., the astonishillness of a man ment and laughter of a man. The substances of compound bodies differ very
:
: : ;
much in their
to each
component substance.
ultimate form, according to the difference of the forms peculiar Hence the substance of iron has become in its
properties the opposite of the substance of cream, and this difference is attended by the difference of accidents. You notice, therefore, hardness in the one,
two accidents, whose difference results from the and softness in the other difference which exists in the forms of the substances ; while the darkness and the whiteness are accidents whose divergence corresponds to that of the two substances in their ultimate condition. The Mutakallem refuted this There reply by means of his propositions, as I am now going to state does not exist a form which, as you believe, modifies the substance, and thus causes substances to be different from each other ; this difference is excluaccording to the theory of the Kalam, which sively effected by the accidents we mentioned in explaining the eighth proposition. He then continued There is no difference between the substance of iron and that of thus cream ; all things are composed of the same kind of atoms. We explained the view of the Mutakallemim on this point in treating of the first proposition, the logical consequences of which are, as we have shown, the second and
:
the third propositions ; they further require the twelfth proposition, in order to establish the theory of atoms. Nor do they admit that any accidents determine the nature of a substance, or predispose it to receive certain
other accidents for, according to their opinion, an accident cannot be the substratum of another accident, as we have shown in explaining the ninth nor can it have any duration, according to the sixth proposiproposition When the Mutakallemim have established all that they wish to infer tion. from these propositions, they arrive at the conclusion that the component atoms of cream and of iron are alike. The relation of each atom to each of the accidents is the same ; one atom is not more adapted than another to receive a certain accident and as a certain atom is not more fitted to move than to rest, so one atom is not more apt than another to receive the accident
; ; ;
It is here of no moment whether a thing life, of reason, of sensation. contains a larger or smaller quantity of atoms, for, according to the view of the Mutakallemim, which we explained in treating of the fifth proposition, of
every accident [of a thing] exists in each of its atoms. All these propositions lead to the conclusion that a human being is not better constituted to become wise than the bat, and establish the theory of admissibility expressed
in this [tenth] proposition.
Every
effort
was made to demonstrate
this
pro-
position,
because
it is
the best means for proving anything they
like,
as will
be explained.
T30
NOTE.
Mark, O reader, that if you know the nature of the soul and its and if you have a correct notion of everything which concerns the As to the soul, you will observe that most animals possess imagination. higher class of animals, that is, those which have a heart, it is obvious that they have imagination. Man's distinction does not consist in the possession of imagination, and the action of imagination is not the same as the action of the intellect, but the reverse of it. For the intellect analyses and divides
properties,
the component parts of them in their true form
object a great
other, just as
it
many two human
things, it forms abstract ideas of them, represents well as in their causal relations, derives from one for the intellect facts, which totally differ from each
as
distinguishes that which peculiar to the individual,
individuals appear different to the imagination ; is the property of the genus from that which is and no proof is correct, unless founded on the
former
are essential or non-essential.
the intellect further determines whether certain qualities of a thing It Imagination has none of these functions.
in
only perceives the individual, the compound in that aggregate condition which it presents itself to the senses ; or it combines things which exist
separately, joins
some
of
or as a force of the body.
them together, and represents them all as one body Hence it is that some imagine a man with a horse's
head, with wings, etc. This is called a fiction, a phantasm ; it is a thing to in the actual world corresponds. Nor can imagination in any way obtain a purely immaterial image of an object, however abstract the
which nothing
form of the image may

reality of a thing.
be.
Imagination yields therefore no
test for
the
Hear what profit we derive from the preliminary disciplines, and how excellent the propositions are which we learn through them. Know that there are certain things, which would appear imposrible, if tested by man's
imagination, being as inconceivable as the co-existence of two opposite properties in one object ; yet the existence of those same things, which cannot
be represented by imagination, is nevertheless established by proof, and attested by their reality. E.g., Imagine a large globe, of any magnitude you like, even as large as the all-encompassing sphere ; further an axis passing through the centre, and two persons standing on the two extremities of the
such a manner that their feet are in the same straight line with the which may be either in the plane of the horizon or not in the first case both persons would fall, in the second case one, namely the one who stands on the lower extremity would fall, the other would remain standing, as far
axis in
axis,
;
our imagination can perceive. It has however, already been proved that the earth has the form of a globe, that it is inhabited on both extremities of
as
a certain diameter, that both the inhabitants have their heads towards the heaven, and their legs towards each other, and yet neither can possibly for it is incorrect to say that the one fall, nor can it be imagined ;
" " " above " and below extremity is above, the other below ; but the term to as their relative to each other. both of them apply regards position Similarly it has been proved in the second chapter of the book on Conic Sections, that two lines, which at first are at a certain distance from each
other,
further,
each other in the same proportion as they are produced and yet would never meet, even if they were produced to infinity, although they are observed to be constantly converging. ThU is a fact
may approach
THE KALAM
which cannot
easily
131
be conceived, and which does not come within the scope
Of these two lines the one is straight, the other curved, as of imagination. It has consequently been proved that stated in the aforementioned book.
things which cannot be perceived or imagined, and which
would be found
impossible if tested solely by imagination, are nevertheless in real existence. The non-existence of things which are represented by imagination as possible has likewise been established by proof, e.g., the corporeality of God, and His
existence as a force residing in a body. Imagination perceives nothing except bodies, or properties inherent in bodies. It has thus been clearly shown that in man exists a certain faculty which is entirely distinct from imagination, and by which the necessary, the possible,
and the impossible can be distinguished from each other. This inquiry is most useful. It is of the greatest profit to him who desires to guard himself Do not think that the against the errors of men guided by imagination Mutakallemim ignore this altogether to some extent they do take it into consideration they know it, and call that which can be imagined without having reality as, e.g., the corporeality of God a phantom and a fancy
!
they state frequently that such phantoms are not real. It is for this reason that they advance the first nine propositions and establish on them the proof of the tenth, according to which all those imaginable things which they wish to admit as possible are really possible, because of the similarity of all atoms
and the equality of

explained.
all
accidents as regards their accidentality, as
we have
Consider, O reader, and bear in mind that this requires deep research. For there are certain notions which some believe to be founded on reason, while others regard them as mere fictions. In such cases it would be necessary to find something that could show the difference between conceptions When the philosopher, in his of the intellect and mere imaginary fancies. " of himself, contends, way Reality is my evidence ; by its guidexpressing ance I examine whether a thing is necessary, possible, or impossible," the " This is exactly the difference between HS ; that which religionist replies, actually exists, has, according to my view, been produced by the will of the Creator, not by necessity just as it has been created with that special property, it might have been created with any other property, unless the impossibility which you postulate be proved by a logical demonstration."
;
About
this admissibility (of
imaginable things)
I shall
;
have to say more,

a subject
and I shall return to it in various parts of this treatise for it is not which should be rejected in haste and on the spur of the moment.
ELEVENTH PROPOSITION.
is in every respect impossible." The following is an explanation of this proposition. The impossibility of the existence of an infinite body has been clearly demonstrated ; the same can be said of an infinite number of bodies, though each of them be finite, if
"
The
existence of the infinite
these beings, infinite in number, exist at the same time ; equally impossible is the existence of an infinite series of causes, namely, that a certain thing
should be the cause of another thing, but itself the effect of another cause, which again is the result of another cause, and so on to infinity, or that things
vi
an
infinite series, either bodies or ideals,
should be in actual existence, and
132

This causal relation
is
in causal relation to each other.
the essential order of
As nature, in which, as has been fully proved, the infinite is impossible. regards the virtual and the accidental existence of the infinite, it has been
established in some cases ; it has been proved, e.g., that a body can virtually be divided ad infinitum, also that time can be divided ad infinitum ; in other cases it is still an open question, as, e.g., the existence of the infinite in succession, which is called the accidental infinite, i.e., a series of things in which one thing comes forth when the other is gone, and this again in its turn succeeded a thing which had ceased to exist, and so on ad infinitum. This
subject requires deep research. Those who boast that they have proved the eternity of the Universe say that time is infinite ; an assertion which is not necessarily erroneous ; for
only when one atom has ceased to exist, the other follows. Nor is it absowhen they assert, that the accidents of the substance succeed an infinite series, for these accidents do not co-exist, but come in succession one after the other, and the impossibility of the infinite in that
lutely wrong, each other in
been proved. The Mutakallemim, however, make no difference between the existence of an infinite body and the divisibility of a body or of time ad infinitum, between the co-existence of an infinite number of things, as e.g., the individual human beings who exist at present, and thf
case has not
infinite number of beings successively existing, as, e.g., Reuben the son of Jacob, and Jacob the son of Isaac, and Isaac the son of Abraham, and so on to infinity. This is according to their opinion as inadmissible as the first
case
of the
they believe these four forms of the infinite to be quite equal. Some Mutakallemim endeavour to establish their proposition concerning
;
named form of the infinite, and to demonstrate its impossibility by method which I shall explain in this treatise others say that this impossiBut if it were bility is a self-evident axiom and requires no further proof. undoubtedly wrong to assume that an infinite number of things can exist in succession, although that link of the series which exists at present is finite, the inadmissibility of the eternity of the Universe would be equally selfevident, and would not require for its proof any other proposition. This,
the last
a
however,
is
not the place for investigating the subject.
TWELFTH
PROPOSITION.
senses are not always to be trusted." For two reasor/s the Mutakallemim find fault with the perception of the senses. First, the senses are
"The
precluded from perceiving many objects, either on account of the smallness this is the case with the atoms, as we have already stated or on account of the remoteness of the objects from the person who desires to perceive them ; e.g., we cannot see, hear, or smell at a distance of many miles ; nor do we perceive the motion of the heavens. Secondly, the senses a large object appears small misapprehend the objects of their perception
of the objects
:
water appears larger ; a crooked thing appears straight when partly placed in water, and partly out of it things appear yellow to a person suffering from jaundice sweet things are bitter to him whose tongue has imbibed red gall ; and they mention many other things of this kind. Therefore they say, we cannot trust our senses so far as to establish any proof on their perceptions. You must not believe
a distance
;
trom
a small object
immersed
in
THE KALAM
133
that the Mutakallemim had no purpose in agreeing upon this proposition, or as most of the later adherents of that school affirm, that the first Muta-
kallemim had no ulterior object in endeavouring to prove the existence of
On the contrary, every proposition here mentioned is indispensable one of these be rejected, the whole theory falls to the ground. The lastmentioned proposition is of particular importance for when our senses perceive things by which any of the foregoing propositions are confuted, the Mutakallemim say that no notice should be taken of the perception of the
atoms.
;
if
senses so long as the proposition is supported by the testimony of the inThus they say that the tellect, and established (as they believe) by proof.
continuous motion is interrupted by moments of rest ; that the millstone in its motion is broken into atoms ; that the white colour of a garment ceases to exist, and another whiteness comes in its stead. All these theories
inferences are drawn from which are contradicted by the senses. The Mutakallemim, however, meet these objections by saying, whenever they can do so, that the perception of these things is withheld from
are contrary to what the eye perceives, and the assumed existence of a vacuum, all of
many
the senses
in other instances
they maintain that the contradiction has
its
source in the deceptive character of the senses. You know that this theory is very ancient, and was the pride of the sophists, who asserted that they
themselves were
natural forces
;
its
authors
this
is
stated
by Galenus
in his treatise
will
on
and you know well what he
says of those
who
not admit
the evidence of the senses.

of the
Having discussed these propositions, I now proceed to explain the theory Mutakallemim concerning the above-mentioned four problems.
CHAPTER LXXIV
IN this chapter will be given an outline of the proofs by which the Mutakallemim attempt to demonstrate that the universe is not eternal. You must of course not expect that I shall quote their lengthy arguments verbatim I only intend to give an abstract of each proof, to show in what way it helps to establish the theory of the creatio ex nihilo or to confute the eternity of
;
the universe, and briefly to notice the propositions they employed in support of their theory. If you were to read their well-known and voluminous writings, you would not discover any arguments with which they support
their
view
left
greater copiousness of words

style
;
unnoticed in the present outline, but you might find there combined with more grace and elegance of
frequently they employ rhyme, rhythm, and poetical diction, and sometimes mysterious phrases which perhaps are intended to startle persons listening to their discourses, and to deter those who might otherwise criticize them. You would also find many repetitions questions propounded and, as they believe, an?wered, and frequent attacks on those who differ from
;
their opinions.
The
First Argument.
Some
of the
Mutakallemim thought that by proving the creation
of
one
thing, they demonstrated the creatio ex nihilo in reference to the entire universe. E.g., Zaid, who from a small molecule had gradually been brought
I3 4
velopment by
to a state of perfection, has undoubtedly not effected this change and deIt is therehis own efforts, but owes it to an external agency. fore clear that an agent is required for such organization and successive selected transmutation. palm-tree or any other object might equally be
to illustrate this idea.

instances.
Thus you
see
The whole universe, they argue, is analogous to these how they believe that a law discovered in one thing
may
equally be applied to everything.
The Second Argument.

This argument
is
likewise based
on the
belief that the proof
by which the
creation of one thing is demonstrated, holds good for the creatio ex nihilo in reference to the whole universe. E.g., a certain individual, called Zaid, who one time was not ,yet in existence, subsequently came into existence
;
be assumed that Amr, his father, was the cause of his existence, Amr himself must likewise have passed from non-existence into existence suppose then that Zaid's father unquestionably owed his origin to Khaled, Zaid's grandfather, it would be found that Khaled himself did not exist from But eternity, and the series of causes could thus be carried back to infinity. such an infinite series of beings is inadmissible according to the theory of the Mutakallemim, as we have shown in our discussion of the eleventh proposiIn continuing this species of reasoning, you come to a first man, who tion. had no parent, viz. Adam. Then you will of course ask, whence came this first man ? If, e.g., the reply be given that he was made out of earth, you " " " "
and
if it
will again inquire,
came the water
"
Whence came that earth The inquiry would be

;
Out of water."
Whence
which is absurd, or until you meet from absolute non-existence in this

truth
;
carried on, either ad infinitum, with a something that came into existence
latter case
you would
arrive at the real
This result of the question proves, to the of the that the whole universe came Mutakallemim, according opinion
here the
series of inquiries ends.
into existence from absolute non-existence.
The Third Argument.
The atoms of things are necessarily either joined together or separate, and even the same atoms may at one time be united at another disunited. It is therefore evident that the nature of the atoms does not necessitate either their combination or their separation ; for if they were separate by virtue of their nature they would never join, and if they were joined by virtue of their Thus there is no reason nature, they could never again be separated. why atoms should rather be combined than separate, or vice versa, why rather in a state of separation than of combination. Seeing that some atoms are joined, others separate, and again others subject to change, they being combined at one time and separated at another, the fact may therefore be taken as a proof that the atoms cannot combine or separate without an agent. This argument, according to the opinion of the Mutakallemim, establishes the theory that the universe has been created from nothing. You have already been told, that those who employ this argument rely on the first proposition of the Mutakallemim with its corollaries.
THE KALAM
The Fourth Argument.
135
composed of substance and accident? ; every subor more, and since the accidents are not one accident possess eternal, the substance, the substratum of the accidents, cannot be eternal ; for that which is joined to transient things and cannot exist without them is itself transient. Therefore the whole Universe has had a beginning. To the objection, that the substance may possibly be eternal while the accidents, though in themselves transient, succeed each other in an infinite series, they reply that, in this case, an infinite number of transient things would be in existence, an eventuality which, according to their theory, is impossible. This argument is considered by them the best and safest, and has been
is
The whole Universe

must
stance
accepted by many of them as a strict proof. Its acceptance implies the admission of the following three propositions, the object of which is well understood by philosophers, (i) An infinite series of things, of which the
one succeeds when the other has ceased to exist, is impossible. (2) All accidents have a beginning. Our opponent, who defends the theory of the eternity of the universe, can refute this proposition by pointing to one particular accident, namely to the circular motion of the sphere for it is held by Aristotle that this circular motion is eternal, and, therefore, the spheres which perform this motion are, according to his opinion, likewise eternal. It is of no use to prove that all other accidents have a beginning ; for our opponent does not deny this he says that accidents may supervene an object which has existed from eternity, and may follow each other in rotation. He contents himself with maintaining that this particular accident, viz., circular motion, the motion of the heavenly sphere, is eternal, and does not
; ;
belong to the
class of transient accidents.
It
is
therefore necessary to ex-
by itself, and to prove that it is not eternal. (3) The next proposition which the author of this argument accepts is as follows Every material object consists of substance and accidents, that is to say, of atoms and accidents in the sense in which the Mutakallemim use the term. But if a material object were held to be a combination of matter and form, as has been proved by our opponent, it would be necessary to demonstrate that the primal matter and the primal form are transient, and only then the proof of the creatio ex nihilo would be complete.
amine
this accident
:
The Fifth Argument.

This argument is based on the theory of Determination, and is made much by the Mutakallemim. It is the same as the theory which I explained in Namely, when they treat either of the discussing the tenth proposition. Universe in general, or of any of its parts, they assume that it can have such that it may receive such properties and such dimensions as it actually has accidents as in reality are noticed in it, and that it may exist in such a place and at such a time as in fact is the case but it may be larger or smaller, may receive other properties and accidents, and come to existence at an earlier
of
; ;
or a later period, or in a different place. Consequently, the fact that a thing has been determined in its composition, size, place, accident and time a
variation in
which
is a these points being possible proof that a being exist* and divers relations and the circumchooses determines these ; freely
all
136
selection, proves that the
stance that the Universe or a part of it requires a being able to make this Universe has been created ex nibilo. For there is
:
is used to determine, to make, to create, to produce, to originate, or to intend ; these verbs have all one and the same meaning. The Mutakallemim give a great many examples, both of a general and a special character. They say it is not more natural for earth to be under water than to be above water ; who then determined its actual position ? Or, is it more natural that the sun is round than that it should be square or triangular ; for all qualities have the same relation to a body capable of possessing them. Who then determined one particular quality ? In a similar way they treat of every individual being ; when, e.g., they notice flowers of different colours, they are unable to explain the phenomenon, and they take it as a strong proof in favour of " their theory ; they say, Behold, the earth is everywhere alike, the water is alike ; why then is this flower red and that one yellow ? Some being must have determined the colour of each, and that being is God. A being must therefore exist which determines everything, both as regards the Universe All this is the logical congenerally, and each of its parts individually. sequence of the tenth proposition. The theory of determination is moreover adopted by some of those who assume the eternity of the Universe, as will be explained below. In conclusion, I consider this to be the best argument ; and in another part I shall more fully acquaint you with the opinion
no difference which of the following expressions
have formed concerning the theory of Determination.
The Sixth Argument.

that he had found a very good argument, much better than any advanced hitherto, namely, the argument based on the triumph of existence over non-existence. He says that, according to the common belief, the existence of the Universe is merely possible ; for if it were necessary, the Universe would be God but he seems to forget that we are at issue with those who, whilst they believe in the existence of God, admit at the same time the eternity of the Universe. The expression " A thing is possible " denotes that the thing may either be in existence or ndt in existence, and that there is not more reason why it should exist than why it should not exist. The fact that a thing, the existence of which is
of the
One
modern Mutakallemim thought
although it bears the same relation to the state possible, actually does exist of existence as to that of non-existence proves that there is a Being which gave the preference to existence over non-existence. This argument is very forcible ; it is a modified form of the foregoing argument which is based on " " the theory of determination. He only chose the term preference instead " of determination," and instead of applying it to the properties of the " the existence of the being itself." He either existing being he applies it to had the intention to mislead, or he misunderstood the proposition, that the existence of the Universe is possible. Our opponent who assumes the eternity " " of the Universe, employs the term the existence of possible," and says, " the Universe
is in a sense different from that in which the Mutapossible kallem applies it, as will be explained below. Moreover it may be doubted whether the conclusion, that the Universe owes its origin to a being which
is
able to give preference to existence over non-existence,
is
correct.
For
THE KALAM
we may apply
to each other
137
determination
the terms
"
preference
"
and
"
"
to anything
capable of receiving either of
two properties which
are contrary or opposed
and when we find that the thing actually possesses one pro; and not the other, we are convinced that there exists a determining perty E.g., you say that a piece of copper could just as well be formed into agent. a kettle as into a lamp when we find that it is a lamp or a kettle, we have no doubt that a deciding and determining agent had advisedly chosen one of the two possible forms for it is clear that the substance of copper existed, and that before the determination took place it had neither of the two possible forms which have just been mentioned. When, however, it is the question whether a certain existing object is eternal, or whether it has passed from non-existence into existence, this argument is inadmissible ; for it cannot be asked who decided in favour of the existence of a thing, and rejected its nonexistence, except when it has been admitted that it has passed from nonexistence into existence ; in the present case this is just the point under If we were to take the existence and the non-existence of a thing discussion. as mere objects of imagination, we should have to apply the tenth proportion which gives prominence to imagination and fiction, and ignores the Our oppothings which exist in reality, or are conceived by the intellect.
; ;
who believes in the eternity of the Universe, will show that can imagine the non-existence of the universe as well as we can It is not my intention to refute imagine any other impossibility. I only wish to show the incorrectness their doctrine of the creatio ex nihilo of their belief that this argument differs from the one which precedes since
nent, however,
we
in fact the
two arguments
are identical,
and are founded on the well-known
principle of determination.
The Seventh Argument.
One
of the
modern Mutakallemim
says that
he
:
is
able to prove the creation
of the Universe
from the theory put forth by the philosophers concerning He argues thus If the world were eternal the the immortality of the soul. number of the dead would necessarily be infinite, and consequently an Infinite number of souls would coexist, but it has long since been shown that
the coexistence of an infinite
number
of things
is
positively impossible.
This
indeed a strange argument ! One difficulty is explained by another which Here the saying, well known among the Arameans, may be is still greater " Your guarantee wants himself a guarantee." He rests his arguapplied ment on the immortality of the soul, as though he understood this immoris tality, in what respect the soul is immortal, or what the thing is which immorlal [ If, however, he only meant to controvert the opinion of his oppOLint, who believed in the eternity of the Universe, and also in the
is
! :
immoiulity of the
soul, he accomplished his task, provided the opponent admitted the correctness of the idea which that Mutakallem formed of the Some of the later philophilosopher's view on the immortality of the soul. the immortal souls are not subsophers explained this difficulty as follows stances which occupy a locality or a space, and their existence in an infinite number is therefore not impossible. You must bear in mind that those abstract beings which are neither bodies nor forces dwelling in bodies, and
:
which
in fact are ideals
are altogether incapable of being represented as a
I 38
plurality unless
some ideals be the cause of the existence of others, and can be distinguished from each other by the specific difference that some are the but that which remains of Zaid [after efficient cause and others the effect his death] is neither the cause nor the effect of that which is left of Amr, and therefore the souls of all the departed form only one being as has been explained by Ibn Bekr Ibn Al-zaig, and others who ventured to speak on these profound subjects. In short, such intricate disciplines, which our mind can scarcely comprehend, cannot furnish any principles for the explanation of other subjects. It should be noted that whoever endeavours to prove or to disprove the eternity of the Universe by these arguments of the Mutakallemim, must necessarily rely on one of the two following propositions, or on both of them ; namely on the tenth proposition, according to which the
;
form of a thing is merely one of many equally possible forms, and which implies that there must be a being capable of making the special selection ; or on the eleventh proposition which rejects the existence of an infinite
actual
series of things
is
coming
successively into existence.

e.g.,
position transient individuals,
demonstrated in various ways,
The last-named prothey advert to a class of

From
the theory
and to
a certain particular date.
asserts the eternity of the Universe, it would follow that the individuals of that class up to that particular date are infinite in number ; a
which
thousand years later the individuals of that class are likewise infinite in the last number must exceed the previous one by the number of ; the individuals born in those thousand years, and consequently one infinite number would be larger than another. The same argument is applied to the revolutions of the heavenly sphere, and in like manner it is shown that one infinite number of revolutions would be larger than another ; the same result is obtained when revolutions of one sphere are compared with those of another moving more slowly ; the revolutions of both spheres [though unequal] would be infinite in number. Similarly they proceed with all the indithose accidents which are subject to destruction and production vidual accidents that have passed into non-existence are counted and represented as though they were still in existence, and as though they were things this imaginary number is then either increased with a definite beginning Yet all these things have no reality and are mere fictions. or reduced
number
in criticizing this proposition, has exposed all its weak points, as you will clearly perceive, when you study his book on the changeThese are the principal arguments able beings earnestly and dispassionately. of the Mutakallemim in seeking to establish the creatio ex nihilo. Having
Abunazar Alfarabi
thus proved that the Universe is not eternal, they necessarily infer that there is an gens who created it in accordance with His intention, desire and will.
They then proceed
to prove the unity of that Agens out in the next chapter.
as I
am
going to point
CHAPTER LXXV
IN
of
this
chapter
I shall
God.
They contend
explain to you how the Mutakallemim prove the Unity that the Maker and Creator of the Universe, the
testified
existence of
whom
is
by
all
nature,
is
One.
Two
employed by them
in
demonstrating the Unity of God,
viz.,
propositions are two deities or
THE KALAM
more would
139
neutralize each other, and if several deities existed they would be distinguished from each other by a specific difference.
First Argument.
that of mutual neutralization, and is employed by argument If the the majority of the Mutakallemim. It is to the following effect
first
is
:
The
Universe had two Gods, it would necessarily occur that the atom subject either remained withto a combination with one or two opposite qualities out either of them, and that is impossible, or, though being only one atom, included both qualities at the same time, and that is likewise impossible. E.g., whilst one of the two deities determined that one atom or more should be warm, the other deity might determine that the same should be cold ;
the consequence of the mutual neutralization of the two divine beings would thus be that the atoms would be neither warm nor cold a contingency
which
sites
it
;
impossible, because all bodies must combine with one of two oppoor they would be at the same time both warm and cold. Similarly, might occur that whilst one of the deities desired that a body be in motion,
is
the other might desire that it be at rest ; the body would then be either without motion and rest, or would both move and rest at the same time. Proofs of this kind are founded on the atomic theory contained in the first
proposition of the Mutakallemim, on the proposition which refers to the creation of the accidents, and on the proposition that negatives are properties of actual existence and require for their production an agens. For if it were
assumed that the substance of

is
this world which, according to the philosophers subject to successive production and destruction, is different from the substance of the world above, viz., from the substance of the spheres a fact established by proof and that as the Dualists assert, there are two divine
beings, one of
whom rules this world without influencing the spheres, whilst the other governs the world above without interfering with this world such theory would not involve the mutual neutralization of the two deities. If
were then objected, that the existence of two
deities
it
would
necessitate an
imperfection in both of them, in so far as one deity would be unable to influence the province of the other, the objection would be met by the reply that this inability need not be considered a defect in either of them ; for that
which is not included within the sphere of action of a being can of course not be performed by that being, and an agens is not deficient in power, if it is
unable to perform what is intrinsically impossible. Thus we, Monotheists, do not consider it a defect in God, that He does not combine two opposites
one object, nor do we test His omnipotence by the accomplishment of When the Mutakallemim noticed the weakness any similar impossibility. of their argument, for which they had some apparent support, they had recourse to another argument.
in
Second Argument.
were two Gods, there would necessarily be some element common to both, whilst some element present in the one would be absent in the other, and constitute the specific difference between them. This is a philosophic and sound argument for those who are able to examine it, and to obtain a clear insight into its premises, which will be further explained, in our exIf there
140

it
But position of the view of the philosophers on this point. accepted by those who admit the existence of divine attributes.
ing to their opinion, the Primal Cause includes
cannot be For accord-
many
different elements.
represent its wisdom and its omnipotence as two different things, and again the omnipotence as different from the will. Consequently it would not be impossible that either of the two divine beings possessed several properties, some of which would be common to both, and some peculiar to
They
only one of them.
Third Argument.
on one of the Propositions of the Kalam. For some of the Mutakallemim belonging to the old school assume, that when the Creator wills a thing, the will is not an element superadded to the
This argument
is
likewise based
essence of
God
it is a will
without a substratum.
In accordance with the
propositions which we have mentioned, and of which, as you will see, it is difficult to form a true conception, they say that one will, which is independent of any substratum, cannot be ascribed to two beings ; for, as they assert, one cause cannot be the source of
two laws
for
two
essences.
This
is,
as I told
of explaining one difficulty by means of another and still For as they define the Will, it is inconceivable, and some greater difficulty. have, therefore, considered it to be a mere non-entity ; others who admit its
you, the
method
existence,
nevertheless, establish
meet with many insuperable on its existence one
difficulties.
The Mutakallemim,
God.
of the proofs for the unity of
Fourth Argument.
is necessarily positive evidence of the existence There of an dgens, but does not prove the existence of more than one agens. is no difference whether the existence of one God be assumed or the existence
The
existence of an action
of two, or three, or twenty, or any number. This is plain and clear. But the argument does not seem to prove the non-existence of a multitude of
deities
;
it
sole being,
only shows that their number is unknown ; the deity may be one but may also include several divine beings. The following sup:
plemental argument has therefore been advanced possibility is inapplicable to the existence of God, which is absolute ; the possibility of the existence of more than one God must therefore be denied. This is the whole essence of the proof, and its fallacy is self-evident ; for although the notion of possibility cannot be applied to the existence of God, it can be applied to our for an alternative in our knowledge of a thing does not knowledge of God
:
involve an alternative in the actual existence of the thing, and perhaps there is neither a tripartite deity as the Christians believe, nor an undivided Unity as we believe. This is clear to those who have been taught to notice the
conclusions implied in given premises.
Fifth Argument
One
beings
of the
modern Mutakallemim thought that he found
a proof of the
Unity of
;
God
if
in the idea of requisiteness. Suppose there were two divine one of them were able to create the universe, the second God
would be superfluous, and there would be no need for his existence. If, on the other hand, the entire universe could not be created or governed except
THE KALAM
141
by both of them, each of them would be imperfect in so far as he would require the co-operation of another being, and would thus be limited in power. " the mutual neutralization of This argument is, in fact, only a variation of
two
its
deities."
is
There
is
this difficulty in
such proofs, that a certain degree of
imperfection
sphere.
ascribed to a Being which does not accomplish tasks
beyond
We do not call a person weak because he cannot move a thousand
hundredweights, and we do not say that God is imperfect because He cannot transform Himself into a body, or cannot create another being like Himself, or make a square whose diagonal should be equal to one of its sides. In the same manner we should not consider it an imperfection in God, if He were not the only Creator, and if it were absolutely necessary that there should be two
not because the one God required the assistance of the other, but ; because the existence of both of them was equally necessary, and because it was impossible that it should be otherwise. Further we do not say that the
Creators
Almighty is imperfect, because He does not, according to the opinion of the Mutakallemim, produce a body otherwise than by the creation of atoms, and by their combination with accidents created in them. That inability is not called want or In imperfection, since another process is impossible. like manner the Dualist might say, that it is impossible for one Being to act alone, and that this circumstance constitutes no imperfection in either of the Deities, because the absolute existence of one Deity necessitates the coexistence of the other.
Some
of the
Mutakallemim, weary of these arguments,
declared that the Unity of God is a doctrine which must be received as a matter of faith, but most of them rejected this theory, and reviled its authors. I, however, hold, that those who accept this theory are right-minded, and shrink from admitting an erroneous opinion ; when they do not perceive
any cogency in the arguments, and find that the proofs advanced in favour of the doctrine are inconclusive, they prefer to assume that it could only be received as a matter of faith. For the Mutakallemim do not hold that the Universe has any defined properties on which a true proof could be founded, or that man's intellect is endowed with any such faculty as would enable him to form correct conclusions. It is, however, not without a motive that they defend this theory they wish to assume such a form of the Universe, as could be employed to support a doctrine for which otherwise no proof could be found, and would lead us to neglect the investigation of that which in fact can be proved. We ran only appeal to the Almighty and to those intelligent
;
persons
who
confess their error
when they
discover
it.
CHAPTER LXXVI
THE
reasonings and arguments of the Mutakallemim to demonstrate the Incorporeality of God are very weak, and indeed inferior to their arguments for the Unity of God. They treat the doctrine of the Incorporeality of God
as if it
were the
logical
that the attribute
"
sequence of the theory of His Unity, and they say one " cannot be applied to a corporeal object. Those
is
who
maintain that
God
a
incorporeal because a corporeal object consists of
substance and form
Being, are not in my founded on the propositions of the
combination known to be impossible in the Divine opinion Mutakallemim, and such an argument is not
Kalam
on the contrary,
it is
a logical
142
proof based on the theory of substance and form, and on a right conception of their properties. It has the character of a philosophical argument, and I
shaD fully explain it when treating of the arguments of the philosophers. Here we only propose to discuss the arguments by which the Mutakallemim desire to prove the Incorporeality of God in accordance with their propositions
and the method
of their reasoning.
First Argument.
corporeal, His true essence would necessarily either exist entirely in every part of the body, that is to say, in each of its atoms, or would be confined to one of the atoms. In the latter alternative the other atoms
If
God were
would be superfluous, and the existence of the corporeal being [with the exception of the one atom] would be of no purpose. If, on the other hand, each atom fully represented the Divine Being, the whole body would not be one deity, but a complex of deities, and this would be contrary to the doctrine
adopted by the kalam that God is one. An examination of this argument shows that it is based on the first and fifth propositions. But there is room " for the following objection God does not consist of atoms, that is to say,
:
He
you assert, composed of a number of elements created by Himself, but is one continuous body, and indivisible except in man's imagination, which affords no test for in man's imagination the substance of the heavens
is
not, as
may be
results
torn or rent asunder.
The
philosopher holds that such a possibility

visible, i.e.,
from assuming a similarity and an analogy between the the bodies which exist among us, and the invisible."
Second Argument. This argument, they believe, is of great importance. Its main support is the impossibility of comparison, i.e., the belief that God cannot be compared to any of His creatures and that He would be comparable to other corporeal objects if He were corporeal. They put great stress on this argument, and " If it were asserted that God is corporeal, but that His say as follows substance is not like that of other corporeal beings, it would be self-contrafor all bodies are alike as regards their substance, and are distindictory
;
:
guished from each other by other things, viz., the accidents." They also argue that if God were corporeal it would follow that He has created another This argument is refuted in two ways. First, the being like Himself. objector does uot admit the impossibility of comparison ; he asks how it could be proved that God cannot be compared to any of His creatures. No doubt that, in support of their view, that a comparison between the Almighty and any other being is inadmissible, they would have to cite the words of the Prophets, and thus accept this doctrine by the authority of tradition, not by
the authority of reason. The argument that God, if comparable to any of His creatures, would be found to have created beings like Himself, is refuted " The created things are not like Him by the objector in the following way :
in every respect
liarities."
for I do not deny that God has many properties and pecu; For he who admits the corporeality of God does not deny the existence of properties in the divine Being. Another and more forcible is this All have studied who argument philosophy, and have made themselves thoroughly acquainted with philosophical theories, assume as demon:
THE KALAM
143
strated facts, first that the term substance, when applied to the spheres above and to the corporeal objects here on earth is a perfect homonym, for the substance of the one is not the substance of the other ; and secondly that
the forms of the things on this earth are different from the forms of the spheres ; the terms substance and form when applied both to things below and to the spheres above are homonyms ; although there is no doubt that the spheres have [like the things below, three] dimensions, they are corporeal
sions.
because they consist of substance and form, not because they have dimenIf this explanation is admitted with reference to the spheres, how
much more is he who believes God is a corporeal being which

true nature and properties
is
the term
in the
"
substance
same manner
" " the divine idea, apply the term existence homonymously to Him and to His creatures. The Corporealists do not admit that all bodies consist of
similar
applied to Him and to His creatures homonymously, as the true believers, who have a correct conception of
is
"
God is corporeal justified in saying that has dimensions, but which in its substance, its very different from all created bodies, and that
that
atoms ; they believe that God created all things, and that these differ from each other both in their substances and in their constituent properties ; and just as the substance of dung differs from the substance of the sun, so does, according to this theory, the substance of the spheres and the stars differ from the substance of the created light, i.e., the Divine Glory (Shechinah), and again the substance of the Divine Glory, or the pillar of cloud created [for the purpose], differ from the substance of the Most High ; for the substance of the latter is sublime, perfect, simple, constant and immutable. His absolute existence remains always the same, and He creates all How could this argument, though things according to His will and desire. it be weak, be refuted by these strange methods of the Mutakallemim, which
I
pointed out to you
Third Argument.
God were corporeal, He would be finite, and so far this argument is if He were finite, He would have certain dimensions and a certain correct
If
;
form
to
this
is
also a correct conclusion.
God any magnitude
or form whatever
But they continue thus Attribute He might be either larger or

:
smaller,
special
and might also have a different form. The fact that He has one magnitude and one special form presupposes the existence of a determining agens. I have heard that they attach great importance to this argument, but in truth it is the weakest of all the arguments mentioned above. It is founded on the tenth proposition, the feebleness of which in ignoring
the actual properties of things, we have clearly shown in regard to ordinary beings and must be much more evident in regard to the Creator. There is no difference between this argument and their assertion that the fact of the
existence of the Universe having been preferred to its non-existence proves the existence of an agens that preferred the existence of the Universe to its
when both were equally possible. If it were asked argument should not be applied to God viz., that His mere existence proved the existence of an agens which determined His existence and rejected His non-existence they would undoubtedly answer that this admission would only lead to a repetition of the same argument until at
non-existence at a time
why
this
144
length a being be found whose existence is not merely potential but necessarr, and which does not require a causa efficient. But this same answer can also be applied to dimensions and to form. It can only be said in reference to all ather forms and magnitudes, the existence of which is possible, that is to say which came into existence after a state of non-existence, that they might have been larger or smaller than they actually are, or that they might have had a form different from that which they actually possess, and require for But the forms and dimensions of God this reason some determining agens. (who is above all imperfection and similitude) did not come into existence
!
according to the opinion of the Corporealist after a state of non-existence, and therefore no determining agens was necessary ; His substance with its
dimensions and forms has a necessary existence ; no agens was required to upon His existence, and to reject His non-existence, since nonIn like manner there was no existence is altogether inadmissible in God.
decide
force required to determine His inseparable from His existence.
If
magnitude and form, they were absolutely
dition,
you wish to go in search of truth, to cast aside your passions, your traand your fondness of things you have been accustomed to cherish, if
:
you wish to guard yourself against error then consider the fate of these speculators and the result of their labours ; observe how they rushed, as it were, from the ashes into the fire. They denied the nature of the existing things, misrepresented the properties of heaven and earth, and thought that they were able, by their propositions, to prove the creation of the world, but in fact they were far from proving the creatio ex nihilo, and have weakened the arguments for the existence, the unity, and the incorporeality of God. The proofs of all these doctrines must be based on the well-known nature of the existing things, as perceived by the senses and the intellect.
Having thus discussed the arguments of the Mutakallemim, we shall now proceed to consider the propositions of the philosophers and their arguments for the existence of God, His Unity and His Incorporeality, and we shall for the present assume the Eternity of the Universe without finally accepting it. Next to this we shall develop our own method, which is the result of deep study, in demonstrating these three principles, and we shall then examine
the theory of the Eternity of the Universe as assumed by the philosopher!.
PAR1
11
PROPOSITIONS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS INTRODUCTION
145
of the propositions which are employed in the proof for th<* existence of God, or in the arguments demonstrating that God is neither
TWENTY-FIVE
corporeal nor a force connected with a material being, or that He is One, have been fully established, and their correctness is beyond doubt. Aristotle
and the Peripatetics who followed him have proved each of these proposiThere is, however, one proposition which we do not accept namely, tions. the proposition which affirms the Eternity of the Universe, but we will admit it for the present, because by doing so we shall be enabled clearly to demonstrate
our
own
theory.
PROPOSITION
I.
The
existence of an infinite magnitude
is
impossible.
II.
PROPOSITION
The
co-existence of an infinite
number
of finite magnitudes
III.
is
impossible
PROPOSITION
even
is impossible, these were not magnitudes ; if, e.g., one Intelligence were the cause of a second, the second the cause of a third, the third the cause of a fourth, if
The
existence of an infinite
number
of causes and effects
and so on, the
series
could not be continued ad infinitum.
PROPOSITION IV.
categories are subject to change : Changes which affect the substance of a thing are called (a.) Substance. genesis and destruction.
(b.)
Four
Quantity.
Quality.
Place.
Changes in reference to quantity are increase and deChanges in the

qualities of things are transformations. called motion.
is
crease.
(c.)
The term " motion "

used in
a
(d.)
Change
of place
is
is
general sense of
all
properly applied to change of place, but kinds of changes.
also
PROPOSITION V.
Motion implies change and
transition
from potentiality to
actuality.
PROPOSITION VI.
The motion
of a thing
is
either essential or accidental
or
it is
due to an
external force, or to the participation of the thing in the motion of another This latter kind of motion is similar to the accidental one. An inthing.
stance of essential motion
one place to another.

said to
may be found in the translation of a thing from The accident of a thing, as, e.g., its black colour, is move when the thing itself changes its place. The upward motion
of a stone,
owing to a force applied to it in that direction, is an instance of a motion due to an external force. The motion of a nail in a boat may serve to illustrate motion due to the participation of a thing in the motion of another thing for when the boat moves, the nail is said to move likewise. The same is the case with everything composed of several parts when the
;
:
thing
itself
moves, every part of
it is
likewise said to
move.
146

PROPOSITION VII.
Things which are changeable are, at the same time, divisible. Hence everything that moves is divisible, and consequently corporeal ; but thai which is indivisible cannot move, and cannot therefore be corporeal.
PROPOSITION VIII.
thing that moves accidentally must come to rest, because it does not move of its own accord ; hence accidental motion cannot continue for ever.
PROPOSITION IX.
corporeal thing that sets another corporeal thing in motion can only effect this by setting itself in motion at the time it causes the other thing
to move.
PROPOSITION X.
thing which is said to be contained in a corporeal object must satisfy either of the two following conditions : it either exists through that object, as is the case with accidents, or it is the cause of the existence of that object ; In both cases it is a force existing in a such is, e.g., its essential property.
corporeal object.
PROPOSITION XI.
Among the things which exist through a material object, there are some which participate in the division of that object, and are therefore accidentally
parts.
and all other qualities that spread throughout its the other hand, among the things which form the essential elements of an object, there are some which cannot be divided in any way, as,
divisible, as, e.g., its colour,
On
e.g.,
the soul and the intellect.
PROPOSITION XII.
A force which occupies

itself
all
parts of a corporeal object
is finite,
that object
being
finite.
PROPOSITION XIII.
None
of the several kinds of change can be continuous, except motion from

it
place to place, provided
be
circular.
PROPOSITION XIV.
Locomotion is in the natural order of the several kinds of motion the first and foremost. For genesis and corruption are preceded by transformation, which, in its turn, is preceded by the approach of the transforming agent to the object which is to be transformed. Also, increase and decrease are impossible without previous genesis and corruption.
PROPOSITION
XV.
an accident that is related and joined to motion in such a manner Motion is only possible in that the one is never found without the other. time, and the idea of time cannot be conceived otherwise than in connexion with motion ; things which do not move have no relation to time.
is
Time
PROPOSITION XVI.
Incorporeal bodies can only be numbered when they are forces situated in a body ; the several forces must then be counted together with substances
PROPOSITIONS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
147
or objects in \vhich they exist. Hence purely spiritual beings, which are neither corporeal nor forces situated in corporeal objects, cannot be counted,
except
when
considered as causes and effects.
PROPOSITION XVII.
an object moves, there must be some agent that moves it, from without, as, e.g., in the case of a stone set in motion by the hand ; or from within, e.g., when the body of a living being moves. Living beings include in themselves, at the same time, the moving agent and the thing moved ;
When
when, therefore,
the body, condition
viously.
i.e.,
as
a living being dies, and the moving agent, the soul, has left the thing moved, the body remains for some time in the same before, and yet cannot move in the manner it has moved pre-
agent, when included in the thing moved, is hidden This circumstance gave rise to the from, and imperceptible to, the senses. belief that the body of an animal moves without the aid of a moving agent.
The moving
When we
therefore affirm, concerning a thing in motion, that
it is its
own
moving agent, or, as is generally said, that it moves of its own accord, we mean to say that the force which really sets the body in motion exists in that body itself. PROPOSITION XVIII.
Everything that passes over from a state of potentiality to that of actuality,
is
caused to do so by some external agent ; because if that agent existed in the thing itself, and no obstacle prevented the transition, the thing would
never be in a state of potentiality, but always in that of actuality. If, on the other hand, while the thing itself contained that agent, some obstacle existed, and at a certain time that obstacle was removed, the same cause which
removed the obstacle would undoubtedly be described as the cause of the from potentiality to actuality, [and not the force situated within the body]. Note this.
transition
PROPOSITION XIX.
thing which owes
its
exists.
possibility of existence ; It does not exist
existence to certain causes has in itself merely the for only if these causes exist, the thing likewise
if
the causes do not exist at
all,
or
if
they have
ceased to exist, or if there has been a change in the relation which implies the existence of that thing as a necessary consequence of those causes.
PROPOSITION
XX.
its
thing which has in itself the necessity of existence cannot have for existence any cause whatever.
PROPOSITION XXI.
thing composed of two elements has necessarily their composition as the cause of its present existence. Its existence is therefore not necessitated
by its own essence ; it depends on the existence of %nd their combination.

PROPOSITION XXII.
its
two component part*
Material objects are always composed of two elements [at least], and are without exception subject to accidents. The two component elements of all bodies are substance and form. The accidents attributed to material
objects are quantity, geometrical form,
and
position.
148

PROPOSITION XXIII.
exists potentially,
Everything that
state of possibility,
may
at
and whose essence includes some time be without actual existence.

PROPOSITION
a certain
XXIV.
That which
is
potentially a certain
is
state of possibility
thing is necessarily material, for the always connected with matter.
PROPOSITION
XXV.
matter and form, and requires an agent for its existence, viz., a force which sets the substance in motion, and thereby enables it to receive a certain form. The force which thus prepares the substance of a certain individual being, is called the immediate motor.
Each compound substance
consists of
Here the necessity arises of investigating into the properties of motion, But this has already been explained the moving agent and the thing moved. sufficiently ; and the opinion of Aristotle may be expressed in the following
Matter does not move of its own accord an important proproposition position that led to the investigation of the Prime Motor (the first moving
:
agent). Of these foregoing twenty-five propositions some may be verified by means of a little reflection and the application of a few propositions capable of proof, or of axioms or theorems of almost the same force, such as have been ex-
plained by me. Others require many arguments and propositions, all of which, however, have been established by conclusive proofs partly in the Physics and its commentaries, and partly in the Metaphysics and its commentary. I have already stated that in this work it is not my intention to
copy the books of the philosophers or to explain difficult problems, but simply to mention those propositions which are closely connected with our subject, and which we want for our purpose. To the above propositions one must be added which enunciates that the universe is eternal, and which is held by Aristotle to be true, and even more
acceptable than any other theory. For the present we admit it, as a hypoIt is the following thesis, only for the purpose of demonstrating our theory.
proposition
:
PROPOSITION
XXVI
Time and motion
are eternal, constant, and in actual existence. In accordance with this proposition, Aristotle is compelled to assume that
there exists actually a body with constant motion, viz., the fifth element. He therefore says that the heavens are not subject to genesis or destruction,
because motion cannot be generated nor destroyed. He also holds that every motion must necessarily be preceded by another motion, either of the same or of a different kind. The belief that the locomotion of an animal is
not preceded by another motion, is not true for the animal is caused to move, after it had been in rest, by the intention to obtain those very things which bring about that locomotion. A change in its state of health, or some image, or some new idea can produce a desire to seek that which is conducive
;
to
its
welfare and to avoid that which
is
contrary.
Each
of these three causes
THEORY OF THE PHILOSOPHERS

sets
149
kinds of motion.
the living being in motion, and each of them is produced by various Aristotle likewise asserts that everything which is created
its
must, before
drawn from this thing that moves

its
actual creation, have existed in potentia. By inferences assertion he seeks to establish his proposition, viz., The
;
but it repeats the motion in is finite, and its path finite path an infinite number of times. This can only take place when the motion is circular, as has been stated in Proposition XIII. Hence follows also the existence of an infinite number of things which do not co-exist but
follow one after the other.
Aristotle frequently attempts to establish this proposition ; but I believe It appeared to him to that he did not consider his proofs to be conclusive.
be the most probable and acceptable proposition. His followers, however, and the commentators of his books, contend that it contains not only a probable but a demonstrative proof,
lished.
and that
it
has, in fact,
been
fully estab-
the other hand, the Mutakallemim try to prove that the proposition cannot be true, as, according to their opinion, it is impossible to conceive how an infinite number of things could even come into existence
successively.
On
They assume
is
this
think that this proposition
I, however, impossibility as an axiom. admissible, but neither demonstrative, as the
commentators of Aristotle assert, nor, on the other hand, impossible, as the Mutakallemim say. We have no intention to explain here the proofs given by Aristotle, or to show our doubts concerning them, or to set forth our I here simply desire to mention opinions on the creation of the universe. those propositions which we shall require for the proof of the three prinHaving thus quoted and admitted these propositions, ciples stated above. I will now proceed to explain what may be inferred from them.
CHAPTER
ACCORDING to Proposition XXV., a moving agent must exist which has moved the substance of all existing transient things and enabled it to receive Form. The cause of the motion of that agent is found in the existence of " another motor of the same or of a different class, the term motion," in a
general sense, being
common
motions
till
is
not
infinite (Prop. III.)
to four categories (Prop. IV.). This series of we find that it can only be continued ;
the motion of the fifth element is arrived at, and then it ends. The motion of the fifth element is the source of every force that moves and prepares any substance on earth for its combination with a certain form, and is connected with that force by a chain of intermediate motions. The celestial sphere [or the fifth element] performs the act of locomotion which is the first of the several kinds of motion (Prop. XIV.), and all locomotion is found to be the indirect effect of the motion of this sphere ; e.g., a stone is set in motion by a stick, the stick by a man's hand, the hand by the sinews, the
sinews by the muscles, the muscles by the nerves, the nerves by the natural heat of the body, and the heat of the body by its form. This is undoubtedly
the immediate motive cause, but the action of this immediate cause
is
due
to a certain design, e.g., to bring a stone into a hole by striking against it with a stick in order to prevent the draught from coming through the crevice. The motion of the air that causes the draught is the effect of the motion of
150
the celestial sphere. Similarly it may be shown that the ultimate cause of all But genesis and destruction can be traced to the motion of the sphere.
the motion of the sphere must likewise have been effected by an agent (Prop. XVII.) residing either without the sphere or within it ; a third case being
In the first case, if the motor is without the sphere, it must impossible. either be corporeal or incorporeal ; if incorporeal, it cannot be said that the
agent is without the sphere ; it can only be described as separate from it ; because an incorporeal object can only be said metaphorically to reside without a certain corporeal object. In the second case, if the agent resides
within the sphere, it must be either a force distributed throughout the whole sphere so that each part of the sphere includes a part of the force, as is the case with the heat of fire ; or it is an indivisible force, e.g., the soul and the
intellect (Props.
X. and XI.). The agent which sets the sphere in motion must consequently be one of the following four things a corporeal object without the sphere ; an incorporeal object separate from it ; a force spread throughout the whole of the sphere ; or an indivisible force [within the
:
sphere].
The
first case, viz.,
that the
is
moving agent
itself
of the sphere
is
a corporeal
object without the sphere,

is
impossible, as will be explained.
Since the
in
moving agent corporeal, motion (Prop. IX.), and as the sixth element would likewise move when imparting motion to another body, it would be set in motion by a seventh element, which must also move. An infinite number of bodies would thus
be required before the sphere could be
set in
it
must
move while
setting another object
motion.
This
is
contrary to
Proposition II. The third case,
viz., that the moving object be a force distributed throughout the whole body, is likewise impossible. For the sphere is corporeal, and must therefore be finite (Prop. I.) ; also the force it contains must be finite
XI.)
(Prop. XII.), since each part of the sphere contains part of the force (Prop. the latter can consequently not produce an infinite motion, such as
:
we assumed according
present.
to
Proposition
XXVI., which we admitted

is
for the
The fourth
by an
resides in the
case
is
likewise impossible, viz., that the sphere
set in
as
motion
the soul
indivisible force residing in the sphere in the
same manner
body of man. For this force, though indivisible, could not be the cause of infinite motion by itself alone ; because if that were the case the prime motor would have an accidental motion (Prop.VI.). But things that move accidentally must come to rest (Prop. VIII.), and then the thing comes
also to rest
which
is
set in
motion.
(The following may serve
as a further
illustration of the nature of accidental motion.

soul,
i.e.,
When man
is
moved by
the
by his form, to go from the basement of the house to the upper storey, his body moves directly, while the soul, the really efficient cause of For through the translation of that motion, participates in it accidentally. the body from the basement to the upper storey, the soul has likewise changed its place, and when no fresh impulse for the motion of the body is given by the soul, the body which has been set in motion by such impulse comes to rest, and the accidental motion of the soul is discontinued). Consequently the motion of that supposed first motor must be due to some cause which does not form part of things composed of two elements, viz., a moving agent
THEORY OF THE PHILOSOPHERS

sets the
151
is present the motor in that compound motion ; in the absence of such a cause no motion takes place. Living beings do therefore not move continually, although each of them possesses an indivisible motive element ; because this element is not constantly in motion, as it would be if it produced motion of its own accord. On the contrary, the things to which the action is due are separate from the motor. The action is caused either by desire for that which is agreeable, or by aversion from that which is disagreeable, or by some image, or by some ideal when the moving being has the capacity of conceiving it. When any of these causes are present then the motor acts ; its motion is accidental, and must therefore come to an end (Prop. VIIL). If the motor of the sphere were of this kind the sphere could not move ad infinitum. Our opponent, however, holds that the spheres move continually ad infinitum ; if this were the case, and it is in fact possible (Prop. XIII.), the efficient cause of the motion of the sphere must, according to the above division, be of the second kind, viz., something incorporeal and separate from the sphere. It may thus be considered as proved that the efficient cause of the motion of the sphere, if that motion be eternal, is neither itself corporeal nor- does it reside in a corporeal object ; it must move neither of its own accord nor accidentally; it must be indivisible and unchangeable (Prop. VII. and This Prime Motor of the sphere is God, praised be His Prop. V.).
;
and an object moved other element
if
such a cause
in
name
The
hypothesis that there exist
two Gods
is
inadmissible, because abso-
lutely incorporeal beings cannot and effect ; the relation of time
be counted (Prop. XVI.), except as cause is not applicable to God (Prop. XV.), be-
cause motion cannot be predicated of The result of the above argument
Him.
is
;
move ad
infinitum of
its
own
accord
consequently this the sphere cannot the Prime Motor is not corporeal, nor
:
a force residing within a body ; it is One, unchangeable, and in its existence independent of time. Three of our postulates are thus proved by the principal philosophers.
philosophers employ besides another argument, based on the following If there be a thing composed of two elements, and proposition of Aristotle.
The
by itself, apart from that thing, then found in existence by itself separate from that compound. For if the nature of the two elements were such that they could only exist together as, e.g., matter and form then neither of them could The fact that the one component in any way exist separate from the other. is found also in a separate existence proves that the two elements are not indissolubly connected, and that the same must therefore be the case with the other component. Thus we infer from the existence of honey-vinegar and of honey by itself, that there exists also vinegar by itself. After having
the one of
is
them
known
is
to exist also
the other element
likewise
We notice many objects explained this Proposition Aristotle continues thus consisting of a motor and a motum, i.e., objects which set other things in
:
motion, and whilst doing so are themselves set in motion by other things ; such is clearly the case as regards all the middle members of a series of things in motion. We also see a thing that is moved, but does not itself move anything, viz., the last member of the series ; consequently a motor must exist without being at the same time a motum, and that is the Prime Motor, which,
152
not being subject to motion, is indivisible, incorporeal, and independent of time, as has been shown in the preceding argument. Third Philosophical Argument. This is taken from the words of Aristotle,
though he
that
gives
it
in a different form.
It runs as follows
There
is
no doubt
many things actually exist, as, e.g., things perceived with the senses. Now there are only three cases conceivable, viz., either all these things are without beginning and without end, or all of them have beginning and end,
or
some
are with
is
and some without beginning and end.
The
first
of these
three cases
come
altogether inadmissible, since we clearly perceive objects which The second case is into existence and are subsequently destroyed.
likewise inadmissible, for
things might be destroyed, and that
things as possible is end, and then nothing would ever be in existence, for there would not exist
everything had but a temporary existence all which is enunciated of a whole class of All things must therefore come to an necessarily actual.
if
any being to produce anything. Consequently nothing whatever would exist [if all things were transient] ; but as we see things existing, and find Since there are undoubtedly ourselves in existence we conclude as follows beings. of a temporary existence, there must also be an eternal being that is not subject to destruction, and whose existence is real, not merely
:
possible. It has
been further argued that the existence of this being is necessary, on account of itself alone or on account of some external force. In the latter case its existence and non-existence would be equally possible, because of its own properties, but its existence would be necessary on account That force would then be the being that possesses of the external force. It is therefore certain that there must be absolute existence (Prop. XIX.). a being which has absolutely independent existence, and is the source of the existence of all things, whether transient or permanent, if, as Aristotle assumes, there is in existence such a thing, which is the effect of an eternal cause, and must therefore itself be eternal. This is a proof the correctness of which is not doubted, disputed, or rejected, except by those who have no knoweither
ledge of the method of proof. that has independent existence
the existence of anything not due to any cause (Prop. X.), and that such a being does not include any plurality whatever (Prop. XXI.) ; consequently it cannot be a body, nor a force residing in a body (Prop. XXII.). It is now clear that there must be a being with absolutely independent exis
We further say that
being whose existence cannot be attributed to any external cause, and which does not include different elements ; it cannot therefore be coris God. poreal, or a force residing in a corporeal object ; this being It can easily be proved that absolutely independent existence cannot be attributed to two beings. For, if that were the case, absolutely independent existence would be a property added to the substance of both ; neither of them would be absolutely independent on account of their essence, but only through a certain property, viz., that of this independent existence, which is common to both. It can besides be shown in many ways that independent existence cannot be reconciled with the principle of dualism by any means. It would make no difference, whether we imagine two beings of similar or
istence, a
simplicity
The reason for all this is to be sought in the absolute of different properties. and in the utmost perfection of the essence of this being, which is
THEORY OF THE PHILOSOPP1ERS

the only
this
153
;
member
of
its
species,
and does not depend on any cause whatever
see things passing from a state of potentiality to that of actubut in every such case there is for that transition of a thing an agent It is likewise clear that the agent has also separate from it (Prop. XVIII.). It has at first been potential, because passed from potentiality to actuality. it could not be actual, owing to some obstacle contained in itself, or on account of the absence of a certain relation between itself and the object of its action ; it became an actual agent as soon as that relation was present. Whichever cause be assumed, an agent is again necessary to remove the obstacle or to create the relation. The same can be argued respecting this last-mentioned agent that creates the relation or removes the obstacle. This series of causes cannot go on ad infinitum we must at last arrive at a cause of the transition of an object from the state of potentiality to that of In actuality, which is constant, and admits of no potentiality whatever.
ality,
;
We constantly
being has therefore nothing in common with other beings. Fourth Argument. This is likewise a well-known philosophical argument.
the essence of this cause nothing exists potentially, for if its essence included any possibility of existence it would not exist at all (Prop. XXIII.) ; it cannot be corporeal, but it must be spiritual (Prop. XXIV.) ; and the immaterial being that includes no possibility whatever, but exists actually by its own Since He is incorporeal, as has been demonstrated, it follows essence, is God.
(Prop. XVI.). to admit the Eternity of the Universe, we could by any of these methods prove the existence of God ; that He is One and incorporeal, that
He is One
if
Even
we were
and that
He does not reside as a force in a corporeal object. following is likewise a correct method to prove the Incorporeality and the Unity of God If there were two Gods, they would necessarily have one
The
:
virtue of which they were Gods, and another element by which they were distinguished from each other and existed as two Gods ; the distinguishing element would either be in both different from the property common to both in that case both of them would consist of different elements, and neither of them would be the First Cause, or have absolutely independent existence ; but their existence would depend on certain causes or the distinguishing element would only in one of them be (Prop. XIX.) different from the element common to both then that being could not have
element in
common by
absolute independence.
Another proof of the Unity of God. It has been demonstrated by proof that the whole existing world is one organic body, all parts of which are connected together ; also, that the influences of the spheres above pervade the Hence it is impossible to earthly substance and prepare it for its forms. assume that one deity be engaged in forming one part, and another deity in forming another part of that organic body of which all parts are closely
connected together. A duality could only be imagined in this way, either that at one time the one deity is active, the other at another time, or that both act simultaneously, nothing being done except by both together. The
alternative is certainly absurd for many reasons ; if at the time the one deity be active the other could also be active, there is no reason why the one deity should then act and the other not ; if, on the other hand, it be imfirst
possible for the
one deity to act when the other
is
at work, there
must be
154

[besides these deities]
is
some other cause
which
[at a certain time]
enables
the one to act and disables the other.
by time], since time
[Such difference would not be caused without change, and the object of the action likewise
remains one and the same organic whole. Besides, if two deities existed in this way, both would be subject to the relations of time, since their actions would depend on time ; they would also in the moment of acting pass from
potentiality to actuality, and require an agent for such transition ; their It is equally absurd essence would besides include possibility [of existence].
neither of
to assume that both together produce everything in existence, and that them does anything alone ; for when a number of forces must be
united for a certain result, none of these forces acts of its own accord, and none is by itself the immediate cause of that result, but their union is the immediate cause. It has, furthermore, been proved that the action of the
absolute cannot be due to an [external] cause. presupposes a cause effecting that union, and
The union
if
is
also
an act which
doubtedly
is
God
but
if it
that cause be one, it is unalso consists of a number of separate forces, a cause
required for the combination of these forces, as in the first case. Finally, one simple being must be arrived at, that is the cause of the existence of the Universe, which is one whole ; it would make no difference whether we assumed that the First Cause had produced the Universe by crcatio ex nibilo,
or whether the Universe co-existed with the First Cause.
It
is
thus clear
is
how we
can prove the Unity of
God from
the fact that this Universe
one
whole. Another argument concerning the Incorporeality of God. Every corporeal object is composed of matter and form (Prop. XXII.) ; every compound of
sides, it is
Berequires an agent for effecting their combination. evident that a body is divisible and has dimensions ; a body is thus undoubtedly subject to accidents. Consequently nothing corporeal can be
these
two elements
a unity, either because everything corporeal is divisible or because it is a compound ; that is to say, it can logically be analysed into two elements ;
because a body can only be said to be a certain body when the distinguishing element is added to the corporeal substratum, and must therefore include two elements ; but it has been proved that the Absolute admits of no dualism
whatever. Now that
we have
discussed these proofs,
we
will
expound our own method
in accordance with our promise.
CHAPTER
THE
it
II
fifth essence, i.e.,
this case
motion would
eternal.
must be
if
the heavenly spheres, must either be transient, and in likewise be temporary, or, as our opponent assumes, If the spheres are transient, then God is their Creator ;
anything comes into existence after a period of non-existence, it is selfevident that an agent exists which has effected this result. It would be absurd to contend that the thing itself effected it. If, on the other hand, the heavenly spheres be eternal, with a regular perpetual motion, the cause of this perpetual motion, according to the Propositions enumerated in the Introduction, must be something that is neither a body, nor a force residing in a body, and that is God, praised be His name We have thus shown that
for
!
EXISTENCE OP GOD
155
whether we believe in the Creatio ex Nihilo, or in the Eternity of the Universe,
we can prove by demonstrative arguments the existence of God, i.e., an absolute Being, whose existence cannot be attributed to any cause, or admit
any potentiality. The theory that God is One and Incorporeal has been established by proof without any reference to the theory of the Creation or the Eternity of the Universe. This has been explained by
in itself
likewise
and
us in the third philosophical argument [in support of the Existence of God], also in our subsequent description of the methods of the philosophers
and the Unity of God. convenient to continue with the theory of the philosoWe will phers, and to give their proofs for the existence of Intelligences. then show that their theory in this regard is in harmony with the teaching of Scripture concerning the existence of angels. After the full treatment of this subject we shall return to our task and discuss the theory of creatio ex
in proving the Incorporeality
We
deem
it
now
nihilo.
For the best arguments in favour of
this
theory cannot
b'e
fully
must, however, first give the following note, which will introduce you into the secrets of this whole subject, both of that which we have already given and of what will yet be given.
Note. It was not my intention when writing this treatise to expound natural science or discuss metaphysical systems ; it was not my object to prove truths which have already been demonstrated, or describe the number
We
unless the theory of the existence of Intelligences be well understood, and also the method which I adopt in proving their existence.
comprehended
and the properties of the spheres : for the books written on these subjects serve their purpose, and if in some points they are not satisfactory, I do not think that what I could say would be better than what has already been explained by others. But my intention was, as has been stated in the Introduction, to expound Biblical passages which have been impugned, and to elucidate their hidden and true sense, which is above the comprehension of the multitude.
When you
therefore notice that
prove the existence and
number
of Intelligences or the number of the spheres, with the causes of their motion, or discuss the true relation of matter and form, the meaning
of Divine manifestation, or similar subjects, you must not think that I intend merely to establish a certain philosophical proposition ; for these subjects have been discussed in many books, and most of them have been demonstrated
by proof. I only desire to mention that which might, when well understood, serve as a means of removing some of the doubts concerning anything taught in
Scripture ; and indeed many difficulties will disappear when that which I am about to explain is taken into consideration. From the Introduction to this treatise you may learn that its principal object is to expound, as far as can be done, the account of the Creation (Gen. i.-iii.), and of the Divine Chariot (Ezek. i.), and to answer questions raised in respect to Prophecy and to the knowledge of God. You will sometimes notice that I am rather explicit on truths already ascertained some of them Natural Philosophy has established
;
as facts
others Metaphysics has either fully demonstrated, or at least shown to be worthy of belief ; others Mathematics have made plain. But you will
;
invariably find that
my
some
I
allegorical passage of
exposition includes the key for the understanding of Holy Writ and its esoteric interpretation, and that
it
have mentioned, explained, and demonstrated the subject only because
156

some
" " Divine Chariot," or the Creation," or with or to the belief in any of principle respect to Prophecy, explains the truths taught in Scripture. Now, having made this statement, we return to the subject of which we began to treat.
furthers the knowledge of the
CHAPTER
THE
led
sists
III
him
is
theory of Aristotle in respect to the causes of the motion of the spheres to assume the existence of Intelligences. Although this theory con-
which cannot be proved, yet it is the least open to doubt, more systematic than any other, as has been stated by Alexander in the book called The Origin of the Universe. It includes maxims which are identical with those taught in Scripture, and it is to a still greater extent in
of assertions
and
doctrines contained in well-known genuine Midrashim, as For this reason I will cite his views and his proofs, and collect from them what coincides with the teachings of Scripture, and
harmony with
will
be explained by me.
agrees with the doctrine held
by our Sages.
CHAPTER
THE enunciation
reasonable to
find
it
all
IV
is
that the heavenly sphere

sufficiently reflect
endowed with
;
a soul will appear
who
on
it
but at
first
thought they may
unintelligible or even objectionable ; because they wrongly assume that when we ascribe a soul to the heavenly spheres we mean something like the soul of man, or that of an ass, or ox. merely intend to say that the
We
locomotion of the sphere undoubtedly leads us to assume some inherent
by which it moves ; and this principle is certainly a soul. For it would be absurd to assume that the principle of the circular motion of the spheres was like that of the rectilinear motion of a stone downward or of fire upwards, for the cause of the latter motion is a natural property and not a soul ; a thing set in motion by a natural property moves only as long as it is away from the proper place of its element, but when it has again arrived there, it comes to rest whilst the sphere continues its circular motion in its own It is, however, not because the sphere has a soul, that it moves in this place. manner ; for animate beings move either by instinct or by reason. By " " I mean the intention of an animal to instinct
principle
;
able, or to retreat from something disagreeable ; it seeks because of thirst, or to retreat from the
approach something agreethe water e.g., to approach sun because of its heat. Tt
makes no difference whether that thing really exists or is merely imaginary, since the imagination of something agreeable or of something disagreeable likewise causes the animal to move. The heavenly sphere does not move
good.
it
for the purpose of withdrawing from what is bad or approaching what is For in the first instance it moves toward the same point from which
has moved away, and vice versa it moves away from the same point towards which it has moved. Secondly, if this were the object of the motion, we should expect that the sphere would move towards a certain point, and would then rest ; for if it moved for the purpose of avoiding something, and never obtained that object, the motion would be in vain. The circular motion of the sphere is consequently due to the action of
THE SPHERES AND THE INTELLIGENCES

some
are
157
idea
which produces
in
only possible
intellecual being.
But
this particular kind of motion ; but as ideas intellectual beings, the heavenly sphere is an even a being that is endowed with the faculty of
forming an idea, and possesses a soul with the faculty of moving, does not for an idea alone change its place on each occasion that it forms an idea does not produce motion, as has been explained in [Aristotle's] Metaphysics. We can easily understand this, when we consider how often we form ideas of certain things, yet do not move towards them, though we are able to do so ;
;
imagined, that we move in order have thus shown that both the soul, the principle of motion, and the intellect, the source of the ideas, would not produce motion without the existence of a desire for the object of which an idea has been formed. It follows that the heavenly sphere must have a desire for the ideal
it is
only
when
it.
a desire arises for the thing
to obtain
We
which
it
it
exalted be His
has comprehended, and that ideal, for which it has a desire, is name When we say that God moves the spheres, we
! :
God,
mean
in the following sense
ideal
sense
in
comprehended by them. This ideal, however, of the word, and not subject to any change or
the spheres have a desire to become similar to the is simple in the strictest
alteration,
but constant
producing everything good, whilst the spheres are corporeal ; the latter can therefore not be like this ideal in any other way, except in the production of circular motion ; for this is the only action of corporeal beings that can be perpetual ; it is the most simple motion of a body ; there is no change in the essence of the sphere, nor in the beneficial results of its motion. When Aristotle had arrived at this result, he further investigated the subject, and found, by proof, that there were many spheres, and that all moved in circles, but each with its peculiar motion as regards velocity and direction. He naturally argued that the ideal comprehended by the one sphere, which completes its circuit in one day, is different from that of another sphere which he thus arrived at the conclusion that completes its circuit in thirty years there were as many ideals as there were spheres ; each sphere has a desire for
;
that ideal which

its
is
the source of
its
existence,
and that
desire
is
the cause of
individual motion, so that in fact the ideal sets the sphere in motion. Aristotle does not say, nor does any other authority, that there are ten or a
hundred ideals ; he simply states that their number agrees with that of the When, therefore, some of his contemporaries held that the number spheres. of spheres was fifty, he said, if that was true, the number of ideals must likewise be fifty. For the scholars in his time were few and possessed but imperfect learning
; they thought that there must be a separate sphere for each movement, because they did not know that what appear to be several distinct movements can be explained as resulting from the inclination of one sphere
as
is,
e.g.,
and the places of
the case with the change in the longitude of a star, its declination its rising and setting noticed in the circle of the horizon.
;
This point, however, does not concern us at present to our subject.
let us therefore return
The later philosophers assumed ten Intelligences, because they counted the spheres containing stars and the all-encompassing sphere, although some of the spheres included several distinct orbits. There are altogether nine
spheres, viz., the all-encompassing sphere, that of the fixed stars, and those of the seven planets ; nine Intelligences correspond to the nine spheres ;
158
the tenth Intelligence is the Active Intellect. The existence of the latter is proved by the transition of our intellect from a state of potentiality to that of actuality, and by the same transition in the case of the forms of all tran-
whatever passes from potentiality into actuality, requires an external agent of the same kind as itself. Thus the builder does not build the storehouse in his capacity of workman, but in that and that form of a person that has the form of the storehouse in his mind
;
For sient beings. for that transition
of the building which exists in the mind of the builder caused the transition of the potential form of the storehouse into actuality, and impressed it on
the material of the building. As that which gives form to matter must itself be pure form, so the source of intellect must itself be pure intellect, and this
source
their
is
the Active Intellect.

is
compounds
spheres ; and enables us to
The relation of the latter to the elements and the same as that of the Intelligences to their respective and our intellect in action, which originates in the Active Intellect,
comprehend that
intellect, finds a parallel in
the intellect
of each of the spheres which originates in the Intelligence corresponding to that sphere, and enables the sphere to comprehend that Intelligence, to
form an idea
of it, and to move in seeking to become similar to it. Aristotle further infers, what has already been explained, that God does not act by means of direct contact. When, e.g., He destroys anything with
fire,
the
fire is set
in
motion through the movement of the spheres, and the

"
spheres by the Intelligences ; the latter, which are identical with the angels," and act by direct influence, are consequently, each in its turn, the cause of the motion of the spheres ; as however, purely spiritual beings do not differ
in their essence, and are by to the following conclusion
no means
:
discrete quantities, he (Aristotle)

first
came
God
created the
agent of the
gence which
the Intelli; the sphere nearest to the earth in motion is the source and origin of the Active Intellect, the last in the series of purely spiritual beings. The series of material bodies similarly begins with the uppermost sphere,
its
move
has
first sphere ; the Intelligence which source and origin in the first Intelligence, and so on
Intelligence, the motive causes the second sphere to
sets
and ends with the elements and their compounds. The Intelligence which moves the uppermost sphere cannot be the Absolute Being, for there, is an
element common to all Intelligences, namely, the property of being the motive agent of a sphere, and there is another element by which each of them is distinguished from the rest ; each of the ten Intelligences includes, therefore, two elements, and consequently another being must be the First
Cause.
is the theory and opinion of Aristotle on these questions, and. his where proof is possible, are given in various works of the Aristotelian In short, he believes that the spheres are animated and intellectual that beings, capable of fully comprehending the principia of their existence there exist purely spiritual beings (Intelligences), which do not reside in corporeal objects, and which derive existence from God ; and that these form the intermediate element between God and this material world. In the chapters which follow I will show how far the teaching of Scripture is in harmony with these views, and how far it differs from them.
This
proofs, school.
159
CHAPTER V
SCRIPTURE supports the theory that the spheres are animate and intellectual, that they are not, as ignorant persons i.e., capable of comprehending things believe, inanimate masses like fire and earth, but are, as the philosophers assert, endowed with life, and serve their Lord, whom they mightily praise and " The heavens declare the glory of God," etc. (Ps. xix. 2). comp. glorify
; ;
It
is
"
a great error to think that this
is
mere
to declare
"
and
"
figure of speech
for the verbs
to relate,"
used of intellectual beings.
when joined together, are, in Hebrew, only That the Psalmist really means to describe the
is
heavens' own doing, in other words, what the spheres actually do, and not man thinks of them, may be best inferred from the words, " There
what no
Here he clearly (ver. 4). speech, nor language, their voice is not heard shows that he describes the heavens themselves as in reality praising God,
and declaring His wonders without words of lip and tongue. When man praises God in words actually uttered, he only relates the ideas which he has conceived, but these ideas form the real praise. The reason why he gives expression to these ideas is to be found in his desire to communicate them to others, or to make himself sure that he has truly conceived them. There" fore it is said, Commune with your own heart upon your bed, and be " still Only ignorant or obstinate persons would refuse to admit (Ps. iv. ^). this proof taken from Scripture. As to the opinion of our Sages, I do not see any necessity for expounding or demonstrating it. Consider only the form they gave to the blessing recited on seeing the new moon, the ideas repeatedly occurring in the prayers and the remarks in the Midrash on the following and similar passages " And the host of heaven worshippeth thee " (Neh. ix. 6) ; " When the " morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy (Job " And the earth was empty In Bereshit Rabba, on the passage xxxviii. 7). and formless " (Gen. i. 2), our Sages remark as follows " The words tohu and the earth mourned and cried on account bohu mean mourning and crying of her evil lot, saying, I and the heavens were created together, and yet the " Our Sages, by this remark, beings above live for ever, and we are mortal.' indicate their belief that the spheres are animated beings, and not inanimate matter like the elements.
:
:
"
'
opinion of Aristotle, that the spheres are capable of comprehension is in accordance with the words of our prophets and our The philosophers further agree that this world below theologians or Sages. is governed by influences emanating from the spheres, and that the latter comprehend and have knowledge of the things which they influence. This
The
and conception,
met with in Scripture comp. [the stars and all the host of which the Lord thy God hath divided unto all nations " (Deut. iv. 19), that is to say, the stars, which God appointed to be the means of governing His creatures, and not the objects of man's worship. It has there" And to rule over the day and over the night " fore been stated clearly " " here The term refers to the power which the i. 1 (Gen. 8). ruling spheres possess of governing the earth, in addition to the property of giving light and darkness. The latter property is the direct cause of genesis and destruction " And to divide the light from the darkness " it is described in the words, It is impossible to assume that those who rule a thing are ignorant (ibid.}.
theory
is
also
"
heaven]
i6o

will
of that very thing
We
which they rule, if we take add another chapter on this subject.
"
to rule
"
in
its
proper sense.
CHAPTER
As
fies
'
VI
mankind; but in the phrase elohe ha-elohim, He is described as the God of the angels, and in adoneha-adonim,3.?, the Lord of the spheres and the stars, which are the masters The nouns elohim and adonim in these of the rest of the corporeal creation. phrases do not refer to human judges or masters, because these are in rank inferior to the heavenly bodies ; much less do they refer to mankind in general, including masters and servants, or to objects of stone and wood for it is no honour or greatness to God to be worshipped by some as gods The phrases therefore admit of superior to stone, wood, or a piece of metal. God is the Judge over the judges ; i.e., over no other meaning than this the angels, and the Lord over the spheres. We have already stated above that the angels are incorporeal. This agrees there is only this difference in the names emwith the opinion of Aristotle " " Intelligences," and we say instead ployed he uses the term angels." His theory is that the Intelligences are intermediate beings between the Prime Cause and existing things, and that they effect the motion of the This is also spheres, on which motion the existence of all things depends. the view we meet with in all parts of Scripture every act of God is described " But angel " means " messenger " ; hence as being performed by angels. is intrusted with a certain mission is an that one Even the angel. every movements of the brute creation are sometimes due to the action of an angel,
all
;
: :
" ; judges comp. ' " (ha-elohim ; judges angels, and to the Creator as being Judge over the angels. "I am the Lord your God," the pronoun "your" refers to
Scripture,
for the existence of angels, there is where the fact is frequently
"
no necessity to cite any proof from mentioned. The term elobim signi" The cause of both parties shall come before the Exod. xxii. 8). It has been figuratively applied to
When God
says,
serve the purpose of the Creator, who endowed it " with the power of performing that movement ; e.g., God hath sent His the hath shut lions' mouths that and have not hurt me " (Dan. angel, they Another instance may be seen in the movements of Balaam's ass, vi. 22). described as caused by an angel. The elements are also called angels. Comp. " Who maketh winds His angels, flaming fire His ministers " (Ps. civ. 4). " " There is no doubt that the word is used of a angel messenger sent by " man ; e.g., And Jacob sent angels " (Gen. xxxii. 4) ; of a prophet, e.g., " And an angel of the Lord came up from Gilgal to Bochim " (Judges ii. i) ; " And He sent an angel, and hath brought us forth out of Egypt " (Num. xx. 1 6). It is also used of ideals, perceived by prophets in prophetic visions, and of man's animal powers, as will be explained in another place. When we assert that Scripture teaches that God rules this world through In some angels, we mean such angels as are identical with the Intelligences. " Let us make man in our image " passages the plural is used of God, e.g., " Go to. let us go down, and there confound their language " (Gen. i. 26) ;
when such movements
Our Sages explain this in the following manner : God, as it I wonder at the were, does nothing without contemplating the host above.
(ibid. xi. 7).

"
expression
161
contemplating," which is the very expression used by Plato : " were, contemplates the world of ideals, and thus produces the existing beings." 'In other passages our Sages expressed it more decidedly : " God does nothing without consulting the host above " (the word familia
God,
as it
used in the original,
is
Greek noun, and
"
signifies
host
").
On
the words,
'
"what they have already made" (Eccles. ii. 12), the following remark is " It is not said what made in B ere shit Rabba and in Midrash Koheleth : hence we infer that He, as it He has made,' but what they have made were, with His court, have agreed upon the form of each of the limbs of man before placing it in its position, as it is said, He hath made thee and estab' '
; '
In Bereshit Rabba (chap, li.) it is also stated, " occurred in Scripture, the Lord and the Lord with His court is to be understood. These passages do not convey the idea that God spoke, thought, reflected, or that He consulted and employed the opinion of other beings, as ignorant persons have believed. How could the Creator be assisted by those whom He created They only show that all parts of the Universe, even the limbs of animals in their actual form, are produced through angels for natural forces and angels are identical. How bad and injurious is the blindness of ignorance Say to a person who is
lished thee
'
"
(Deut. xxxii.
that wherever the term
"
6).
believed to belong to the wise men of Israel that the Almighty sends His angel to enter the womb of a woman and to form there the foetus, he will be
satisfied with the account ; he will believe it, and even find in it a description of the greatness of God's might and wisdom ; although he believes that the angel consists of burning fire, and is as big as a third part of the Universe, yet he considers it possible as a divine miracle. But tell him that God gave the
seed a formative
power
angel," or that all forms are the result of the influence of the Active Intellect, and that the latter is the angel, the Prince of the world,
is
called
"
power which produces and shapes the limbs, and that
this
frequently mentioned by our Sages, and he will turn away ; because he cannot comprehend the true greatness and power of creating forces that act in a body without being perceived by our senses. Our Sages have already stated for him who has understanding that all forces that reside in a body
are angels, much more the forces that are active in the Universe. The theory that each force acts only in one particular way, is expressed in Bereshit Rabba
" as follows One angel does not perform two things, and two 1.) " do not one this is exactly the property of all forces. ; angels perform thing We may find a confirmation of the opinion that the natural and psychical forces of an individual are called angels in a statement of our Sages which is frequently quoted, and occurs originally in Bereshit Rabba (chap. Ixxviii.) " Every day God creates a legion of angels they sing before Him, and disappear." When, in opposition to this statement, other statements were quoted to the effect that angels are eternal and, in fact, it has repeatedly been shown that they live permanently the reply has been given that some angels live permanently, others perish ; and this is really the case ; for individual force? are transient, whilst the genera are permanent and imperishable. Again, we read (in Bereshit Rabba, chap. Ixxxv.), in reference to the relation between " R. Jochanan said that Judah was about to pass by Judah and Tamar [without noticing Tamar], but God caused the angel of lust, i.e., the libidinous disposition, to present himself to him." Man's disposition is here called
(chap.
:
:
162
an angel.
a

Likewise
certain thing."
cherub."
sleeps, his soul speaks to the angel, the angel to the intelligent reader will find here a clear statement that man's " " " is used for cherub angel," and that imaginative faculty is also called man's intellectual faculty. beautiful must this appear to him who
occurs
"
" the angel set over frequently meet with the phrase In Midrash-Koheleth (on Eccles. x. 7) the following passage
we
When man
The
How
absurd to the ignorant ! We have already stated that the forms in which angels appear form part of the prophetic vision. Some prophets see angels in the form of man, e.g., " And behold three men stood by him " (Gen. xviii. 2) ; others perceive an " And his countenance was as the angel as a fearful and terrible being, e.g., " countenance of an angel of God, very terrible (Judges xiii. 6) ; others see " them as fire, e.g., And the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of " fire In Bereshit Rabba (chap. 1.) the following remark (Exod. iii. 2). " occurs To Abraham, whose prophetic power was great, the angels
understands
it
;
:
how
as angels."
appeared in the form of men ; to Lot, whose power was weak, they appeared This is an important principle as regards Prophecy ; it will be
fully discussed
when we
treat of that subject (chap, xxxii. sqq).

(ibid.}
Another
Before the angels have called when their task are have accomplished it men, they they accomplished " " angel they are angels." Consider how clearly they say that the term signifies nothing but a certain action, and that every appearance of an angel
passage
in
Beresbit
Rabba
runs thus
"
is
part of a prophetic vision, depending on the capacity of the person that

it.
perceives
There is nothing
this
:
teaching of Scripture.
in the opinion of Aristotle The whole difference
on this subject contrary to the between him and ourselves is
he believes
all
Cause
that
as its necessary effect
these beings to be eternal, co-existing with the First but we believe that they have had a beginning, ;
God
seeking to
spheres,
differ
created the Intelligences, and gave the spheres the capacity of become like them ; that in creating the Intelligences and the
He endowed them
with their governing powers.
In
this
point
we
from him.
this treatise
In the course of
we
shall give his
theory as well as the theory
of Creatio ex nikilo taught in Scripture.
CHAPTER WE have already explained that the term

"
VII
"
angel
is
homonym, and
;
is
used
of the intellectual beings, the spheres, and the elements for all these are engaged in performing a divine command. But do not imagine that the Intelligences and the spheres are like other forces which reside in bodies and act
by the laws
of nature without being conscious of
what they
do.
The
spheres and the Intelligences are conscious of their actions, and select by their own free will the objects of their influence, although not in the same
manner
as
we
exercise
free will
I
;
concern temporary beings.

certain passages in Scripture
and rule over other things, which onlv have been led to adopt this theory by " For I cannot e.g., an angel says to Lot
:
do anything,"
angel says
:
and telling him to deliver himself, the (Gen. xix. 21) " " Behold I have accepted thee concerning this thing (ver. 21).
etc.
;

"
163
Again
21). will
Take heed before him, and listen to his voice," etc. (Exod. xxiii. These passages show that angels are conscious of what they do, and
:
have free will in the sphere of action intrusted to them, just as we have free within our province, and in accordance with the power given to us with our very existence. The difference is that what we do is the lowest stage of excellence, and that our influence and actions are preceded by nonwhilst the Intelligences and the spheres always perform that which ; good, they contain nothing except what is good and perfect, as will be shown further on, and they have continually been active from the beginning.
action
is
CHAPTER
VIII
IT is one of the ancient beliefs, both among the philosophers and other people, that the motions of the spheres produced mighty and fearful sounds. They
how little objects produced by rapid motion a loud, shrilling, and terrifying noise, and concluded that this must to a far higher degree be the case with the bodies of the sun, the moon and the stars, considering their
observed
The Pythagoreans believed that the sounds were pleasant, and, though loud, had the same proportions to each other as the musical notes. They also explained why these mighty and tremendous sounds are not heard by us. This belief is also widespread in our nation. Thus our Sages describe the greatness of the sound produced by the sun in the daily circuit in its orbit. The same description could be given of all heavenly bodies. Aristotle, however, rejects this, and holds that they produce no sounds. You will find his opinion in the book The Heavens and the World (De Coelo). You must not find it strange that Aristotle differs here from the opinion of our Sages. The theory of the music of the spheres is connected with the theory of the motion of the stars in a fixed sphere, and our Sages have, in this astronomical question, abandoned their own theory in " The wise men favour of the theory of others. Thus, it is distinctly stated, It is quite right that of other nations have defeated the wise men of Israel." our Sages have abandoned their own theory ; for speculative matters every one treats according to the results of his own study, and every one accepts that which appears to him established by proof.
greatness and their velocity.
CHAPTER IX WE have stated above that in the age of Aristotle the number of spheres was and that those who at present count nine spheres not accurately known
;
consider a sphere containing several rotating circles as one, a fact well known to all who have a knowledge of astronomy. need, therefore, not reject the opinion of those who assume two spheres in accordance with the words of
We
Behold the heaven and the heaven of heavens are the Lord's x. They reckon all the spheres with stars, i.e., with all the (Deut. 14). the all-encompassing sphere in which circles in which the stars move, as one there are no stars, is regarded by them as the second ; hence they maintain
Scripture
:
"
"
that there are

I will
two
spheres.
here introduce an explanation which is necessary for the understanding of our view on the present subject. There is a difference among
164
ancient astronomers whether the spheres of Mercury and Venus are above or below the sun, because no proof can be given for the position of these two At first it was generally assumed that they were above the sun
spheres.
note this well ; later on Ptolemy maintained that they were below the sun ; because he believed that in this manner the whole arrangement of the spheres would be most reasonable ; the sun would be in the middle, having three More recently some Andalusian scholars stars below and three above itself.
concluded, from certain principles laid down by Ptolemy, that Venus and Mercury were above the sun. Ibn Aflah of Seville, with whose son I was the excellent acquainted, has written a famous book on the subject ; also
philosopher Abu-Bekr ibn-Alzaig, one of whose pupils was my fellow-student, has treated of this subject and offered certain proofs which we have copied The of the improbability of Venus and Mercury being above the sun.
proofs given
by Abu-Bekr show only the improbability, not the impossibility. In short, whether it be so or not, the ancients placed Venus and Mercury that of the above the sun, and had, therefore, the following five spheres
:
undoubtedly the nearest to ,us that of the sun, which is, of course, above the former ; then that of the five planets, the sphere of the fixed stars, and the outermost sphere, which does not contain any star. Consequently there are four spheres containing figures, i.e., stars, which were called figures by the ancients in their well-known works viz., the spheres above these of the fixed stars, of the five planets, of the sun, and of the moon there is one sphere which is empty, without any star. This number is for me of great importance in respect to an idea which none of the philosophers clearly stated, though I was led to it by various utterances of the philosophers and of our Sages. I will now state the idea and expound it.
moon, which
is
CHAPTER X
IT is a well-known fact that the philosophers, when they discuss in their works the order of the Universe, assume that the existing order of things in this sublunary world of transient beings depends on forces which emanate from the spheres. We have mentioned this several times. In like manner " our Sages say, There is no single herb below without its corresponding star " Knowest above, that beats upon it and commands it to grow." Comp. thou the ordinances of heaven ? Canst thou set the dominion thereof " in the earth ? (Job xxxviii. 33). The term mazzal, literally meaning a constellation in the Zodiac, is also used of every star, as may be inferred from the following passage in the beginning of Bereshit Rabba " While one star (mazzal) completes its circuit in thirty days, (chap, x.) : another completes it in thirty years." They have thus clearly expressed it, that even each individual being in this world has its corresponding star. Although the influences of the spheres extend over all beings, there is besides the influence of a particular star directed to each particular species ; a fact noticed also in reference to the several forces in one organic body for the whole Universe is like one organic body, as we have stated
;
above.
Thus
the philosophers speak of the peculiar influence of the
moon
on the particular element water. That this is the case is proved by the increase and decrease of the water in the seas and rivers according to the

increase
seas
165
and decrease of the moon ; also by the rising and the falling of the according to the advance or return of the moon, i.e., her ascending and her descending in the several quarters of her course. This is clear to every one who has directed his attention to these phenomena. The influence of the
sun's rays
upon
fire
may
easily
be noticed in the increase of heat or cold on
earth, according as the sun approaches the earth or recedes or is concealed from it. All this is so clear that I need not explain it further. it
Now
occurred to
that the four spheres which contain stars exercise influence upon all beings on earth that come into existence, and, in fact, are the cause of their existence ; but each of the four spheres is the exclusive
my mind
own motion
water
is
source of the properties of one only of the four elements, and becomes by its the cause of the motion and changes of that element. Thus
set in
motion by the moon-sphere, fire by the sun-sphere, air by the move in many and different courses with retrogressions, progressions, and stations, and therefore produce the various forms of the air with its frequent changes, contractions, and expansions ; the sphere of the other stars, namely, the fixed stars, sets earth in motion ; and it may be that on this account, viz., on account of the slow motion of the fixed stars, earth is but slowly set in motion to change and to combine with other elements. The particular influence which the fixed stars exercise upon earth
other planets, which
is
is
implied in the saying of our Sages, that the number of the species of plants " the same as that of the individuals included in the general term stars."
The arrangement
follows
:
of the Universe
may
therefore be assumed to be as
there are four spheres, four elements set in motion by them, and also four principal properties which earthly beings derive from them, as has
been stated above. Furthermore, there are four causes of the motion of every sphere, namely, the following four essential elements in the sphere ; its spherical shape, its soul, its intellect, by which the sphere is capable of forming ideas, and the Intelligence, which the sphere desires to imitate.
this well. The explanation of what I said is this the sphere could not have been continuously in motion, had it not this peculiar form ; continuity of motion is only possible when the motion is circular. Rectilinear motion, even if frequently repeated in the same moment, cannot be continuous ; for
Note
successively in two opposite directions, it must pass of rest, as has been demonstrated in its proper place. The necessity of a continuous motion constantly repeated in the same path The spheres must have a soul ; for implies the necessity of a circular form.
a
when
body moves
through a
moment
only animate beings can move freely. There must be some cause for the motion, and as it does not consist in the fear of that which is injurious, or the desire of that which is profitable, it must be found in the notion which the spheres form of a certain being, and in the desire to approach that being.
This formation of a notion demands, in the

sess intellect
;
first
place, that the spheres pos-
demands further that something exists which corresponds These are the to that notion, and which the spheres desire to approach. tour causes of the motion of the spheres The following are the four printhe nature of minerals, the cipal forces directly derived from the spheres An properties peculiar to plants, the animal faculties, and the intellect. examination of these forces shows that they have two functions, namely, to produce things and to perpetuate them ; that is to say, to preserve the species
it
:
166
perpetually,

and the individuals
in each species for a certain time. which is said to be wise, to
These
govern
are also the functions ascribed to Nature,
the Universe, to provide, as it were, by plan for the production of living Nature beings, and to provide also for their preservation and perpetuation. creates formative faculties, which are the cause of the production of living
beings,
and nutritive
faculties as the source of their
temporal existence and
It may be that by Nature the Divine Will is meant, which is preservation. the origin of these two kinds of faculties through the medium of the spheres.
As to the number four, it is strange, and demands our attention. In " How many steps were Midrash Tanhuma the following passage occurs
:
in Jacob's ladder ? Four." The question refers to the verse, And behold In all the Midrashim a ladder set upon the earth," etc. (Gen. xxviii. 12). it is stated that there were four hosts of angels ; this statement is frequently
"
Some read in the above passage How many steps were in the repeated. ladder ? Seven." But all readings and all Midrashim unanimously express
:
"
that the angels whom Jacob saw ascending the ladder, and descending, were only four ; two of whom were going up and two coming down. These four angels, the two that went up and the two that came down, occupied one
Hence it has been inferred that the step of the ladder, standing in one line. breadth of the ladder in this vision was four-thirds of the world. For the breadth of an angel in a prophetic vision is equal to one-third of the world " And his body was like tarsbish (two-sixths) " (Dan. x. 6) the four comp.
; ;
" mountain?, which mountains were mountains of brass (Zech. vi. i), adds " the explanation, These are the four spirits of the heavens which go forth from standing before the Lord of all the earth" (ibid. ver. 5). By these four
spirits
Zechariah, in describing angels therefore occupied four-thirds of the world. " the four chariots that came out from between two the allegorical vision of
the causes are meant which produce
all
term
brass
"
brass
"
"
will
(nehosbef),
(nefroshet kalafy,
employed used by Ezekiel
here,
(i.
changes in the Universe. The " burnished and the phrase to extent are some 7), homony-
mous, and
The is as broad as the third part of the Universe, or, in the words of Bereshit Rabba (chap, x.), that the angel is the third part of the world, is quite clear ; we have already explained it in our The whole creation consists of three parts, (i) large work on the Holy Law.
the pure intelligences, or angels ; (2) the bodies of the spheres ; and (3) the materia prima, or the bodies which are below the spheres, and are subject to constant change.
be discussed further on. saying of our Sages, that the angel
In
this
desire to understand
manner may those understand the dark sayings of the prophets who them, who awake from the sleep of forgetfulness, deliver
"
higher beings.
themselves from the sea of ignorarice, and raise themselves upward nearer the But those who prefer to swim in the waters of their ignor;
ance, and to go down very low," need not exert the body or heart need only cease to move, and they will go down by the law of nature.
they
Note
and consider well
all
we have
said.
CHAPTER XI
WHEN
a simple
mathematician reads and studies these astronomical discus-

sions,
167
he believes that the form and the number of the spheres are facts by proof. But this is not the case ; for the science of astronomy does not aim at demonstrating them, although it includes subjects that can be proved ; e.g., it has been proved that the path of the sun is inclined this cannot be doubted. But it has not yet been against the equator decided whether the sphere of the sun is excentric or contains a revolving epicycle, and the astronomer does not take notice of this uncertainty, for his object is simply to find an hypothesis that would lead to a uniform and circular motion of the stars without acceleration, retardation, or change, and which is in its effects in accordance with observation. He will, besides, endeavour to find such an hypothesis which would require the least complicated motion and the least number of spheres ; he will therefore prefer an hypoestablished
;
thesis which would explain all the phenomena of the stars by means of three From this reason spheres to an hypothesis which would require four spheres. we adopt, in reference to the circuit of the sun, the theory of excentricity,
and
we therereject the epicyclic revolution assumed by Ptolemy. fore perceive that all fixed stars move in the same way uniformly, without the least difference, we conclude that they are all in one sphere. It is, how-
When
have each its own sphere, with a way. If this theory be accepted, a number of Intelligences must be assumed, equal to that of the stars, and " therefore Scripture says in reference to them, Is there any number of his " armies ? xxv. for the (Job 3) ; Intelligences, the heavenly bodies, and the natural forces, are called the armies of God. Nevertheless the species of the stars can be numbered, and therefore we would still be justified in counting the spheres of the fixed stars collectively as one, just as the five spheres of the planets, together with the numerous spheres they contain, are regarded by us as one. Our object in adopting this number is, as you have noticed, to divide the influences which we can trace in the Universe according to their general character, without desiring to fix the number of the Intelligences and the spheres. All we wish to point out is this in the first place, that the whole Creation is divided into three parts, viz. (i) the pure Intelligences ; (2) the bodies of the spheres endowed with permanent forms (the forms of these bodies do not pass from one substratum to another, nor do their substrata undergo any change whatever) and (3) the transient earthly
ever, not impossible that the stars should separate centre, and yet move in the same
:
Furthermore, we desire beings, all of which consist of the same substance. to show that the ruling power emanates from the Creator, and is received by the Intelligences according to their order ; from the Intelligences part of
the good and the light bestowed upon them is communicated to the spheres, and the latter, being in possession of the abundance obtained of the Intelli-
and properties unto the beings of this transient world. must, however, add that the part which benefits the part below it in the order described does not exist for the sole purpose of producing that
gences, transmit forces
We
benefit.
For
if
this
were the case
it
would lead to the paradox that the higher,

applied
better, and nobler beings existed for the sake of beings lower in rank, whilst in reality the should be of than the means
object
greater importance
for attaining it. intelligent person will admit that this is possible. ^ The nature of the influence which one of the Creation exercises another
No
part
upon
is
must be explained
as follows
A thing perfect in a
certain
way
either per-
168
without being able to communicate that perfection to another being, or it is so perfect that it is capable of imparting perfection to another being. A person may possess wealth sufficient for his own wants without being able to spare anything for another, or he may have wealth enough to benefit also other people, or even to enrich them to such an extent
feet only in itself,
would enable them to give part of their property to others. In the same manner the creative act of the Almighty in giving existence to pure Intelligences endows the first of them with the power of giving existence to another, and so on, down to the Active Intellect, the lowest of the purely spiritual
as
Besides producing other Intelligences, each Intelligence beings. existence to one of the spheres, from the highest down to the lowest,
is
gives
which
the sphere of the moon. After the latter follows this transient world, i.e., the materia prima, and all that has been formed of it. In this manner the elements receive certain properties from each sphere, and a succession of
and destruction is produced. have already mentioned that these theories are not opposed to anything taught by our Prophets or by our Sages. Our nation is wise and perfect, as has been declared by the Most High, through Moses, who made us " " Surely this great nation is a wise and understanding people perfect barbarians when wicked have iv. But us of our (Deut. 6). deprived possessions, put an end to our science and literature, and killed our wise men, we have become ignorant this has been foretold by the prophets, when they " The wisdom of their wise men pronounced the punishment for our sins " shall of their and the understanding prudent men shall be hid (Isa. perish, xxix. 14). We are mixed up with other nations ; we have learnt their
genesis
We
The Psalmist, deploring this opinions, and followed their ways and acts. " imitation of the actions of other nations, says, They were mingled among " the nations, and learned their works cvi. Isaiah likewise complains 35). (Ps.
that the Israelites adopted the opinions of their neighbours, and says, And " or, according (Isa. ii. 6) they please themselves in the children of strangers
to the
"
Aramaic version
of Jonathan, son of Uzziel,
ways of the nations."

in philosophy,
they walk in the Having been brought up among persons untrained
"
And
we are inclined to consider these philosophical opinions as foreign to our religion, just as uneducated persons find them foreign to their own notions. But, in fact, it is not so. Since we have repeatedly spoken of the influence emanating from God and
the Intelligences, we will now proceed to explain what is the true meaning of this influence, and after that I will discuss the theory of the Creation.
CHAPTER
IT
is
XII
efficient cause
clear
that whenever a thing
is
produced, an
must
exist
for the production of the thing that has not existed previously. This immediate efficient cause is either corporeal or incorporeal ; if corporeal, it is not
the efficient cause on account of its corporeality, but on account of its being an individual corporeal object, and therefore by means of its form. I will speak of this subject later on. The immediate efficient cause of a thing may again be the effect of some cause, and so on, but not ad infinitum. The series of causes for a certain product must necessarily conclude with a First Cause,
EMANATION
169
which is the true cause of that product, and whose existence is not due to another cause. The question remains, Why has this thing been produced now and not long before, since the cause has always been in existence ? The answer is, that a certain relation between cause and product has been absent, if the cause be corporeal ; or, that the substance has not been sufficiently prepared, if the cause be incorporeal. All this is in accordance with the We ignore for the present the question whether teachings of natural science. to assume the Eternity of the Universe, or the Creatio ex nihilo. We do not intend to discuss the question here. In Physics it has been shown that a body in acting upon another body must either directly be in contact with it, or indirectly through the medium of other bodies. E.g., a body that has been heated has been in contact with fire, or the air that surrounds the body has been heated by the fire, and has communicated the heat to the body ; the immediate cause of the heat in this body is the corporeal substance of the heated air. The magnet attracts iron from a distance through a certain force communicated to the air round the iron. The magnet does therefore not act at all distances, just as fire does not act at every distance, but only as long as the air between the fire and the object is affected by the fire. When the air is no longer affected by the fire which is under a piece of wax, the latter does not melt. The same is the case with magnetism. When an object that has previously not been warm has now become warm, the cause of its heat must now have been created ; either some fire has been produced, or the distance of the fire from the object has been changed, and the altered relation between the fire and the object is the cause now created. In a similar manner we find the causes of all changes in the Universe to be changes in the combination of the elements that act upon each other when one body approaches another or separates from it. There are, however, changes which are not connected with the combination of the elements, but concern only the forms of the things ; they require likewise an efficient cause ; there must exist a force that produces the various forms. This cause is incorporeal, for that which produces form must itself be abstract form, as has been shown in its proper place. I have also indicated the proof of this theorem in previous chapters. The following may, in
addition, serve to illustrate it : All combinations of the elements are subject to increase and decrease, and this change takes place gradually. It is different with forms ; they do not change gradually, and are therefore without motion ;
they appear and disappear instantaneously, and are consequently not the combination of corporeal elements. This combination merely prepares matter for receiving a certain form. The efficient cause which
result of the
produces the form is indivisible, because it is of the same kind as the thing produced. Hence it may be concluded that the agent that has produced a certain form, or given it to a certain substance, must itself be an abstract form. The action of this incorporeal agent cannot depend on a certain
relation to the corporeal product ; being incorporeal, it cannot approach a body, or recede from it ; nor can a body approach the incorporeal agent, or recede from it, because there is no relation of distance between corporeal and
incorporeal beings. The reason why the action has not taken place before must be sought in the circumstance that the substance has not been prepared
for the action of the abstract form.
i;0
It
is

now
clear that the action of bodies
upon each
other, according to
their forms, prepares the substance for receiving the action of an incorporeal The existence of actions of purely incorporeal beings, in being, or Form.
every case of change that does not originate in the mere combination of elements, is now firmly established. These actions do not depend on im" " " They are termed influence (or emanapact, or on a certain distance.
The latter sends tion "), on account of their similarity to a water-spring. forth water in all directions, has no peculiar side for receiving or spending its contents ; it springs forth on all sides, and continually waters both neighbouring and distant places. In a similar manner incorporeal beings, in receiving power and imparting it to others, are not limited to a particular side, distance, or time. They act continually and whenever an object is sufficiently prepared, it receives the effect of that continuous action, called " " " influence emanation "). God being incorporeal, and everything (or being the work of Him as the efficient cause, we say that the Universe has been created by the Divine influence, and that all changes in the Universe emanate from Him. In the same sense we say that He caused wisdom to emanate from Him and to come upon the prophets. In all such cases we merely wish to express that an incorporeal Being, whose action we call " The term " influence " has influence," has produced a certain effect. been considered applicable to the Creator on account of the similarity between His actions and those of a spring. There is no better way of describing and no term can be the action of an incorporeal being than by this analogy found that would accurately describe it. For it is as difficult to form an idea of that action as to form an idea of the incorporeal being itself. As we
; ;
imagine only bodies or forces residing in bodies, so we only imagine actions possible when the agent is near, at a certain distance, and on a particular side. There are therefore persons who, on learning that God is incorporeal, or that He does not approach the object of His action, believe that He gives commands to angels, and that the latter carry them out by approach or direct
contact, as
is
the case
imagine
also the angels as bodies.
when we produce something. These persons thus Some of them, further, believe that God
"
commands an
which
is,
that thereby the action
action in words consisting, like ours, of letters and sound, and is done. All this is the work of the imagination,
" " in so far as it is tended to explain the term influence applied to incorBut the to God and to the poreal beings, namely, Intelligences or angels. term is also applied to the forces of the spheres in their effects upon the earth and we speak of the " influence " of the spheres, although the spheres are corporeal, and the stars, being corporeal, only act at certain distances, i.e., at a smaller or a greater distance from the centre, or at a definite distance from each other, a circumstance which led to Astrology. As to our assertion that Scripture applies the notion of " influence " to " " God, compare They have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters life or for the two ii. the Divine influence that existence, 13), i.e., (Jer. gives " are undoubtedly identical. For with Thee is the fountain of Further, " The life (Ps. xxxvi. 10), i.e., the Divine influence that gives f xistence.
;
in fact, identical with evil inclination." For all our defects in speech or in character are either the direct or the indirect work of imagination. This is not the subject of the present chapter, in which we only in-
CREATION-ETERNITY OF THE UNIVERSE

concluding words of
this verse,
171
"
in
Thy
light
we
see light," express exactly
what we said, namely, that by the influence of the intellect which emanates from God we become wise, by it we are guided and enabled to comprehend the Active Intellect. Note this.
CHAPTER
AMONG
those
XIII God, there are found three whether the Universe is eternal
who
believe in the existence of
different theories as regards the question or not.
First Theory. Those who follow the Law of Moses, our Teacher, hold that the whole Universe, i.e., everything except God, has been brought by Him into existence out of non-existence. In the beginning God alone existed, and nothing else ; neither angels, nor spheres, nor the things that are contained within the spheres existed. He then produced from nothing all Even time itself is existing things such as they are, by His will and desire. the on an accident created for time on ; motion, i.e., among things depends in things which move, and the things upon whose motion time depends are
themselves created beings, which have passed from non-existence into existWe say that God existed before the creation of the Universe, although the verb existed appears to imply the notion of time ; we also believe that
ence.
He
in these cases
existed an infinite space of time before the Universe waS created ; but we do not mean time in its true sense. only use the term
We
to signify something analogous or similar to time. For time is undoubtedly an accident, and, according to our opinion, one of the created accidents, like
and whiteness ; it is not a quality, but an accident connected with motion. This must be clear to all who understand what Aristotle has said on time and its real existence. The following remark does not form an essential part of our present research ; it will nevertheless be found useful in the course of this discussion. Many scholars do not know what time really is, and men like Galen were so perplexed about it that they asked whether time has a real existence or not ; the reason for this uncertainty is to be found in the circumstance that time is an accident of an accident. Accidents which are directly connected with
blackness
material bodies, e.g., colour and taste, are easily understood, and correct notions are formed of them. There are, however, accidents which are con-
nected with other accidents, and the curvature of a line
e.g.,
the splendour of colour, or the inclination

it is
of these
very difficult to form a correct
notion, especially when the accident which forms the substratum for the other accident is not constant but variable. Both difficulties are present in
it is an accident of motion, which is itself an accident moving object besides, it is not a fixed property on the contrary, its true and essential condition is, not to remain in the same state for two consecutive moments. This is the source of ignorance about the nature of
the notion of time
of a
time.
We
manner
consider time a thing created ; it comes into existence in the same as other accidents, and the substances which form the substratum
for the accidents.
For
this reason, viz.,
treated,
it
cannot be said that
God produced
because time belongs to the things the Universe in the beginning.
172
Consider

this well
;
for
he
who
does not understand
it is
unable to refute
forcible objections raised against the theory of Creatio ex nihilo. If you admit the existence of time before the Creation, you will be compelled to
and requires
accept the theory of the Eternity of the Universe. For time is an accident a substratum. You will therefore have to assume that some-
the name of the Lord the God of the Universe proclaimed, therefore, (Gen. xxi. 33) ; and he had previously expressed this theory in the words, " The Possessor of heaven and earth " (ibid. xiv. 22). Second Theory. The theory of all philosophers whose opinions and works It is impossible to assume that God produced anyare known to us is this
:
thing [beside God] existed before this Universe was created, an assumption which it is our duty to oppose. This is the first theory, and it is undoubtedly a fundamental principle of the Law of our teacher Moses ; it is next in importance to the principle of God's unity. Do not follow any other theory. Abraham, our father, was the first that taught it, after he had established it by philosophical research. " "
He
thing from nothing, or that He reduces anything to nothing : that is to say, it is impossible that an object consisting of matter and form should be produced when that matter is absolutely absent, or that it should be destroyed
in such a
To
manner that that matter be absolutely no longer in existence. that He can produce a thing from nothing or reduce a thing to nothing is, according to the opinion of these philosophers, the same as if we were to say that He could cause one substance to have at the same time two opposite properties, or produce another being like Himself, or change Himself into a body, or produce a square the diagonal of which be equal to
say of
God
its side,
no defect
The philosophers thus believe that it is or similar impossibilities. in the Supreme Being that He does not produce impossibilities, for
the nature of that which is impossible is constant it does not depend on the action of an agent, and for this reason it cannot be changed, Similarly there in the greatness of God, when He is unable is, according to them, no defect
from nothing, because they consider this as one of the therefore assume that a certain substance has coexisted with God from eternity in such a manner that neither God existed without that substance nor the latter without God. But they do not hold
to produce a thing
impossibilities.
They
that the existence of that substance equals in rank that of God ; for God is the cause of that existence, and the substance is in the same relation to God
as
the clay
pleases
is
;
forms some other thing. Those who hold this view also assume that the heavens are transient, that they came into existence, though not from nothing, and may cease to exist, although they cannot be reduced to nothing. They are transient in the same manner as the individuals among living beings which are produced from some existing substance, and are again reduced to some substance that remains in existence. The process of genesis and destruction
beings.
is,
He He
to the potter, or the iron to the smith ; God can do with it what at one time He forms of it heaven and earth, at another time
in the case of
the heavens, the same as in that of earthly
The followers of this theory are divided into different schools, whose opinions and principles it is useless to discuss here ; but what I have mentioned Plato holds the same opinion. Aristotle says in is common to all of them.
CREATION ETERNITY OF THE UNIVERSE

is
173
his Physics, that also stated in

;
with our belief
according to Plato the heavens are transient. This view His opinion, however, does not agree Plato's limteus. only superficial and careless persons wrongly assume that
we have. For whilst we hold that the heavens have been created from absolutely nothing, Plato believes that they have been formed out of something. This is the second theory. Third Theory. viz., that of Aristotle, his followers, and commentators. Aristotle maintains, like the adherents of the second theory, that a corporeal He goes, howobject cannot be produced without a corporeal substance. For he ever, farther, and contends that the heavens are indestructible. holds that the Universe in its totality has never been different, nor will it ever change the heavens, which form the permanent element in the Universe, and are not subject to genesis and destruction, have always been so ; time and motion are eternal, permanent, and have neither beginning nor end ; the sublunary world, which includes the transient elements, has always been the same, because the materia prima is itself eternal, and merely combines successively with different forms ; when one form is removed, another is assumed. This whole arrangement, therefore, both above and here below, is never disturbed or interrupted, and nothing is produced contrary to the laws or the ordinary course of Nature. He further says though not in the same terms that he considers it impossible for God to change His will or conceive a new desire ; that God produced this Universe in its totality by His will, but not from nothing. Aristotle finds it as impossible to assume that God changes His will or conceives a_jiew desire, as to believe that He is nonHence it follows that this existing, or that His essence is changeable. Universe has always been the same in the past, and will be the same
Plato has the same belief as
:
eternally.
This is a full account of the opinions of those who consider that the existence of God, the First Cause of the Universe, has been established by proof. But it would be quite useless to mention the opinions of those who do not recognize the existence of God, but believe that the existing state of things is the result of accidental combination and separation of the elements, and
that the Universe has no Ruler or Governor.
and
of
his school,
;
siensis]
God
Such is the theory of Epicurus and similar philosophers, as stated by Alexander [Aphrodiit would be superfluous to repeat their views, since the existence has been demonstrated whilst their theory is built upon a basis proved
It
is
to be untenable.
likewise
useless
to
prove the correctness of the
followers of the second theory in asserting that the heavens are transient, because they at the same time believe in the Eternity of the Universe, and
so long as this theory
is
adopted,
it
makes no difference to us whether
it is
believed that the heavens are transient, and that only their substance is eternal, or the heavens are held to be indestructible, in accordance with the
view of Aristotle. All who follow the Law of Moses, our Teacher, and Abraham, our Father, and all who adopt similar theories, assume that nothing is eternal except God, and that the theory of Creatio ex nihilo includes nothing that is impossible, whilst some thinkers even regard it as an established
truth.
After having described the different theories,
I will
now proceed
to adopt
it.
to
show
how
Aristotle proved his theory,
and what induced him
174

CHAPTER XIV
IT is not necessary to repeat in every chapter that I write this treatise with the full knowledge of what you have studied ; that I therefore need not quote the exact words of the philosophers ; it will suffice to give an abstract of
I will, however, point out the methods which they employ, same manner as I have done when I discussed the theories of the Mutakallemim. No notice will be taken of the opinion of any philosopher but that of Aristotle ; his opinions alone deserve to be criticized, and if our objections or doubts with regard to any of these be well founded, this must
their views.
in the
be the case in a far higher degree in respect to fundamental principles.

I
all
other opponents of our
methods of the philosophers. According to Aristotle, motion, that is to say, motion par For if the motion had a beginning, there must already excellence, is eternal. have been some motion when it came into existence, for transition from potentiality into actuality, and from non-existence into existence, always implies motion ; then that previous motion, the cause of the motion which follows, must be eternal, or else the series would have to be carried back ad On the same principle he maintains that time is eternal, for time infinitum. is related to and connected with motion there is no motion except in time, and time can only be perceived by motion, as has been demonstrated by
to describe the
First Method.
:
now proceed
proof.
eternal.
By
this
argument Aristotle proves the eternity of the Universe.
Second Method.
The
First Substance
common
to the four elements
is
" a formless substance it can therefore not have come into existence from another substance, and must be without beginning and without end ; hence it is concluded that the Universe is eternal. Third Method. The substance of the spheres contains no opposite elements ; for circular motion includes no such opposite directions as are found in rectilinear motion. Whatever is destroyed, owes its destruction to the opposite elements it contains. The spheres contain no opposite elements they are therefore indestructible, and because they are indestructible they are also without beginning. Aristotle thus assumes the axiom that everystance
; ;
had a beginning it would have come into existence from another substance ; it would further be endowed with a form, as coming " into existence is nothing but receiving Form. But we mean by First SubFor
if it
thing that has had a beginning is destructible, and that everything destructible has had a beginning ; that things without beginning are indestructible,
and indestructible things are without beginning.

nity of the Universe.
Hence
follows the Eter-
The actual production of a thing is preceded in time by The actual change of a thing is likewise preceded in time by its possibility. From this proposition Aristotle derives the eternity of the circular motion of the spheres. The Aristotelians in more recent time
Fourth Method.
possibility.
its
demonstrating the Eternity of the Universe. thus When the Universe did not yet exist, its existence wa? They argue If it was necessary, the Universe either possible or necessary, or impossible. could never have been non-existing ; if impossible, the Universe could never
employ
this proposition in
:
have been in existence
if
possible,
the question
arises,
What was
the sub-
175
stratum of that possibility ? for there must be in existence something of which that possibility can be predicated. This is a forcible argument in favour of the Eternity of the Universe. Some of the later schools of the Mutakallemim imagined that they could confute this argument by objecting that the possibility rests with the agent, and not with the production. But this objection is of no force whatever ; for there are two distinct possibilities, viz., the thing produced has had the possibility of being produced before this actually took place ; and the agent has had the possibility of producing it before he actually did so. There are, therefore, undoubtedly two possibilities that of the substance to receive a certain form, and that of the agent
to perform a certain act. These are the principal methods, based on the properties of the Universe, by which Aristotle proves the Eternity of the Universe. There are, however, other methods of proving the Eternity of the Universe. They are based on
the notions formed of God, and philosophers after Aristotle derived them from his philosophy. Some of them employed the following argument If God produced the Universe from nothing, He must Fifth Method, have been a potential agent before He was an actual one, and must have
:
passed from a state of potentiality into that of actuality
a process that
is
merely possible, and requires an agent for effecting it. This argument is likewise a source of great doubts, and every intelligent person must examine it in order to refute it and to expose its character. Sixth Method. An agent is active at one time and inactive at another, according as favourable or unfavourable circumstances arise. The unfavourable circumstances cause the abandonment of an intended action. The favourable ones, on the other hand, even produce a desire for an action for which there has not been a desire previously. As, however, God is not subject to accidents which could bring about a change in His will, and is not
by obstacles and hindrances that might appear or disappear, it is impossible, they argue, to imagine that God is active at one time and inactive at another. He is, on the contrary, always active in the same manner
affected
as
He is always in actual existence. Seventh Method. The actions of
God
are perfect
they are in no way
In similar defective, nor do they contain anything useless or superfluous. terms Aristotle frequently praises Him, when he says that Nature is wise and does nothing in vain, but makes everything as perfect as possible. The
it
philosophers therefore contend that this existing Universe is so perfect that cannot be improved, and must be permanent ; for it is the result of God's
is
wisdom, which with it.
not only always present in His essence, but
is
identical
All arguments in favour of the Eternity of the Universe are based on the above methods, and can be traced to one or other of them. The following How could God ever have objection is also raised against Creatio ex nihilo been inactive without producing or creating anything in the infinite past ? How could He have passed the long infinite period which preceded the Creation without producing anything, so as to commence, as it were, only For even if you said, e.g., that yesterday, the Creation of the Universe ? God created previously as many successive worlds as the outermost sphere could contain prains of mustard, and that each of these worlds existed as
:
176

years
:
many
as if
He had
considering the infinite existence of God, only yesterday commenced the Creation.
it
would be the same For when we once
admit the beginning of the existence of things after their non-existence, it makes no difference whether thousands of centuries have passed since the beginning, or only a short time. Those who defend the Eternity of the Universe find both assumptions equally improbable. Eighth Method. The following method is based on the circumstance that the theory implies a belief which is so common to all peoples and ages, and so universal, that it appears to express a real fact and not merely an hypothesis. Aristotle says that all people have evidently believed in the permanency and stability of the heavens ; and thinking that these were eternal, they declared them to be the habitation of God and of the spiritual beings or angels. By thus
attributing the heavens to God, they expressed their belief that the heavens are indestructible. Several other arguments of the same kind are employed
by
philosophical speculation
Aristotle in treating of this subject in order to support the results of his by common sense.
CHAPTER XV
IN this chapter I intend to show that Aristotle was well aware that he had not proved the Eternity of the Universe. He was not mistaken in this He knew that he could not prove his theory, and that his argurespect. ments and proofs were only apparent and plausible. They are the least objectionable, according to Alexander ; but, according to the same authority, Aristotle could not have considered them conclusive, after having himself taught us the rules of logic, and the means by which arguments can be refuted
or confirmed.
The
reason
why
disciples of Aristotle,
have introduced this subject is this Later philosophers, assume that he has proved the Eternity of the Universe,
:
and most of those who believe that they are philosophers blindly follow him and accept all his arguments as conclusive and absolute proofs. They consider it wrong to differ from Aristotle, or to think that he was ignorant or mistaken in anything. For this reason, taking their standpoint, I show that Aristotle himself did not claim to have proved the Eternity of the UniHe says in his book Physics (viii., chap, i.) as follows " All the verse. Physicists before us believed that motion is eternal, except Plato, who holds that motion is transient according to his opinion the heavens are likewise transient." Now if Aristotle had conclusive proofs for his theory, he would
in this point,
:
not have considered it necessary to support it by citing the opinions of preceding Physicists, nor would he have found it necessary to point out the folly and absurdity of his opponents. For a truth, once established by proof, does neither gain force nor certainty by the consent of all scholars, nor lose
by the general dissent. We further find that Aristotle, in the book The Heavens and the World, introduces his theory of the Eternity of the Universe " in the following manner Let us inquire into the nature of the heavens, and see whether they are the product of something or not, destructible or not." After this statement of the problem, he proceeds to cite the views of those who hold that the heavens have had a beginning, and continues thus " By doing this, our theory will be most plausible and acceptable in the
: :
CREATION-ETERNITY OF THE UNIVERSE
177
opinion of profound thinkers ; and it will be the more so, when, as we proFor if we were to state pose, the arguments of our opponents are first heard.
our opinion and our arguments without mentioning those of our opponents, He who desires to be just our words would be received less favourably. must not show himself hostile to his opponent ; he must have sympathy with him, and readily acknowledge any truth contained in his words ; he must admit the correctness of such of his opponent's arguments as he would admit if they were in his own favour." This is the contents of the words of Aristotle. Now, I ask you, men of intelligence, can we have any complaint Or can any one now imagine that against him after this frank statement ? a real proof has been given for the Eternity of the Universe ? Or can Aristotle, or any one else, believe that a theorem, though fully proved, would not be acceptable unless the arguments of the opponents were fully refuted ?
We
must
also take into consideration that Aristotle describes this
theory
as
and his proofs as arguments. Is Aristotle ignorant of the difference between argument and proof? between opinions, which may be received more or less favourably, and truths capable of demonstration ? or would rhetorical appeal to the impartiality of opponents have been required for the support of his theory if a real proof had been given ? Certainly not. Aristotle only desires to show that his theory is better than those of his opponents,
his opinion,
who
hold that philosophical speculation leads to the conviction that the heavens are transient, but have never been entirely without existence ; or that the heavens have had a beginning, but are indestructible ; or to defend
any of the other views mentioned by him. In this he is undoubtedly right ; is nearer the truth than theirs, so far as a proof can be taken from the nature of existing things ; we differ from him, as will be explained. Passion, that exercises great influence in most of the different sects, must have influenced even the philosophers who wished to affirm that Aristotle demonstrated his theory by proof. Perhaps they really believe it, and assume that Aristotle himself was not aware of it, as it was only discovered after his death My conviction is, that what Aristotle says on the Eternity of the Universe, the cause of the variety in the motion of the spheres and the order of the Intelligences, cannot be proved, and that Aristotle never intended to prove these I agree with him that the ways of things. proving this theory have their gates closed before us, there being no foundation on which to build up the " His words on this subject are well known. He says, There are proof. are unable we find which we to or which too high reason, things concerning for us ; to say why these things have a certain property is as difficult as to decide whether the Universe is eternal or not." So far Aristotle. The He interpretation which Abu-nasr offers of this parallel is well known. denies that Aristotle had any doubt about the Eternity of the Universe, and
for his opinion
!
is
very severe upon Galen,
who
maintains that this theory
is still
doubtful,
and that no proof has been offered. According to Abu-nasr, it is clear and demonstrable by proof that the heavens are eternal, but all that is enclosed within the heavens is transient. We hold, that by none of the methods mentioned n this chapter can a theory be established, refuted, or shaken. We have mentioned these things only because we know that the majority
;
ot
those
who
consider themselves wise, although they
know nothing
of
science, accept the theory of the Eternity of the Universe
on the authority
178
of

scholars.
words of the prophets, because the a few persons would be instructed who are intellectually well prepared, but simply communicate the truth as received by Divine inspiration. In the chapters which follow we will expound the theory of the Creation in accordance with the teaching of Scripture.
famous
They
reject the
latter
do not employ any
scientific
method by which only
CHAPTER XVI
IN this chapter I will first expound my view on this question, and then support it by argument not by such arguments as those of the Mutakallemim, who believe that they have proved the Creatio ex nihilo. I will not deceive
and consider dialectical methods as proofs ; and the fact that a certain proposition has been proved by a dialectical argument will never induce me to accept that proposition, but, on the contrary, will weaken my faith in it, and cause me to doubt it. For when we understand the fallacy of a proof,
myself,
our faith in the proposition itself is shaken. It is therefore better that a proposition which cannot be demonstrated be received as an axiom, or that one of the two opposite solutions of the problem be accepted on authority. The methods by which the Mutakallemim proved the Creatio ex nihilo have already been described by me, and I have exposed their weak points. As to
the proofs of Aristotle and his followers for the Eternity of the Universe, they are, according to my opinion, not conclusive ; they are open to strong I intend to show that the theory of the objections, as will be explained.
Creation, as taught in Scripture, contains nothing that is impossible ; and that all those philosophical arguments which seem to disprove our view contain weak points which make them inconclusive, and render the attacks
on our view untenable. Since I am convinced of the correctness of my method, and consider either of the two theories viz., the Eternity of the Universe, and the Creation as admissible, I accept the latter on the authority of Prophecy, which can teach things beyond the reach of philosophical specuFor the belief in prophecy is, as will be shown in the course of this lation.
treatise, consistent
even with the belief in the Eternity of the Universe. have established the admissibility of our theory, I will, by philosophical reasoning, show that our theory of the Creation is more acceptable than that of the Eternity of the Universe and although our theory includes
When
points open to criticism, I will show that there are the rejection of the theory of our opponents.
much
stronger reasons for
I will now proceed to expound the method by which the proofs given for the Eternity of the Universe can be refuted.
CHAPTER XVII
existence from non-existence ; even when the substance of a thing has been in existence, and has only changed its form, the thing itself, which has gone through the process of genesis and develop-
EVERYTHING produced comes into
its final state, has now different pioperties from possessed at the commencement of the transition from potentiality to reality, or before that time. Take, e.g., the human ovum as
ment, and has arrived at

those which
it

contained in the female's blood
is
179
nature
when
still
included in
its
vessels
its
from what it was in the moment of conception, when it is met by the semen of the male and begins to develop the properties of the semen in that moment are different from the properties of the living being after its birth when fully developed. It is therefore quite impossible to infer from the nature which a thing possesses after having passed through all stages of its development, what the condition of the thing has been in the moment when
different
;
nor does the condition of a thing in this moment ; If you make this mistake and previous condition has been. attempt to prove the nature of a thing in potential existence by its properties when actually existing, you will fall into great confusion ; you will reject
this process
commenced
show what
its
evident truths and admit false opinions. Let us assume, in our above instance, that a man born without defect had after his birth been nursed by his mother only a few months ; the mother then died, and the father alone
brought him knowledge. he asks some veloped, and

the
up
in a lonely island, till he grew up, Suppose this man has never seen a
became
wise,
and acquired
person
how man
has
come
or any female being ; into existence, and how he has de-
woman
womb
receives the following answer : begins his existence in of an individual of his own class, namely, in the of a female,
"
Man
he
is
womb
which has
life,
very small ; yet he has moves, receives nourishment, and gradually grows, till he arrives at a He then leaves the womb and continues to certain stage of development.
a certain
form.
While
in the
womb
grow
till
he
is
:
in the condition in
Did this person, when he lived, moved, and grew in the naturally ask womb, eat and drink, and breathe with his mouth and his nostrils ? Did " he excrete any substance ? " The answer will be, No." Undoubtedly
he
will
"
which you
see
him."
The orphan
will
then attempt to refute the statements of that person, and to prove
their impossibility, by referring to the properties of a fully developed person, " in the following manner : When any one of us is deprived of breath for a
how then can we imagine short time he dies, and cannot move any longer that any one of us has been inclosed in a bag in the midst of a body for several
:
months and remained
alive, able to
move
If
any one of us would swallow
living bird, the bird would die immediately when it reached the stomach, much more so when it came to the lower part of the belly ; if we should not take
food or drink with our mouth, in a few days we should undoubtedly be dead: how then can man remain alive for months without taking food ? If any person would take food and would not be able to excrete it, great pains and death would follow in a short time, and yet I am to believe that man has lived for months without that function Suppose by accident a hole were formed
!
in the belly of a person, it would prove fatal, and yet we are to believe that the navel of the foetus has been open ! should the fcetus not open the
Why
hands and stretch out the legs, if, as you think, the limbs are all whole and perfect." This mode of reasoning would lead to the conclusion that man cannot come into existence and develoo in the manner f
eyes, spread forth the
described.
If philosophers
would consider
this
example well and
reflect
on
it,
they
would
selves.
find that
We,
represents exactly the dispute between Aristotle and ourthe followers of Moses, our Teacher, and of Abraham, our
it
Father, believe that the Universe has been produced and has developed in a
r8o
certain
telians
manner, and that it has been created in a certain order. The Aristooppose us, and found their objections on the properties which the things in the Universe possess when in actual existence and fully developed. We admit the existence of these properties, but hold that they are by no
means the same as those which the things possessed in the moment of their and we hold that these properties themselves have come into ; Their arguments are therefore no existence from absolute non-existence. objection whatever to our theory ; they have demonstrative force only
production
who hold that the nature of things as at present in existence is not my opinion. proves the Creation. But this I will now return to our theme, viz., to the description of the principal proofs of Aristotle, and show that they prove nothing whatever against us,
against those
since
we
hold that
God
brought the entire Universe into existence from

it
is
absolute non-existence, and that He caused Aristotle says that the materia prima state.
to
is
to develop into the present eternal, and by referring to
the properties of transient beings he attempts to prove this statement, and show that the materia prima could not possibly have been produced. He
right ; the same
we do not maintain that the materia prima has been produced in manner as man is produced from the ovum, and that it can be destroyed in the same manner as man is reduced to dust. But we believe that God created it from nothing, and that since its creation it has its own
all things are produced of it and again reduced to it, properties, viz., that when they cease to exist ; that it does not exist without Form ; and that it
Its genesis is not like that of the the source of all genesis and destruction. things produced from it, nor its destruction like theirs ; for it has been created from nothing, and if it should please the Creator, He might reduce it to absolutely nothing. The same applies to motion. Aristotle founds some of
is
his proofs
on the
;
fact that
if
This
is
correct
imagine that in
its
motion is not subject to genesis or destruction. consider motion as it exists at present, we cannot totality it should be subject, like individual motions, to
we
In like manner Aristotle is correct in saying that genesis and destruction. circular motion is without beginning, in so far as seeing the rotating spherical
body in
been absent.
actual existence, we cannot conceive the idea that that rotation has ever The same argument we employ as regards the law that a state
This law applies to the Universe of potentiality precedes all actual genesis. as it exists at present, when everything produced originates in another thing ; but nothing perceived with our senses or comprehended in our mind can
prove that a thing created from nothing must have been previously in a state of potentiality. Again, as regards the theory that the heavens contain no but opposites [and are therefore indestructible], we admit its correctness we do not maintain that the production of the heavens has taken place in the same way as that of a horse or ass, and we do not say that they are like plants and animals, which are destructible on account of the opposite elements they contain. In short, the properties of things when fully developed contain no clue as to what have been the properties of the things before their We therefore do not reject as impossible the opinion of those perfection. who say that the heavens were produced before the earth, or the reverse, or that the heavens have existed without stars, or that certain species of animals
;
have been in existence, and others not.
For the
state of the
whole Universe
CREATION ETERN ITT OF THE UNIVERSE

when
it
181
came
into existence
may be compared with
that of animals
when
their existence begins ; the heart evidently precedes the testicles, the veins are in existence before the bones ; although, when the animal is fully developed, none of the parts is missing which is essential to its existence. This
remark
is
not superfluous,
if
literally ; in reality, it cannot shall treat of this subject.
the Scriptural account of the Creation be taken be taken literally, as will be shown when we
The principle laid down in the foregoing must be well understood ; it is high rampart erected round the Law, and able to resist all missiles directed Aristotle, or rather his followers, may perhaps ask us how we against it. know that the Universe has been created ; and that other forces than those it has at present were acting in its Creation, since we hold that the properties
a
it exists at present, prove nothing as regards its creation ? no necessity for this according to our plan ; for we do not desire to prove the Creation, but only its possibility and this possibility is not refuted by arguments based on the nature of the present Universe, which we do not dispute. When we have established the admissibility of our In attempting to prove the theory, we shall then show its superiority. inadmissibility of Creatio ex nihilo, the Aristotelians can therefore not derive any support from the nature of the Universe they must resort to the notion our mind has formed of God. Their proofs include the three methods which I have mentioned above, and which are based on the notion conceived of God. In the next chapter I will expose the weak points of these arguments, and show that they really prove nothing.
of the Universe, as
We reply,
there
is
CHAPTER
THE
if
XVIII
:
first
transition
method employed by the philosophers is this they assume that a from potentiality to actuality would take place in the Deity itself,
He produced a thing only at a certain fixed time. The refutation of this argument is very easy. The argument applies only to bodies composed of substance the element that possesses the possibility [of change] and form for when such a body does not act for some time, and then acts by virtue of its form, it must undoubtedly have possessed something in -potentia that hath now become actual, and the transition can only have been effected by some external agent. As far as corporeal bodies are concerned, this has been fully But that which is incorporeal and without substance does not proved.
;
include anything merely possible ; everything it contains is always in existThe above argument does not apply to it, and it is not impossible ence.
that such a being acts at one time and does not act at another. This does not imply a change in the incorporeal being itself nor a transition from
The Active Intellect may be taken as an illustrapotentiality to actuality. tion. According to Aristotle and his school, the Active Intellect, an incorporeal being, acts at one time and does not act at another, as has been shown by Abu-nasr in his treatise on the Intellect. He says there quite correctly " as follows : It is an evident fact that the Active Intellect does not act
And yet he does not say that the Active continually, but only at times." Intellect is changeable, or passes from a state of potentiality to that of actuality, although it produces at one time something which it has not produced
182
For there is no relation or comparison whatever between corporeal before. and incorporeal beings, neither in the moment of action nor in that of in" " action It is only by homonymity that the term is used in referaction. ence to the forms residing in bodies, and also in reference to absolutely
The circumstance that a purely spiritual being does not spiritual beings. effect at one time that which it effects at another, does not necessitate a
transition
from potentiality to actuality

is,
such a transition
since
it is
is
necessary in
be objected not due to anything contained in the Active Intellect itself, but to the absence of substances sufficiently prepared for its action, that at times it does not act ; it does act
It might, perhaps,
;
the case of forces connected with bodies.

that our argument
to
some extent,
a fallacy
always when substances sufficiently prepared are present, and, when the action does not continue, it is owing to the absence of substance sufficiently I answer that it is not our prepared, and not to any change in the Intellect.
intention to state the reason
why God
created at one time and not at another
and, in referring to the Active Intellect as a parallel, we do not mean to assert that God acts at one time and not at another, in the same manner as the Active Intellect, an absolutely spiritual being, acts intermittently. We do not make this assertion, and, if we did, the conclusion would be fallacious.
What we
Intellect
infer,
is
and what we are
justified in inferring,
is
this
the Active
neither a corporeal object nor a force residing in a body ; it acts intermittently, and yet whatever the cause may be why it does not always act, we do not say that the Active Intellect has passed from a state of poten-
that of actuality ; or that it implies the possibility [of change], or that an agent must exist that causes the transition from potentiality to have thus refuted the strong objection raised by those who actuality.
tiality to
We
believe in the Eternity of the Universe ; since we believe that God is neither a corporeal body nor a force residing in a body, we need not assume that
the Creation, after a period of inaction, Himself.
is
due to
change in the Creator
The second method employed in proving the Eternity of the Universe is based on the theory that all wants, changes, and obstacles are absent from the Essence of God. Our refutation of this proof, which is both difficult and profound, is this. Every being that is endowed with free will and performs certain acts in reference to another being, necessarily interrupts those acts at one time or another, in consequence of some obstacles or changes. E.g., a person desires to have a house, but he does not build one, because he he has not the material, or he has the material, meets with some obstacles but it is not prepared for the purpose on account of the absence of proper instruments ; or he has material and instruments, and yet does not build a since he feels no want for a house, because he does not desire to build it When changed circumstances, as heat or cold, impel him to seek refuge.
:
Thus changed circumstances meets with obstacles, is not carried into effect. This, however, is only the case when the causes of the actions are but when the action has no other purpose whatever than to fulfil external the will, then the will does not depend on the existence of favourable circumstances. The being endowed with this will need not act continually even in the absence of all obstacles, because there does not exist anything for
a refuge, then he desires to build a house.
change
his will,
and the
will,
when
it

the sake of
183
which
necessitate the action

ask,
even
if
we
and which, in the absence of all obstacles, would the act simply follows the will. But, some might admit the correctness of all this, is not change imputed in the
it acts,
:
I fact that the will of the being exists at one time and not at another ? reply thus : The true essence of the will of a being is simply the faculty of
In the case conceiving a desire at one time and not conceiving it at another of corporeal beings, the will which aims at a certain external object changes according to obstacles and circumstances. But the will of an absolutely
spiritual being which does not depend on external causes is and the fact that the being desires one thing one day and
unchangeable, another thing
another day, does not imply a change in the essence of that being, or necessitate the existence of an external cause [for this change in the desire]. Simiit has been shown by us that if a being acted at one time and did not act larly at another, this would not involve a change in the being itself. It is now " " will is clear that the term homonymously used of man's will and of the will of God, there being no comparison whatever between God's will and
that of man.
The
objection
is
refuted,
and our theory
is
not shaken by
it.
This
this
is all
we
desire to establish.
third method employed in proving the Eternity of the Universe is whatever the wisdom of God finds necessary to produce is produced eo ipso but this wisdom, being His Essence, is eternal, and that which results from His wisdom must be eternal. This is a very weak argument. As we do not understand why the wisdom of God produced nine spheres, neither more nor less, or why He fixed the number and size of the stars exactly as they are so we cannot understand why His wisdom at a certain time caused the Universe to exist, whilst a short time before it had not been in existence. All things owe their existence to His eternal and constant wisdom, but we are utterly ignorant of the ways and methods of that wisdom, since, according to our opinion [that God has no attributes], His will is identical with His wisdom, and all His attributes are one and the same thing, namely, His Essence or Wisdom. More will be said on this question in the section on Providence. Thus this objection to our theory falls likewise to the ground. There is no evidence for the theory of the Eternity of the Universe, neither
:
The
in the fact cited
when they
by Aristotle of the general consent of the ancient peoples describe the heavens as th? habitation of the angels and of God,
nor in the apparent concurrence of Scriptural texts with this belief. These facts merely prove that the heavens lead us to believe in the existence of the Intelligences, i.e., ideals and angels, and that these lead us to believe in the
existence of
God
for
He
sets
them
in motion,
and
rules
them.
We
will
explain and show that there is no better evidence for the existence of a Creator, as we believe, than that furnished by the heavens ; but also according to the opinion of the philosophers, as has been mentioned by us, they give evidence that a being exists that sets them in motion, and that this being
is
neither a corporeal body nor a force residing in a body. Having proved that our theory is admissible, and not impossible, as those
who defend
follow,
I will, in the chapters which preferable from a philosophical point of view, and expose the absurdities implied in the theory of Aristotle.
the Eternity of the Universe assert,

is
show that our theory
184

CHAPTER XIX
IT has been
shown that according

the Universe
is
to Aristotle,
and according to
all
that
defend
his theory,
inseparable from
God
He
is
the cause,
and the Universe the effect ; and this effect is a necessary one ; and as it cannot be explained why or how God exists in this particular manner, namely, being One and incorporeal, so it cannot be asked concerning the whole Universe why or how it exists in this particular way. For it is necessary that the whole, the cause as well as the effect, exist in this particular manner, it is impossible for them not to exist, or to be different from what
they actually are. This leads to the conclusion that the nature of everything remains constant, that nothing changes its nature in any way, and that such a change is impossible in any existing thing. It would also follow that the Universe is not the result of design, choice, and desire for if this were the case, they would have been non-existing before the design had been con;
ceived.
We, however, hold that all things in the Universe are the result of design, and not merely of necessity ; He who designed them may change them when He changes His design. But not every design is subject to change for there are things which are impossible, and their nature cannot be altered, as will be explained. Here, in this chapter, I merely wish to show by arguments almost as forcible as real proofs, that the Universe gives evidence of but I will not fall into the error in which the Mutakallemim have so design
; ;
distinguished themselves, namely, of ignoring the existing nature of things or assuming the existence of atoms, or the successive creation of accidents, or any of their propositions which I have tried to explain, and
establish the principle of Divine selection. You must not, however, think that they understood the principle in the same sense as we do, although they undoubtedly aimed at the same thing, and mentioned
much
which are intended to
the same things which

Selection.
we
also will
mention, when they treated of Divine
For they do not distinguish between selection in the case of a plant to make it red and not white, or sweet and not bitter, and determination in the case of the heavens which gave them their peculiar geometrical form and did not give them a triangular or quadrilateral shape. The Mutakallemim established the principle of determination by means of their proI will positions, which have been enumerated above (Part I., chap. Ixxiii.). establish this principle only as far as necessary, and only by philosophical But before I begin my argupropositions based on the nature of things. ment, I will state the following facts Matter is common to things different from each other ; there must be either one external cause which endows this matter partly with one property, partly with another, or there must be as
:
many
all
different causes as there are different forms of the matter
common
to
This is admitted by those who assume the Eternity of the Unithings. verse. After having premised this proposition, I will proceed with the
discussion of our
theme from an
Aristotelian point of view, in
form of
dialogue.
We.
common
You have proved that all substance why then do

;
things in the sublunary world have one the species of things vary ? why are the
individuals in each species different
from each other

Aristotelian.
185
Because the composition of the things formed of that subFor the common substance at first received four different forms, and each form was endowed with two qualities, and through these four qualities the substance was turned into the elements of which all things
stance varies.
composition of the elements takes place in the following mixed in consequence of the motion of the spheres, and then they combine together a cause for variation arises then in the variation of the degree of heat, cold, moisture, and dryness of the elements which form the constituent parts of the things. By these different combinations things are variously predisposed to receive different forms ; and these in their turn are again prepared to receive other forms, and so on. Each generic form finds a wide sphere in its substance both as regards quality and quantity ; and the individuals of the classes vary accordingly. This is
are formed.
The
manner
First they are
It is quite correct and clear to every fully explained in Natural Science. one that readily acknowledges the truth, and does not wish to deceive
himself.
Since the combination of the elements prepares substances and to receive different forms, what has prepared the first substance and caused one part of it to receive the form of fire, another part the form
enables
We.
them
of earth, and the parts between these since one substance is common to all ?
earth
fit
become more
?
fit
for the
form of
two the forms of water and of air, Through what has the substance of earth, and the substance of fire more
;
for that of fire
by their different position same substance differently, in the the portion nearest the surrounding sphere became more following way rarified and swifter in motion, and thus approaching the nature of that The farther the sphere, it received by this preparation the form of fire. substance is away from the surrounding sphere towards the centre, the denser, the more solid, and the less luminous it is ; it becomes earth the same is the cause of the formation of water and air. This is necessarily so ; for it would be absurd to deny that each part of the substance is in a certain place ; or to assume that the surface is identical with the centre, or the centre with the surface. This difference in place determined the different forms, i.e.,
for the different places prepared the
:
Ar.
The
difference of the elements was caused
predisposed the substance to receive different forms. We. Is the substance of the surrounding sphere, i.e., the heavens, the same as that of the elements ? Ar. No ; the substance is different, and the forms are different. The " term body " is homonymously used of these bodies below and of the heavens, as has been strated by proof.
shown by modern
philosophers.
All this has been
demon-
let now the reader of this treatise hear what I have to say. Aristotle proved that the difference of forms becomes evident by the difference of actions. Since, therefore, the motion of the elements is rectilinear, and that of the spheres circular, we infer that the substances are different. This
But
hass
is When we further notice that supported by Natural Science. substances with rectilinear motion differ in their directions, that some move
inference
upward, some downward, and that substances which move in the same direction have different velocities, we infer that their forms must be different.
c86

are four elements.
all
In the same way we come to is the same, since they all have circular motion. Their forms, however, are different, since one and their sphere moves from east to west, and another from west to east motions have also different velocities. We can now put the following question to Aristotle There is one substance common to all spheres ; each one has its own peculiar form. Who thus determined and predisposed these Is there above the spheres any being spheres to receive different forms ?
the conclusion that the substance of
Thus we learn that there
the spheres
I will show the capable of determining this except God ? profundity and the extraordinary acumen which Aristotle displayed when this question troubled him. He strove very hard to meet this objection with arguments, which,
however, were not borne out by
facts.
Although he does not mention
this
objection, it is clear from his words that he endeavours to show the nature of the spheres, as he has shown that of the things in the sublunary world. Everything is, according to him, the result of a law of Nature, and not the
a being that determines as
sistently,
result of the design of a being that designs as it likes, or the determination of He has not carried out the idea conit pleases.
and it will never be done. He tries indeed to find the cause why the sphere moves from east and not from west ; why some spheres move with greater velocity, others with less velocity, and he finds the cause of these differences in their different positions in reference to the uppermost sphere.
He further attempts to show why there are several spheres for each of the seven planets, while there is only one sphere for the large number of fixed stars. For all this he endeavours to state the reason, so as to show that the whole order is the necessary result of the laws of Nature. He has not attained
his object. For as regards the things in the sublunary world, his explanations are in accordance with facts, and the relation between cause and effect is
he treats of the properties of the spheres, he does not clearly show the causal relation, nor does he explain the phenomena in that systematic way which the hypothesis of natural laws would demand. For let us consider the spheres in one case a sphere with greater velocity is above a sphere with less velocity, in another case we notice the reverse ; in a third case there are two spheres with equal There are, besides, other phenomena which velocities, one above the other.
:
It can therefore be assumed that everything clearly shown. result of the motions and influences of the spheres. But when
is
the necessary
speak strongly against the hypothesis that
all
is
regulated by the laws of
Nature, and I will devote a special chapter to the discussion of these phenomena. In short,. there is no doubt that Aristotle knew the weakness of his
arguments in tracing and describing the cause of all these things, and there" fore he prefaces his researches on these things as follows We will now thoroughly investigate two problems, which it is our proper duty to invesThis tigate and to discuss according to our capacity, wisdom, and opinion. our attempt must not be attributed to presumption and pride, but to our
:
extraordinary zeal in the study of philosophy ; when we attempt the highest and grandest problems, and endeavour to offer some proper solution, every one that hears it should rejoice and be pleased." So far Aristotle. This shows
knew the weakness of his theory. How much weaker must it appear when we bear in mind that the science of Astronomy was not yet fully developed, and that in the days of Aristotle the motions of the
that he undoubtedly
187
I think that it was spheres were not known so well as they are at present. the object of Aristotle in attributing in his Metaphysics one Intelligence to every sphere, to assume the existence of something capable of determining
the peculiar course of each sphere. Later on I will show that he has not " gained anything thereby ; but now I will explain the words, according to our capacity, wisdom, and opinion," occurring in the passage which we quoted. I have not noticed that any of the commentators explain them. The term " our opinion " refers to the principle that everything is the result " of natural laws, or to the theory of the Eternity of the Universe. By our " wisdom he meant the knowledge of that which is clear and generally accepted, viz., that the existence of every one of these things is due to a " " certain cause, and not to chance. By our capacity he meant the insuffiall these He only intended of our intellect find of to the causes ciency things. to trace the causes for a few of them ; and so he did. For he gives an excellent reason why the sphere of the fixed stars moves slowly, while the other
spheres move with greater velocity, namely, because its motion is in a different direction [from the uppermost sphere]. He further says that the more distant a sphere is from the eighth sphere the greater is its velocity. But this rule does not hold good in all cases, as I have already explained (p. 174). More forcible still is the following objection : There are spheres below the eighth that move from east to west. Of these each upper one, according to this rule, would have a greater velocity than the lower one ; and the velocity
of these spheres would almost equal that of the ninth sphere. But Astronomy had, in the days of Aristotle, not yet developed to the height it has reached at present.
According to our theory of the Creation,

for
all this
can
easily
be explained
say that there is a being that determines the direction and the velocity of the motion of each sphere ; but we do not know the reason why the wisdom of that being gave to each sphere its peculiar property. If Aristotle had been
we
motion of the spheres, and show that it corresponded as he thought to their relative positions, this would have been excellent, and the variety in their motions would be explained in the same way as the variety of the elements, by their relative position between the centre and the surface ; but this is not the rase, as I
able to state the cause of the difference in the
said before.
There is a phenomenon in the spheres which more clearly shows the existence of voluntary determination ; it cannot be explained otherwise than by assuming that some being designed it : this phenomenon is the existence of the stars. The fact that the sphere is constantly in motion, while the stars remain stationary, indicates that the substance of the stars is different from
that of the spheres. Abu-nasr has already mentioned the fact in his additions to the Physics of Aristotle. He says " There is a difference between the
:
stars
opaque ; and may be, between their substances and forms." So far Abu-nasr. But I do not say that there is a small difference, but a very great difference ; because I do not infer it from the transparency of the spheres, but from their motions. I am con;
for the spheres are transparent, the stars are the cause of this is that there is a difference, however small it
and the spheres
vinced that there are three different kinds of substance, with three different forms, namely : (i) Bodies which never move of their own accord ; such are
188

;
the bodies of the stars
(2)
the spheres
(3)
bodies which both
bodies which always move, such are the bodies of move and rest, such are the elements.
Now,
only a
ask,
opinion, differ very

little
?
what has united these two bodies, which, according to my much from each other, though, according to Abu-nasr,
Who
would be strange
that,
has prepared the bodies for this union ? without the existence of design, one of
In short,
it
two
different
it
bodies should be joined to the other in such a
manner that
it is
fixed to
in a certain place but does not combine with it. It is still more difficult to explain the existence of the numerous stars in the eighth sphere ; they are
all
spherical
some
of
them
are large,
some small
here
we
notice
two
stars
apparently distant from each other one cubit ; there a group of ten close together ; whilst in another place there is a large space without any star. What determined that the one small part should have ten stars, and the other
portion should be without any star ? and the whole body of the sphere being uniform throughout, why should a particular star occupy the one place and not another? The answer to these and similar questions is very difficult,
and almost impossible, if we assume that all emanates from God as the necesBut if we assume sary result of certain permanent laws, as Aristotle holds. that all this is the result of design, there is nothing strange or improbable ;
and the only question to be asked
is
this
What
is
the cause of this design
The answer
pose,
to this question
is
is
that
;
all this
is
has been
made
is
though we do not know

It
it
there
nothing that
for a certain purdone in vain, or by
chance.
ass are
well
known
that the veins and nerves of an individual dog or
not the result of chance ; their magnitude is not determined by chance ; nor is it by chance, but for a certain purpose, that one vein is thick, another thin ; that one nerve has many branches, another has none that one goes down straight, whilst another is bent ; it is well known that all this must be just as it is. How, then, can any reasonable person imagine that the
;
position, magnitude, and number of the stars, or the various courses of their There is no doubt that spheres, are purposeless, or the result of chance ?
is necessary and in accordance with a certain design extremely improbable that these things should be the necessary result of natural laws, and not that of design. The best proof for desiga in the Universe I find in the different motions of the spheres, and in the fixed position of the stars in the spheres. For this reason you find all the prophets point to the spheres and stars when they want to prove that there must exist a Divine Being. Thus Abraham re-
every one of these things
and
it is
flected
on the stars, as is well known " them the existence of God, and says,
created these things
Isaiah
(xl.
26) exhorts to learn from
Lift
who hath
"
Abraham calls Him The God of the heavens (Gen. xxiv. ; 7) ; [Moses], the chief of the Prophets, uses the phrase explained by us (Part " He who rideth on the heavens " (Deut. xxxiii. 26). The I., chap. Ixx.),
the heavens
'
"
"
]eremiah
up your eyes on high, and behold " The Maker of [calls God]
proof taken from the heavens is convincing ; for the variety of things in the sublunary world, though their substance is one and the same, can be explained as the work of the influences of the spheres, or the result of the variety in the position of the substance in relation to the spheres, as has been shown by But who has determined the variety in the spheres and the stars, Aristotle.
if
not the Will of
God
To
say that the Intelligences have determined
it
THEORY OF ARISTOTLE
is
189
local relation to the spheres.
and have no then should the one sphere in its desire Is to approach the Intelligence, move eastward, and another westward ? the one Intelligence in the east, the other in the west ? or why does one move with great velocity, another slowly ? This difference is not in accordante with their distances from each other, as is well known. We must then say that the nature and essence of each sphere necessitated its motion in a
of
no use whatever
for the Intelligences are not corporeal,
Why
certain direction, and in a certain manner, as the consequence of its desire to approach its Intelligence. Aristotle clearly expresses this opinion.
We
thus have returned to the part from which we started ; and we ask. Since the substance of all things is the same, what made the nature of one portion different from another ? Why has this sphere a desire which produces a
motion different from that which the desire of another sphere produces ? This must have been done by an agent capable of determining. We have thus been brought to examine two questions (i) Is it necessary to assume that the variety of the things in the Universe is the result of Design, and not of fixed laws of Nature, or is it not necessary ? (2) Assuming that all this is the result of Design, does it follow that it has been created after not having existed, or does Creatio ex nihilo not follow, and has the Being which has determined all this done always so ? Some of those who believe in the EterI will now begin the examinnity of the Universe hold the last opinion.
:
ation of these
two
questions,
and explain them
as
much
as necessary in
the
following chapters.
CHAPTER XX
ACCORDING
to Aristotle, none of the products of Nature are due to chance. His proof is this That which is due to chance does not reappear constantly nor frequently, but all products of Nature reappear either constantly or at least frequently. The heavens, with all that they contain, are constant they never change, as has been explained, neither as regards their essence nor as regards their place. But in the sublunary world we find both things which are constant and things which reappear frequently [though not con: ;
stantly].
Thus,
e.g.,
the heat of
fire
and the downward tendency of
a stone
are constant properties, whilst the form and life of the individuals in each All this is clear. If the parts of the species are the same in most cases. Universe are not accidental, how can the whole Universe be considered as
the result of chance

to chance.
Therefore the existence of the Universe

is,
is
not due
raises
The
following
in short, the objection
which Aristotle
against one of the earlier philosophers who assumed that the Universe is the result of chance, and that it came into existence by itself, without any cause
Some assume
that the heavens and the whole Universe
came
into existence
spontaneously, as well as the rotation and motion [of the spheres], which has produced the variety of things and established their present order. This opinion implies a great adsurdity. They admit that animals and plants do not owe their existence or production to chance, but to a certain cause, be that cause Nature, or reason, or the like ; e.g., they do not assume that
everything might be formed by chance of a certain seed or semen, but that of a certain seed only an olive-tree is produced, and of a certain semen only
igo
a
human being is developed. And yet they think that the heavens, and those bodies which appear divine among the rest of bodies, came into existence spontaneously, without the action of any such cause as produces plants and
this theory, Aristotle then proceeds to It is therefore clear that Aristotle believes and greater length. proves that things in real existence are not accidental ; they cannot be accidental, because they are essential, i.e., there is a cause which necessitates that they should be in their actual condition, and on account of that cause they
animals.
refute
Having thus examined
it at
This has been proved, and it is the opinion are just as they in reality are. of Aristotle. But I do not think that, according to Aristotle, the rejection
of the spontaneous origin of things implies the admission of Design and Will. For as it is impossible to reconcile two opposites, so it is impossible to recon-
the two theories, that of necessary existence by causality, and that of Creation by the desire and will of a Creator. For the necessary existence assumed by Aristotle must be understood in this sense, that for everything
cile
is not the product of work there must be a certain cause that produces with its properties for this cause there is another cause, and for the second a third, and so on. The series of causes ends with the Prime Cause, from which everything derives existence, since it is impossible that the series should continue ad infinitum. He nevertheless does not mean to say that the existence of the Universe is the necessary product of the Creator, i.e., the Prime Cause, in the same manner as the shadow is caused by a body, or heat by fire, or light by the sun. Only those who do not comprehend his words He uses here the term necessary in the same attribute such ideas to him. sense as we use the term when we say that the existence of the intellect necessarily implies that of the intellectum, for the former is the efficient cause of the latter in so far as intellectum. Even Aristotle holds that the Prime he therefore says that the Cause is the highest and most perfect Intellect First Cause is pleased, satisfied, and delighted with that which necessarily derives existence from Him, and it is impossible that He should wish it to " be different. But we do not call this design," and it has nothing in common with design. E.g., man is pleased, satisfied, and delighted that he is endowed with eyes and hands, and it is impossible that he should desire it to be otherwise, and yet the eyes and hands which a man has are not the result of his design, and it is not by his own determination that he has certain properties and is able to perform certain actions. The notion of design and determination applies only to things not yet in existence, when there is still the I do not possibility of their being in accordance with the design or not. know whether the modern Aristotelians understood his words to imply that the existence of the Universe presupposes some cause in the sense of design and determination, or whether, in opposition to him, they assumed design and determination, in the belief that this does not conflict with the theory
that
it
of the Eternity of the Universe.
the
Having explained this, modern philosophers.
I will
now proceed
to
examine the opinions of
CHAPTER XXI
SOME
of the recent philosophers
who adhere
to the theory of the Eternity of
THEORY OF ARISTOTLE
signs
191
the Universe hold that God produces the Universe, that He by His will deand determines its existence and form ; they reject, however, the theory
been the
that this act took place at one certain time, and assume that this always has The circumstance that we cannot case, and will always be so.
its
imagine an agent otherwise than preceding the result of
action, they
explain by the fact that this is invariably the case in all that we produce ; because for agents of the same kind as we are, there are some moments in
which they are not

agents
active,
and are only agents

as regards
in -poUntia ;
they become
when they
act.
But
action, or of potentiality in any respect ; always an actual agent. And as there
God there are no moments of nonHe is not before His work, He is

is
essence and ours, so is also a great difference to Him and the relation of our work to us.
to will
and determination
for
we
say
He
acts, wills, designs,
a great difference between His between the relation of His work They apply the same argument there is no difference in this respect whether or determines. They further assume that It
is
change in His action or
will
is
inadmissible.
therefore clear that these
philosophers abandoned the term
necessary result," but retained the theory of it ; they perhaps sought to use a better expression, or to remove an For it is the same thing, whether we say in accordance objectionable term. with the view of Aristotle that the Universe is the result of the Prime Cause,
"
and must be eternal
as that
Cause
is
is
eternal, or in accordance
with these
the result of the act, design, will, selection, and determination of God, but it has always been so, and will always be so ; in the same manner as the rising of the sun undoubtedly produces the day, and yet it does not precede it. But when we speak of design we do not mean " it in this sense ; we mean to necesexpress by it that the Universe is not the
sary result
philosophers that the Universe
" of God's existence,

;
as the effect
is
the necessary result of the
cannot be separated from the cause ; it cannot change unless the cause changes entirely, or at least in some If we accept this explanation we easily see how absurd it is to say respect. that the Universe is in the same relation to God as the effect is to the efficient cause, and to assume at the same time that the Universe is the result of the action and determination of God. Having fully explained this subject, we come to the question whether the cause, which must be assumed for the variety of properties noticed in the heavenly beings, is merely an efficient cause, that must necessarily produce that variety as its effect, or whether that variety is due to a detei mining agent, such as we believe, in accordance with the theory of Moses our Teacher.
efficient cause
in the latter case the effect
Before I discuss this question I will first explain fully what Aristotle means " " by necessary result ; after that I will show by such philosophical arguments as are free from every fallacy why I prefer the theory of Creatio ex
nihilo. It is clear that when he says that the first Intelligence is the necessary result of the existence of God, the second Intelligence the result of the existence of the first, the third of the second [and so on], and that the spheres are the necessary result of the existence of the Intelligences,
and so
dealing
forth,
in the well-known order
which you learnt from passages
with it, and of which we have given a resume in this part he does not mean that the one thing was first in existence, and (ch. iv.) then the second came as the necessary result of the first ; he denies that
192

;
" " By necessary result he any one of these beings has had a beginning; he means to that the first Intellito the causal relation refers say merely gence is the cause of the existence of the second ; the second of the third, and so on to the last of the Intelligences ; and the same is also the case as regards the spheres and the materia prima ; none of these preceded another, We say, e.g., or has been in existence without the existence of that other. that the necessary result of the primary qualities are roughness [and] smoothand no person doubts ness, hardness [and] softness, porosity and solidity that heat, cold, moisture, and dryness are the causes of smoothness and roughness, of hardness and softness, porosity and solidity, and similar qualities, and that the latter are the necessary result of those four primary qualities. And yet it is impossible that a body should exist with the primary qualities without the secondary ones for the relation between the two sets of qualities is that of Just in the same way causality, not that of agent and its product. " " is used the term by Aristotle in reference to the whole necessary result Universe, when he says that one portion is the result of the other, and continues the series up to the First Cause as he calls it, or first Intellect, if you For we all mean the same, only with this difference, that prefer this term.
; ;
according to Aristotle everything besides that Being is the necessary result mentioned ; whilst, according to our opinion, that Being created the whole Universe with design and will, so that the Uniof the latter, as I have already verse
which had not been

I will
in existence before, has
by His
will
come
into exist-
ence.
now begin in the following chapters my proofs for the superiority
of our theory, that of Creatio ex nihilo.
CHAPTER XXII
ARISTOTLE and all philosophers assume as an axiom that a simple element can only produce one simple thing, whilst a compound can produce as many things as it contains simple elements ; e.g., fire combines in itself two prothe one property, and produces perties, heat and dryness ; it gives heat by of matter and form produces an the other object composed dryness by
:
on account of its matter, and others on account of its form, if matter and form] consist of several elements. In accordance with this [both axiom, Aristotle holds that the direct emanation from God must be one simple Intelligence, and nothing else. A second axiom assumed by him is this Things are not produced by other things at random there must be some relation between cause and effect.
certain things
: ;
Thus
accidents are not produced by accidents promiscuously quality cannot be the origin of quantity, nor quantity that of quality ; a form cannot emanate from matter, nor matter from form. A third axiom is this A single agent that acts with design and will, and not merely by the force of the laws of Nature, can produce different objects. A fourth axiom is as follows An object, whose several elements are only connected by juxtaposition, is more properly a compound than an object
; :
:
whose different elements have entirely combined ; e.g., bone, flesh, veins, or nerves, are more simple than the hand or the foot, that are a combination of bone, flesh, veins, and nerves. This is very clear, and requires no further
explanation.
THEORY OF ARISTOTLE
Having premised these axioms,
holds that the
third,
first
193
Intelligence
and so on,
the
first
till
I ask the following question : Aristotle the cause of the second, the second of the the thousandth, if we assume a series of that number.
is
is undoubtedly simple. How then can the comcome from such an Intellect by fixed laws of of form things existing pound Nature, as Aristotle assumes ? We admit all he said concerning the Intelligences, that the further they are away from the first, the greater is the variety
Now
Intellect
compounds, in consequence of the larger number of the objects comprehensible by the Intelligences ; but even after admitting this, the question remains, By what law of Nature did the spheres emanate from the What relation is there between material and immaterial Intelligences ? beings ? Suppose we admit that each sphere emanates from an Intelligence of the form mentioned ; that the Intelligence, including, as it were, two elements, in so far as it comprehends itself and another thing, produces the next Intelligence by the one element, and a sphere by the other ; but the question would then be, how the one simple element could produce the sphere, that contains two substances and two forms, namely, the substance and the form of the sphere, and also the substance and the form of the star fixed in that sphere. For, according to the laws of Nature, the compound can only emanate from a compound. There must therefore be one element, from which the body of the sphere emanates, and another element, from which the body of the star emanates. This would be necessary even if the substance of all stars were the same ; but it is possible that the luminous stars have not the same substance as the non-luminous stars it is besides well known that each body has its own matter and its own form. It must now be clear that this emanation could not have taken place by the force of the laws of Nature, as
of their
;
Aristotle contends.
Nor does the difference of the motions of the spheres follow the order of their positions ; and therefore it cannot be said that this have already mendifference is the result of certain laws of Nature.
We
tioned this (ch.
xix.).
There is in the properties of the spheres another circumstance that is namely, if the substance of all opposed to the assumed laws of Nature spheres is the same, why does it not occur that the form of one sphere combines with the substance of another sphere, as is the case with things on If the earth, simply because their substance is fit [for such changes] ? substance of all spheres is the same, if it is not assumed that each of them has a peculiar substance, and if, contrary to all principles, the peculiar motion of each sphere is no evidence for the special character of its substance, why then should a certain form constantly remain united with a certain substance ? Again, if the stars have all one substance, by what are they distinguished from each other ? is it by forms ? or by accidents ? Whichever be the case, the forms or the accidents would interchange, so that they would successively unite with every one of the stars, so long as their substance [being the same] admits the combinations [with every one of the forms or the accidents]. This shows that the term substance, when used of the spheres or the stars, does not mean the same as it signifies when used of the substance of earthly things, but is applied to the two synonymously. It further shows that every one of the bodies of the spheres has its own peculiar form of existence different from that of all other
;
194

Why
then is circular motion common to all spheres, and why is the beings. fixed position of the stars in their respective spheres common to all stars ? If we, however, assume design and determination of a Creator, in accordance
with His incomprehensible wisdom, all these difficulties disappear. They must arise when we consider the whole Universe, not as the result of free a theory which, on the one will, but as the result of fixed laws of Nature hand, is not in harmony with the existing order of things, and does not offer for it a sufficient reason or argument and, on the other hand, implies many
:
and great improbabilities.
For, according to this theory,
God, whose per-
fection in every respect is recognised by all thinking persons, is in such a relation to the Universe that He cannot change anything ; if He wished to of a fly longer, or to reduce the number of the legs of a worm could not accomplish it. According to Aristotle, He does not try such a thing, and it is wholly impossible for Him to desire any change in the existing order of things ; if He could, it would not increase His perfection ; it might, on the contrary, from some point of view, diminish it.
make the wing
by one,
He
Although I know that many partial critics will ascribe my opinion concerning the theory of Aristotle to insufficient understanding, or to intentional opposition, I will not refrain from stating in short the results of my I hold that the researches, however poor my capacities may be. theory of
is undoubtedly correct as far as the things are concerned which between the sphere of the moon and the centre of the earth. Only an ignorant person rejects it, or a person with preconceived opinions of his own, which he desires to maintain and to defend, and which lead him to ignore clear facts. But what Aristotle says concerning things above the sphere of the moon is, with few exceptions, mere imagination and opinion ; to a still greater extent this applies to his system of Intelligences, and to some of his
Aristotle
exist
metaphysical views
they include great improbabilities, [promote] ideas
which all nations consider as evidently corrupt, and cause views to spread which cannot be proved. It may perhaps be asked why I have enumerated all the doubts which can be raised against the theory of Aristotle whether by mere doubts a theory can be overthrown, or its opposite established ? This is certainly not the
;
case.
But we
treat this philosopher exactly as his followers tell us to do.
For Alexander stated that when a theory cannot be established by proof, the two most opposite views should be compared as to the doubts entertained concerning each of them, and that view which admits of fewer doubts should be accepted. Alexander further says that this rule applies to all those opinions of Aristotle in Metaphysics for which he offered no proof. For those that followed Aristotle believed that his opinions are far less subject to doubt than any other opinion. We follow the same rule. Being convinced that the question whether the heavens are eternal or not cannot be
decided by proof, neither in the affirmative nor in the negative, we have enumerated the objections raised to either view, and shown how the theory of the Eternity of the Universe is subject to stronger objections, and is more apt to corrupt the notions concerning God [than the other]. Another argument can be drawn from the fact that the theory of the Creation was held by our Father Abraham, and by our Teacher Moses. Having mentioned the method of testing the two theories by the objections
CREATION AND ETERNITY OF THE UNIVERSE

raised against them, the subject.
I
195
of
find
it
necessary to give
some further explanation
CHAPTER
XXIII
raised
degree objections] ; for one objection may sometimes have more weight than a thousand But the comparison cannot be trustworthy unless the two theories others. be considered with the same interest, and if you are predisposed in favour of one of them, be it on account of your training or because of some advantage, you are too blind to see the truth. For that which can be demonstrated
IN comparing the objections raised against one theory with those against the opposite theory, in order to decide in favour of the least tionable, we must not consider the number of the objections, but the of improbability and of deviation from real facts [pointed out by the
objec-
you cannot
reject, however much you may be inclined against it ; but in questions like those under consideration you are apt to dispute [in consequence of your inclination]. You will, however, be able to decide the ques-
tion, as far as necessary, if you free yourself from passions, ignore customs, and follow only your reason. But many are the conditions which must be fulfilled. First you must know your mental capacities and your natural talents ; you will find this out when you study all mathematical sciences, and are well acquainted with Logic. Secondly, you must have a thorough knowledge of Natural Science, that you may be able to understand the nature of the objections. For if a person is Thirdly, you must be morally good.
voluptuous or passionate, and, loosening the reins, allows his anger to pass the just limits, it makes no difference whether he is so from nature or from habit, he will blunder and stumble in his way, he will seek the theory which I mention this lest you be deceived ; is in accordance with his inclinations. for a person might some day, by some objection which he raises, shake your
theory of the Creation, and then easily mislead you ; you would then adopt the theory [of the Eternity of the Universe] which is contrary " to the fundamental principles of our religion, and leads to speaking words that turn away from God." You must rather have suspicion against your own reason, and accept the theory taught by two prophets who have laid the
belief in the
kind.
foundation for the existing order in the religious and social relations of manOnly demonstrative proof should be able to make you abandon the the Creation ; but such a proof does not exist in Nature. of theory You will not find it strange that I introduce into this discussion historical
matter in support of the theory of the Creation, seeing that Aristotle, the greatest philosopher, in his principal works, introduces histories in support of the theory of the Eternity of the Universe. In this regard we may justly " Should not our perfect Law be as good as their quote the saying :
gossip
" ? When he supports his view by quoting (B. T. Baba batra, 115 b). Sabean stories, why should we not support our view by that which Moses and Abraham said, and that which follows from their words ? I have before promised to describe in a separate chapter the strong objections which must occur to him who thinks that human wisdom comprehends fully the nature of the spheres and their motions ; that these are subject to fixed laws, and capable of being comprehended as regards order and relation.
I will
now
explain this.
1 96

CHAPTER XXIV
of
Astronomy from the book Almagest
You know
The
theory that [the the stars are in harmony with observation, depends, as you are aware, on two hypotheses : we must assume either epicycles, or excentric spheres, or a combination of both
much as you have studied with me, and learnt we had not sufficient time to go beyond this. spheres] move regularly, and that the assumed courses of
as
;
Now
I will
show that each
of these
two hypotheses
is
Let us totally contrary to the results of Natural Science. irregular, first consider an epicycle, such as has been assumed in the spheres of the and
moon and the five planets, rotating on a sphere, but not round the centre of the sphere that carries it. This arrangement would necessarily produce a revolving motion ; the epicycle would then revolve, and entirely change its in the spheres should change its place is exactly place ; but that anything what Aristotle considers impossible. For that reason Abu-bekr ibn-Alzaig, in an astronomical treatise which he wrote, rejects the existence of epicycles.
Besides this impossibility, he mentions others, showing that the theory of notions. I will here explain them (i) It epicycles implies other absurd is absurd to assume that the revolution of a cycle has not the centre of the
:
Universe for its centre ; for it is a fundamental principle in the order of the Universe that there are only three kinds of motion from the centre, towards the centre, and round the centre but an epicycle does not move away from the centre, nor towards it, nor round it. (2) Again, according to what Aristotle explains in Natural Science, there must be something fixed round which this is the reason why the earth remains stationary. the motion takes place
; ;
epicycle would move round a centre heard that Abu-bekr discovered a system in
But the
excentric spheres are

pupils
;
which is not stationary. I have which no epicycles occur ; but not excluded by him. I have not heard it from his
be correct that he discovered such
a system,
and even
if it
he has
not gained much by it ; for excentricity is likewise as contrary as possible to For it seems to me that an excentric the principles laid down by Aristotle. sphere does not move round the centre of the Universe, but round an imaginary point distant from the centre, and therefore round a point which is
not fixed. person ignorant of astronomy might think that the motion of the excentric spheres may still be considered as taking place round something fixed, since their centre is apparently within the sphere of the moon. I would
admit
this
if
the centre were situated in the region of
fire
or
air,
although
the spheres would not
move round
a stable point.
But
I will
show that the
amount
and
later scholars
of excentricity has, in a certain way, been described in the Almagest ; have calculated the exact amount of excentricity in terms
of radii of the earth, and have proved the result. been used in astronomy in describing all distances
The same measure has and magnitudes. It has thu been shown that the point round which the sun moves lies undoubtedly beyond the sphere of the moon, and below the superficies of the sphere of
Mercury.
The
centre for the circuit of Mars, that
is,
the centre of the
excentric sphere of Mars, is beyond the sphere of Mercury, and below the sphere of Venus. The centre of Jupiter has the same distance ; it lies belies
tween the sphere of Venus and that of Mercury, whilst the centre of Saturn between the spheres of Mars and Jupiter. Now, consider how improall this
bable
appears according to the laws of Natural Science.
You
will
CREATION AND ETERNITY OF THE UNIVERSE

find
it
197
out
when you
consider the
known
distances
and magnitudes
of each
sphere and each

is
expressed in terms of the radii of the earth. There a uniform measure for all, and the excentricity of each sphere is not deterstar, all
mined by
It
is
units proportionate to
its
own magnitude.
;
more improbable and more objectionable to assume that there are two spheres, the one within the other that these are closely joined from all sides, and have, nevertheless, different centres. For in this case the smaller
still
sphere might move whilst the larger be at rest ; but the smaller cannot be at rest when the larger moves, and must move with the larger when the latter rotates round any other axis than that which passes through the two centres.
which can be proved and, further, the no vacuum, and also the assumed excentricity it follows that in every two spheres the motion of the upper one should cause the lower sphere to move in the same way, and round the same centre. But this is not the case ; the outer and the inner spheres do not move in the same way, and not round the same centre or the same axis ; each of them has its peculiar motion. For this reason it has been assumed that between every two spheres there are substances different from those of the spheres. It may be very much doubted whether this is the case ; for where should the centres of these intermediate subhave
this proposition
is
;
Now we
established theory that there of the spheres ; from all this
stances be placed ? have these substances likewise their own peculiar motion ? Thabith has explained the above-mentioned theory in one of his
treatises,
and proved that we must assume
a substance of a spherical
form
intermediate between one sphere and the other. All this is part of that which I have not explained to you when you studied with me, for I was afraid you might become confused and would not understand even those
But as to the inclination things which I wished to show you. tion assumed in respect to the latitude of the paths of Venus
and the deviaand Mercury,
I have already clearly shown you viva voce that it is impossible to imagine material beings under such conditions. You have seen that Ptolemy has " Let no one think already pointed out this difficulty. He says as follows :
If any one considers what that these and similar principles are improbable. we have here expounded in the same light as he considers things produced
by skill and subtle work, he will find it improbable ; but it is not right to This is, as you know, what Ptolcompare human things to divine things." emy says, and I have already pointed out to you the passages by which you can verify all I said, except what I stated about the position of the centres of
the excentric spheres
;
for I have not heard that
any one has paid attention
to this question. But you will understand it when you know the length of the diameter of each sphere, and the extent of its excentricity in terms of radii of the earth, according to the facts which Kabici has established in his
treatise
on the
distances.
When you
notice these distances you will confirm
my words.
Consider, therefore,
how many
difficulties arise if
we
accept the theory
which Aristotle expounds in Physics. For, according to that theory, there are no epicycles, and no excentric spheres, but all spheres rotate round the
centre of
the earth
?
How
then can the different courses of the
stars
be
explained
how
is it
phenomena which we
possible to assume a uniform perfect rotation with the perceive, except by admitting one of the two hypo-
198
theses or

both of them
?
The
difficulty
is still
more apparent when we
find
that admitting what Ptolemy said as regards the epicycle of the moon, and its inclination towards a point different both from the centre of the Universe
its own centre, the calculations according to these hypotheses are within one minute ; that their correctness is confirmed correct, perfectly by the most accurate calculation of the time, duration, and extent of the
and from
which is always based on these hypotheses. Furthermore, how can without assuming the existence of epicycles, the apparent reHow can rotation or motion trogression of a star with its other motions ? These are real difficulties. take place round a point which is not fixed ? I have explained to you already viva voce, that these difficulties do not for he does not profess to tell us the existing proconcern the astronomer perties of the spheres, but to suggest, whether correctly or not, a theory in which the motion of the stars is circular and uniform, and yet in agreement with our observation. You know that Abu-bekr al-Zaig, in his treatise on Physics, expresses a doubt whether Aristotle knew the excentricity of the sun but ignored it, and only discussed the effect of the inclination, because he saw that the effect of the excentricity was identical with did not perceive it. The that of the inclination ; or whether he the science was not truth is that he did not notice it or hear of it If he had heard of it, he would have strongly opposed perfect in his age. been convinced of its correctness, he would have been it ; if he had What I greatly embarrassed as regards all that he said on the question.
eclipses,
we
reconcile,
in explaining the
logical inference
said before (ch. xxii.) I will repeat now, namely, that the theory of Aristotle, phenomena in the sublunary world, is in accordance with
;
here
see
and another
we
we know the causal relation between one phenomenon how far science can investigate them, and the manage-
is clear and But of the things in the heavens intelligible. nothing except a few mathematical calculations, and you see how " far these go. I say in the words of the The heavens are the Lord's, poet, " but the earth He hath given to the sons of man that is to (Ps. cxv. 16) alone has a and true of the heavens, their nature, God knowledge say, perfect their essence, their form, their motions, and their causes but He gave man power to know the things which are under the heavens here is man's world, here is his home, into which he has been placed, and of which he is himself a This is in reality the truth. For the facts which we require in portion. proving the existence of heavenly beings are withheld from us ; the heavens
ment
of nature
man knows
from us, and too exalted in place and rank. Man's faculties are too deficient to comprehend even the general proof the heavens contain for the existence of Him who sets them in motion. It is in fact ignorance or a
are too far
kind of madness to weary our minds with finding out things which are beyond our reach, without having the means of approaching them. We must content ourselves with that which is within our reach, and that which cannot be approached by logical inference let us leave to him who has been endowed " with that great and divine influence, expressed in the words Mouth to mouth do I speak with Him " (Num. xii. 8). This is all I can say on this question another person may perhaps be able to establish by proof what appears doubtful to me. It is on account of my great love of truth that I have shown my embarrassment in these matters,
:
MAIMON1DES* THEORY
and
I
199
have not heard, nor do
know
that any of these theories have been
established
by proof.
CHAPTER XXV
WE do not reject the Eternity of the Universe, because certain passages in Scripture confirm the Creation ; for such passages are not more numerous than those in which God is represented as a corporeal being ; nor is it imWe might possible or difficult to find for them a suitable interpretation.
have explained them in the same manner as we did in respect to the IncorWe should perhaps have had an easier task in showing poreality of God. that the Scriptural passages referred to are in harmony with the theory of the Eternity of the Universe if we accepted the latter, than we had in explaining the anthropomorphisms in the Bible
when we
rejected the idea that
reasons, however, we have not done so, and corporeal. have not accepted the Eternity of the Universe. First, the Incorporeality of God has been demonstrated by proof ; those passages in the Bible, which
is
God
For two
by proof, must and can be interpreted otherwise. But the Eternity of the Universe has not been proved a mere argument in favour of a certain theory is not sufficient reason for rejecting the literal meaning of a Biblical text, and explaining it figuratively, when the opposite theory can be supported by an equally good
in their literal sense contain statements that can be refuted
;
argument.
Secondly, our belief in the Incorporeality of
God
is
not contrary to any
of the fundamental principles of our religion ; it is not contrary to the words of any prophet. Only ignorant people believe that it is contrary to the
.
teaching of Scripture ; but we have shown that this is not the case ; on the If we were to accept contrary, Scripture teaches the Incorporeality of God. the Eternity of the Universe as taught by Aristotle, that everything in the Universe is the result of fixed laws, that Nature does not change, and that
there is nothing supernatural, we should necessarily be in opposition to the foundation of our religion, we should disbelieve all miracles and signs, and certainly reject all hopes and fears derived from Scripture, unless the miracles
The Allegorists amongst the Mohammedans and have thereby arrived at absurd conclusions. If, however, we accepted the Eternity of the Universe in accordance with the second of the theories which we have expounded above (ch. xxiii.), and assumed, with Plato, that the heavens are likewise transient, we should not be in opposition to the fundamental principles of our religion ; this theory would not imply the rejection of miracles, but, on the contrary, would admit them as possible. The Scriptural text might have been explained accordingly, and many expressions might have been found in the Bible and in other writings that would confirm and support this theory. But there is no necessity for this expedient, so long as the theory has not been proved. As there is no proof sufficient to convince us, this theory need not be taken into consideration, nor the other one we take the text of the Bible literally, and say that it teaches us a truth which we cannot prove ; and the miracles are evidence for the correctness of our view.
are also explained figuratively.
have done
this,
Accepting the Creation, we find that miracles are possible, that Revelation
200
is

and that every
has
difficulty in this question
is
possible,
removed.
We
might
God inspired a certain person and not another ? why has He revealed the Law to one particular nation, and at one particular time ? why has He commanded this, and forbidden that ? why has He shown through a
be asked,
Why
prophet certain particular miracles ? what is the object of these laws ? and has He not made the commandments and the prohibitions part of our nature, if it was His object that we should live in accordance with them ? We answer to all these questions He willed it so or, His wisdom decided so. Just as He created the world according to His will, at a certain time, in a certain form, and as we do not understand why His will or His wisdom decided upon that peculiar form, and upon that peculiar time, so we do not know why His will or wisdom determined any of the things mentioned in the preceding questions. But if we assume that the Universe has the present form as the result of fixed laws, there is occasion for the above questions and these could only be answered in an objectionable way, implying denial and
why
rejection of the Biblical texts, the correctness of which no intelligent person doubts. Owing to the absence of all proof, we reject the theory of the
Eternity of the Universe ; and it is for this very reason that the noblest minds spent and will spend their days in research. For if the Creation had been demonstrated by proof, even if only according to the Platonic hypothesis, all arguments of the philosophers against us would be of no avail. If, on the
other hand, Aristotle had a proof for his theory, the whole teaching of Scripture would be rejected, and we should be forced to other opinions. I have
thus
shown that
all
depends on
this question.
Note
it.
CHAPTER XXVI
IN the famous chapters known
as
the Chapters of Rabbi Eliezer,
I find
R.
Eliezer the Great saying something more extraordinary than I have ever seen I mean the in the utterances of any believer in. the Law of Moses. following " Whence were the heavens created ? He took part of the light passage :
a cloth, and thus the heavens were extending covereth Himself with light as with a garment, He stretcheth the heavens like a curtain " (Ps. civ. 2). " Whence was the He took of the snow under the throne of glory, and threw earth created ? He saith to the snow, Be thou earth " (Job it ; according to the words
of His garment, stretched continually, as it is said :
it like
He
These are the words given there ; and I, in my surprise, ask, What was the belief of this sage ? did he think that nothing can be produced from nothing, and that a substance must have existed of which the things were formed ? and did he for this reason ask whence were the heavens and the earth created ? What has he gained by the answer ? We might ask him, Whence was the light of His garment created ? or the snow under the throne of His glory ? or the throne of glory itself ? If the terms " " and " " mean the light of His garment the throne of glory something the words would imply an admission of the eternal, they must be rejected Eternity of the Universe, though only in the form taught by Plato. The creation of the throne of glory is mentioned by our Sages, though in a strange way ; for they say that it has been created before the creation of the Universe. Scripture, however, does not mention the creation of the throne, except in
xxxvii. 6).
;
DESTRUCTION OF THE UNIVERSE

the words of David,
201
"
throne in the heavens (Ps. ciii. 19), which words admit of figurative interpretation ; but the eter" Thou, O Lord, dwellest for ever, nity of the throne is distinctly described, " (Lam. v. 19). Now, if R. Eliezer had bethy throne for ever and ever " " throne expressed an lieved that the throne was eternal, so that the word
his
"
The Lord hath established
attribute of
duced of
God, and not something created, how could anything be pro" of the light of mere attribute ? Stranger still is his expression
is
His garment." In short, it
a passage that greatly confuses the notions of all intelligent
I quoted it I am unable to explain it sufficiently. misled it. One not be by important thing R. Eliezer you may taught us here, that the substance of the heavens is different from that of the earth ; that there are two different substances the one is described as belonging to God, being the light of His garment, on account of its superand the other, the earthly substance, which is distant from His iority splendour and light, as being the snow under the throne of His glory. This " led me to explain the words, And under his feet as the work of the white" ness of the sapphire (Exod. xxiv. 10), as expressing that the nobles of the children of Israel comprehended in a prophetical vision the nature of the For, according to Onkelos, the pronoun in the earthly materia prima. " " this indicates that His feet," refers to throne," as I have shown phrase, the whiteness under the throne signifies the earthly substance. R. Eliezer
and
religious persons.
in order that
a higher one, to all things.
has thus repeated the same idea, and told us that there are two substances and a lower one ; and that there is not one substance common
This
is
an important subject, and we must not think light of
the opinion which the wisest men in Israel have held on this point. It concerns an important point in explaining the existence of the Universe, and one of the mysteries of the Law. In Bereshit Rabba (chap, xii.) the follow-
R. Eliezer says, The things in the heavens have been ing passage occurs : created of the heavens, the things on earth of the earth." Consider how ingeniously this sage stated that all things on earth have one common subthe heavens and the things in them have one substance, different He also explains in the Chapters [of R. Eliezer], in addition first. to the preceding things, the superiority of the heavenly substance, and its
stance
;
"
from the
proximity to God ; and, on the other hand, the inferiority of the earthly substance and its position. Note it.
CHAPTER XXVII
WF. have already stated that the belief in the Creation is a fundamental principle of our religion ; but we do not consider it a principle of our faith that the Universe will again be reduced to nothing. It is not contrary to the tenets of our religion to assume that the Universe will continue to exist for everT^TFmight be objected that everything produced is subject to destruction, as has~teerr shown consequently the Universe, having had a beginning, must come to an end. This axiom cannot be applied according to our views. We~dx3 not hold that the Universe came into existence, like all things in Nature, as the result of the laws of Nature. For whatever owes its existence to the action of physical laws is, according to the same laws, subject to de;
202
struction
:
the same law which caused the existence of a thing after a period of non-existence, is also the cause that the thing is not permanent ; since the previous non-existence proves that the nature of that thing does not
necessitate its permanent existence. According to our theory, taught in Scripture, the existence or non-existence of things depends solely on the will of God and not on fixed laws, and, therefore, it does not follow that God must destroy the Universe after having created it from nothing. It depends
on His
He may, according to His desire, or according to the decree of will. His wisdom, either destroy it, or allow it to exist, and it is therefore possible that He will preserve the Universe for ever, and let it exist permanently as He Himself exists. It is well known that our Sages never said that the throne
assumed that it has been created. No prophet or sage ever maintained that the throne of glory will be destroyed
of glory will perish, although they
but, on the contrary, the Scriptural passages speak of its ; permanent existence. We are of opinion that the souls of the pious have been created, and at the same time we believe that they are immortal.
or annihilated
Some
hold, in accordance with the literal
meaning of the Midrashim, that
the bodies of the pious will also enjoy everlasting happiness. Their notion is like the well-known belief of certain people, that there are bodily enjoyments in Paradise. In short, reasoning leads to the conclusion that the deis not a certain fact. There remains only the question as to what the prophets and our Sages say on this point ; whether they affirm that the world will certainly come to an end, or not. Most people amongst us believe that such statements have been made, and that
struction of the Universe
the world will at one time be destroyed. I will show you that this is not the case ; and that, on the contrary, many passages in the Bible speak of the permanent existence of the Universe. Those passages which, in the literal
sense,
would indicate the destruction of the Universe,

as will
be understood in a figurative sense,
be shown.
who
is part of their faith, they are at liberty to do so. But we must tell them that the belief in the destruction is not necessarily implied in the belief in the Creation ; they believe it because they trust the writer, who used a figurative expression, which they take literally. Their faith, however, does not suffer by it.
follow the literal sense of the Scriptural texts that the ultimate certain destruction of the Universe
undoubtedly to however, those reject our view, and assume

are
If,
CHAPTER XXVIII
MANY
of our coreligionists thought that
King Solomon believed
in the
How can we suppose that Eternity of the Universe. This is very strange. any one that adheres to the Law of Moses, our Teacher, should accept that
theory ? if we were to assume that Solomon has on this point, God forbid, deviated from the Law of Moses, the question would be asked, Why did most of the Prophets and of the Sages accept it of him ? Why have they not opposed him, or blamed him for holding that opinion, as he has been blamed for having married strange women, and for other things ? The reason why " this has been imputed to him is to be found in the following passage : They
scepticism."
desired to suppress the book Koheleth, because its words incline towards It is undoubtedly true that certain passages in this book in-
DESTRUCTION OF THE UNIVERSE

elude,
203
when taken literally, opinions different from those taught in the Law, and they must therefore be explained figuratively. But the theory of the Eternity of the Universe is not among those opinions, the book does not even contain any passage that implies this theory ; much less a passage in which it is There are, however, in the book, some passages which clearly set forth. imply the indestructibility of the Universe, a doctrine that is true and from the fact that the indestructibility of the Universe is taught in this book, some persons wrongly inferred that the author believed in the Eternity of the Universe. The following are the words that refer to the indestructibility " of the Universe And the earth remaineth for ever." And those who do not agree with me as regards the above distinction [between the indestructibility and the Eternity of the Universe], are compelled to explain the term " " the time fixed for the existence of the le-'olam (lit., for ever "), to mean " earth." the words of God, Yet all the days of the Similarly they explain " earth fixed for its But I wonder to the existence. viii. (Gen. 22) signify days how they would explain the words of David " He laid the foundations of " the earth, that it should not be moved for ever If they main(Ps. civ. 5). " tain here also that the term le-'olam va- ed (lit. for ever ") does not imply perpetuity, they must come to the conclusion that God exists only for a fixed period, since the same term is employed in describing the perpetuity of " " The for ever xv. or Ps. x.
;
:
Lord will reign (le-'olam) 18, (Exod. 16). must, however, bear in mind that olam only signifies perpetuity when it is combined with ; it makes no difference whether follows, as in olam va-'ed, or whether it precedes, as in 'ad 'olam. The words of Solomon
God,
We
which only contain the word It-'olam, have therefore less force than the words of David, who uses the term 'olamva-'ed. David has also in other passages clearly spoken of the incorruptibility of the heavens, the perpetuity and " immutability of their laws, and of all the heavenly beings. He says, .Praise the Lord from the For He and etc. heavens, commanded, ye they were He hath also stablished them for ever and ever ; he hath made a created. " decree which shall not pass that is to say, there will never (Ps. cxlviii. i-fi) be a change in the decrees which God made, or in the sources of the properties of the heavens and the earth, which the Psalmist has mentioned before. But he distinctly states that they have been created. For he says, "He hath commanded, and they were created." Jeremiah (xxxi. 35) like" wise says, He giveth the sun for a light by day, and the ordinances of the moon and of the stars for a light by night," etc. " If these ordinances depart from before me, saith the Lord, then the seed of Israel also shall cease from
;
will
being a nation before me for ever." He thus declares, that these decrees never be removed, although they had a beginning. We therefore find this idea, when we search for it, expressed not only by Solomon but also by
others.
Solomon himself
that
is
has stated that these works of

it,
God, the Universe,
and
remain with their properties for ever, although " Whatsoever God doeth, it shall be they have been created. For he says, " for ever ; nothing can be to nor it, put anything taken away from it (Eccles. iii. He declares in these words that the world has been created 14). by God and remains for ever. He adds the reason for it by saying, " Nothing can be put to it, nor anything taken from it ; " for this is the reason for the perpetuity, as if he meant to say that things are changed in order to supply that
all
contained in
204
which
of
is
wanting, or in order to take away what is superfluous. The works being most perfect, admitting no addition or deduction, must remain the same for ever. It is impossible that anything should exist that could In the conclusion of the verse, Solomon, as it were cause a change in them. describes the purpose of exceptions from the laws of Nature, or an excuse for
God
And God doeth it (viz., He performs mirchanges in them, when he says, The words which follow, " That acles) that men should fear before him."
which hath been is now ; and that which is to be hath already been, and God seeketh that which is pursued," contain the idea that God desires the perpetuity and continuity of the Universe. The fact that the works of God are perfect, admitting of no addition or diminution, has already been men" tioned by Moses, the wisest of all men, in the words The rock, His work " is xxxii. All His works or creations are most perfect, (Deut. 14). perfect containing no defect whatever, nothing superfluous, nor anything unnecesAlso whatever God decrees for those created things, and whatever sary. He effects through them, is perfectly just, and is the result of His wisdom, as will be explained in some chapters of this treatise.
:
"
CHAPTER XXIX
IF we hear a person speaking whose language we do not understand, we unit doubtedly know that he speaks, but do not know what his words mean may even happen that we hear some words which mean one thing in the tongue of the speaker, and exactly the reverse in our language, and taking the words in the sense which they have in our language, we imagine that the speaker employed them in that sense. Suppose, e.g., an Arab hears of a Hebrew the word abab, he thinks that the Hebrew relates how a man de;
and refused a certain thing, whilst the Hebrew in reality says that the pleased and satisfied with it. The very same thing happens to the ordinary reader of the Prophets ; some of their words he does not understand
spised
man was
the vision of all the prophet says (Isa. xxix. li), " is become unto you as the words of a book that is sealed ; in other passages he finds the opposite or the reverse of what the prophet meant ; to this case
at
all, like
those to
whom
"
reference
is
made
God
"
in the words,
"
Ye have
is,
(Jer. xxiii. 36).
Besides,
it
must be borne
as it
has his
own peculiar
diction,
which
perverted the words of the living in mind that every prophet were, his language, and it is in that
language that the prophecy addressed to him is communicated to those who understand it. After this preliminary remark you will understand the metaphor frequently employed by Isaiah, and less frequently by other prophets, when they describe the ruin of a kingdom or the destruction of a great nation " in phrases like the following The stars have fallen," " The heavens are " The sun is darkened," " The earth is waste, and trembles," overthrown," and similar metaphors. The Arabs likewise say of a person who has met " with a serious accident, His heavens, together with his earth, have been " covered ; and when they speak of the approach of a nation's prosperity, " The light of the sun and moon has increased," " A new heaven they say,
:
a new earth has been created," or they use similar phrases. So also the prophets, in referring to the ruin of a person, of a nation, or of a country, describe it as the result of God's great anger and wrath, whilst the prosperity
and
ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE PROPHETS

of a nation
is
205
the result of God's pleasure and satisfaction. In the former " He came forth," " came down," employ such phrases as " " " caused his voice to be heard " ; also " He thundered," or roared," " " " said," made," and the like, as will be shown. commanded," did," " mankind " instead of " the people Sometimes the prophets use the term
case the prophets
of a certain place," whose destruction they predict ; e.g., Isaiah speaking of " the destruction of Israel says, And the Lord will remove man far away "
(Isa. vi. 12).
So
also
earth.
I will also
Zephaniah (i. 3, 4), And I will cut off man from off the stretch out mine hand upon Judah." Note this likewise.
"
of the language of the prophets in general, I will now verify and prove my statement. When Isaiah received the divine mission to prophesy the destruction of the Babylonian empire, the death of Sennacherib and that of Nebuchadnezzar, who rose after the overthrow of Sennacherib, he commences in the following manner to describe their fall and the end of their dominion, their defeat, and such evils as are endured by all who are vanquished and compelled to flee before the victorious sword [of the enemy] " For the stars of heaven, and the constellations thereof, shall not give their the sun is darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause light " " her light to shine Therefore I will shake the heavens, (xiii. 10) again, and the earth shall remove out of her place, in the wrath of the Lord of " I do not think that any hosts, and in the day of his fierce anger (xiii. 13). is so foolish and blind, and so much in favour of the literal sense of person figurative and oratorical phrases, as to assume that at the fall of the Baby-
Having spoken
lonian kingdom a change took place in the nature of the stars of heaven, or in the light of the sun and moon, or that the earth moved away from its centre. For all this is merely the description of a country that has been
the inhabitants undoubtedly find all light dark, and all sweet ; bitter the whole earth appears too narrow for them, and the heavens : things are changed in their eyes. He speaks in a similar manner when he dedefeated
scribes the
poverty and humiliation of the people of Israel, their captivity their defeat, the continuous misfortunes caused by the wicked Sennacherib when he ruled over all the fortified places of Judah, or the loss of the
and
entire land of Israel
says (xxiv. 17)
when it came into the possession of Sennacherib. He inhabiFear, and the pit, and the snare, sre upon thee, tant of the earth. And it shall come to pass, that he who fleeth from the
"
:
noise of the fear shall fall into the pit ; and he that cometh out of the midst of the pit shall be taken in the snare for the windows from on high are open, and the foundations of the earth do shake. The earth is utterly broken down,
:
the earth
reel to
is
clean dissolved, the earth

fro like a drunkard."
and
The earth shall is moved exceedingly. At the end of the same prophecy, when
:
Isaiah describes how God will punish Sennacherib, destroy his mighty empire, and reduce him to disgrace, he uses the following figure (xxiv. 23) " Then the moon shall be confounded, and the sun ashamed, when the Lord
of hosts shall reign," etc. This verse is beautifully explained by Jonathan, the son of Uzziel ; he says that when Sennacherib will meet with his fate
because of Jerusalem, the idolaters will understand that this is the work of God ; they will faint and be confounded. He therefore translates the verse " thus Those who worship the moon will be ashamed, and those who bow
:
down
to the sun will be humbled,
when
the kingdom of
God
shall reveal
206
itself," etc.

The prophet
then pictures the peace of the children of Israel
after the death of Sennacherib, the fertility and the increasing power of their kingdom
and the cultivation of
their land,
through Hezekiah. He employs here the figure of the increase of the light of the sun and moon. When speaking of the defeated, he says that for them the light of the sun and moon in the same sense their light is said to will be diminished and darkened We can frequently notice the correctness of this increase for the victorious. When great troubles befall us, our eyes become dim, and we figure of speech. cannot see clearly because the spiritus visus is made turbid by the prevailing vapours, and is weakened and diminished by great anxiety and straits of the soul whilst in a state of gladness and comfort of the soul the spiritus visus becomes clear, and man feels as if the light had increased. Thus the good tidings that the people shall dwell in Zion, and in Jerusalem, and shall weep " no more, etc., conclude in the following manner Moreover, the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun, and the light of the sun shall be sevenfold, as the light of seven days, in the day that the Lord bindeth up the " breaches of his people, and healeth the stroke of their wound (Isa. xxx. 19, that is to say, when God will raise them up again after they had fallen 26) " " through the wicked Sennacherib. The phrase as the light of seven days " " for in this signifies, according to the commentators, very great light " "
; ; : ; :
same sense the number
I think that frequently used in Hebrew. reference is made by this phrase to the seven days of the dedication of the temple in the reign of Solomon ; for there was never a nation so great, pros-
seven
is
perous, and happy in every respect, as Israel was at that time, and therefore the prophet says, that Israel's greatness and happiness will be the same as it was in those seven days. Speaking of wicked Edom, Israel's oppressor, Isaiah
Their slain also shall be cast out, and their stink shall come up out of says their carcases, and the mountains shall be melted with their blood. And all the host of heaven shall be dissolved, and the heavens shall be rolled to:
"
down, as a leaf falleth off from For my sword shall be bathed in heaven behold, I shall come down upon Idumea, and upon the people of my curse, to judgment," etc. (Isa. xxxiv. 3-5). Will any person who has eyes to see find in these verses any expression that is obscure, or that might lead him to think that they contain an account of what will befall the heavens ? or anything but a figurative description of the ruin of the Edomites, the withdrawal of God's protection from them, their decline, and the sudden and rapid fall of their nobles ? The prophet means to say that the individuals, who were like stars as regards their permanent, high, and undisturbed position, will quickly come down, as a leaf falleth from the vine, and as a This is self-evident ; and there would be no fig falling from the fig-tree. need to mention it, much less to speak on it at length, had it not become necessary, owing to the fact that the common people, and even persons who
gether as a scroll the vine, and as a
;
:
and
all
their host shall
fall
fig falleth
from the
fig-tree.
its
are considered as distinguished scholars, quote this passage without regarding context or its purpose, [in support of their view of the future destruction
of the heavens]. They believe that Scripture describes here what will, in future, happen to the heavens, in the same manner as it informs us how the heavens have come into existence. Again, when Isaiah told the Israelites
what afterwards became
well-known fact
that Sennacherib, with his

allied nations
207
by
God
and kings, would perish, and that the Israelites would be helped " See how the alone, he employed figurative language, and said :
heavens decay and the earth withers away, and all beings on the earth die, and you are saved " ; that is to say, those who have filled the earth, and have been considered, to use an hyperbole, as permanent and stable as the heavens, will quickly perish and disappear like smoke and their famous power, that has been as stable as the earth, will be destroyed like a garment. The " For the Lord hath comforted Zion He passage to which I refer begins " hath comforted all her waste places," etc. Hearken unto me, my people,"
;
:
etc.
"
tinues thus
My righteousness "
:
is
near
my
salvation
Lift
up your
eyes to the heavens,
for the heavens shall vanish like garment, and they that dwell therein shall die in like manner for my " salvation shall be for ever, and my righteousness shall not be abolished The restoration of the kingdom of Israel, its stability and per(Isa. li. 3-6). manence, is described as a creation of heaven and earth. For Isaiah frequently speaks of the land of a king as if it were the whole Universe, as if heaven and earth belonged to him. He therefore comforts Israel and says " " And I have put my words in I, even I, am he that comforteth you," etc. and I have covered thee in the shadow of mine hand, that I may mouth, thy plant the heavens, and lay the foundations of the earth, and say unto Zion, Thou art my people " (li. 12-16). In the following verses, Isaiah declares
;
beneath
gone forth," etc. It conand look upon the earth smoke, and the earth shall wax old
is
;
like a
that the dominion of Israel will continue, whilst that of the renowned and " For the mountains shall depart," etc. (liv. 10). mighty people will cease
:
In order to express that the kingdom of the Messiah will be permanent, and " that the kingdom of Israel will not be destroyed any more, he says, Thy shall no In like more etc. sun these, which go down," (Ix. 20). metaphors
are intelligible to those who understand the context, Isaiah continues to describe the details of the exile, the restoration, and the removal of all sorrow, and says figuratively as follows : " I will create new heavens and a new earth ;
for the first shall
I will create," he means that God will give them perpetual gladness and joy in place of the previous grief and mourning, which shall no longer be remembered. I will now describe the sequence of the ideas, and the order
"
be forgotten, and their memory shall be blotted out." He explains this in the course of the speech, by pointing out that by the phrase,
which these ideas are contained. The prophet begins as mention the loving-kindnesses of the Lord," etc. (Ixiii. 7). He then gives (i) an account of God's past kindness to us, concluding with " the words, And he bare them and carried them all the days of old " (ver. " But they rebelled, and vexed his holy (2) Next follows our rebellion 9). " Our of our enemies over us etc. the dominion (ver. 10) (3) spirit,"
of the verses in
follows
"
I will
adversaries have trodden
down thy
sanctuary
;
we
are like those over
whom
on thou hast never ruled," etc. (vers. 1 8, 19) (4) and the prophet's prayer " our account Be not wroth very sore," etc. (Ixiv. 9). (5) The prophet then describes how we deserved these punishments, and how we were called " to the truth but did not respond I offered myself to be sought of them that " Thus asked not for me," etc. (Ixv. i) ; (6) promises mercy and pardon saith the Lord, As the new wine is found in the cluster," etc. (ver. 8) (7) " Behold, my servant shall eatj but ye shall predicts evil for our oppressors
:
:
208

;
be hungry," etc. (ver. 13) such a degree that

troubles will
we
shall
:
be forgotten
and moral improvement of our nation to be a blessing on the earth, and the previous " And he shall call his servants by another
(8)
name
that he
;
who
and
God
of truth
;
blesseth himself in the earth, shall bless himself in the he that sweareth in the earth, shall swear by the God
because the former troubles are forgotten, and because they are hid from mine eyes. For, behold, I create new heavens, and a new earth and the former shall not be remembered, nor come into mind. But be ye
of truth
:
glad and rejoice for ever in that
which
create
for,
behold,
create Jeru-
salem a rejoicing, and her people a joy.

clear
" I will cause the sun to go speaking of the destruction of Samaria, says down at noon, and I will darken the earth in the clear day ; and I will turn your feasts," etc. Micah (i. 3, 4), in relating the fall of Samaria, uses the
:
and joy in my people," etc. (Ixv. 15-19). subject must now be " and evident ; for the words, I create new heavens, and a new earth," " I create etc., are followed by the explanation, Jerusalem a rejoicing, and her people a joy," etc. The prophet then adds that the seed and name of Israel will be as permanent as their faith and as the rejoicing in it, which God promised to create and to spread over the whole earth for faith in God and rejoicing in it are two possessions which, once obtained, are never " lost or changed. This is expressed in the words For as the new heavens and the new earth, which I will make, remain before me, saith the Lord, so " shall your seed and your name remain But of other nations, (Ixvi. 22). in some instances, the seed remains, whilst the name has perished so, e.g., many people are of the seed of the Persians or Greeks, without being known by that special name they bear the names of other nations, of which they form part. According to my opinion, we have here a prophecy that our religion, which gives us our special name, will remain permanently. As these figures are frequent in Isaiah, I explained all of them. But we meet with them also in the words of other prophets. Jeremiah, in describing " I the destruction of Jerusalem in consequence of our sins, says (iv. 23) beheld the earth, and, lo, it was without form, and void," etc. Ezekiel (xxxii. 7, 8) foretells the destruction of the kingdom of Egypt, and the death " And when of Pharaoh, through Nebuchadnezzar, in the following words I shall put thee out, I will cover the heaven, and make the stars thereof dark All I will cover the sun with a cloud, and the moon shall not give her light. the bright lights of heaven will I make dark over thee, and set darkness upon thy land, saith the Lord." Joel, the son of Pethuel (ii. 10), describes the " The earth shall multitude of locusts that came in his days as follows the sun and the moon shall quake before them the heavens shall tremble be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their shining." Amos (viii. 9, 10),
: :
And I will The whole
rejoice in Jerusalem,
For, behold, the Lord cometh following well-known rhetorical figures forth out of his place, and will come down, and tread upon the high places
:
"
of the earth.
(ii.
And
the mountains shall be molten," etc.
Similarly Haggai
6, 7), in describing the destruction of the kingdom of the " I will shake the heavens and the earth, and the sea, Persians :
Medes and and the dry
and I will stake all nations," etc. When [David] (Ps. Ix. 4) describes how, during the expedition of Joab against the Edomites, the nation was low " Thou and weak, and how he prayed to God for His assistance, he says
land
;
:

hast
209
thou hast broken it : heal the breaches In another instance he expresses the idea that we need not fear when we see other nations die and perish, because we rely on God's support, and not on our sword and strength, in accordance with the " A people saved by the Lord, the shield of thy help " (Deut. xxxiii. words " he Therefore will we not fear, though the earth says (Ps. xlvi. 2) 29) and the mountains be shaken in the midst of the sea." be removed, though
the earth to tremble
it
;
made
;
thereof
for
shaketh."
The following figurative language is employed in Scripture in referring to " The waters saw thee ; they the death of the Egyptians in the Red Sea the depths also were troubled, etc. The voice of thy thunder were afraid was in the heaven the lightnings lightened the world the earth trembled " Was the Lord displeased against the and shook " (Ps. Ixxvii. 17-19). " "
: : : ;
rivers
etc.
etc. (Ps. xviii. 9).
Deborah). quoted can be explained in accordance with those which I have cited. " Let us now consider the words of Joel (iii. 3-5) And I will show wonders in the heavens and in the earth, blood and fire, and pillars of smoke. The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the And it shall come to pass, that great and terrible day of the Lord come. whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be delivered, for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem shall be deliverance," etc. I refer them to the defeat of Sennacherib near Jerusalem but they may be taken as an account of the defeat of Gog and Magog near Jerusalem in the days of the Messiah, if this appears preferable, although nothing is mentioned in this passage but great slaughter, destruction, fire, and the diminution of the light of the two lumiYou may perhaps object How can the day of the fall of Sennanaries. " the great and the terrible day cherib, according to our explanation, be called " But must know that a of the Lord ? you day of great salvation or of great " the great and terrible day of the Lord." Thus Joel (ii. 1 1) distress is called " of the on which the locusts came over the land, For the day of the says day " Lord is great and terrible, and who can abide it ? Our opinion, in support of which we have quoted these passages, is clearly
; : ;
:
The earth trembled," etc. (Judges v. 4, in the Song of There are many other instances but those which I have not
(Hab. iii. "
8).
There went up
smoke out of
his nostrils,"
" The world remains change of any of its properties. When our Sages say, six thousand years, and one thousand years it will be waste," they do not mean a complete cessation of existing things the phrase " one thousand " distinctly shows that time will continue ; besides, this years it will be waste is the individual opinion of one Rabbi, and in accordance with one particular " But on the other hand the words, There is nothing new under theory. " the sun (Eccles. i. 9), in the sense that no new creation takes place in any way and under any circumstances, express the general opinion of our Sages, and include a principle which every one of the doctors of the Mishnah and the Talmud recognises and makes use of in his arguments. Even those who " " understand the words new heavens and a new earth in their literal sense hold that the heavens, which will in future be formed, have already been
;
established, namely, that no prophet or sage has ever announced the destruction of the Universe, or a change of its present condition, or a permanent
created and are in existence, and that for this reason the present tense " " " remain is used, and not the future will remain." They support their
210
" There is nothing new under the sun." Do not view by citing the text, imagine that this is opposed to our opinion. They mean, perhaps, to say that the natural laws, by which the promised future condition of Israel will be effected, have been in existence since the days of the Creation, and in that they are perfectly correct. When I, however, said that no prophet ever " a permanent change of any of its properties," I intended to announced miracles. For although the rod was turned into a serpent, the water except into blood, the pure and noble hand into a leprous one, without the existence of any natural cause that could effect these or similar phenomena, these On changes were not permanent, they have not become a physical property the contrary, the Universe since continues its regular course. This is my opinion; this should be our belief. Our Sages, however, said very strange things as regards miracles they are found in Bereshit Rabba, and in Midrask
;
Koheleth, namely, that the miracles are to some extent also natural ; for they say, when God created the Universe with its present physical properties, He
made
him
it
at certain times,
part of these properties, that they should produce certain miracles and the sign of a prophet consisted in the fact that God told
to declare when a certain thing will take place, but the thing itself was If this is really the meaning effected according to the fixed laws of Nature. of the passage referred to, it testifies to the greatness of the author, and shows
that he held it to be impossible that there should be a change in the laws of Nature, or a change in the will of God [as regards the physical properties of He therefore assumes, e.g., things] after they have once been established.
gave the waters the property of joining together, and of flowing in direction, and of separating only at the time when the Egyptians were drowned, and only in a particular place. I have already pointed out to you the source of this passage, and it only tends to oppose the hypothesis It is said there R. Jonathan said, God made an agreeof a new creation. ment with the sea that it should divide before the Israelites thus it is said, " And the sea returned to its strength when the morning appeared " (Exod. Not only with the sea, but with R. Jeremiah, son of Elazar, said xiv. 27). all that has been created in the six days of the beginning [was the agreement " I, even my hands have stretched made] this is referred to in the words, " out the heavens, and all their host have I commanded i.e., (Isa. xlv. 12) I have commanded the sea to divide, the fire not to hurt Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, the lions not to harm Daniel, and the fish to spit out Jonah. The same is the case with the rest of the miracles. We have thus clearly stated and explained our opinion, that we agree with For we believe that this Universe remains Aristotle in one half of his theory. perpetually with the same properties with which the Creator has endowed
that
a
God
downward
and that none of these will ever be changed except by way of miracle in some individual instances, although the Creator has the power to change the whole Universe, to annihilate it, or to remove any of its properties. The Universe, had, however, a beginning and commencement, for when nothing was as yet in existence except God, His wisdom decreed that the
it,
Universe be brought into existence at a certain time, that it should not be annihilated or changed as regards any of its properties, except in some instances ; some of these are known to us, whilst others belong to the future, and are therefore unknown to us. This is our opinion and the basis of our

religion.
211
is that the Universe, being permanent and without beginning. We have already shown that this theory is based on the hypothesis that the Universe is the necessary result of causal relation, and that this hypothesis includes a certain
The
opinion of Aristotle
is
and indestructible,
also eternal
chapter a
Having come thus far we will make in the next few remarks on passages in the first chapters of Genesis. For the primary object in this treatise has been to expound as much as possible of the Scriptural account of the Creation (ma'aseb bereshit), and the description
amount
of blasphemy.
of the heavenly chariot (ma'aseh mercabah"). observations.

First, the
But
let us
premise two general

is
account given in Scripture of the Creation

all its
not, as
this
is
generally
believed, intended to be in
parts literal.
For
if
men would not have kept its explanation secret, not have employed figurative speech [in treating of the Creation] in order to hide its true meaning, nor would they have objected to discuss it in the prewise
sence of the
were the case, and our Sages would
common people. The literal meaning of the words might lead us to conceive corrupt ideas and to form false opinions about God, or even It is therefore entirely to abandon and reject the principles of our Faith.
right to abstain
refrain from examining this subject superficially and must blame the practice of some ignorant preachers and expounders of the Bible, who think that wisdom consists in knowing the explanation of words, and that greater perfection is attained by employing more words and longer speech. It is, however, right that we should examine
unscientifically.
and
We
the Scriptural texts by the intellect, after having acquired a knowedge of demonstrative science, and of the true hidden meaning of prophecies. But
as I stated in
one has obtained some knowledge in this matter he must not preach on it, my Commentary on the Mishnah (Hagigah, ii. 7), and our From the beginning of the book to this place after Sages said distinctly " the account of the sixth day of the Creation it is the glory of God to
if
:
conceal a thing (Prov. xxv. 2). have thus clearly stated our opinion. It is, however, part of the Divine plan that everyone who has obtained some perfection transmit it to
"
We
some other persons,
as will
be shown in the chapter on Prophecy.
It
is,
therefore, impossible for a scholar to possess knowledge of these problems, whether it be through his own researches or through his master's teaching, without communicating part of that knowledge to others ; it cannot be done
words it must be done sparingly by way of hints. We find in the words of some of our Sages numerous hints and notes of this kind, but mixed up with the words of others and with other subjects. In treating of these mysteries, as a rule, I quote as much as contains the principal idea, and leave
in clear
;
the rest for those

are not
who
are
worthy
of
it.
Secondly, the prophets employ
homonymous terms and
use words which
to be understood in their ordinary signification, but are only " a rod of an used because of some other meaning which they admit, e.g.,
meant
almond-tree (shaked)," because of the words which follow, for I will hasten " Acin the chapter on Prophecy. (shaked) (Jer. i. n, 12), as will be shown of the Divine Chariot in the account the same Ezekiel to cording principle employs, as we have stated the term Jpashmal (Ezek. i. 4) ; also regel egel kalal (v. 7), and similar terms ; Zechariah (vi. i) likewise (v. 7), nefyoshet
"
212

"
:
adopts this method, and says nefyoshet (brass)," and the like.
After these two remarks
mised.
And
the mountains were mountains of

I
I will
proceed to the chapter which
have pro-
CHAPTER XXX
THERE
exists in the
between first and beginning (or principle). The latter it need thing of which it is the beginning, or co-exists with it not precede it; e.g., the heart is the beginning of the living being; the " " element is the beginning of that of which it is the basis. The term first
is
a difference
is
precedence not the beginning (or the cause) of the thing that follows. E.g., we say A. was the first inhabitant of this house, after him came B this does not imply In Hebrew, tehillah is used that A is the cause of B inhabiting the house.
;
likewise applied to things of this kind ; but is also employed in cases where in time alone is to be expressed, and the thing which precedes is
in the sense of
"
first
"
(Hos.
i.
The head," the principal part of the living being as regards position. Universe has not been created out of an element that preceded it in time, For this reason Scripture since time itself formed part of the Creation. " " bereshit (in a principle), in which the beth is a preemploys the term " in." The true explanation of the first verse of Genesis position denoting " In [creating] a principle God created the beings above and is as follows the things below." This explanation is in accordance with the theory of the Creation. We find that some of our Sages are reported to have held the
:
"
l),
and the
"
e.g.,
when God
"
is
beginning
first (tehillat) spake to Hosea expressed by reshith, derived from rosb,
opinion that time existed before the Creation. But this report is very doubtful, because the theory that time cannot be imagined with a beginning,
has been taught
by
Aristotle, as I
showed you, and
is
objectionable.
Those
who have made
have been led to it by a saying of one of our " " to the terms one day," a second day." reference in Taking these Sages " the author of that the first terms literally, saying asked, What determined there was no and no sun and continues as since ? rotating day," sphere, " one day " ; R. Jehudah, son of R. Simon, follows Scripture uses the term " Hence we learn that the divisions of time have existed previously." said " Hence we learn that God built worlds and again destroyed R. Abahu said, them." This latter exposition is still worse than the former. Consider the difficulty which these two Rabbis found in the statement that time existed We shall undoubtedly soon remove this before the creation of the sun. intended to infer from the Scriptural text difficulty, unless these two Rabbis that the divisions of time must have existed before the Creation, and thus
this assertion
: :
adopted the theory of the Eternity of the Universe. But every religious man rejects this. The above saying is, in my opinion, certainly of the same " character as that of R. Eliezer, Whence were the heavens created," etc., In short, in these questions, do not take notice of the utter(chap. xxvi.). I told you that the foundation of our faith is the belief ances of any person. that God created the Universe from nothing that time did not exist prefor it viously, but was created depends on the motion of the sphere, and the wK<;re has been created.
; ;
ON GENESIS
I. -IV.
213
You must know that the particle et in the phrase et ha-sbamayim ve-el " " ha-arez (" the heavens and the earth ") signifies our ; together with in the same in the word sense have instances. AccordSages many explained
God created with the heavens everything that the heavens contain, and with the earth everything the earth includes. They further say that the simultaneous Creation of the heavens and the earth is " " I call unto them, they stand up together (Ps. xlviii.). implied in the words,
ingly they assume that
Consequently, all things were created together, but were separated from each other successively. Our Sages illustrated this by the following simile We sow various seeds at the same time ; some spring forth after one day,
:
after three days, although all have been sown at According to this interpretation, which is undoubtedly correct, the difficulty is removed, which led R. Jehudah, son of R. Simon, to utter the above saying, and consisted in the doubt as to the thing by which the first day, the second, and the third were determined. In Bertshit Rabba, our Sages, speaking of the light created on the first day according
some
the
after two,
and some
same
time.
to the Scriptural account, say as follows these lights [of the luminaries mentioned in the Creation of the fourth day] are the same that were created
:
on the
first day, but were only fixed in their The places on the fourth day. meaning [of the first verse] has thus been clearly stated. We must further consider that the term erez is a homonym, and is used in a general and a particular sense. It has a more general signification when
used of everything within the sphere of the moon, i.e., of all the four elements ; and is used in particular of one of them, of the lowest, viz., earth. " This is evident from the passage And the earth was without form and
:
and darkness was on the surface of the deep. And the wind of God moved upon the face of the waters." The term " earth " [mentioned here, and in the first verse] includes all the four elements, whilst further on it is " And God called the dry land Earth " (Gen. i. 10). said, " It is also important to notice that the words, And God called a certain thing a certain name," are invariably intended to distinguish one thing from others which are called by the same common noun. I explain, therefore,
void,
In creating the principle God created the first verse in Genesis thus " Erez in this verse denotes the things bethings above and those below. " " the four elements," and in the verse, And God called the dry low," or
the
:
land Earth
"
(erez),
it
signifies
the element earth.
This subject
is
now
made
erez
clear.
four elements indicated, according to our explanation, in the term earth," in the first verse, are mentioned first after the heavens ; for there are named erez (earth), ruah (air), mayim (water), and rjoshek (fire).
The
"
And thou meant, nothing else comp. " " When fire (Deut. iv. 36) and, " ye heard the voice out of the midst of the bosbek (darkness) (ibid. v. 2) " All fyoshek (darkness) shall be hid in his secret places a fire not again, blown shall consume him " (Job xx. 26). The element fire is called boshek because it is not luminous, it is only transparent for if it were luminous we should see at night the whole atmosphere in flames. The order of the four
By
hoshek
the
element
fire is
"
heardest his words out of the midst of the
elements, according to the natural position is here described ; namely, first earth, above it water, air close to water, and fire above air ; for by placing
214
air

(fire),
upon the face of the deep," is unwas here necessary to use the term rual? elohim, because air is described here as in motion (merahefet), and the motion of " the air is, as a rule, ascribed to God ; comp. And there went forth a wind " " from the Lord (Num. xi. 31) ; Thou didst blow with thy wind " (Exod. " And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind " (ibid. x. 19), xv. 10) and the like. As the first hosbek, which denotes the element fire, is differ" ent from the hoshek mentioned further on in the sense of darkness," the latter is explained and distinguished from the former, according to our " And darkness he called Night." This is now explanation, in the words,
over water, Iposhek
air.
is
which
"
doubtedly above
It
clear.
divided between the waters," etc., does not describe one part were merely above the other, whilst the nature of both remained the same, but a distinction as regards their nature
phrase,
a division in space, as if the
The
"
And he
One portion of that which was first called water was made one thing by certain properties it received, and another portion received a different form, and this latter portion is that which is commonly called water " and of this it is said, And the gathering of the waters he called Seas."
or form.
On Scripture even indicates that the first mmyim (" water ") in the phrase, the face of the waters," does not refer to the waters which form the seas ; and that part of the element " water," having received a particular form, and being above the air, is distinguished from the other part which has received the form of ordinary water. For the words, And he divided between the waters which are beneath the firmament and the waters which are above
"
"
" the firmament," are similar in meaning to the phrase, And God divided between the light and the darkness," and refer to a distinction by a separate form. The firmament itself was formed of water ; and in the words of our
Sages (Bereshit Rabba the heavens."
"
cap.
iv.),
The middle drop
congealed and formed
with what I said above, " firmament Heaven (Gen. i. 8), in order to explain the homonymity of the term shamayim (heaven), and to show that shamayim in the first verse is not the firmament which is also called shamayim (heaven). The difference is more clearly expressed in the words, " In the open firmament of heaven " (ibid. i. 20) here it is shown that " firmament " (raki'a), " " and heaven (shamayim), are two different things. In consequence of this homonymity of the term sbamayim the term raki'a (firmament) is also used of the true heaven, just as the real firmament is sometimes called " And God set them in the raki'a (firmament) shamayim (heaven) ; comp. " of the heaven (ibid. i. 17). This verse shows clearly that the stars, the sun, and the moon are not, as people believe, on the surface of the spheres, but they are fixed in the spheres, and this has been proved satisfactorily, there being no vacuum in the Uni" " verse for it is said, in the firmament of the heaven," and not upon the firmament of the heaven." It is therefore clear that there has been one common element called water, which has been afterwards distinguished by three different forms ; one part forms the seas, another the firmament, and a third part is over the firmament, and all this is separate from the earth. The Scriptural text follows here a
likewise
Here
"
Scripture says, in accordance
And God
called the
ON GENESIS
peculiar
also
t.-IV.
mysteries.
215
It has
method
in order to indicate
some extraordinary
been declared by our Sages that the portion above the firmament is only water by name, not in reality, for they say (Babyl. Talmud, Hagigah 14-b) " " Four entered the paradise," etc. R. Akiba said to them, When you come to the stores of pure marble, do not say, Water, water, for it is written, He " that telleth lies shall not tarry in my sight (Ps. ci. 7). Consider, if you belong to the class of thinking men, how clearly and distinctly this passage Understand that which explains the subject for those who reflect on it has been proved by Aristotle in his book On Meteorology, and note whatever men of science have said on meteorological matters. " It is necessary to inquire into the reason why the declaration that it was " is not found in the account of the second good day of the Creation. The various Midrashic sayings of our Sages on this point are well known the best of them is the explanation that the creation of the water was not completed on that day. According to my opinion the -reason is likewise clear, and is as follows When the creation of any part of the Universe is described " that is permanent, regular, and in a settled order, the plirase that it is " of the firmament, with that which is above good is used. But the account it and is called water, is, as you see, of a very mysterious character. For if taken literally the firmament would appear at first thought to be merely an imaginary thing, as there is no other substance but the elements between us and the lowest of the heavenly spheres, and there is no water above the air ; and if the firmament, with that which is over it, be supposed to be above the But heavens, it would a fortiori seem to be unreal and uncomprehensible. if the account be understood in a figurative sense and according to its true meaning, it is still more mysterious, since it was considered necessary to make this one of the most hidden secrets, in order to prevent the multitude from knowing it. This being the case, how could it be said [of the creation of the " " This phrase would tell us that it is perthat it was good ? second day] the clear what share thing to which it refers takes in the permanent fectly existence of the Universe. But what good can people find in a thing whose real nature is hidden, and whose apparent nature is not real ? Why, there" " that it was good ? I must, fore, should it be said in reference to it,
' ' ! ;
:
however, give the following additional explanation. Although the result of the second day's creation forms an important element among the existing things, the firmament was not its primary object in the organization of the " " that it was good it was Universe, and therefore it could not be said ; only
the means for the uncovering of the earth. Note this. Our Sages have already explained that the herbs and trees, which God caused to spring forth from the ground, were caused by God to grow, after He had sent down
" And there went up a mist and the passage beginning, refers to that which took (ii. 6), place before the creative " Let the earth bring forth grass," etc. (i. ii.). act, related in the words, " And there had gone up a mist from the Therefore Onkelos translates it " earth." It is also evident from the text itself, where it is distinctly said, And in field before it was in the earth," etc. the This every plant (ii. 5).
rain
" from the earth
upon them
question
It
is
is
well
now explained. known to every
philosopher that the principal causes of produc-
tion
and destruction,
after the influence of the spheres, are light
and dark-
216

accompanied by heat and cold.
For by the motion
ness, in so far as these are
of the spheres the elements intermix, and by light and darkness their constiThe first change consists in the formation of two kinds tution changes. of mist
rain
; ;
these are the

also
they
first causes of meteorological phenomena, such as caused the formation of minerals, of plants, of animals, and
man. It is likewise known that darkness is the natural property of in them light is accidental, coming from an external things on earth cause, and therefore everything remains in a state of rest in the absence of
at last of
all
;
light.
The Scriptural account of the Creation follows in every respect exactly the same order, without any deviation. " When the Universe was created, all Note also the saying of our Sages
:
things were created with size, intellect, and beauty fully developed, i.e., everything was created perfect in magnitude and form, and endowed with
the most suitable properties ; the word zibyonam (their beauty) used here ' ' " Note this likewise, has the same meaning as zebi, glory (Ezek. xx. 6).
for
it
The
includes a principle fully established. following point now claims our attention.
The
account of the
six
days of creation contains, in reference to the creation of man, the statement : " Male and female created he them " (i. 27), and concludes with the words " Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them "
:
and yet the portion which follows describes the creation of Eve from the tree of life, and the tree of knowledge, the history of the serpent and the events connected therewith, and all this as having taken place after Adam had been placed in the Garden of Eden. All our Sages agree that this took place on the sixth day, and that nothing new was created after the close None of the things mentioned above is therefore impossible, of the six days. because the laws of Nature were then not yet permanently fixed. There are, however, some utterances of our Sages on this subject [which apparently imply a different view]. I will gather them from their different sources and place them before you, and I will refer also to certain things by mere hints, You must know that their words, which just as has been done by the Sages. I am about to quote, are most perfect, most accurate, and clear to those for whom they were said. I will therefore not add long explanations, lest I " make their statements plain, and I might thus become a revealer of secrets," but I will give them in a certain order, accompanied with a few remarks, which will suffice for readers like you. " Adam and Eve were at first created as One of these utterances is this one being, having their backs united ; they were then separated, and one The term mihalf was removed and brought before Adam as Eve." " " of his ribs ") signifies of his sides." The meaning of the zakotav (lit. " " word is proved by referring to zel'a, the side of the tabernacle (Exod. xxvi. 20), which Onkelos renders setar (" side "), and so also mi-zal'otav is " " Note also how clearly it has mi-sitrohi rendered by him (of his sides). been stated that Adam and Eve were two in some respects, and yet they " Bone of my bones, and flesh of my remained one, according to the words, " flesh (Gen. ii. 23). The unity of the two is proved by the fact that both have the same name, for she is called isbshah (woman), because she was taken " out of ish (man), also by the words, And shall cleave unto his wife, and they " How shall be one flesh (ii. 24). great is the ignorance of those who do not
(ii.
l),
Adam,
ON GENESIS
see that
L-IV.
217
all this necessarily includes some [other] idea [besides the literal meaning of the words]. This is now clear. Another noteworthy Midrashic remark of our Sages is the following " The serpent had a rider, the rider was as big as a camel, and it was the rider that enticed Eve this rider was Samael." Samael is the name generally
:
;
applied by our Sages to Satan. Thus they say in several places that Satan desired to entice Abraham to sin, and to abstain from binding Isaac, and he
desired also to persuade Isaac not to obey his father.
also say, in reference to
the same subject,

?
viz.,
Isaac "),
that
thou, being an old man, lost thy senses

also in
Samael came to Abraham "
At the same time they the Akedah (" the binding of " and said to him, What hast
!
etc.
This shows that Samael and
Satan are identical. There is a meaning in this name [Samael], as there is the name nabasb (" serpent "). In describing how the serpent came " to entice Eve, our Sages say Samael was riding on it, and God was laughIt is especially of importance to notice ing at both the camel and its rider."
:
that the serpent did not approach or address Adam, but all his attempts were directed against Eve, and it was through her that the serpent caused injury and death to Adam. The greatest hatred exists between the serpent and
Eve, and between

seed of
his seed
and her seed

still is
man.
More remarkable
the
her seed being undoubtedly also the way in which the serpent is joined
of the other.
defeats her
to Eve, or rather his seed to her seed ; the head of the one touches the heel Eve defeats the serpent by crushing its head, whilst the serpent
by wounding her
is
heel.
This
is
likewise clear.
remarkable passage, most absurd in its literal sense ; but as an allegory it contains wonderful wisdom, and fully agrees with real facts, as will be found by those who understand all the chapters of this treafollowing
also a
The
the serpent came to Eve he infected her with poison ; the stood at Mount Sinai, removed that poison ; idolaters, who did not stand at Mount Sinai, have not got rid of it. Note this likewise.
tise.
When
Israelites,
who
The tree of life extends over an area of five hundred and it is from beneath it that all the waters of the creation " sprang forth ; and they added the explanation that this measure referred to the thickness of its body, and not to the extent of its branches, for they " continue thus Not the extent of the branches thereof, but the stem ' thereof [korato, lit., its beam,' signifying here its stem '] has a thickness of " five hundred years' God journey." This is now sufficiently clear. Again has never shown the tree of knowledge [of good and evil] to man, nor will He ever show it." This is correct, for it must be so according to the nature " of the Universe. And the Lord God Another noteworthy saying is this took the man, i.e., raised him, and placed him in the Garden of Eden," i.e., He " He took him," " He gave him," have no refergave him rest. The words ence to position in space, but they indicate his position in rank among transient beings, and the prominent character of his existence. Remarkable and in of the names is the wisdom contained Adam, Cain, and noteworthy great Abel, and in the fact that it was Cain who slew Abel in the field, that both of them perished, although the murderer had some respite, and that the " existence of mankind is due to Seth alone. Comp. For God has appointed " me another seed (iv. 25). This has proved true. " It is also necessary to understand and consider the words, And Adam
Again they
said
:
"
years' journey,
'
2i8

;
" here it (ii. 20) gave names and that they are not natural,
is
indicated that languages are conventional,
as has
been assumed by some.

i
We
must
also
consider the four different terms employed in expressing the relations of the heavens to God, bore (Creator), oseh (Maker), koneh (Possessor), and el
"
(God).
Comp.
God
created the heaven
day that
God made
the earth and the heavens
and the earth " "

(ii.
"
"
(i.
l)
and earth" (xiv. 19); God of the Universe" (xxi. 31); "The God of " " As to the verbs, konen, he heaven and the God of the earth (xxiv. 3). " " he spanned," and natah, he stretched out," occurring established," tafah,
in the following passages,
"
4)
Possessor of
In the heaven
"
Which thou
"
hast established
(Isa. xviii.
"
"
(Ps. viii. 4),
right
hand hath spanned the heavens

"
(Ps. civ. 2),
13),
"Who
My
;
stretchest out
the heavens
the verb yazar,
"
they are included in the term 'asah (" he made ") he formed," does not occur in reference to the heavens.
According to my opinion the verb yazar denotes to make a form, a shape, or any other accident (for form and shape are likewise accidents). It is " Who formeth the light " (Isa. xiv. 7), light being therefore said, yozer or, an accident; yozer harim, "That formeth the mountains" (Amos iv. 13), In the same sense the verb is used in the i.e., that gave them their shape. " And the Lord God formed (va-yizer) all the beasts," etc. (Gen. passage, But in reference to the Universe, viz., the heavens and the earth, ii. 7). which comprises the totality of the Creation, Scripture employs the verb bara, which we explain as denoting he produced something from nothing ; also 'asah (" he made "), on account of the general forms or natural properties " he possessed," because God of the things which were given to them ; kanah, rules over them like a master over his servants. For this reason He is also called, "The Lord of the whole earth" (Jos. iii. 11-13); ha-adon, "the Lord " (Exod. xx., iii. 17). But although none can be a master unless there exists something that is in his possession, this attribute cannot be considered
bara,
to imply the belief in the eternal existence of a materia prima, since the verbs " " he created," and 'asah, he made," are also employed in reference to
the heavens.
The
Creator
is
called the
God
of the heavens
and the
God
of
the Universe, on account of the relations between Him and the heavens ; He governs, and they are governed ; the word elohim does not signify " mas" " owner " ; it expresses the relation between His position ter in the sense of
and the position of the heavens or the UniNote this. they, i.e., not the heavens. This, together with those explanations which we have given, and which we intend to give, in reference to this subject, may suffice, considering the object
in the totality of existing beings,
;
verse
He
is
God, not
of this treatise
and the capacity of the reader.
CHAPTER XXXI
the laws concerning Sabbath are so severe, that their with death by stoning, and that the greatest of the prophets put a person to death for breaking the Sabbath. The commandment of the Sabbath is the third from the commandment concerning the
IT
is
perhaps clear
is
why
transgression
visited
existence and the unity of God. For the commandment not to worship any other being is merely an explanation of the first. You know already from what I have said, that no opinions retain their vitality except those which are
ON PROPHECY
219
confirmed, published, and by certain actions constantly revived among the Therefore we are told in the Law to honour this day ; in order to people.
when
confirm thereby the principle of Creation which will spread in the world, all For when the question is peoples keep Sabbath on the same day. " For in six days the Lord hath asked, why this is done, the answer is given :
made,"
etc.
(Exod. xx. u).

of
Two
different reasons are given for this
com-
mandment, because
two
the following reason is " And But in Deuteronomy (chap. v. 15) the reason is given days," etc. thou shalt remember that thou hast been a slave in the land of Egypt, etc., therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee," etc. This difference can
:
different objects. In the Decalogue in Exodus, " For in six given for distinguishing the Sabbath :
be explained. In the former, the cause of the honour and distinction " day is given comp. Therefore the Lord hath blessed the day of the " " Sabbath and sanctified it For in (Exod. xx. 10), and the cause for this is, six days," etc. But the fact that God has given us the law of the Sabbath and commanded us to keep it, is the consequence of our having been slaves for then our work did not depend on our will, nor could we choose the time for it and we could not rest. Thus God commanded us to abstain from work on the Sabbath, and to rest, for two purposes namely, (l) That we might confirm the true theory, that of the Creation, which at once and
easily
of the
remember how kind God

tians.
(2) That we clearly leads to the theory of the existence of God. has been in freeing us from the burden of the
might Egyp-
The Sabbath
and
also
is therefore a double blessing promotes the well-being of our bodies.
it
gives us correct notions,
CHAPTER XXXII
THERE
are as many different opinions concerning Prophecy as concerning the Eternity or Non-Eternity of the Universe. For we have shown that those who assume the existence of God as proved may be divided into three
classes,
is
according to the view they take of the question, whether the Universe Similarly there are three different opinions on Prophecy. will not notice the view of the Atheist ; he does not believe in the Existence
eternal or not.
of
God, much less in Prophecy ; but I will content myself with discussing the various opinions [on Prophecy] held by those who believe in God. 1. Among those who believe in Prophecy, and even among our coreligionthere are
ists,
some ignorant people who think
as follows
God
selects
any
person
with
pleases, inspires him with the spirit of Prophecy, and entrusts him a mission. It makes no difference whether that person be wise or
He
For stupid, old or young ; provided he be, to some extent, morally good. these people have not yet gone so far as to maintain that God might also
ways. improve 2. The philosophers hold that prophecy is a certain faculty of man in a state of perfection, which can only be obtained by study. Although the faculty is common to the whole race, yet it is not fully developed in each account of the individual's defective constitution, or individual, either on on account of some other external cause. This is the case with every faculty common to a class. It is only brought to a state of perfection in some indiinspire a wicked person with His spirit. unless God has previously caused him to
They admit
his
that this
is
impossible,
220
viduals,

and not
in all
;
but
;
it is
some individual
it it is
of the class
and
impossible that it should not be perfect in if the perfection is of such a nature that
can only be produced by an agent, such an agent must exist. Accordingly, impossible that an ignorant person should be a prophet ; or that a person being no prophet in the evening, should, unexpectedly on the following
morning, find himself a prophet, as if prophecy were a thing that could be found unintentionally. But if a person, perfect in his intellectual and moral faculties, and also perfect, as far as possible, in his imaginative faculty, prepares himself in the manner which will be described, he must become a
It is impossible that a for prophecy is a natural faculty of man. has the capacity for prophecy should prepare himself for it without attaining it , just as it is impossible that a person with a healthy constitution should be fed well, and yet not properly assimilate his food ; and the like.
prophet
man who
3. The third view is that which is taught in Scripture, and which forms one of the principles of our religion. It coincides with the opinion of the For we believe that, even if one has philosophers in all points except one. the capacity for prophecy, and has duly prepared himelf, it may yet happen that he does not actually prophesy. It is in that case the will of God [that withholds from him the use of the faculty]. According to my opinion, this fact is as exceptional as any other miracle, and acts in the same way. For the laws of Nature demand that every one should be a prophet, who has a proper physical constitution, and has been duly prepared as regards educaIf such a person is not a prophet, he is in the same tion and training. position
person who, like Jeroboam (i Kings xiii. 4), is deprived of the use of his hand, or of his eyes, as was the case with the army of Syria, in the history of As for the principle which I laid down, that preElisha (2 Kings vi. 18). and of moral and rational faculties are the sine qua non, perfection paration
as a
:
" The spirit of prophecy only rests upon our Sages say exactly the same and who are rich." We have explained these words wise, strong, persons We stated there in our Commentary on the Mishnah, and in our large work. That that the Sons of the Prophets were constantly engaged in preparation. those who have prepared themselves may still be prevented from being profor phets, may be inferred from the history of Baruch, the son of Nerijah and yet he hoped he followed Jeremiah, who prepared and instructed him " I am weary with my sighing, and rest have in vain for prophecy comp., He was then told through Jeremiah, " Thus saith the Lord, I not found." Thus shalt thou say to him. Thou seekest for thee great things, do not seek " It may perhaps be assumed that prophecy is here described (Jer. xlv. 5). " " " for Baruch. So also the fact that her prophets did as a thing too great " not find visions from the Lord (Lam. ii. 4), may be considered as the result There are, of the exile of her prophets, as will be explained (chap, xxxvi.). however, numerous passages in Scripture as well as in the writings of our Sages, which support the principle that it depends chiefly on the will of God who is to prophesy, and at what time ; and that He only selects the best and the wisest. We hold that fools and ignorant people are unfit for this disIt is as impossible for any one of these to prophesy as it is for an tinction. when ass or a frog for prophecy is impossible without study and training these have created the possibility, then it depends on the will of God whether the possibility is to be turned into reality. We must not be misled by the
; ; ; ; ;
ON PROPHECY
221
" words of Jeremiah (i. 5), Before I formed thee in the womb I knew thee, and before thou earnest forth from the womb I have sanctified thee " ; for this is the case with all prophets ; there must be a physical preparation from the beginning of their existence, as will be explained. As to the words, " For I am young " (ibid. ver. 6), it is well known that the pious Joseph, when he was thirty years old, is called by the Hebrew " young " (na-ar) ; " also Joshua, when he was nearly sixty years old. For the statement, and his minister Joshua, the son of Nun, was young," occurs in the account of the Golden Calf (Exod. xxxiii. n). Moses was then eighty-one years old, he lived one hundred and twenty years ; Joshua, who survived him fourteen years, lived one hundred and ten years and must consequently have been at least fifty-seven years old at the time when the Golden Calf was " made, and yet he is called na'ar, young." Nor must we be misled by " I will pour out my spirit over all flesh, like the following prophecies " and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy since it is distinctly " " " in this stated what is meant by Your old prophesy place, viz., men will dream dreams, your young men shall see visions." For we call also
:
prophets
are
all
those
who
reveal
tures, or correct inferences.
Thus
If there arise among mentioned in Scripture. And God says, you a a dreamer of dreams," etc. (Deut. xiii. i). As to the revelation Sinai, all saw the great fire, and heard the fearful thunderings, that caused such an extraordinary terror ; but only those of them who were duly qualified were prophetically inspired, each one according to his capa" cities. Therefore it is said, Come up unto the Lord, thou and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu." Moses rose to the highest degree of prophecy, according " to the words, And Moses alone shall come near the Lord." Aaron was below him, Nadab and Abihu below Aaron, and the seventy elders below Nadab and Abihu, and the rest below the latter, each one according to his Moses had his own place degree of perfection. Similarly our Sages wrote and Aaron his own. Since we have touched upon the revelation on Mount Sinai, we will point out in a separate chapter what may be inferred as regards the nature of that event, both from the Scriptural text, in accordance with reasonable interpretation, and from the words of our Sages.
something unknown by surmises, or conjec" " " and of Asherah " prophets of Baal "
prophet or on Mount
CHAPTER XXXIII
me that what Moses experienced at the revelation on Mount was different from that which was experienced by all the other Israelites, for Moses alone was addressed by God, and for this reason the second person singular is used in the Ten Commandments ; Moses then went down to the foot of the mount and told his fellow-men what he had heard Comp., " I stood between the Lord and you at that time to tell you the word of the " " Moses spake, and God answered him with a Lord (Deut. v. 5). Again, loud voice " (Exod. xix. 19). In the Mechilta our Sages say distinctly that he brought to them every word as he had heard it. Furthermore, the words, " " In order that the people hear when I speak with thee (Exod. xix. 9), show that God spoke to Moses, and the people only heard the mighty sound, not distinct words. It is to the perception of this mighty sound that ScripIT
is
clear to
Sinai
223
"

stated,
When ye hear the sound " (Deut. v. 20) ; again " heard a sound of w/rds (ibid. iv. 12), and it is not said " You heard words " , and even where the hearing of the words is menIt was only Moses that tioned, only the perception of the sound is meant. heard the words, and he reported them to the people. This is apparent from
ture refers in the passage, "
it is
You
and from the utterances of our Sages in general. There is, howan opinion of our Sages frequently expressed in the Midrashim, and found also in the Talmud, to this effect The Israelites heard the first and the second commandments from God, i.e., they learnt the truth of the
Scripture,
ever,
:
principles contained in these
two commandments
in the same,
manner
as
Moses, and not through Moses. For these two principles, the existence ol God and His Unity, can be arrived at by means of reasoning, and whatever can be established by proof is known by the prophet in the same way as by any other person ; he has no advantage in this respect. These two principles " were not known through prophecy alone. Comp., Thou hast been shown
to know that," etc. (Deut. iv. 34). But the rest of the commandments are of an ethical and authoritative character, and do not contain [truths] per-
ceived by the intellect.
Notwithstanding
all
that has been said by our Sages
on
this subject, we infer from Scripture as well as from the words of our Sages, that the Israelites heard on that occasion a certain sound which Moses
understood to proclaim the first two commandments, and through Moses all other Israelites learnt them when he in intelligible sounds repeated them to the people. Our Sages mention this view, and support it by the verse, " God hath spoken once twice have I heard this " (Ps. Ixii. 1 1). They
;
state distinctly, in the
beginning of Midrash
flazita, that the Israelites
did not hear any other command directly from God ; comp. and it was not heard again " (Deut. v. 19). It was after this
"
A loud
voice,
first
sound was
heard that the people were seized with the fear and terror described in Scrip" Behold the Lord our God has shown us, etc., and ture, and that they said, now why shall we die, etc. Come thou near," etc. Then Moses, the most distinguished of all mankind, came the second time, received successively the other commandments, and came down to the foot of the mountain to proclaim them to the people, whilst the mighty phenomena continued they saw the fire, they heard the sounds, which were those of thunder and light;
ning during a storm, and the loud sound of the shofar ; and all that is said of " the many sounds heard at that time, e.g., in the verse, and all the people perceived the sounds," etc., refers to the sound of the shofar, thunder, and similar sounds, But the voice of the Lord, that is, the voice created for
that purpose, which was understood to include the diverse commandments, was only heard once, as is declared in the Law, and has been clearly stated by our Sages in the places which I have indicated to you. When the people heard this voice their soul left them ; and in this voice they perceived the first two commandments. It must, however, be noticed that the people did not understand the voice in the same degree as Moses did. I will point out to you this important fact, and show you that it was a matter of tradition with the nation, and well known by our Sages. For, as a rule, Onkelos renders the word va-yedabber by u-mallel (" and God spake ") this is also the case with this word in the beginning of the twentieth chapter of Exodus, ' " but the words ve-al yedabber immanu elobim, let not God speak to us
;
ON PROPHECY
(Exod. xx.
223
is
immanu
Let not aught be spoken to us by the Lord "). Onkelos makes thus the same distinction which we made. You know that
19), addressed by vtin kodam adonai ("
the people to Moses,
rendered vela yitmallel
according to the Talmud Onkelos received all these excellent interpretations Note it, directly from R. Eliezer and R. Joshua, the wisest men in Israel.
and remember it, for it is impossible for any person to expound the revelation on Mount Sinai more fully than our Sages have done, since it is one of the secrets of the Law. It is very difficult to have a true conception of the events, for there has never been before, nor will there ever be again, anything like it. Note it.
CHAPTER XXXIV
" Behold I will send an angel before with the parallel passage in Deuterothee," etc. (Exod. which is to have addressed to Moses at the revelation God nomy represented " on Mount Sinai, namely, I will raise them up a prophet from among their " Beware of him, and obey brethren," etc. (Deut. xviii. 18). The words,
THE meaning
of the Scriptural passage,

xxiii. 20), is
identical
his voice," etc., said in reference to the angel, prove [that this passage speaks of a prophet]. For there is no doubt that the commandment is giv^n to the angels do not appear with commandments and ordinary people, to
whom
exhortations, and it is therefore unnecessary to tell them not to disobey him. The meaning of the passage quoted above is this God informs the Israelites that He will raise up for them a prophet, to whom an angel will appear in
:
order to speak to him, to command him, and to exhort him ; he therefore cautions them not to rebel against this angel, whose word the prophet will
communicate to them. Therefore it is expressly said in Deuteronomy, " Unto him ye shall hearken " (Deut. xviii. 15) " And it shall come to pass that whosoever shall not hearken unto my words which he shall speak in my
;
the explanation of the words, for my name object of all this is to say to the Israelites, This great sight witnessed by you, the revelation on Mount Sinai, will not continue for ever, nor will it ever be repeated. Fire and cloud will not con-
name,"
in
is
him " (Exod.
etc. (ibid. 19).
This
"
is
xxiv. 21).
The
tinually rest over the tabernacle, as they are resting now on it ; but the towns be conquered for you, peace will be secured for you in the land, and you will be informed of what you have to do, by an angel I will send to your
will
whom
you what to do, and what not to do. Here a principle is laid down which I have constantly expounded, viz., that all prophets except Moses receive the prophecy through an angel. Note it.
prophets
;
he
will thus teach
CHAPTER XXXV
I HAVE already described the four points in which the prophecy of Moses our Teacher was distinguished from that of other prophets, in books accessible to every one, in the Commentary on the Mishnah (Sanhedrin x. i) and in Mishneh-torah (S. Madd'a I. vii. 6); I have also adduced evidence for my explanation, and shown the correctness thereof. I need not repeat the subject here, nor is it included in the theme of this For I must tell you that whatever I say here of prophecy refers work.
exclusively to the
form
of the
prophecy of
all
prophets before and after
224
(Exod. vi. 3). We thus learn that his prophetic perception was different from that of the Patriarchs, and excelled it a fortiori it must have excelled that of other prophets before Moses. As to the distinction of Moses' pro" And there phecy from that of succeeding prophets, it is stated as a fact, arose not a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew
;
Moses. But as to the prophecy of Moses I will not discuss it in this work with one single word, whether directly or indirectly, because, in my opinion, the term prophet is applied to Moses and other men homonymously. A similar distinction, I think, must be made between the miracles wrought by Moses and those wrought by other prophets, for his signs are not of the same class as the miracles of other prophets. That his prophecy was distinguished " from that of all his predecessors is proved by the passage, And I appeared " to Abraham, etc., but by my name, the Lord, I was not known unto them
face to face
"
" was above that of later prophets in Israel, who are " " a holy nation," and in whose midst is the Lord
that of prophets
(Deut. xxxiv. 10).
It
is
thus clear that his prophetic perception

a
;
kingdom of priests and much more is it above
among other
nations.
general distinction between the wonders of Moses and those of other The wonders wrought by prophets, or for them, are witprophets is this nessed by a few individuals, e.g., the wonders wrought by Elijah and Elisha ;
:
The
the king of Israel is therefore surprised, and asked Gehazi to describe to him " the miracles wrought by Elisha Tell me, I pray thee, all the great things that Elisha hath done. And it came to pass as he was telling, etc. And
:
this is the woman, and this is her son, whom Kings viii. 4, 5). The same is the case with the signs of every other prophet, except Moses our Teacher. Scripture, therefore, declares that no prophet will ever, like Moses, do signs publicly in the this is the presence of friend and enemy, of his followers and his opponents " And there arose not a prophet since in Israel like meaning of the words unto Moses, etc., in all the signs and the wonders, etc., in the sight of all Two things are here mentioned together namely, that there will IsraeJ." not arise a prophet that will perceive as Moses perceived, or a prophet that will do as he did ; then it is pointed out that the signs were made in the presence of Pharaoh, all his servants and all his land, the opponents of Moses, " In the and also in the presence of all the Israelites., his followers. Comp. all of This is a distinction not Israel." sight possessed by any prophet before Moses; noi, as is correctly foretold, will it ever be possessed by another prophet. We must not be misled by the account that the light of the sun " he said in the sight of Israel," stood still certain hours for Joshua, when " in the sight of all Israel," as is said etc. (Josh. x. 12) for it is not said there in reference to Moses. So also the miracle of Elijah, at Mount Carmel, was witnessed only by a few people. When I said above that the sun stood still " " to mean " the certain hours, I explain the words longest ka-jom tamim " and indicates that that day means because tamim perfect," possible day,"
Gehazi
said
'
Elisha restored to
O king, My lord, "

'
life
(2
appeared to the people at Gibeon
mind must comprehend the

Moses, and understand that
Your as their longest day in the summer. distinction of the prophecy and the wonders of
his greatness in prophetic perception was the If you further assume that we are
same
power of producing miracles. unable fully to comprehend the nature of

as his
this greatness,
you
will
understand
ON PROPHECY
225
that when I speak, in the chapters which follow this, on prophecy and the different classes of prophets, I only refer to the prophets which have not
attained the high degree that Moses attained.

explain in this chapter.
This
is
what
I desired to
CHAPTER XXXVI
PROPHECY
is,
in truth
and
reality,
an emanation sent forth by the Divine
Being through the medium of the Active Intellect, in the first instance to man's rational faculty, and then to his imaginative faculty ; it is the highest degree and greatest perfection man can attain it consists in the most perfect development of the imaginative faculty. Prophecy is a faculty that cannot in any way be found in a person, or acquired by man, through a culture of for even if these latter were as good and his mental and moral faculties perfect as possible, they would be of no avail, unless they were combined with the highest natural excellence of the imaginative faculty. You know
; ;
full development of any faculty of the body, such as the imagination, depends on the condition of the organ, by means of which the faculty acts. This must be the best possible as regards its temperament and its size, and
that the
in
Any defect in this respect cannot any way be supplied or remedied by training. For when any organ is defective in its temperament, proper training can in the best case restore a healthy condition to some extent, but cannot make such an organ perfect.
also as regards the purity of its substance.
But if the organ is defective as regards size, position, or as regards the substance and the matter of which the organ is formed, there is no remedy.
all this, and I need not explain it to you at length. Part of the functions of the imaginative faculty is, as you well know, to retain impressions by the senses, to combine them, and chiefly to form
You know
images. The principal and highest function is performed when the senses are at rest and pause in their action, for then it receives, to some extent,
is
"
divine inspiration in the measure as it is predisposed for this influence. This the nature of those dreams which prove true, and also of prophecy, the differ-
ence being one of quantity, not of quality. Thus our Sages say, that dream is the sixtieth part of prophecy ; and no such comparison could be made between two things of different kinds, for we cannot say the perfection of man is so
many times the perfection of a horse. " In Bereshit Rabba (sect, xvii.) the Dream is the nobelet (the unripe following saying of our Sages occurs, This is an excellent comparison, for the unripe fruit fruit) of prophecy."
some extent, only it has fallen from the tree developed and ripe. In a similar manner the action of the imaginative faculty during sleep is the same as at the time when it receives a prophecy, only in the first case it is not fully developed, and has not But why need I quote the words of our yet reached its highest degree. " If there be Sages, when I can refer to the following passage of Scripture a make the will known unto him in a I, Lord, among you prophet, myself " vision, in a dream will I speak to him (Num. xii. 6). Here the Lord tells
(nobelet)
is
really the fruit to
before
it
was
fully
what the real essence of prophecy is, that it is a perfection acquired in a dream or in a vision (the original march is a noun derived from the verb raah)
us
the imaginative faculty acquires such an efficiency in
its
action that
it sees
226
the thing as
if it came from without, and perceives it as if through the medium These two modes of prophecy, vision and dream, include of bodily senses. It is a well-known fact that the thing which all its different degrees. engages
greatly
and earnestly man's attention whilst he is awake and in the full forms during his sleep the object of the action of his possession of his senses
Imagination is then only influenced by the intellect predisposed for such influence. It would be quite useless to illustrate this by a simile, or to explain it fully, as' it is clear, and every one knows it. It is like the action of the senses, the existence of which no person
imaginative faculty.
in so far as it
is
with common sense would ever deny. After these introductory remarks you will understand that a person must satisfy the following conditions before he The substance of the brain must from the very can become a prophet beginning be in the most perfect condition as regards purity of matter, comsize and position ; no part of his body must position of its different parts,
:
suffer
from
ill-health
he must in addition have studied and acquired wis-
so that his rational faculty passes from a state of potentiality to that of actuality ; his intellect must be as developed and perfect as human intellect
dom,
can be ; his passions pure and equally balanced ; all his desires must aim at obtaining a knowledge of the hidden laws and causes that are in force in the Universe ; his thoughts must be engaged in lofty matters ; his attention directed to the knowledge of God, the consideration of His works, and of that
which he must believe in this respect. There must be an absence of the lower desires and appetites, of the seeking after pleasure in eating, drinking, and cohabitation ; and, in short, every pleasure connected with the sense of
touch.
does not include any possess whilst enjoyments connected with other senses, specifically human element, as smell, hearing, and sight, though likewise of a material nature, may someit
it
(Aristotle correctly says that this sense only in virtue of our being animals ;
is
a disgrace to us, since
we
and
times include [intellectual] pleasure, appealing to man as man, according to This remark, although forming no part of our subject, is not of the most renowned wise men are to a great superfluous, for the thoughts
Aristotle.
And
extent affected by the pleasures of this sense, and filled with a desire for them. yet people are surprised that these scholars do not prophesy, if prophesying be nothing but a certain degree in the natural development of man.)
It is further necessary to suppress every thought or desire for unreal power and dominion ; that is to say, for victory, increase of followers, acquisition of honour, and service from the people without any ulterior object. On the contrary, the multitude must be considered according to their true worth ; some of them are undoubtedly like domesticated cattle, and others like wild beasts, and these only engage the mind of the perfect and distinguished man in so far as he desires to guard himself from injury, in case of contact with them, and to derive some benefit from them when necessary. A
man who satisfies these conditions, whilst his fully developed imagination is in action, influenced by the Active Intellect according to his mental training, such a person will undoubtedly perceive nothing but things very extraordinary and divine, and see nothing but God and His angels. His knowledge will only include that which is real knowledge, and his thought will only be directed to such general principles as would tend t* improve the
social relations
between man and man.
ON PROPHECY
227
We have thus described three kinds of perfection : mental perfection acquired by training, perfection of the natural constitution of the imaginative faculty, and moral perfection produced by the suppression of every thought of bodily pleasures, and of every kind of foolish or evil ambition.
is well known, possessed by the wise men in different and the degrees of prophetic faculty vary in accordance with this difference. Faculties of the body are, as you know, at one time weak, wearied, and corrupted, at others in a healthy state. Imagination is cerYou find, therefore, that prophets tainly one of the faculties of the body.
These
qualities are, as
degrees,
are deprived of the faculty of prophesying when they mourn, are angry, or are similarly affected. Our Sages say, Inspiration does not come upon a
when he is sad or languid. This is the reason why Jacob did not any revelation during the period of his mourning, when his imagination was engaged with the loss of Joseph. The same was the case with Moses, when he was in a state of depression through the multitude of his troubles, which lasted from the murmurings of the Israelites in consequence of the evil report of the spies, till the death of the warriors of that generHe received no message of God, as he used to do, even though he did ation. not receive prophetic inspiration through the medium of the imaginative We have mentioned it several faculty, but directly through the intellect. times that Moses did not, like other prophets, speak in similes. This will be further explained (chap, xlv.), but it is not the subject of the present chapter. There were also persons who prophesied for a certain time and then left off
prophet
receive
and dulness, was undoubtedly the direct cause of the interruption of prophecy during the exile ; to be a slave for can there be any greater misfortune for man than this
ing.
altogether, something occurring that caused The same circumstance, prevalence of
them
to discontinue prophesy-
sadness
bought
for
powerless Such an evil state has been proledge and the force of all animal desires ? " shall run to and fro to seek the word of They phesied to us in the words, " '* Her king and her princes are God, but shall not find it (Amos viii. 12) ;
is no more, her prophets also find no vision from This is a real fact, and the cause is evident ; the In the Messianic period may pre-requisites [of prophecy] have been lost. it soon commence prophecy will therefore again be in our midst, as has been promised by God.
money in the service of ignorant and voluptuous masters, and against them as they unite in themselves the absence of true know-
among
the
Lord " (Lam.
the nations, the law

ii.
9).
CHAPTER XXXVII
IT is necessary to consider the nature of the divine influence, which enables For this influence us to think, and gives us the various degrees of intelligence. may reach a person only in a small measure, and in exactly the same proportion
his intellectual condition, whilst it may reach another person in such a measure that, in addition to his own perfection, he can be the means The same relation may be observed throughout the of perfection for others.
would then be
whole Universe. There are some beings so perfect that they can govern other beings, but there are also beings that are only perfect in so far as they can govern themselves and cannot influence other beings. In some cases the
228
influence of the [Active] Intellect reaches only the logical and not the imaof that influence, or ginative faculty , either on account of the insufficiency on account of a defect in the constitution of the imaginative faculty, and the
this is the conconsequent inability of the latter to receive that influence dition of wise men or philosophers. If, however, the imaginative faculty
:
is naturally in the most perfect condition, this influence may, as has been reach both his logical and his imagiexplained by us and by other philosophers, But it happens sometimes this is the case with prophets. native faculties that the influence only reaches the imaginative faculty on account of the
:
natural defect, or insufficiency of the logical faculty, arising either from a from a neglect in training. This is the case with statesmen, lawgivers,
and men that have true dreams, or do wonderful things by strange means and secret arts, though they are not wise men ; all these belong to the third class. It is further necessary to understand that some persons belonging to the third class perceive scenes, dreams, and confused images, when awake, in the form of a prophetic vision. They then believe that they are prophets ; they wonder that they perceive visions, and think that they have acquired wisdom without training. They fall into grave errors as regards important philosophical principles, and see a strange mixture of true and imaginary things. All this is the consequence of the strength of their imaginative faculty, and the weakness of their logical faculty, which has not developed, and has not passed from potentiality to acdiviners, charmers,
tuality. It is well
known
that the
first
other.
sections,
Each
of the
members of each class differ greatly from each two classes is again subdivided, and contains two
for their
it
who receive the influence only as far as is necessary perfection, and those who receive it in so great a measure that suffices for their own member of the first perfection and that of others.
namely, those
own
the wise men, may have his mind influenced either only so far, that he is enabled to search, to understand, to know, arid to discern, without attempting to be a teacher or an author, having neither the desire nor the capacity ;
class,
be influenced to such a degree that he becomes a teacher and is the case with the second class. A person may receive a prophecy enabling him to but he perfect himself but not others may also receive such a prophecy as would compel him to address his fellowmen, teach them, and benefit them through his perfection. It is clear that, without this second degree of perfection, no books would have been written, nor would any prophets have persuaded others to know the truth. For a scholar does not write a book with the object to teach himself what he already
also
but he may an author.
The same
knows. "But the characteristic of the intellect is this what the intellect of one receives is transmitted to another, and so on, till a person is reached that can only himself be perfected by such an influence, but is unable to com:
to others, as has been explained in some chapters of tins treatise It is further the nature of this element in man that he who possesses an additional degree of that influence is compelled to address his fellowit
municate
(chap.
xi.).
men, under all circumstances, whether he is listened to or not, even if he Thus we find prophets that did not leave off injures himself thereby. speaking to the people until they were slain ; it is this divine influence that moves them, that does not allow them to rest in
any way, though they might
ON PROPHECY
229
bring upon themselves great evils by their action. E.g., when Jeremiah was despised, like other teachers and scholars of his age, he could not, though he desired it, withhold his prophecy, or cease from reminding the people of " the truths which they rejected. Comp. For the Word of the Lord was unto me a reproach and a mocking all day, and I said, I will not mention it, nor will I again speak in His name ; but it was in mine heart as a burning
fire,
enclosed in
"
(Jer. xx. 8, 9).
The
" bones, and I was wearied to keep it, and did not prevail This is also the meaning of the words of another prophet, Lord God hath spoken, who shall not prophesy ? " (Amos iii. 8)
my
Note
it.
CHAPTER XXXVIII
stir
EVERY man possesses a certain amount of courage, otherwise he would not to remove anything that might injure him. This psychical force seems
to me analogous to the physical force of repulsion. Energy varies like all other forces, being great in one case and small in another. There are, therefore, people who attack a lion, whilst others run away at the sight of a mouse.
whole army and fights, another is frightened and terrified by woman. This courage requires that there be in a man's constitution a certain disposition for it. If man, in accordance with a certain view, employs it more frequently, it develops and increases, but, on the other hand, if it is employed, in accordance with the opposite view, more rarely, it will diminish. From our own youth we remember that there are different
attacks a
One
the threat of a
degrees of energy among boys. The same is the case with th
intuitive faculty
all
possess
it,
but in
differ-
ent degrees. Man's intuitive power is especially strong in things which he has well comprehended, and in which his mind is much engaged. Thus you
may
in a certain matter.
yourself guess correctly that a certain person said or did a certain thing Some persons are so strong and sound in their imagi-
nation and intuitive faculty that, when they assume a thing to be in existence, the reality either entirely or partly confirms their assumption. Although the causes of this assumption are numerous, and include many preceding, succeed-
and present circumstances, by means of the intuitive faculty the intellect can pass over all these causes, and draw inferences from them very quickly, almost instantaneously. This same faculty enables some persons to foretell important coming events. The prophets must have had these two forces,
ing,
courage and intuition, highly developed, and these were still more strengthened when they were under the influence of the Active Intellect. Their courage was so great that, e.g., Moses, with only a staff in his hand, dared to address a great king in his desire to deliver a nation from his service. He was " " I will be with thee not frightened or terrified, because he had been told, (Exod. iii. 12). The prophets have not all the same degree of courage, but " Be none of them have been entirely without it. Thus Jeremiah is told : " Do not fear not afraid of them," etc. (Jer. i. 8), and Ezekiel is exhorted, them or their word " (Ezek. ii. 6). In the same manner, you find that all prophets possessed great courage. Again, through the excellence of their intuitive faculty, they could quickly foretell the future, but this excellence,
as
is
well
known,
likewise admits of different degrees
230

;
The true prophets undoubtedly conceive ideas that result from premisses which human reason could not comprehend by itself thus they tell things which men could not tell by reason and ordinary imagination alone for [the action of the prophets' mental capacities is influenced by] the same agent that causes the perfection of the imaginative faculty, and that enables the prophet thereby to foretell a future event with such clearness as if it was a thing already perceived with the senses, and only through them conveyed to his imagination. This agent perfects the prophet's mind, and influences it in such a manner that he conceives ideas which are confirmed by reality, and are so clear to him as if he deduced them by means of syllogisms. This should be the belief of all who choose to accept the truth. For [all things are in a certain relation to each other, and] what is noticed in one thing may be used as evidence for the existence of certain properties in another, and the knowledge of one thing leads us to the knowledge of other things But [what we said of the extraordinary powers of our imaginative faculty] applies with special force to our intellect, which is directly influenced by the Active Intellect, and caused by it to pass from potentiality to actuality.
;
through the intellect that the influence reaches the imaginative faculty. then could the latter be so perfect as to be able to represent things not previously perceived by the senses, if the same degree of perfection were withheld from the intellect, and the latter could not comprehend things otherwise than in the usual manner, namely, by means of premiss, concluThis is the true characteristic of prophecy, and of the sion, and inference ? disciplines to which the preparation for prophecy must exclusively be deIt
is
How
I spoke here of true prophets in order to exclude the third class, namely, those persons whose logical faculties are not fully developed, and who do not possess any wisdom, but are only endowed with imaginative
voted.
and inventive powers. It may be that things perceived by these persons are nothing but ideas which they had before, and of which impressions were left in their imaginations together with those of other things ; but whilst the impressions of other images are effaced and have disappeared, certain images alone remain, are seen and considered as new and objective, coming from without. The process is analogous to the following case A person has with him in the house a thousand living individuals ; all except one of them leave the house when the person finds himself alone with that individual, he imagines that the latter has entered the house now, contrary to the fact that he has only not left the house. This is one of the many phenomena open to gross misinterpretations and dangerous errors, and many of those who believed that they were wise perished thereby. There were, therefore, men who supported their opinion by a dream which they had, thinking that the vision during sleep was independent of what they had previously believed or heard when awake. Persons whose mental capacities are not fully developed, and who have not attained intellectual perThose who reach that fection, must not take any notice of these [dreams]. perfection may, through the influence of the divine intellect, obtain know: :
ledge independent of that possessed by
them when awake.
They
are true
prophets, as is distinctly stated in Scripture, ve-nabi lebab 1?okmah (Ps. xc. 12), " And the true prophet possesseth a heart of wisdom." This must likewise be noticed,
ON PROPHECY
CHAPTER XXXIX
331
have given the definition of prophecy, stated its true characteristics, and of Moses our Teacher was distinguished from that of other prophets ; we will now explain that this distinction alone qualified
WE
shown that the prophecy
him
for the office of proclaiming the
Law,
a mission
without
a parallel in the
to Moses, or among the prophets who came after him ; it is a principle in our faith that there will never be revealed another Law. Consequently we hold that there has never been, nor will there ever be, any history
from
Adam
Law but that of Moses our Teacher. According to what written in Scripture and handed down by tradition, the fact may be exThere were prophets before Moses, as the plained in the following way patriarchs Shem, Eber, Noah, Methushelah, and Enoch, but of these none said to any portion of mankind that God sent him to them and commanded'
other divine
is
:
him
to convey to
them
a certain
message or to prohibit or to
command
certain thing. Such a thing is not related in Scripture, or in authentic Divine prophecy reached them as we have explained. tradition. like Abraham, who received a large measure of prophetic inspiration, called
Men
and led them by training and instruction to the Thus Abraham taught, and showed by is one God, that He has created everything that exists beside Him, and that neither the constellations nor anyhe trained his fellow-men in this thing in the air ought to be worshipped belief, and won their attention by pleasant words as well as by acts of kindness. Abraham did not tell the people that God had sent him to them with the command concerning certain things which should or should not be done. Even when it was commanded that he, his sons, and his servants should be circumcised, he fulfilled that commandment, but he did not address his fellow-men prophetically on this subject. That Abraham induced his fellow-men to do what is right, telling them only his own will [and not that " of God], may be learnt from the following passage of Scripture For I know him, because he commands his sons and his house after him, to practise " righteousness and judgment (Gen. xix. ig). Also Isaac, Jacob, Levi, KoOur Sages, hath, and Amram influenced their fellow-men in the same way.
their fellow-men together
truth which they had perceived. philosophical arguments that there
when speaking of prophets before Moses, used The bet-din (court of justice) of Eber, the
in the college of Methushelah ; taight their fellow-men in the
expressions like the following bet-din of Methushelah, and

:
although
all
these were prophets, yet they
manner
of preachers, teachers,
And God said to gogues, but did not use such phrases as the following me, Speak to certain people so and so." This was the state of prophecy
:
"
and peda-
before Moses.
But
as
what he
nation
liveth
is
:
said [to the people],
"
regards Moses, you know what [God] said to him, and the words addressed to him by the whole
"
This day
(Deut.
v. 21).
we have seen that God doth talk with man, and that he The history of all our prophets that lived after Moses
well known to you ; they performed, as it were, the function of warning the people and exhorting them to keep the Law of Moses, threatening evil to those who would neglect it, and announcing blessings to those who would
It
is
submit to "
its guidance. This we believe will always be the case. not in the heavens that one might say," etc. (ibid. xxx. 12)
Comp. "
;
For
232
us

xxix. 28). It is but natural that it a class has reached the highest per-
should be
" and for our children for ever (ibid. so. For if one individual of
must necessarily be less by surplus or deficiency. Take, e.g., the normal constitution of a being, it is the most proper any constitution that deviates from that composition possible in that class norm contains something too much or too little. The same is the case with for it contains the Law. It is clear that the Law is normal in this sense " " " " is here identical (Deut. iv. 8) ; but just Just statutes and judgments " with equibalanced." The statutes of the Law do not impose burdens or excesses as are implied in the service of a hermit or pilgrim, and the like ; but, on the other hand, they are not so deficient as to lead to gluttony or
perfect,
fection possible in that class, every other individual and deviate from the perfect measure either
lewdness, or to prevent, as the religious laws of the heathen nations do, the intend to disdevelopment of man's moral and intellectual faculties.
We
cuss in this treatise the reasons of the
show,
as far as necessary,
it is
which
xix. 8).
said
"
the justice
commandments, and we shall then and wisdom of the Law, on account of

perfect, refreshing the heart
There are that the Law commands much exertion and great pain, but due consideration will show them their error. Later on I will show how easy it is for the perfect to obey the Law. Comp. " " What does the Lord thy God ask of thee ? " etc. (Deut. x. 12) Have " I been a wilderness to Israel ? But this ii. 31). (Jer. applies only to the whilst wicked, violent, and pugnacious persons find it most noble ones injurious and hard that there should be any divine authority tending to To low-minded, wanton, and passionate persons it subdue their passion. appears most cruel that there should be an obstacle in their way to satisfy
;
;
The Law of God is persons who believe
"
(Ps.
their carnal appetite, or that a
punishment should be
inflicted for their
doings.
from
Similarly every godless person imagines that it is too hard to abstain must the evil he has chosen in accordance with his inclination.
We
appears to any wicked, lowminded, and immoral person, but as it appears to the judgment of the most perfect, who, according to the Law, are fit to be the example for all manit
not consider the
Law
easy or hard according as
kind.
This
Law
alone
is
called divine
legislations
among
the Greeks, or the
follies
other laws, such as the political of the Sabeans, are the works of
human leaders, but not of prophets,
as I
have explained several timerv
CHAPTER XL
IT has already been fully explained that
man
is
naturally a social being, that
by virtue of his nature he seeks to form communities ; man is therefore different from other living beings that are not compelled to combine into communities. He is, as you know, the highest form in the creation, and he
therefore includes the largest number of constituent elements ; this is the why the human race contains such a great variety of individuals, that we cannot discover two persons exactly alike in any moral quality, or in ex-
reason
ternal appearance.
The
cause of this
his
is
;
and in accidents dependent on
form
the variety in man's temperament, for with every physical form there
are connected certain special accidents different from those which are connected with the substance. Such a variety among the individuals of a class
ON PROPHECY
333
does not exist in any other class of living beings ; for the variety in any other species is limited ; only man forms an exception ; two persons may be so different from each other in every respect that they appear to belong to two different classes. Whilst one person is so cruel that he kills his youngest
is too delicate and faint-hearted to kill even a fly the case with most of the accidents. This great variety and the necessity of social life are essential elements in man's nature. But the well-being of society demands that there should be a leader able to
child in his anger, another
or
worm.
The same
is
regulate the actions of man ; he must complete every shortcoming, remove every excess, and prescribe for the conduct of all, so that the natural variety should be counterbalanced by the uniformity of legislation, and the order of I therefore maintain that the Law, though not society be well established.
a
product of Nature,
the will of
God
It being is nevertheless not entirely foreign to Nature. that our race should exist and be permanently established,
it
such properties that men can acquire the capacity persons are therefore inspired with theories of legislation, such as prophets and lawgivers ; others possess the power of enforcing the dictates of the former, and of compelling people to obey them, and to
in
He
His wisdom gave
of ruling others.
Some
accept the code of lawgivers, and and accept, either entirely or partly, the teaching of the prophets. They accept one part while rejecting another part, either because this course appears to them more convenient, or out of
act accordingly.
Such
are kings,
who
[rulers]
who pretend
to be prophets,
it might lead people to believe that the rulers themselves had been prophetically inspired with these laws, and did not copy them from others. For when we like a certain perfection, find pleasure in it, and wish to possess it, we sometimes desire to make others believe that we possess that Thus people, virtue, although we are fully aware that we do not possess it. e.g., adorn themselves with the poems of others, and publish them as their own productions. It also occurs in the works of wise men on the various branches of Science, that an ambitious, lazy person sees an opinion expressed by another person, appropriates it, and boasts that he himself originated it. The same [ambition] occurs also with regard to the faculty of prophecy. There were men who, like Zedekiah, the son of Chenaanah (i Kings xxii. n, 24) boasted that they received a prophecy, and declared things which have never been prophesied. Others, like Hananiah, son of Azzur (Jer. xxviii. 1-5), claim the capacity of prophecy, and proclaim things which, no doubt, have been said by God, that is to say, that have been the subject of a divine inspiration, but not to them. They nevertheless say that they are prophets, and adorn themselves with the prophecies of others. All this can easily be ascertained and recognized. I will, however, fully explain this to you, so that no doubt be left to you on this question, and that you may have a test by which you may distinguish between the guidance of human legislation, of the divine law, and of As regards those teachings stolen from prophets.
ambition, because
who
test is
declare that the laws proclaimed by them are their own ideas, no further required ; the confession of the defendant makes the evidence of the
T
witness superfluous.
only wish to instruct you about laws which are pro-
claimed
of these are truly prophetic, originating in are of non-prophetic character, and some, though prophetic originally, are the result of plagiarism. You will find that the sole
as
prophetic.
Some
divine inspiration,
some
234
object of certain laws, in accordance with the intention of their author, who well considered their effect, is to establish the good order of the state and
these laws do not deal to free it from all mischief and wrong with philosophic problems, contain no teaching for the perfecting of our logical faculties, and are not concerned about the existence of sound or unsound opinions. Their sole object is to arrange, under all circumstances, the relations of men to each other, and to secure their well-being, in accordance with the view of the author of these laws. These laws are political, and their author belongs, as has been stated above, to the third class, viz.,
its affairs,
;
only distinguish themselves by the perfection of their imagiYou will also find laws which, in all their rules, aim, as the law just mentioned, at the improvement of the material interests of the people ; but, besides, tend to improve the state of the faith of man, to create
to those native faculties.
first correct notions of God, and of angels, and to lead then the people, "by instruction and education, to an accurate knowledge of the Universe this education comes from God ; these laws are divine. The question which now Is the remains to be settled is this person who proclaimed these laws the
: :
who
same perfect man that received them by prophetic inspiration, or a plagiIn order to be enabled arist, who has stolen these ideas from a true prophet ? to answer this question, we must examine the merits 'of the person, obtain an accurate account of his actions, and consider his character. The best test is the for this is rejection, abstention, and contempt of bodily pleasures the first condition of men, and a fortiori of prophets ; they must especially
;
disregard pleasures of the sense of touch, which, according to Aristotle, is a disgrace to us ; and, above all, restrain from the pollution of sensual intercourse.
Thus God
that those
e.g.,
who
really seek the truth
exposes thereby false prophets to public shame, in order may find it, and not err or go astray ,
Zedekiah, son of Maasiah, and Ahab, son of Kolaiah, boasted that thej a prophecy. They persuaded the people to follow them, by proclaiming utterances of other prophets ; but all the time they continued
had received
to seek the low pleasures of sensual intercourse, committing even adultery with the wives of their companions and followers. God exposed their false-
hood
as
He
by
burnt them,
a curse
has exposed that of other false prophets. The king of Babylon " as Jeremiah distinctly states And of them shall be taken up
:
the captivity of Judah, which are in Babylon, saying, The Lord make thee like Zedekiah, and like Ahab, whom the king of Babylon roasted in the fire. Because they have committed villany in Israel, and have comall
in
mitted adultery with their neighbours' wives, and have spoken lying words " my name, which I have not commanded them (Jer xxix. 22, 23). Note
is
what
meant by these words,
CHAPTER XLI
NEED not explain what a dream is, but I will explain the meaning of the " " In a vision (be-mareh\ ;erm mareh, vision," which occurs in the passage " xii. The term signifies that do I make myself known unto him (Num. 6). " which is also called mareb ba-nebuab, prophetic vision," yad ba-sbem, " " the hand of God," and mabazeh, a vision." It is something terrible and fearful which the prophet feels while awake, as is distinctly stated by
I
:
ON PROPHECY
Daniel
235
I saw this great vision, and there remained no strength in comeliness was turned in me into corruption, and I retained no " Thus was I in deep (Dan. x. 8). He afterwards continues, strength " and face toward the But it was on ground (ibid. ver. 9). my my face, sleep
:
"
And
me, for
my "
in a prophetic vision that the angel spoke to him and set him upon his knees." Under such circumstances the senses cease to act, and the [Active
"
and through them the imaginative which become perfect and active. Sometimes the prophecy begins with a prophetic vision, the prophet greatly trembles, and is much
Intellect] influences the rational faculties,
faculties,
and
The commencement of the prophecy is, " The word of the Lord came to Abraham in a vision " (Gen. xv. i) after this, " a deep sleep fell upon " Abraham " and at last, he said unto Abraham," etc. When prophets
; ;
affected in consequence of the perfect action of the imaginative faculty ; after that the prophecy follows. This was the case with Abraham.
speak of the fact that they received a prophecy, they say that they received it from an angel, or from God ; but even in the latter case it was likewise " received through an angel. Our Sages, therefore, explain the words, And " the Lord said unto her that He spake through an angel. You must know
this took place in a
that whenever Scripture relates that the Lord or an angel spoke to a person, dream or in a prophetic vision.
There
are four different
ways in which Scripture
relates the fact that a
divine communication was
that he heard the words words of the angel without mentioning that they were perceived in a dream or vision, assuming that it is well known that prophecy can only originate " in one of the two ways, In a vision I will make myself known unto him, in " a dream I will speak unto him (Num. xii. 6). (3) The prophet does not mention the angel at all ; he says that God spoke to him, but he states that he received the message in a dream or a vision. (4) He introduces his prophecy by stating that God spoke to him, or told him to do a certain thing, or speak certain words, but he does not explain that he received the message in a dream or vision, because he assumes that it is well known, and has been established as a principle that no prophecy or revelation originates otherwise than in a dream or vision, and through an angel. Instances of the first form " are the following And the angel of the Lord said unto me in a dream, " " 1 And an angel said unto Israel in a vision of night " xxxi. Jacob (Gen. 1) " And an angel came to Balaam by night " ; " And an angel (ibid. xlvi. 2) ; " said unto Balaam (Num. xxii. 20-22). Instances of the second form are " these And Elohim (an angel), said unt Jacob, Rise, go up to Bethel " " And Elohim said unto him, Thy name is Jacob," etc. (Gen. xxxv. i) ; " And an angel of the Lord called unto Abraham out of (ibid. xxxv. 10) " heaven the second time " (ibid. xxii. 15) And Elohim said unto Noah " The following is an instance of the third form " The word (ibid. vi. 13). " of the Lord came unto Abraham in a vision Instances of the (ibid. xv. i). " fourth form are And the Lord said unto Abraham " (ibid, xviii. 13) " And " the Lord said unto Jacob, Return," etc. (ibid. xxxi. 3) And the Lord said " unto Joshua " (Josh. v. 9) And the Lord said unto Gideon " (Judges vii. Most of the prophets speak in a similar manner " And the Lord said 2). " unto me " (Dent. ii. 2) ; And the word of the Lord came unto me "
:
to the prophet, (i) The prophet relates of an angel in a dream or vision ; (2) He reports the
made
236
(Ezek. xxx. i)

"
;
And
" And Kings xix. 9) ; " " the word of the Lord came expressly i. The (Ezek. 3) beginning of the word of the Lord by Hosea " (Hos. i. 2) " The hand of the Lord was upon
"
the word of the Lord came " (2 Sam. xxiv.
And behold,
the word of the Lord came unto
him "
;
1 1)
(i
me"
(Ezek. xxxvii.
i).
There
are a great
many
instances of this class.
in Scripture introduced by any of these four forms is a prophecy " And Elohim (an angel) came proclaimed by a prophet ; but the phrase, to a certain person in the dream of night," does not indicate a prophecy,
Every passage
and the person mentioned in that phrase
is not a prophet informs us that the attention of the person was called by thing, and at the same time that this happened at night.
the phrase only

to
a certain
as
God
For just
God
" In reference to Jacob it is said, And an angel said to Israel in the visions " " but in And reference to Laban and Abimelech, by night (Gen. xlvi. 2), Elohim came," etc. Onkelos makes the distinction clear ; he translates, in " the last two instances, ata memar min kodam adonai, a word came from " " the Lord," and not ve-itgfli, and the Lord appeared." The phrase, And to the Lord said a certain person," is employed even when this person was not really addressed by the Lord, and did not receive any prophecy, but was " informed of a certain thing through a prophet. And she went E.g., " to inquire of the Lord to the explanation xxv. that is, according (Gen. 22) of our Sages, she went to the college of Eber, and the latter gave her the " answer ; and this is expressed by the words, And the Lord said unto her " These words have also been explained thus, God spoke to (ibid. ver. 23). " " her through an angel ; and by Eber is meant here, for a prophet angel " is sometimes called angel," as will be explained ; or the angel that appeared to Eber in this vision is referred to, or the object of the Midrash explanation is merely to express that wherever God is introduced as directly speaking to a person, i.e., to any of the ordinary prophets, He speaks through an angel, as has been set forth by us (chap, xxxiv.).
;
dream by night. We have no doubt that the Syrian Laban was a perfectly wicked man, and an idolater likewise Abimelech, though a good man among his "people, is told by Abraham concerning his land [Gerar] and his " kingdom, (Gen. xx. 1 1). Surely there is no fear of God in this place And yet concerning both of them, viz., Laban and Abimelech, it is said [that " an angel appeared to them in a dream]. Comp. And Elohim (an angel) came " " to Abimelech in a dream by night and also, And Elohim (ibid. ver. 3) came to the Syrian Laban in the dream of the night " (ibid, xxxi, 24). Note " and consider the distinction between the phrases, And Elohim came," and " " " Elohim said," between in a dream by night," and in a vision by night."
;
;
may may
cause a person to move in order to save or kill another person, so He cause, according to His will, certain things to rise in man's mind in a
CHAPTER XLII
have already shown that the appearance or speech of an angel mentioned in Scripture took place in a vision or dream ; it makes no difference whether this is expressly stated or not, as we have explained above. This is a point
of considerable importance. In some cases the account begins by stating that the prophet saw an angel ; in others, the account apparently introduces
WE

a
237
but it makes no ultimately ; the fact that an angel has been heard is only mentioned at the end, you may rest satisfied that the whole account from the beginning
being,
is
human
who
shown to be an angel
difference, for
if
describes a prophetic vision.
In such
visions, a
prophet either
sees
God who
speaks to him, as will be explained by us, or he sees an angel who speaks to him, or he hears some one speaking to him without seeing the speaker, or he sees a man who speaks to him, and learns afterwards that the speaker was an
angel.
it
In
this latter
man who was
kind of prophecies, the prophet relates that he saw a doing or saying something, and that he learnt afterwards that
was an angel. This important principle was adopted by one of our Sages, one of the most distinguished among them, R. Hiya the Great (Bereshit Rabba, xlviii.), in the " And the Lord appeared exposition of the Scriptural passage commencing, " unto him in the plain of Mamre (Gen. xviii.). The general statement that the
Lord appeared to Abraham is followed by the description in what manner that appearance of the Lord took place ; namely, Abraham saw first three men
;
he ran and spoke to them. R. Hiya, the author of the explanation, holds " that the words of Abraham, My Lord, if now I have found grace in thy I do not, sight, pray thee, pass from thy servant," were spoken by him in a prophetic vision to one of the men ; for he says that Abraham addressed these words to the chief of these men. Note this well, for it is one of the
great mysteries [of the Law]. The same, I hold, is the case when it is said " in reference to Jacob, And a man wrestled with him " (Gen. xxxii. 25) ; this took place in a prophetic vision, since it is expressly stated in the end The circumstances are here exactly the same (ver. 31) that it was an angel.
as those in
Lord appeared
larly the
him " (Gen.
" account of the vision of Jacob begins, And the angels of God met xxxii. 2) ; then follows a detailed description how it came to
And the the vision of Abraham, where the general statement, Simito him," etc., is followed by a detailed description.
"
met him ; namely, Jacob sent messengers, and after having " " he was left alone," etc., and a man prepared and done certain things, " " " wrestled with him term man [one of] the angels (ibid. ver. 24). By this " of God is meant, mentioned in the phrase, And angels of God met him " ;
pass that they
the wrestling and speaking was entirely a prophetic vision. That which happened to Balaam on the way, and the speaking of the ass, took place in a prophetic vision, since further on, in the same account, an angel of God is introduced as speaking to Balaam. I also think that what Joshua perceived,
when " he
it
lifted
up
his eyes
and saw, and behold
man
stood before
him "
(Josh. v. 13)
was
"
angel of the
pass
say,
according to the explanation of our Sages, Phineas. They Phineas, for, when the Divine Glory rested upon him, he " like an angel." was We have already shown (chap, vi.) that the term " " " is angel homonymous, and denotes also prophet," as is the case in the
the
angel
is,
"
Lord came up from Gilgal " (Judges ii. l) And it came to " that the angel of the Lord spake these words to all Israel (ibid. ver. 2) ;
;
vision, since it is stated afterwards (ver. 14) that " And an the prince of the host of the Lord." But in the passages,
was a prophetic
"
"
The
angel
is
"
following passages
And He
xx. 16)
;
out of
Egypt
"
(Num.
"
sent an angel, and
He
hath brought us up
Then
i.
in the Lord's
message" (Hagg.
spake Haggai, the angel of the Lord, " But 13); they mocked the angels of
238
" God " (2 Chron. xxxvi. 16). Comp. also the words of Daniel, And the man Gabriel, whom I had seen in the vision at the beginning, being caused " to fly swiftly, touched me about the time of the evening oblation (Dan.
Do not imagine that an angel All this passed in a prophetic vision. word heard otherwise than in a prophetic vision or prophetic " I make myself known unto dream, according to the principle laid down him in a vision, and speak unto him in a dream " (Num. xii. 6). The inix. II).
is
seen or his
stances quoted
may serve as an illustration of those passages which I do not From the rule laid down by us that prophecy requires prepara" tion, and from our interpretation of the homonym angel," you will infer also Manoah and that Hagar, the Egyptian woman, was not a prophetess
mention.
;
were no prophets ; for the speech they heard, or imagined they heard, was like the bat-kol (prophetic echo), which is so frequently mentioned by our Sages, and is something that may be experienced by men not The homonymity of the word " angel " misleads prepared for prophecy. This is the principal method by which most of the difficult in this matter. " And an Consider the words, passages in the Bible can be explained. " of xvi. of Lord found her the well water the (Gen. 7), which are angel by " similar to the words referring to Joseph And a man found him, and be" in the he was field All the Midrashim (ibid, xxxvii. 15). hold, erring assume that by man in this passage an angel is meant.
his wife
CHAPTER
XLIII
have already shown in our work that 'the prophets sometimes prophesy they use a term allegorically, and in the same prophecy the meaning of the allegory is given. In our dreams, we sometimes believe that we are awake, and relate a dream to another person, who explains the meanOur Sages call this " a dream ing, and all this goes on while we dream. In other cases we learn the meaning of the dream in a dream." interpreted The same is the case with prophetic allegories. after waking from sleep.
in
allegories
;
WE
Some
riah, after the description
are interpreted in the prophetic vision. Thus it " of the allegorical vision
'
is
related in
Zecha-
And
the angel that
talked with
his sleep.
me came again and waked me as a man that is awakened from And he said unto me, What dost thou see ? ' " etc. (Zech. iv.
1-2), and then the allegory is explained (ver. 6, sqq!). Another instance we find in Daniel. It is first stated there : " Daniel " had a dream and visions of his head upon his bed (Dan. vii. l). The whole and is then Daniel is described as that he did not know given, sighing allegory He asks the angel for an explanation, and he received it its interpretation. He relates as follows " I came near unto one of in a prophetic vision. asked him the truth of all this. and that stood So he told me, and those by, made me know the interpretation of the things " (ibid. ver. 16). The whole scene is called hazon (vision), although it was stated that Daniel had a dream, because an angel explained the dream to him in the same manner as is men" tioned in reference to a prophetic dream. I refer to the verse A vision " after that which appeared to me at the first to me Daniel, (ibid. appeared " This is for is derived from to see," viii. l). fyazon (vision) clear, haza, " " " to see and Ijaza and raah are and mareh, vision," from raab, ;
:
ON PROPHECY
239
There is therefore no difference whether we use mareb, or synonymous. mahazeh, or frazon, there is no other mode of revelation but the two " mentioned in Scripture In a vision I make myself known to him, in a dream I will speak unto him " (Num. xii. 6). There are, however, different degrees [of prophetic proficiency], as will be shown (chap. xlv.). There are other prophetic allegories whose meaning is not given in a prophetic vision. The prophet learns it when he awakes from his sleep. Take, e.g., the staves which Zechariah took in a prophetic vision.
:
know that the prophets see things shown to them allethe candlesticks, horses, and mountains of Zechariah (Zech. iv. 2 ; vi. 1-7), the scroll of Ezekiel (Ezek. ii. 9), the wall made by a plumb-line (Amos vii. 7), which Amos saw, the animals of Daniel (Dan. vii. and viii.), the seething pot of Jeremiah (jer. i. 13), and similar allegorical
further
as
You must
gorically,
such
objects
shown
things
to represent certain ideas.
The
shown
it
which do not
illustrate the object of
prophets, however, are also the vision, but indicate
by their name through its etymology or homonymity. Thus the imaginative faculty forms the image of a thing, the name of which has two meanThis is ings, one of which denotes something different [from the image].
likewise a kind of allegory. Comp. Makkal shaked, almond staff," of Jeremiah (i. 11-12). It was intended to indicate by the second meaning of
"
shaked the prophecy, For I will watch (shoked), etc., which has no relation whatever to the staff or to almonds. The same is the case with the kelub " a basket of summer fruit," seen by Amos, by which the completion fcayiz,
of a certain period
viii. 2).
"
"
was indicated,
"
the end (ha-kez} having
come " (Amos
Still more strange is the following manner of calling the prophet's attention to a certain object. He is shown a different object, the name of which has neither etymologically nor homonymously any relation to the
object, but the names of both contain the same letters, though in a different order, Take, e.g., the allegories of Zechariah (chap. xi. 7, sqq). He takes in a prophetic vision staves to lead the flock ; he calls the one No'am
first
He indicates thereby that the nation was (pleasure), the other hobelim. at first in favour with God, who was their leader and guide. They rejoiced
God, and found happiness in it, while God was pleased with " Thou hast avouched the Lord thy them, and loved them, as it is said, " God," etc., and the Lord hath avouched thee," etc. (Deut. xxvi. 17, 18). They were guided and directed by Moses and the prophets that followed him. But later a change took place. They rejected the love of God, and God rejected them, appointing destroyers like Jeroboam and Manasse as their rulers. Accordingly, the word hobelim has the same meaning [viz., de" destroying vinestroying] as the root habal has in Mehabbelim keramim, " also in this name Hobfound yards (Song of Sol. ii. 15). But the prophet elim the indication that the people despised God, and that God despised them. This is, however, not expressed by the word habal, but by a transposition of the letters Het, Bet, and Lamed, the meaning of despising and " rejecting is obtained. Comp. My soul loathed them, and their soul also " abhorred me [bahalah] (Zech. xi. 8). The prophet had therefore to change the order of trie letters in habal into that of Bab.al. In this way we find very strange things and also mysteries (Sodof) in the words nehosbet, Kalal, terms in other regel, 'egel, and hashmal of the Mercabah, and in other
in the service cf
240
After the above explanation you will see the mysteries in the passages. meaning of these expressions if you examine them thoroughly.
CHAPTER XLIV
PROPHECY
times,
and we
phet
is
given either in a vision or in a dream, as we have said so many We say now that when a prowill not constantly repeat it. inspired with a prophecy he may see an allegory, as we have shown
is
" and sees him also. This is very frequent, e.g., And the angel of God spake " And the angel that talked with me anunto me," etc. (Gen. xxxi. 1 1) " swered and said unto me, Dost thou not know what these are (Zech. iv. 5 ) ; "And I heard one holy speaking" (Dan. viii. 13). Instances of this are innumerable. The prophet sometimes sees a man that speaks to him. Comp., " And behold there was a man, whose appearance was like the appearance of brass, and the man said to me," etc. (Ezek. xl. 3, 4), although the passage " The hand of the Lord was upon me " (ibid. ver. i). In some cases begins, the prophet sees no figure at all, only hears in the prophetic vision the words " addressed to him ; e.g., And I heard the voice of a man between the banks " " of Ulai 1 There was silence, and I heard a voice " (in the viii. ; (Dan. 6) " And I heard a voice of one that spake to of iv. 16) ; speech Eliphaz, Job me " (Ezek. i. 28). The being which Ezekiel perceived in the prophetic vision was not the same that addressed him ; for at the conclusion of the strange and extraordinary scene which Ezekiel describes expressly as having been perceived by him, the object and form of the prophecy is introduced " by the words, And I heard a voice of a man that spake to me." After this remark on the different kinds of prophecy, as suggested by Scripture, I say that the prophet may perceive that which he hears with the greatest possible intensity, just as a person may hear thunder in his dream, or perceive a storm or an earthquake ; such dreams are frequent. The prophet may also hear the prophecy in ordinary common speech, without anything unusual. Take, When he was called in a prophetic e.g., the account of the prophet Samuel. vision, he believed that the priest Eli called him ; and this happened three times consecutively. The text then explains the cause of it, saying that Samuel naturally believed that Eli had called him, because at that time he did not yet know that God addressed the prophet in this form, nor had that " secret as yet been revealed to him. Comp., And Samuel did not yet know the Lord, and the word of the Lord was not yet revealed to him," i.e., he did not yet know, and it had not yet been revealed to him, that the word of God is communicated in this way. The words, " He did not yet know the Lord," may perhaps mean that Samuel had not yet received any prophecy ; " for in reference to a prophet's receiving divine communication it is said, I " I make to him in a dream known to him in a
;
frequently, or he may in a prophetic vision perceive that God speaks to him, " as is said in Isaiah (vi. 8), And I heard the voice of the Lord saying, " or he hears an shall I send, and who will go for us ? angel addressing him,
Whom
myself
vision,
speak
(Num.
of the verse accordingly is this. Samuel had not yet received any prophecy, and therefore did not know that this was the form of prophecy. Note it.
xii. 6).
The meaning
ON PROPHECY
CHAPTER XLV
241
AFTER having*explained prophecy in accordance with reason and Scripture, must now describe the different degrees of prophecy from these two points of view. Not all the degrees of prophecy which I will enumerate qualify a person for the office of a prophet. The first and the second degrees are only steps leading to prophecy, and a person possessing either of these two degrees does not belong to the class of prophets whose merits we have been discussing. When such a person is occasionally called prophet, the term is used in a wider sense, and is applied to him because he is almost a prophet. You must
I
not be misled by the fact that according to the books of the Prophets, a certain prophet, after having been inspired with one kind of prophecy, is reported to have received prophecy in another form. For it is possible for a prophet
to prophesy at one time in the form of one of the degrees which I am about to enumerate, and at another time in another form. In the same manner, as the prophet does not prophesy continuously, but is inspired at one time and not at another, so he may at one time prophesy in the form of a higher
degree, and at another time in that of a lower degree
it ; may happen that the highest degree is reached by a prophet only once in his lifetime, and afterwards remains inaccessible to him, or that a prophet remains below the highest degree until he entirely loses the faculty ; for ordinary prophets must
"
cease to prophesy a shorter or longer period before their death. And the word of the Lord ceased from Jeremiah " (Ezra i. l)
Comp. "
;
And
David (2 Sam. xxiii. i). From these instances it can be inferred that the same is the case with all prophets. After this introduction and explanation, I will begin to enumerate the degrees of prophecy to which I have referred above. (i) The first degree of prophecy consists in the divine assistance which is given to a person, and induces and encourages him to do something good and grand, e.g., to deliver a congregation of good men from the hands of evildoers ; to save one noble person, or to bring happiness to a large number of people ; he finds in himself the cause that moves and urges him to this deed. " " This degree of divine influence is called the spirit of the Lord ; and of the person who is under that influence we say that the spirit of the Lord came upon him, clothed him, or rested upon him, or the Lord was with him, and
these are the last words of
"
the like. All the judges of Israel possessed this degree, for the following " The Lord raised up judges general statement is made concerning them " for them ; and the Lord was with the judge, and he saved their (Judges ii. 1 all the Israel to this The same Also noble chiefs of class. 8). belonged
:
" " the Lord came upon him And the spirit (ibid. xiv. 19) ; Lord came upon Saul when he heard those words " (i Sam. xi. 6). When Amasa was moved by the holy spirit to assist David, " A spirit clothed Amasa, who was chief of the captains, and he said, Thine are we, David," etc. (i Chron. xii. 18). This faculty was always possessed by Moses from the lime he had attained the age of manhood ; it moved him to slay the Egyptian, and to prevent evil from the two men that quarrelled ; it was so strong that, after he had fled from Egypt out of fear, and arrived in Midian, a trembling
"
distinctly stated concerning some of the judges and the kings : " (ibid. xi. 29) ; of Samson it spirit of the Lord came upon Jephthah
is
"
The
said,
is
The
spirit of
of the
242
stranger,
he could not restrain himself from interfering when he saw wrong " he could not bear it. Comp. done And Moses rose and saved ; being " David likewise ii. was filled them (Exod. with this spirit, when he 17). " was anointed with the oil of anointing. Comp. And the spirit of God came upon David from that day and upward" (l Sam. xvi. 13). He thus conquered the lion arid the bear and the Philistine, and accomplished similar This faculty did not cause any of the above-named tasks, by this very spirit.
persons to speak
person
thing,
who
but
on a certain subject, for it only aims at encouraging the possesses it to action ; it does not encourage him to do everyonly to help either a distinguished man or a whole congregation
that leads to that end.
so it
when oppressed, or to do something who have a true dream are prophets,
Just as not
all
is
cannot be said of every one
who
assisted in a certain undertaking, as in the acquisition of property, or of some other personal advantage, that the spirit of the Lord came upon him, or that
the Lord was with him, or that he performed his actions by the holy spirit. We only apply such phrases to those who have accomplished something very good and grand, or something that leads to that end ; e.g., the success of Joseph in the house of the Egyptian, which was the first cause leading evidently
to great events that occurred subsequently.
(2)
The
that encourages him to speak. He treats of science, or composes hymns, exhorts his fellow-men, discusses political and theological problems ; all this he does while awake, and in the full possession of his senses. Such a person is said to speak by the holy spirit.
as if
him, and
second degree is this he had received a

:
A person
feels as if
something came upon
new power
David composed the Psalms, and Solomon the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon by this spirit ; also Daniel, Job, Chronicles, and the rest of the Hagiographa were written in this holy spirit ; therefore they
are called ketubim (Writings, or Written), i.e., written by men inspired by the holy spirit. Our Sages mention this expressly concerning the Book " of Esther. In reference to such holy spirit, David says The of the
:
word is on my tongue " (2 Sam. xxiii. 2) i.e., the of the Lord caused him to utter these words. This class includes the spirit " And it came to pass when the spirit rested seventy elders of whom it is said,
Lord spoke
in
spirit
;
me. and
his
" upon them, that they prophesied, and did not cease (Num. xi. 25) also Eldad and Medad (ibid. ver. 26) furthermore, every high priest that on whom, as our Sages say, inquired [of God] by the Urim and Tummim the divine glory rested, and who spoke by the holy spirit Yahaziel, son of " The spirit of the Lord Zechariah, belongs likewise to this class. Comp. came upon him in the midst of the assembly, and he said, Listen, all Judah and inhabitants of Jerusalem, thus saith the Lord unto you," etc. (2 Chron.
; ;
; ;
xx. 14, 15)
also Zechariah, son of
Jehoiada the priest.
"
Comp.
"
And he
stood above the people and said unto them, Thus saith God (ibid. xxiv. " And Azariah, son of 20) ; furthermore, Azariah, son of Oded ; comp. Oded, when the spirit of the Lord came upon him, went forth before Asa," etc. (ibid. xv. I, 2) ; and all who acted under similar circumstances. You
must know that Balaam

this
is
Balaam " (Num.
indicated by the words,

xxiii. 5), i.e.,
likewise belonged to this class, when he " And God put a word in the
was good
mouth
of
fore says of himself,
"
Who
Balaam spoke by divine inspiration ; he thereheareth the words of God." etc. (ibid. xxiv. 4).
ON PROPHECY
We
must
this class,
243
especially point out that David, Solomon, and Daniel belonged to and not to the class of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Nathan the prophet, Ahijah the Shilonite, and those like them. For David, Solomon, and Daniel spoke " and wrote inspired by the holy spirit, and when David says, The God of " Israel and said unto the rock of Israel he meant Sam. xxiii. me, (2 3), spoke
to say that God promised him happiness through a prophet, through Nathan or another prophet. The phrase must here be interpreted in the same manner as in the following passages, " And God said to her " (Gen. xxv. 26) ;
this hath been in thy heart, and thou Kings xi. n). The latter passage undoubtedly contains a prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, or another prophet, who foretold Solomon that evil would befall him. The passage, " God " appeared to Solomon at Gibeon in a dream by night, and God said (ibid. does not contain a real as is introduced such the words iii.-5), by prophecy, " The word of the Lord came to Abram in a vision, saying " (Gen. xv. l) ; " "
"
And God
said
unto Solomon, Because

covenant,"
etc. (l
hast not kept
my
said to Israel in the visions of the night (ibid. xlvi. 2), or the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah contain ; in all these cases the prophets, though receiving the prophecy in a prophetic dream, are told that it is a prophecy, and that they have received prophetic inspiration. But in
or,
And God
such
as
And Solomon awoke, and and in the account of the second divine appearance, it is said, And God appeared to Solomon a second time, " as he appeared to him at Gibeon (ibid. ix. 2) ; it was evidently a dream. " This kind of prophecy is a degree below that of which Scripture says, In a " dream I will speak to him (Num. xii. 6). When prophets are inspired in a dream, they by no means call this a dream, although the prophecy reached them in a dream, but declare it decidedly to be a prophecy. Thus Jacob, our father, when awaking from a prophetic dream, did not say it was a dream, " but declared, Surely there is the Lord in this place," etc. (Gen. xxviii. 16) ; " God the Almighty appeared to me in Luz, in the land of Canaan " (ibid. xlviii. 3), But in reference to expressing thereby that it was a prophecy. " Solomon we read And Solomon awoke, and behold it was a dream " (i Kings iii. 15). Similarly Daniel declares that he had a dream ; although he sees an angel and hears his word, he speaks of the event as of a dream ; even when he had received the information [concerning the dreams of " Then was the Nebukadnezzar], he speaks of it in the following manner
the case of Solomon, the account concludes,
"
behold
it
was a dream "
(i
Kings "
iii.
15)
secret revealed to Daniel in a night vision

it is said,
"
;
etc.
He wrote down the dream " "I saw in the " And the visions of my head confused me " (Dan.
"
"
(Dan.
ii.
19).
On other occasions
visions
by night,"
15)
;
vii. I, 2,
"I
was surprised at the vision, and none noticed it There is (ibid. viii. 27). no doubt that this is one degree below that form of prophecy to which the " In a dream I will speak to him," are applied. For this reason the words, nation desired to place the book of Daniel among the Hagiographa, and not among the Prophets. I have, therefore, pointed out to you, that the prophecy revealed to Daniel and Solomon, although they saw an angel in the dream, was not considered by them as a perfect prophecy, but as a dream
containing correct information. They belonged to the " the holy spirit." spoke, inspired by the ruah ha-kodesh,
of the holy writings,
class
of
men
that
Also in the order
no distinction
is
made between
the books of Proverbs,
244
Ecclesiastes, Daniel, Psalms, Ruth, and Esther; they are all written by divine inspiration. The authors of all these books are called prophets in the more general sense of the term.
(3) The third class is the lowest [class of actual prophets, i.e.] of those who " And the word of the Lord came unto introduce their speech by the phrase, a similar The me," or phrase. prophet sees an allegory in a dream under
those conditions which we have mentioned when speaking of and in the prophetic dream itself the allegory is interpreted.
real
prophecy Such are most
of the allegories of Zechariah. hears in a prophetic dream something clearly and dis(4) The prophet not see the speaker. This was the case with Samuel in the but does tinctly,
beginning of his prophetic mission, as has been explained (chap. xliv.). in a dream, as was the case in some of (5) A person addresses the prophet " And the man spake unto me, Son of the prophecies of Ezekiel. Comp.
man,"
(6)
etc. (Ezek. xl. 4).
An
;
angel speaks to
him
in a
dream
"
phets
(7)
e.g.,
And
an angel of
God
said to
this applies to most of the pro" in a dream of night (Gen.
me
xxxi. II).
In a prophetic dream it appears to the prophet as if God spoke to him. " And I saw the Lord, and I heard the voice of the Lord Isaiah says, " I send, and who will go for us ? shall Whom Micaiah, (Isa. vi. 1,8). saying, " " I saw the Lord son of Imla, said likewise, (i Kings xxii. 19). in a prophetic vision ; he sees (8) Something presents itself to the prophet " seen by Abraham in the vision between the allegorical figures, such as were " in a is distinctly for it was vision as xv. 9, 10) ; by daytime, (Gen. pieces
Thus
stated.
hears words in a prophetic vision ; as, e.g., is said in refer(9) The prophet " And behold, the word came to him, saying, This shall ence to Abraham, " not be thine heir (ibid. xv. 4).
(10)
The prophet
sees a
Abraham
v- 13)-
in the plain of
sees
man that speaks to him in a prophetic vision Mamre (ibid, xviii. i), and Joshua in Jericho
e.g.,
(Josh.
(i i)
He
Abraham was
This
an angel that speaks to him in the vision, as was the case when addressed by an angel at the sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. xxii. 15).
if we I hold to be except Moses the highest degree a prophet can attain according to Scripture, provided he has, as reason demands, his But it appears to me improbable that a rational faculties fully developed.
prophet should be able to perceive in a prophetic vision God speaking to him ; the action of the imaginative faculty does not go so far, and therefore we do not notice this in the case of the ordinary prophets Scripture says " In a vision I will make myself known, in a dream I will speak to expressly, " him ; the speaking is here connected with dream, the influence and the " action of the intellect is connected with vision ; comp. In a vision I wilJ " " make myself known to him (etvadda*, hitpael of yada to know "), but it is not said here that in a vision anything is heard from God. When I, therefore, met with statements in Scripture that a prophet heard words spoken to him, and that this took place in a vision, it occurred to me that the case ir which God appears to address the prophet seems to be the only difference between a vision and a dream, according to the literal sense of the Scriptural
;
1
ON PROPHECY.
245
text. But it is possible to explain the passages in which a prophet is reported to have heard in the course of a vision words spoken to him, in the following
he has had a vision, but subsequently he fell into a deep sleep, was changed into a dream. Thus we explained the words, And a deep sleep fell upon Abram " (Gen. xv. 12) ; and our Sages remark " This was a deep sleep of prophecy." According to this explanathereon, it is tion, only in a dream that the prophet can hear words addressed to him ; it makes no difference in what manner words are spoken. Scripture supports " this theory, In a dream I will speak to him." But in a prophetic vision
:
manner and the "
at first
vision
only allegories are perceived, or rational truths are obtained, that lead to some knowledge in science, such as can be arrived at by reasoning. This is the " In a vision I will make myself known unto him." meaning of the words,
According to
this second explanation, the degrees of prophecy are reduced to eight, the highest of them being the prophetic vision, including all kinds of vision, even the case in which a man appears to address the prophet, as has
You will perhaps ask this question : among the different degrees of prophecy there is one in which prophets, e.g., Isaiah, Micaiah, appear to hear God addressing them ; how can this be reconciled with the
been mentioned.
principle that all prophets are prophetically addressed through an angel, " Mouth to except Moses our Teacher, in reference to whom Scripture says, mouth I speak to him " (Num. xii. 8) ? I answer, this is really the case, the medium here being the imaginative faculty that hears in a prophetic dream God speaking ; but Moses heard the voice addressing him " from above the " covering of the ark from between the two cherubim (Exod. xxv. 22) without the medium of the imaginative faculty. In Mishne-torah we have given
the characteristics of this kind of prophecy, and explained the meaning of the
"
phrases,
Mouth
"
to
mouth
neighbour
repeat
(Exod.
xxxiii. 1 1),
"As man speaketh to his ; speak to him and the like. Study it there, and I need not
"
what has already been
said.
CHAPTER XLVI
ONE
individual
may be
its
taken as an illustration of the individuals of the whole
properties we learn those of each individual of the species. I mean to say that the form of one account of a prophecy illustrates all accounts of the same class. After this remark you will understand that a
species.
From
person
may sometimes dream
that he has gone to a certain country, married
he gave a certain there, stayed there for some time, and had a son, name, and who was in a certain condition [though nothing of all this has really taken place] ; so also in prophetic allegories certain objects are seen.
whom
performed if the style of the allegory demands it things are done by the prophet, the intervals between one act and another determined, and journeys undertaken from one place to another ; but all these things are only processes of a prophetic vision, and not real things that could be perceived
acts
by the
senses of the body. Some of the accounts simply relate these incidents [without premising that they are part of a vision], because it is a wellknown fact that all these accounts refer to prophetic visions, and it was not
% necessary to repeat in each case a statement to this effect. " Thus the prophet relates : And the Lord said unto me," and need not
246
it was in a dream. The ordinary reader believes that the acts, journeys, questions, and answers of the prophets really took the senses, and did not merely form part of a place, and were perceived by I will mention here an instance concerning which no vision. prophetic
add the explanation that
I will add a few more of the same and these will show you how those passages must be understood which The following passage in Ezekiel (viii. I, 3) is clear, and admits I do not cite. " I sat in mine house, and the elders of Judah sat before me, of no doubt etc., and a spirit lifted me up between the earth and the heaven, and brought me in the visions of God to Jerusalem," etc. ; also the passage, " Thus I arose " and went into the plain (iii. 2, 3), refers to a prophetic vision ; just as the he "And words, brought him forth abroad, and said, Look now toward " heaven and tell the stars, if thou be able to number them (Gen. xv. 5) describe a vision. The same is the case with the words of Ezekiel (xxxvii. l), " And set me down in the midst of the valley." In the description of the " vision in which Ezekiel is brought to Jerusalem, we read as follows And when I looked, behold a hole in the wall. Then said he unto me, Son of " man, dig now in the wall ; and when I had digged in the wall, behold a door It was thus in a vision that he was commanded to dig (ibid. viii. 7-8), etc. in the wall, to enter and to see what people were doing there, and it was in the same vision that he digged, entered through the hole, and saw certain Just as all this forms part of a vision, the same may be things, as is related. " And thou take unto thee a tile," etc., " and said of the following passages " lie thou also on thy left side," etc. Take thou also wheat and barley," etc., " and cause it to pass over thine head and upon thy beard " (chaps, iv. and v.) It was in a prophetic vision that he saw that he did all these actions which he was commanded to do. God forbid to assume that God would make his prophets appear an object of ridicule and sport in the eyes of the ignorant, and order them to perform foolish acts. We must also bear in mind that
person will entertain the least doubt.
kind,
command given to Ezekiel implied disobedience to the Law, for he, being a priest, would, in causing the razor to pass over every corner of the beard and of the head, have been guilty of transgressing two prohibitions in each case. But it was only done in a prophetic vision. Again, when it " is said, As my servant Isaiah went naked and barefoot " ( Isa. xx. 3), the
the
prophet did so in a prophetic vision. Weak-minded persons believe that the prophet relates here what he was commanded to do, and what he actually did, and that he describes how he was commanded to dig in a wall on the he was in Babylon, and relates how he obeyed the Temple mount although " command, for he says, And I digged in the wall." But it is distinctly
stated that
It
is
all this
took place in a vision.
analogous to the description of the vision of Abraham which begins, " The word of the Lord came to Abram in a vision, saying " (Gen. xv. i) ; " and contains at the same time the passage, He brought him forth abroad, and said, Look now to the heaven and count the stars " (ibid. ver. 6). It is evident that it was in a vision that Abraham saw himself brought forth from lu's place looking towards the heavens and being told to count the stars.
This
is
The same
related [without repeating the statement that it was in a vision]. I say in reference to the command given to Jeremiah, to conceal
it,
the girdle in the Euphrates, and the statement that he concealed
examined
ON PROPHECY
it
;
247
after a long time, and found it rotten and spoiled (Jer. xiii. 4-7). All this was allegorically shown in a vision Jeremiah did not go from Palestine to Babylon, and did not see the Euphrates. The same applies to the account " of the commandment given to Hosea (i.-iii.) Take unto thee a wife of whoredom, and children of whoredom," to the birth of the children and to the giving of names to them. All this passed in a prophetic vision. When once stated that these are allegories, there is left no doubt that the
:
events related had no real existence, except in the minds of those of whom " the prophet says And the vision of every one was unto them like the words
:
I believe that the trial of Gideon (Judges and other things was a vision. I do not call it a prophetic vision, as Gideon had not reached the degree of prophets, much less that height which would enable him to do wonders. He only rose to the height of the Judges of Israel, and he has even been counted by our Sages among persons of little importance, as has been pointed out "by us. The same can be said of the passage in Zechariah (xi. 7), And I fed the flock of slaughter," and all the incidents that are subsequently described ;
of a sealed book
"
(Isa. xxix. 1 1).
vi. 21,
27) with the fleece
the graceful asking for wages, the acceptance of the wages, the wanting of the money, and the casting of the same into the house of the treasure ; all these
incidents
carried
form part of the vision. He received the commandment and out in a prophetic vision or dream. The correctness of this theory cannot be doubted, and only those do not comprehend it who do not know to distinguish between that which is
it
The instances quoted may serve as possible, and that which is impossible. an illustration of other similar Scriptural passages not quoted by me. They
are
all
of the
same kind, and
in the
same
style.
Whatever
is
said in the
account of
a vision, that
told, stood, sat, part of the prophetic vision

details of
the prophet heard, went forth, came out, said, was went up, went down, journeyed, asked, or was asked, all is
;
even when there
is
a lengthened account, the
which are well connected as regards the time, the persons referred After it has once been stated that the event described to, and the place. is to be understood figuratively, it must be assumed for certain that the whole
is
prophetic vision.
CHAPTER XLVII
IT
for this clear and evident that most prophecies are given in images, the characteristic of the imaginative faculty, the organ of prophecy. We find it also necessary to say a few words on the figures, hyperboles, and exaggerations that occur in Scripture. They would create strange ideas if
is
undoubtedly
is
we were
to take them literally without noticing the exaggeration which they contain, or if we were to understand them in accordance with the original meaning of the terms, ignoring the fact that these are used figuratively.
Our
and quote
(Deut.
is
Sages say distinctly Scripture uses hyperbolic or exaggerated language ; " " as an instance, cities walled and fortified, rising up to heaven
i. As a hyperbole our Sages quote, For the bird of heaven 28). " " carries the voice Whose height (Eccles. x. 20) ; in the same sense it is said,
"
like that of
cedar trees
all
"
(Amos
;
ii.
9).
Instances of this kind are frequent

is
in the language of
prophets
what they say
frequently hyperbolic or
248
What Scripture says about Og. exaggerated, and not precise or exact. " Behold, his bedstead was an iron bedstead, nine cubits its length," etc. (Deut.), does not belong to this class of figures, for the bedstead (eres, comp.
arsfnu, Song of Sol. i. 16) is never exactly of the same dimensions as the person using it ; it is not like a dress that fits round the body ; it is always greater than the person that sleeps therein ; as a rule, is it by a third longer. If, therefore, the bed of Og was nine cubits in length, he must, according to The words, " by this proportion, have been six cubits high, or a little more. the cubit of a man," mean, by the measure of an ordinary man, and not by
the measure of
ture thus
less. tells
Og
for
us that
men have the limbs in a certain proportion. Og was double as long as an ordinary person, or
Scripa little
This is undoubtedly an exceptional height among men, but not quite As regards the Scriptural statement about the length of man's impossible. life in those days, I say that only the persons named lived so long, whilst other people enjoyed the ordinary length of life. The men named were exceptions, either in living, or
consequence of different causes,
as e.g., their
food or
mode
of
by way of miracle, which admits of no analogy. We must further discuss the figurative language employed in Scripture. In some cases this is clear and evident, and doubted by no person ; e.g., " The mountains and hills shall break forth in song before you, and all the
trees of the
wood
also
clap their hands

is
"
(Isa. Iv. 12)
language
the following passage
"
this
is
evidently figurative
*'
The
fir-trees rejoice at thee," etc.
(ibid. xiv. 8),
which
rendered by Jonathan, son of Uzziel,
The
rulers
rejoice at thee,
are rich in possessions." This figure is similar to that " Butter of kine and milk of sheep," etc. (Deut. xxxii. 14). used in the phrase, And these figures are very frequent in the books of the prophets. Some are easily recognised
who
the Lord open to thee culty. his good treasure, the heavens," must be taken figuratively ; for God has no The same is the case with the following treasure in which He keeps the rain.
by the ordinary reader as figures, " Thus nobody doubts that the blessing, May
"
others with
some
diffi-
He opened the doors of heaven, he rained upon them manna to passage " No person assumes that there is a door or gate eat (Ps. Ixxviii. 23, 24). in heaven, but every one understands that this is a simile and a figurative
In the same way must be understood the following passages " '' heavens were opened If not, blot me out from thy (Ezek. i. l) ; " " book which thou hast written (Exod. xxxii. 32) ; I will blot him out from " the book of life (ibid. ver. 33). All these phrases are figurative ; and we must
expression.
"
The
not assume that God has a book in which He writes, or from which He blots out, as those generally believe that do not find figurative speech in these passages. They are all of the same kind. You must explain passages not
quoted by me by those which I have quoted in this chapter. Employ your reason, and you will be able to discern what is said allegorically, figuratively, or hyperbolically, and what is meant literally, exactly according to the oriYou will then understand all prophecies, learn ginal meaning of the words. and retain rational principles of faith, pleasing in the eyes of God who is
most pleased with truth, and most displeased with falsehood ; your mind and heart will not be so perplexed as to believe or accept as law what is untrue or improbable, whilst the
stood.
Thus
"
Scripture says,
Law Thy
is
perfectly true when properly under" testimonies are righteousness for ever
ON PROPHECY
(Ps. cxix. 144) you adopt this
;
249
"
and
"
method, you
the Lord speak righteousness If (Isa. xlv. 19). will not imagine the existence of things which
God
has not created, or accept principles which might partly lead to atheism, or to a corruption of your notions of God so as to ascribe to Him corporeality, attributes, or emotions, as has been shown by us, nor will you believe that
the words of the prophets are

of of
false
for the cause of this disease
is
ignorance
what we have explained. These things belong likewise to the mysteries the Law ; and although we have treated them in a general manner, they
all
can easily be understood in

remarks.
their details in accordance with the above
CHAPTER XLVIII
produced must have an immediate cause which produced it ; that cause again a cause, and so on, till the First Cause, viz., the will and decree of God is reached. The prophets therefore omit sometimes the intermediate causes, and ascribe the production of an individual thing directly to God, saying that God has made it. This method is well known, and we, as well as others of those who seek the truth, have explained it ; it is the belief of our co-religionists. After having heard this remark, listen to what I will explain in this chapter ; direct your special attention to it more than you have done to the other It is this As regards the immediate causes of things chapters of this part. produced, it makes no difference whether these causes consist in substances,
IT
is
clear that everything
physical properties, freewill, or chance by freewill I mean that of man or even in the will of another living being. The prophets [omit them and] ascribe the production directly to God and use such phrases as, God has done
it,
"
to
commanded it, or said it in all such cases the verbs <{ to say," " to speak," " " " command," to call," and to send are employed. What I desired to
;
is this : According to the hypothesis and theory accepted, that gave will to dumb animals, freewill to the human being, and natural properties to everything ; and as accidents originate in the redundancy of some natural force, as has been explained [by Aristotle], and are mostly
state in this chapter
it is
God
it can conthe result of the combined action of nature, desire, and freewill sequently be said of everything which is produced by any of these causes, that God commanded that it should be made, or said that it should be so. I
:
will give which I
you instances, and they will guide you in the interpretation of passages do not mention. As regards phenomena produced regularly by natural causes, such as the melting of the snow when the atmosphere becomes
warm, the roaring

"
passages],
of the sea
his
when
He
sendeth
word and melteth them "
storm rages
[I
" he saith, and a storm-wind riseth, and lifteth up its waves (ibid. cvii. 25). " In reference to the rain we read : I will command the clouds that they Events caused by man's freewill, such as war, shall not rain," etc. (Isa. v. 6). the dominion of one nation over another, the attempt of one person to hurt
another, or to insult him, [are ascribed to
(Ps. cxlvii. 18)
quote the following "

;
And
God,
"
I
as] e.g., in
reference to the
dominion of Nebuchadnezzar and

ones, also I have called
his host,
my
heroes for
send him against a hypocrite nation (ibid. x. 6) ; in reference to Shimei, son " " of Gera, For God said to him, Curse David (2 Sam. xvi. 10) ; in reference
"
my
have "
commended my "
;
holy
anger
(Isa. xiii. 3)
and
I will
250

"
to the deliverance of Joseph, the righteous, from prison, He sent an angel and loosed him " (Ps. cv. 20) ; in reference to the victory of the Persians
reference to the providing of food to Eliah, I have commanded there a woman, a widow, to maintain thee " (i Kings xvii. 9) ; and " Not ye have sent me hither," etc. (Gen. xlv. Joseph, the righteous, says :
it
over the Chaldees, " in

(Jer.
li.
"
I will
send to Babylon scatterers, and they "
shall scatter
2)
8).
The
is
case that the will of an animal or
its
desire for
some
of
its
natural
:
the cause of some event, may be illustrated by the following instance "And God spake unto the fish, and it vomited out Jonah" (ii. li). The act is ascribed to God, because He gave the fish the will, and not because
wants
He made
is
it
prophet or endowed
it
with a prophetical
spirit.
Similarly
it
son of Pethuel, " " Mighty is he that accomplishes his word (Joel ii. 1 1) ; or of the beasts that took possession of the land of Edom when destroyed in the days of " He cast lot for them, and his hand divided it unto them by a Sennacherib, " " " line (Isa. xxxiv. 17). Although here the verbs to say," to command," " to send," are not used, the meaning is evidently the same, and you must
Joel,
said of the locusts that appeared in the days of
" Go, for the Lord has sent thee." " God sent me before you " (Gen. (i Sam. xx. 22) ; in reference to Joseph, You see clearly that the providing of a cause, in whatever manner xlv. 7).
51)
;
Events explain all passages that are analogous to it in a similar manner. evidently due to chance are ascribed to God ; e.g., in reference to Rebecca, " Let her be a wife to the son of thy master, as the Lord spake " (Gen. xxiv.
in reference to
David and Jonathan,
this may take place, by substance, accident, freewill, or will, is always expressed by one of the five terms, commanding, saying, speaking, sending, or calling. Note this, and apply it everywhere according to the context.
difficulties will thereby be removed, and passages apparently containing things far from truth will prove to be true. This is the conclusion of the treatise on Prophecy, its allegories and language. It is all I intend to say on this subject in this treatise. will now commence to treat of
Many
We
other subjects, with the help of the
Most High.
PART
III
INTRODUCTION
WE have stated several times that it is our primary object in this treatise to expound, as far as possible, the Biblical account of the Creation (Mvascb bereshit) and the description of the Divine Chariot (Ma'aseh mercabah) in
a
manner adapted to the
training of those for
whom
this
work
is
written.
We have
You
and
also stated that these subjects
belong to the mysteries of the Law.
are well aware how our Sages blame those who reveal these mysteries, praise the merits of those who keep them secret, although they are per" In this sense they explain the passage, Her fectly clear to the philosopher.
merchandise
(Isa. rxiii.
1
shall
8),
be for them that dwell before the Lord, to eat sufficiently " which concludes in the original with the words ve-li-me-
i.e., that these blessings are promised to him who hides things which the Eternal has revealed [to him], viz., the mysteries of the Law If you have understanding you will (Babyl. Talmud, Pesahim nga). comprehend that which our Sages pointed out. They have clearly stated that the Divine Chariot includes matters too deep and too profound for the It has been shown that a person favoured by Providence ordinary intellect.
kassfh 'atik,
with reason to understand these mysteries
is
forbidden by the
Law
to teach
them except viva
voce,
and on condition that the pupil
possess certain quali-
fications, and even then only the heads of the sections may be communicated. This has been the cause why the knowledge of this mystery has entirely disappeared from our nation, and nothing has remained of it. This was unavoidable, for the explanation of these mysteries was always communicated Such being the case, how can viva voce, it was never committed to writing. I venture to call your attention to such portions of it as may be known, But if, on the other hand, I were to intelligible, and perfectly clear to me ?
abstain
from writing on
this subject,
according to
my knowledge of it, when
die, as I shall inevitably do, that knowledge would die with me, and I would thus inflict great injury on you and all those who are perplexed
[by these theological problems]. I would then be guilty of withholding the truth from those to whom it ought to be communicated, and of jealously depriving the heir of his inheritance. I should in either case be guilty of
gross misconduct.
To
to the
ing,
give a full explanation of the mystic passages of the Bible is contrary Law and to reason ; besides, my knowledge of them is based on reasonis
not on divine inspiration [and
therefore not infallible],
have not
S
361
252
received

my
belief in this respect
I learnt
from any teacher, but it has been formed from Scripture and the utterances of our Sages, and by the It is therefore possible that philosophical principles which I have adopted. my view is wrong, and that I misunderstood the passages referred to. Correct thought and divine help have suggested to me the proper method, viz., to explain the words of the prophet Ezekiel in such a manner that those who will read my interpretation will believe that I have not added anything to the contents of the text, but only, as it were, translated from one language
by what
into another, or given a short exposition of plain things. Those, however, for whom this treatise has been composed, will, on reflecting on it and thor-
oughly examining each chapter, obtain a perfect and clear insight into all that has been clear and intelligible to me. This is the utmost that can be done in treating this subject so as to be useful to all without fully explaining it. After this introductory remark I ask you to study attentively the chapters which follow on this sublime, important, and grand subject, which is the pin upon which everything hangs, and the pillar upon which everything rests.
CHAPTER
IT is well known that there are men whose face is like that of other animals ; thus the face of some person is like that of a lion, that of another person like that of an ox, and so on ; and man's face is described according as the form of his face resembles the form of the face of other animals. By the ex" " " an a lion," an eagle " the face of the face of the face of ox," pressions, describes a human the forms the face towards i. 10), inclining (Ezek, prophet
This interpretation can be supported by two " prophet says of the Hayyot in general that their appear" ance is this, they have the form of man (ver. 5), and then in describing each of the Hayyot he attributes to them the face of a man, that of an ox, that of a lion, and that of an eagle. Secondly, in the second description of the Chariot, which is intended as a supplement to the first, the prophet says, Each hath four faces ; the one is the face of a cherub, the second a man's He face, the third a lion's face, and the fourth that of an eagle (ibid. x. 14). " " " the face of an ox and the face of thus clearly indicates that the terms " " a youth." But cherub designates are identical. a cherub By analogy " " and " the face of an the face of a lion we explain the two other terms " " in the same The face of the ox " has been singled out on manner. eagle account of the etymology of the Hebrew term shor (ox), as has been indicated by me. It is impossible to assume that this second description refers to the perception of another prophetic vision, because it concludes thus " " What This is the Hayyah which I saw at the river Chebar (ibid. ver. 15) we intended to explain is now clear.
of these various species.
proofs.
First, the
:
CHAPTER
THE
prophet says that he saw four Hayyot
II
;
each of them had four
faces,
four wings, and two hands, but on the whole their form was human. Comp. " " They had the likeness of a man (Ezek. i. 5). The hands are also described
THE VISION OF EZERIEL

as
253
words,
humai. hands, because these have undoubtedly, as is well known, such a form as enables them to perform all manner of cunning work. Their feet are straight that is to say, they are without joints. This is the meaning of " the phrase a straight foot," taken literally. Similarly our Sages say, the " " And their feet were feet
;
straight
above do not
sit.
Note
this likewise.
The
the organs of walking, are described as the hands are like human hands. The feet are round, for the prophet says, " like the sole of a round foot." The four ffayyot are closely joined to-
show that the beings the feet of the Hayyot, different from the feet of man, but
(ibid.
i.
7),
soles of
above " employed here, although the bodies were closely joined, their faces and their wings were separated, but only above. The prophet then states that they are transparent they are " like bur" nished brass He also adds that they are luminous. Comp. (ibid. ver. 7). " Their appearance was like burning coals of fire " (ibid. ver. 13). This is all that has been said as regards the form, shape, face, figure, wings, hands, and feet of the ffayyot. The prophet then begins to describe the motions of these Hayyot, namely, that they have a uniform motion, without any " " curvature, deviation, or deflexion They turned not when they went
Consider the expression
;
:
gether, there is no space or vacuum left between them. Comp. They were " " But although they were thus joined joined one to another (ibid. i. 9). " together, their faces and their wings were separated above (ibid. ver. 1 1).
"
"
Each of the Hayyot moves in the direction of its face. Comp. " " Now, it is They went every one in the direction of his face (ver. 9). here clearly stated that each Hayyah went in the direction of its face, but since each ffayyah has several faces, I ask, in the direction of which face ? In short, the four Hayyot do not move in the same direction for, if this were the case, a special motion would not have been ascribed to each of them ; " it would not have been said, They went each one towards the side of his The motion of these Hayyot is further described as a running, so face."
(ver. 17).
;
and returned
returning is described as a running. .Comp. And the Hayyot ran, " as the appearance of a flash of lightning (ver. 14), razoh " to and the infinitive instead of shub, shob run," being the infinitive of ruz, " " " " to go and to come," to return." The ordinary words, haloch and bo,
also their
"
are not used, but such words as indicate running to
and
fro
As the appearance of a flash of lightning further explained by the phrase, (bazak, used by the prophet, is identical with barak"), for the lightning appears
"
and these are "
move very quickly ; it seems to hasten and to run from a certain place, and then to turn back and to come again to the place from which it had This is repeated several times with the same velocity. Jonathan, started. the son of Uzziel, renders the phrase razo vasbob thus They move round the world and return at once, and are as swift as the appearance of lightning. This quick movement and return the ffayyah does not perform of its own " to accord, but through something outside of it, viz., the Divine Will ; for whichever side it is the Divine Will that the Hayyah should move, thither " the Hayyah moves," in that quick manner which is expressed by running " Whithersoever the spirit and returning."' This is implied in the words, " went " (ver. was to go they went " (ver. 20) They turned not when they " " " not mean the does the the wind," but 17). (ruah), By prophet spirit
to
:
**
the intention," as
we have
explained
when
discussing the
homonym
ruat)
254
(spirit).

The meaning
Hayyah
of the phrase
is,
it is the Divine Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, Towards the place whither it is the will to go, gives a similar explanation they go ; they do not turn when they go. The employment of the future tense of the verbs yihyeh and yeleku in this passage seems to imply that sometimes it will be the will of God that the Hayyah should move in one
that whithersoever
Will that the
shall go, thither it runs.

:
direction, in
which
it will
in fact
move, and
at other times it will
be His
it will
will
that the
Hayyah should move
in the opposite direction, in
which
then
explanation is, however, added, which is contrary to this conand shows that the future form (yihyeh) of the verb has here the meaning of the preterite, as is frequently the case in Hebrew. The direction in which God desires the Hayyah to move has already been determined and fixed, and the Hayyah moves in that direction which His will has determined long ago, without having ever changed. The prophet, therefore, in explaining, and at the same time concluding [this description of the Hayyot], " Whithersoever the spirit was to go they go, thither was the spirit to says, " Note this wonderful interpretation. This passage forms go (ver. 20). likewise part of the account of the motion of the four Hayyot which
move.
An
clusion,
body,
follows the description of their form. Next comes the description of another part ; for the prophet relates This that he saw a body beneath the Hayyot, but closely joining them. which is connected with the earth, consists likewise of four bodies, and
has also four faces.
But no
distinct
form
is
ascribed to
it
neither that of
nor that of any other living being. The [four bodies] are described as no form is given to them, except that they great, tremendous, and terrible These are the bodies called Ofannim (lit. wheels). are covered with eyes. The prophet therefore says: "Now, as I' beheld the Hayyot, behold one " wheel upon the earth beside the living creatures, with his four faces (ver. 15). He thus distinctly states that the Ofannim form a body, of which the one
man
part touches the Hayyot, and the other part the earth ; and that the Ofan " The appearance of the Ofannim But he continues has four faces. and they four (wheels) and their work was like unto the colour of a beryl " after having had one likeness (ver. 16). By speaking of four Ofannim, " " and mentioned only one Ofan, the prophet indicates that the four faces
:
These four Ofannim have the same they four had one likeness." The Ofannim are then " their appearance and their work was described as partly inter -joined ; for " In the description of as it were a wheel in the middle of a wheel (ver. 16). " " in the middle of the Hayyot such a phrase, with the term (tok) is not " they employed. The Hayyot are partly joined, according to the words,
the
four Ofannim
"
" are identical.
form
"
comp.,
And
" were joined one to another (ver. 1 1) ; whilst in reference to the Ofannim " as it were a wheel in the middle it is stated that they are partly intermixed, The body of the Ofannim is described as being covered with of a wheel." it is eyes possible that a body covered with real eyes is here meant, or a " " " also colour "], as in the different colours [<ayin denoting eye, body with " " the colour thereof ['enc] as the colour (ke*eri) of bdellium (Num. phrase In this latter sense the xi. 7) ; or a body filled with likenesses of things. Like that term 'ayin is used by our Sages in phrases like the following he has robbed ; or different [ke'en] which he has stolen, like that [keen] which
;
:
THE VISION OF EZEK1EL

"
255
properties and qualities are meant, according to the meaning of the word " It may be that the Lord will look (be'tnai) on my con'ayin in the passage,
dition
(2
is
Sam.
xvi. 12).
So much for the form of the Ofannim.

;
Their
being
they when they " went (E. ver. 17). The four Ofannim do not move of their own accord, as the Hayyot, and have no motion whatever of their own ; they are set in motion by other beings, as is emphatically stated twice. The Hayyot are the moving agents of the Ofannim. The relation between the Ofan and the Hayyah may be compared to the relation between a lifeless body tied to the hand or the leg of a living animal ; whithersoever the latter moves, thither
:
described as being without curvature and deviation This is expressed in the words, " straight, without any change. and they turned not went, they went upon their four sides
;
motion
as
When
moves
also the piece of
wood, or the stone, which
is
tied to the
named limb
the
of the animal.
This
is
expressed in the following words
"
:
And when
Hayyot went, the Ofannim went by them ; and when the living creatures were lifted up from the earth, the Ofannim were lifted up " (ver. 19) ; " and " the Ofannim were lifted up over against them And the cause (ver. 20). " of this is explained thus The spirit of the Hayyah was in the Ofannim " For the sake of emphasis and further explanation the prophet adds, (ibid.). " When those went, these went ; and when those stood, these stood ; and when those were lifted up from the earth, the Ofannim were lifted up over " for the spirit of the Hayyah was in the Ofannim against them (ver. 21). The order of these movements is therefore as follows Whithersoever it is
:
God that the Hayyot should move, thither they move of their own accord. When the Hayyot move the Ofannim necessarily follow them, because they are tied to them, and not because they move of their own accord
the will of
in the direction in
words,
spirit spirit
it
" to the place whither Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, translates the verse thus, was the will that the Hayyot should go," etc. After having completed the account of the Hayyot, with their form and motion, and of the Ofannim, which are beneath the Hayyot, connected with them and forced to move when the Hayyot move, the prophet begins to describe a third object which he perceived prophetically, and gives the
which the Hayyot move. This order is expressed in the spirit was to go, they went, thither was the for the to go ; and the Ofannim were lifted up over against them " of the Hayyah was in the Ofannim I have told you that (ver. 20).
"
Whithersoever the
;
account of a new thing, viz., of that which is above the Hayyot. He says that the firmament is above the four Hayyot, above the firmament is the likeness of a throne, and over the throne the likeness of the appearance of man. This is the whole account of what the prophet perceived at first at the river Chebar.
CHAPTER
III
WHEN Ezekiel recalled to memory the form of the Chariot, which he described in the beginning of the book, the same vision presented itself to him He explains in a second time ; in this vision he was borne to Jerusalem. describing it things which have not been made clear at first, e.g., he sub" he expresses that the stitutes the term cherubim " for
Hayyot, whereby
256
Hayyot of the
therefore

first vision
the Ofannim went by them and when the cherubims lifted up their wings to mount up from the earth, the same Ofannim also turned not from beside them " (x. 16). By these words
:
:
"
are likewise angels
like
the cherubim.
He
says,
Where the cherubims went,
he shows how closely connected the two motions are [viz., that of the Hayyot " This is the Hayyah that I and that of the Ofannim]. The prophet adds, saw under the God of Israel by the river of Chebar ; and I knew that they " were cherubims (ver. 20). He thus describes the same forms and the same and states that the Hayyot and the cherubim are identical. A motions, second point is then made clear in this second description, namely, that the " As for the Ofannim, it was Ofannim are spherical ; for the prophet says, A third point concried unto them in my hearing, O sphere" (ver. 13). " To the cerning the Ofannim is illustrated here in the following words they turned not as they place whither the head looked they followed it went " (ver. 1 1). The motion of the Ofannim is thus described as involun" " and of to the place whither the head looketh this it ; tary, and directed " " is stated that it moves whither the spirit is to go A fourth point (i. 20). is added concerning the Ofannim, namely, "And the Ofannim were full of eyes round about, even the Ofannim that they four had " (x. 1 2). This has not been mentioned before. In this second description there are further mentioned " " their flesh, and their backs, and their hands, and their wings (ibid.), whilst in the first account none of these is mentioned ; and it is only stated that they are bodies. Though they are endowed in the second account with In the second account flesh, hands, and wings, no form is given to them. " one ofan by one cherub, and another each ofan is attributed to a cherub, The four Hayyot are then described as one ofan by another cherub." " This is the Hayyah that I saw Hayyah on account of their interjoining " under the God of Israel by the river of Chebar (ver. 20). Also the Ofannim, " in as has been four one ofan number, mentioned, are called though being " " because and the earth four have one (ver. 15), they interjoin, they upon " This is the additional explanation which the second likeness (ver. 16). vision gives of the form of the Hayyot and the Ofannim.
: :
:
CHAPTER IV
IT is necessary to call your attention to an idea expressed by Jonathan, the son of Uzziel. When he saw that the prophet says in reference to the " " It was cried unto them in my hearing, gilgal Ofannim, (" sphere ") the heavens that are he assumed and rendered meant, Ofannim by (x. 13), " " I have no ofan by gilgal, spheres." sphere," and ofannim by gilgelaya, doubt that he found a confirmation of his opinion in the words of the prophet that the Ofannim were like unto the colour of tarshish (ver. 16), a colour
When he, therefore, noticed the is well known. beheld the Hayyot, behold one Ofan upon the earth " which clearly shows that the Ofannim were upon the earth, he had a (i. 15), with his opinion. Following, howdifficulty in explaining it in accordance the terms he his erez, employed here as denoting ever, explains interpretation,
ascribed to the heavens, as
"
passage,
Now
as I
the inner surface of the heavenly sphere, which may be considered as erez " or " below He "), in relation to all that is above that surface. (" L earth
THE VISION OF EZEK1EL

"
:
257
therefore translates the words ofan efyad ba-arez as follows One ofan was below the height of the heavens." Consider what his explanation of the I think that he gave this explanation because he passage must be. thought " that gilgal denotes in its original meaning heaven." My opinion is that " " " And I will roll thee gilgal means originally anything rolling ; comp. " " and rolled (va-yagel) the (ve-gilgaltika) down from the rocks (Jer. li. 25) ; " stone (Gen. xxix. 10) ; the same meaning the word has in the phrase
:
"Like
a rolling thing (galgal) before the
whirlwind"
(Isa. xvii.
13).
The
round, is therefore called gulgolet ; and because everything round rolls easily, every spherical thing is called gilgal ; also the heavens are called gilgallim on account of their spherical form. Thus our " " It is a wheel (gilgal) that moves round the world Sages use the phrase, ; and a wooden ball, whether small or large, is called gilgal. If so, the prophet " As for the Ofannim, it is cried to them in merely intended by the words,
poll of the head, being
(gilgal), to indicate the shape of the Ofannim, as hearing, sphere nothing has been mentioned before respecting their form and shape ; but he did not mean to say that the Ofannim are the same as the heavens. The
my
"
term
"
like tarsbish
of the
Ofannim
of tarsbisb."
"
explained in the second account, in which it is said the appearance of the ofannim was like the colour This latter passage is translated by Jonathan, the son of Uzziel,
is
"
"
And
like
translates the
the colour of a precious stone," exactly in the same manner as Onkelos " like the work of the phrase ke-ma'ase libnat ha-sappir,
whiteness of sapphire (Exod. xxix. 10). Note this. You will not find it strange that I mention the explanation of Jonathan, son of Uzziel, whilst I gave a different explanation myself ; for you will find many of the wise men
"
and the commentators differ sometimes from him in the interpretation of words and in many things respecting the prophets. Why should it be otherinterpretation.
wise in these profound matters ? Besides, I do not decide in favour of my It is for you to learn both the whole of his explanation,
from what I have pointed out to you, and also my own opinion. God knoweth which of the two explanations is in accordance with that which the prophet
intended to
say.
CHAPTER V
IT
visions of God," is necessary to notice that the plural marot elohim, " here used, and not the singular mareh, vision," for there were several things,
is
"
of different kinds, that
things were
perceived
were perceived by the prophet. The following three the Ofannim, the Hayyot, and the man by him
:
above the Hayyot. The description of each of these visions is introduced " and I beheld." For the account of the Hayyot, by the word va-ereb, "And I looked (va-ereh), and behold a whirlwind," etc. (Ezek. i. 4). begins, " Now as I beheld (va-ereh) the Hayyot, The account of the Ofannim begins behold one Ofan upon the earth" (ver. 15). The vision of that which is " And I saw (va-ereh) as the above the Hayyot in order and rank begins " colour of the amber, etc., from the appearance of his loins even upward " times and these three The word I occurs beheld," only va-ereh, (ver. 27). The doctors of the Mishnah have in the description of the Mercabah.
: :
already explained this fact, and
my
attention was called to
it
by their
re-
258
marks.

;
For they said that only the two first visions, namely, that of the Hayyot and the Ofannim, might be interpreted to others but of the third vision, viz., that of the hasbmal and all that is connected with it, only the heads of the sections may be taught. Rabbi [Jehudah], the Holy, is of and nothing opinion that all the three visions are called maweh mercabah, but the heads of the sections could be communicated to others. The exact Where does maaseb mercabhab end ? words of the discussion are as follows Rabbi says, with the last va-ereh ; Rabbi Yizhak says it ends at the word hashmal (ver. 27). The portion from va-ereb to bashmal may be fully taught ; of that which follows, only the heads of the sections ; according to some it is the passage from va-ereh to hasbmal, of which the heads of the sections may be taught, but that which follows may only be studied by those
:
who
must leave
whilst those that cannot study it by themselves possess the capacity, It is clear from the words of our Sages that different visions it.
are described, as may also be inferred from the repetition of the word va-ereh, and that these visions are different from each other in degree ; the last and
highest of
them
;
is is
hasbmal
"
that
appearance of fire, from the appearance of his loins even downward," etc. There is a difference of opinion among our Sages whether it is permitted to give by way of hints an exposition of any part of this third vision, or whether it is prohibited even to teach of it the heads of the sections, so that only the wise can arrive at
understanding
opinion
it
And I saw as the colour of the vision commencing, " the to say, the divided figure of the man, described as etc., from the appearance of his loins even upward, and
"
by
their
own
studies.
You
will also notice a difference of
Sages in reference to the two first visions, viz., that of the Hayyot and that of the Ofannim whether these may be taught explicitly or only by way of hints, dark sayings, and heads of sections. You must also
among our
notice the order of these three visions. First comes the vision of the Hayyot, " because they are first in rank and in the causal relation, as it is said, For the in the Ofannim," and also for other reasons. The spirit of the Hayyah was vision of the Ofannim [comes next, and] is followed by one which is higher than the Hayyot, as has been shown. The cause of this arrangement is,
that in study the

lead to
it.
first
two must
necessarily precede the third,
and
in fact they
CHAPTER
THE
VI
sublime and great subject which Ezekiel by prophetic impulse began to teach us in the description of the Mercabah, is exactly the same which
up, stood seraphims," etc. (Isa. vi. I seq). Our Sages have already stated all this clearly, and called our attention to it. For they say that the vision of Ezekiel is the same as that of Isaiah, and illustrate their view by the following simile Two men saw the king riding, the
his train filled the
Isaiah taught us in general outlines, because he did not require all the detail. " Isaiah says, I saw the Lord sitting and upon a throne, high and lifted
temple.
Above
it
The former, seeing that his neighbours know well how the king rides, simply tells them that he saw the king ; but the villager, wishing to tell his friends things which they do not know, relates in detail how the king was riding, describes his followers, and
one
a
townsman, the other a countryman.
THE VISION OF EZEKIEL

the officers
useful hint
259
saw
all
execute his order and command. This remark is a most contained in the following passage (ffagigah, 13 b) : " Isaiah that has been seen by Ezekiel ; Isaiah is like a townsman that sees the
;
who
it is
These words can king, Ezekiel like a countryman that sees the king." explained in the manner which I have just mentioned, viz., the
of Isaiah did not require the detailed description ; Lord," etc., sufficed. The generation of the Babylonian exile
be
generation " his account, I saw the
wanted to
learn
however, possible that the author of this saying held Isaiah as more perfect than Ezekiel, so that the vision might have overawed Ezekiel and appeared fearful to him ; but Isaiah was so familiar with it that he did not consider it necessary to communicate it to others as a new
all
the details.
It
is,
thing, especially as
it
was well known to the
intelligent.
CHAPTER
ONE
VII
is the connexion between the and day, and also the place of the vision. A reason must be found for this connexion, and we must not think that it is an indifferent element in the vision. We must consider the " " the heavens were opened words, (Ezek. i. l) ; they give the key to the
of the points that require investigation vision of the mercabak and the year, month,
understanding of the whole. The figure of opening, also that of opening " the gates, occurs frequently in the books of the prophets ; e.g., Open ye
the gates that the righteous nation may enter in He (Isa. rxvi. 2) ; " " Lift them up, ye everlasting opened the doors of heaven (Ps. Ixxviii. 23) ; " " doors (ibid. xxiv. 9) ; Open to me" the gates of righteousness, I will go There are many into them, and I will praise the Lord (ibid, cxviii. 19).
"
"
other instances of this kind.
You must
further notice that the whole de-
And the scription refers undoubtedly to a prophetic vision, as it is said, hand of the Lord was there upon him " (Ezek. i. 3) ; and yet there is a very great difference between the various parts of the description, for in the account
of the
"
" but the likeness of Hayyot the prophet does not say four ffayyot, " " likeness of a the he And the four Hayyot ver. (ibid. 5) ; similarly says, " " as the appearfirmament was over the heads of the ffayyot ver. 22) ; " the likeness of the ance of a sapphire stone, the likeness of a throne," and word appearance of man above it" (ver. 26). In all these instances the " " " the likeness is used, whilst in the account of the Ofannim the phrases,
an Ofan" are not employed, but they beings in actual existence, with theii " must not The sentence " they four had one likeness real properties. " " is not used in the same connexion likeness mislead you, for here the word
likeness of likeness of
" Ofannim" the
are described in a positive
manner
as
or in the same sense as indicated above.
In the description of the last vision the prophet confirms and explains this view. When he commences to de" the firmament," without adding scribe the firmament in detail, he says, " " And I looked, and behold, in the the words the likeness of," for he says, firmament that was above the head of the cherubims there appeared over
" a throne appearance of the likeness of " " and not of the likeHere the prophet speaks of the firmament (x. i). ness of the firmament," as he does when he connects the firmament with the
them
as it
were
a sapphire stone, as the
"
260
heads of the likeness of the Hayyot (i. 22). But, as regards the throne, he " the likeness of a throne appeared over them," in order to indicate says,
that the firmament was first perceived and then the likeness of the throne was seen over it. Consider this well. You must further notice that in the description of the first vision the ffayyot have wings and at the same time human hands, whilst in the second vision, in which the term cherubim is substituted for Hayyot, at first only " And wings were perceived, and later on human hands were seen. Comp. " there appeared in the cherubims the form of a man's hand under their wings " " " " used Here form is instead of likeness and (tabnif) (x. 8). (demuf) ; the hands are placed under the wings. Note this. Consider that in reference to the ofannim, the prophet says, le-'ummatam, " over against them," although he does not ascribe to them any form. He further says, " As the appearance of the bow that is in the cloud in the day of rain, so was the appearance of the brightness round about. This was
true essence of the

parison
It
is
the appearance of the likeness of the glory," etc. (i. 28). The substance and bow described here is well known. The simile and comis
;
prophecy
in this case very extraordinary, and note it well.
and
is
undoubtedly part of the

the throne
is
also
noteworthy that the
likeness of
man above
divided,
the upper part being like the colour of hashmal, the lower part like the appearance of fire. As regards the word frashmal, it has been explained to be a hash and mal, including two different notions, compound of two words " " viz., bash signifying swiftness," and mal denoting pause." The two different notions are here joined in one word in order to indicate figuratively
the upper part and the lower. We have already the two different parts, given a second explanation, namely, that hashmal includes the two notions " of speech and silence ; in accordance with the saying of our Sages, At times
times they speak," thus deriving hash of the same root as " have been silent the word hashmal thus (Tsa. xlii. 14) " includes two notions, and indicates speech without sound." There is no " at times they are silent, at times they speak," refer doubt that the words, Now consider how they clearly stated that the divided to a created object. likeness of man over the throne does not represent God, who is above the whole chariot, but represents a part of the creation. The prophet likewise " " " that is the likeness of the glory of the Lord but the glory of the says " " " the Lord Lord is different from Himself, as has been shown by us All the figures in this vision refer to the glory of the Lord, several times. to the chariot, and not to Him who rides upon the chariot ; for God cannot be compared to anything. Note this. I have thus given you also in this chapter as much of the heads of the sections as will be useful to you for the comprehension of this subject, if you fill out [the sections of] these heads. If you consider all that has been said in this part up to this chapter, the greater part of this subject or the whole of it will be clear to you, except a few points and some repetitions the meaning of which is unknown. Perhaps further study will help to reveal even these things so that nothing will remain
they are
silent, at
"
heheshethi,
unintelligible.
Do
not expect or hope to hear from
me
subject, either explicitly or implicitly, for
all
after this chapter a word on this that could be said on it has been
MAN CAN CONTROL

said,
HIS PASSIONS
261
treat of
though with great difficulty and struggle. I will now begin to some of the other subjects which I hope to elucidate in this treatise.
CHAPTER
VIII
TRANSIENT bodies are only subject to destruction through their substance and not through their form, nor can the essence of their form be destroyed ;
in this respect they are permanent.
permanent and
account of
its
The generic forms, as you know, are all can only be destroyed accidentally, i.e., on connexion with substance, the true nature of which consists
stable.
Form
in^the property of never being without a disposition to receive form. This is the reason why no form remains permanently in a substance ; a constant
change takes place, one form
is
taken off and another
is
put on.
How
won-
derfully wise is the simile of King Solomon, in which he compares matter to a faithless wife ; for matter is never found without form, and is therefore
always
yet,
like
such a wife
who
is
never without a husband, never single
and
though being wedded, constantly seeks another man in the place of her husband ; she entices and attracts him in every possible manner till he obtains from her what her husband has obtained. The same is the case with matter. Whatever form it has, it is disposed to receive another form ; it never leaves off moving and casting off the form which it has in order to receive The same takes place when this second form is received. It is another. therefore clear that all corruption, destruction, or defect comes from matter. Take, e.g., man ; his deformities and unnatural shape of limbs all weakness, interruption, or disorder of his actions, whether innate or not, originate in
;
or
the transient substance, not in the form. All other living beings likewise die become ill through the substance of the body and not through its form.
of the
his
Man's shortcomings and sins are all due to the substance not to its form ; while all his merits are exclusively due to
body and
form.
Thus
the knowledge of God, the formation of ideas, the mastery of desire and passion, the distinction between that which is to be chosen and that which
to be rejected, all these man owes to his form ; but eating, drinking, sexual intercourse, excessive lust, passion, and all vices, have their origin in the it was imsubstance of his body. it was clear that this was the case, exist without possible, according to the wisdom of God, that substance should
is
Now
form, or any of the forms of the bodies without substance, and it was necessary that the very noble form of man, which is the image and likeness of God, as has been shown by us, should be joined to the substance of dust and darkness, the source of all defect and loss. For these reasons the Creator gave to the form of man power, rule, and dominion over the substance ; the form can subdue the substance, refuse the fulfilment of its desires, and reduce them,
as far as possible,
to a just and proper measure. The station of man varies according to the exercise of this power. Some persons constantly strive to choose that which is noble, and to seek perpetuation in accordance with the direction of their nobler par, their form ; their thoughts are engaged in the formation of ideas, the acquisition of true knowledge about everything, and the union with the divine intellect which flows down upon them, and which is the source of man's form. Whenever they are led by the wants of the
body
to that
which
is
low and avowedly
disgraceful, they are grieved at their
262

confounded
this
position, they feel ashamed and with all their might to diminish
at their situation.
They
it
disgrace,
and to guard against
try in
every possible way. They feel like a person whom the king in his anger ordered to remove refuse from one place to another in order to put him to shame ; that person tries as much as possible to hide himself during the time
of his disgrace ; he perhaps removes a small quantity a short distance in such a manner that his hands and garments remain clean, and he himself be unnoticed .by his fellow-men. Such would be the conduct of a free man, he would not consider it whilst a slave would find pleasure in such work a great burden, but throw himself into the refuse, smear his face and his hands, carry the refuse openly, laughing and singing. This is exactly the Some consider, as we just said, difference in the conduct of different men.
;
all
wants of the body
as
shame, disgrace, and defect to which they are com-
pelled to attend ; this is chiefly the case with the sense of touch, which is a disgrace to us according to Aristotle, and which is the cause of our desire for
Intelligent persons must, as much as poseating, drinking, and sensuality. these reduce wants, sible, guard against them, feel grieved when satisfying them, abstain from speaking of them, discussing them, and attending to them
must have control over all these desires, and only retain of them as much as is inthe aim of man as man, viz., the formation aim must be His dispensable. The best and sublimest among them is the idea of ideas, and nothing else. which man forms of God, angels, and the rest of the creation according to " his capacity. Such men are always with God, and of them it is said, Ye " Ixxxii. are princes, and all of you are children of the Most High (Ps. 6). This is man's task and purpose. Others, however, that are separated from God form the multitude of fools, and do just the opposite. They neglect all thought and all reflection on ideas, and consider as their task the cultivation of the sense of touch, that sense which is the greatest disgrace they only think and reason about eating and love. Thus it is said of the wicked " who are drowned in eating, drinking, and love, They also have erred through wine, and through strong drink are out of the way," etc. (Isa. xxviii. " for all tables are full of vomit and filthiness, so that there is no place 7), " " the oppoclean (ver. 8) again, "And women rule over them (ibid. iii. 2), " And for thy site of that which man was told in the beginning of the creation, " husband shall thy desire be, and he shall rule over thee (Gen. iii. 16). The
in
company with
as
others.
Man
reduce them
much
as possible,
intensity of their lust
" then described thus, Every one neighed after his " are all adulterers, an they neighbour's wife," etc. (Jer. v. 8) ; assembly of " The whole book of the Proverbs of Solomon treacherous men (ibid. ix. 2).
is
These two
"
10)
treats of this subject, and exhorts to abstain from lust and intemperance. and keep far from vices ruin those that hate to them ;
God
"
Him
the following passages

;
may be
applied,
Cast them out of
Who can find a virtuous woman ? " it is regards the portion beginning, " a virtuous woman." clear what is meant by the figurative expression,
When man
possesses a
my sight, "
" They are not the Lord's (ibid. v. and let them go forth " (ibid. xv. i). As
good sound body that does not overpower him nor
In short, a good disturb the equilibrium in him, he possesses a divine gift. constitution facilitates the rule of the soul over the body, but it is not ima bad constitution by training. For this reason King possible to conquer
MAN CAN CONTROL
HIS PASSIONS
263
Solomon and others wrote the moral lessons ; also all the commandments and exhortations in the Pentateuch aim at conquering the desires of the body. Those who desire to be men in truth, and not brutes, having only the appearance and shape of men, must constantly endeavour to reduce the wants of the body, such as eating, love, drinking, anger, and all vices originating in lust and passion they must feel ashamed of them and set limits to them for themselves. As for eating and drinking in so far as it is indispensable, they will eat and drink only as much as is useful and necessary as food, and not for the They will also speak little of purpose of pleasure. these things, and rarely congregate for such purposes. Thus our Sages, as is well known, kept aloof from a banquet that was not part of a religious act, and pious men followed the example of R. Phinehas, son of Jair, who never dined with other persons, and even refused to accept an invitation of R. Jehudah, the Holy. Wine may be treated as food, if taken as such, but to form parties for the purpose of drinking wine together must be considered more disgraceful than the unrestrained conduct of persons who in daylight meet in the same house undressed and naked. For the natural action of the digestive organ is indispensable to man, he cannot do without it ; whilst drunkenness depends on the free will of an evil man. To appear naked in the presence of other people is misconduct only according to public opinion, not according to the dictates of reason, whilst drunkenness, which ruins the mind and the body of man, reason stamps as a vice. You, therefore, who desire to act as human beings must keep away from it, and even from speaking of it. On sexual intercourse, I need not add anything after I have pointed out in the commentary on Abot (i. 17) how it is treated by our Law, which is the teaching of pure wisdom no excuse whatever should induce us to mention it or to speak of it. Thus our Sages said, that Elisha the prophet is called holy, because he did not think of it, and consequently never found himself polluted with semen. In a similar manner they say that Jacob had the first issue of semen for the conception of Reuben. All
;
duct.
these traditional stories have the object of teaching the nation humane conThere is a well-known saying of our Sages, " The thoughts about
of this saying
the sin are more dangerous than the sin itself." I can offer a good explanation When a person is disobedient, this is due to certain accidents connected with the corporeal element in his constitution ; for man sins only
:
by
his
animal nature, whereas thinking

a
form,
person
who
portion of his self ; does not sin as much as he
is a faculty of man connected with his thinks sinfully sins therefore by means of the nobler and he who wrongly causes a foolish slave to work
who wrongly
causes a noble
and
free
man
to
do
the work of a slave.

perties
For
this specifically
human
element, with
all its
pro-
and powers, should only be employed in suitable work, in attempts and not in attempts to go down and reach the lower how we condemn lowness of speech, and justly so, for speech is likewise peculiar to man and a boon which God granted to him that he may be distinguished from the rest of living creatures. Thus God says, " Who gave a mouth to man ? " (Exod. iv. n) ; and the prophet declares, " The Lord God hath given me a learned tongue " (Isa. 1. 4). This gift, therefore, which God gave us in order to enable us to perfect ourselves, to learn and to teach, must not be employed in doing that which is for us most
to join higher beings, creatures. You know
264
GUIDE FOR
HE PERPLEXED
degrading and perfectly disgraceful ; we must not imitate the songs and It may be suitable to them, but tales of ignorant and lascivious people. " And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of is not fit for those who are told, " Those who employ the faculty nation (Exod. xix. 6). priests and a holy of thinking and speaking in the service of that sense which is no honour to us, who think more than necessary of drink and love, or even sing of these things ;
they employ and use the divine gift in acts of rebellion against the Giver, and To them the following words in the transgression of His commandments. " And I multiplied her silver and gold, which they pre: may be applied " I have also a reason and cause for calling our (Hos. ii. 10). pared for Baal the holy language do not think it is exaggeration or error on my language correct the Hebrew language has no special name for part, it is perfectly the organ of generation in females or in males, nor for the act of generation The Hebrew has no original exitself, nor for semen, nor for secretion.
in figurative language and pressions for these things, and only describes them by way of hints, as if to indicate thereby that these things should not be mentioned, and should therefore have no names ; we ought to be silent about
them, and when we are compelled to mention them, we must manage to for that purpose some suitable expressions, although these are generThus the organ of generation in males is called ally used in a different sense. " And thy in Hebrew gid, which is a figurative term, reminding of the words, " " neck is an iron sinew (gid) (Isa. xlviii. 4). It is also called shupka, pouring " out (Deut. xxiii. 2), on account of its function. The female organ is called " " kobah (Num. xxv. 8), from kebab (Deut. xviii. 3), which denotes stomach ; in zoah inner which the xxviii. is the foetus rebem" womb," (Isa. organ develops " " he went out"; for "urine" the refuse," is derived from the verb yaza, 8), " " the water of the feet (2 Kings, xviii. 17), is used ; phrase meme raglayim, " a layer of seed." For the act of semen is expressed by sbikbat zera', generation there is no expression whatever in Hebrew it is described by the " " " " he lay he was master sbakab, lakab, ba<al, following words only " " " misled by he uncovered the nakedness." Be not he took gillah "-ervah,
employ
is
the word yisbgalennah (Deut. xxviii. 30), to take it as denoting that act ; this not the case, for sbegal denotes a female ready for cohabitation. Comp. " " " " Upon thy right hand did stand the maiden (shegal) in gold of Ophir
(Ps. xlv.
"
he
10). Tishgalennah, according to the Ketbib, denotes will take the female for the purpose of cohabitation."
therefore
have made in the greater part of this chapter a digression from the of this treatise, and introduced some moral and religious matter, although they do not entirely belong to the subject of this treatise, but the
We
theme
course of the discussion has led to
it.
CHAPTER IX
THE
if
him from
spheres
is a large screen and partition that prevents abstract ideals ; this would be the case even perfectly perceiving the corporeal element were as pure and superior as the substance of the
corporeal element
in
man
how much more must this be the case with our dark and opaque ; body. However great the exertion of our mind may be to comprehend the Divine Being or any of the ideals, we find a screen and partition between Him
ON THE EVILS
and
ourselves.
tition
265
between
God and
Thus the prophets frequently hint at the existence of a parus. They say He is concealed from us in vapours,
in darkness, in mist, or in a thick cloud ; or use similar figures to express that on account of our bodies we are unable to comprehend His essence. This is
the meaning of the words, "Clouds. and darkness are round about Him" The prophets tell us that the difficulty consists in the gross(Ps. xcvii. 2).
ness of
literal
our substance
they do not imply,
as
might be gathered from the
their words, that God is corporeal, and is invisible because He is surrounded by thick clouds, vapours, darkness, or mist. This figure is " also expressed in the passage, He made darkness His secret place " (Ps.
meaning of
The object of God revealing Himself in thick clouds, darkness, 12). vapours, and mist was to teach this lesson ; for every prophetic vision contains some lesson by means of allegory ; that mighty vision, therefore, though
xviii.
the greatest of all visions, and above all comparison, viz., His revelation in a thick cloud, did not take place without any purpose, it was intended to indicate that we cannot comprehend Him on account of the dark body that
surrounds
tradition
us.
is
It does not
surround God, because
current
" was misty, cloudy, and a little rainy. Comp, Lord, when thou wentest forth from Seir, when thou marchedst out of the field of Edom, " the earth trembled, and the heavens dropped water (Judges v. 4). The same " " idea is expressed by the words darkness, clouds, and thick darkness (Deut. iv. II). The phrase does not denote that darkness surrounds God, for with Him there is no darkness, but the great, strong, and permanent light, which, emanating from Him, illuminates all darkness, as is expressed by the prophetic " And the earth shined with His glory " (Ezek. xliii. 2). simile,
among our people
He is incorporeal. that the day of the revelation on
Mount
Sinai
CHAPTER X
THE
have already told you, apply the term non-existence Mutakallemim, only to absolute non-existence, and not to the absence of properties. A property and the absence of that property are considered by them as two opposites, they treat, e.g., blindness and sight, death and life, in the same way as heat and cold. Therefore they say, without any qualification, nonexistence does not require any agent, an agent is required when something is produced. From a certain point of view this is correct. Although they hold that non-existence does not require an agent, they say in accordance with their principle that God causes blindness and deafness, and gives rest to
as I
anything that moves, for they consider these negative conditions as positive We must now state our opinion in accordance with the results properties. of philosophical research. You know that he who removes the obstacle of motion is to some extent the cause of the motion, e.g., if one removes the pillar which supports the beam he causes the beam to move, as has been stated
by Aristotle in his Physics (VIII., chap, iv.) in this sense we say of him who removed a certain property that he produced the absence of that property,
;
although absence of a property is nothing positive. Just as we say o/ him who puts out the light at night that he has produced darkness, so we say of him who destroyed the sight of any being that he produced blindness, although darkness and blindness are negative properties, and require no agent.
266
"

:
this view we explain the following passage of Isaiah : and create (bore) darkness I make peace, and create (bore) light " evil Considet (Isa. xlv. 7), for darkness and evil are non-existing things. that the prophet does not say, I make ('oseh) darkness, I make (oseK) evil, because darkness and evil are not things in positive existence to which the verb " " " to make would apply ; the verb bara he created " is used, because in " is
In accordance with
I
form the
Hebrew
this
God
created
verb "
In the beginning applied to non-existing things, e.g., here the creation took etc. ; (bara), place from nothing.
can non-existence be said to be produced by a certain action
:
Only in
this sense
of an agent.
In the same way we must explain the following passage " Who hath made man's mouth ? or who maketh the dumb, or the deaf, or The passage can also be explained as follows the seeing," etc. (Exod. iv. 1 1).
:
Who
has
made man
of speaking, i.e., perty ? for he who produces a substance that cannot acquire a certain property may be called the producer of that privation. Thus we say, if any one
abstains
so,
able to speak ? or can create him without the capacity create a substance that is incapable of acquiring this pro-
from delivering a fellow-man from death, although he is able to do It is now clear that according to all these different that he killed him.
views the action of an agent cannot be directly connected with a thing that does not exist; only indirectly is non-existence. described as the result of
a
the action of an agent, whilst in a direct manner an action can only influence thing really in existence ; accordingly, whoever the agent may be, he can
only act upon an existing thing. After this explanation you must recall to memory that, as has been proved, the [so-called] evils are evils only in relation to a certain thing, and that which
is evil in reference to a certain existing thing, either includes the non-existence of that thing or the non-existence of some of its good conditions. The pro" All evils position has therefore been laid down in the most general terms,
are negations."
Illness,
Thus
for
man
death
is
evil
death
;
is
his non-existence.
poverty, and ignorance are evils for
man
all
these are privations
If you examine all single cases to which this general proposiof properties. tion applies, you will find that there is not one case in which the proposition
wrong except in the opinion of those who do not make any distinction between negative and positive properties, or between two opposites, or do not know the nature of things, who, e.g., do not know that health in general denotes a certain equilibrium, and is a relative term. The absence of that relation is illness in general, and death is the absence of life in the case of any animal. The destruction of other things is likewise nothing but the absence
is
of their form.
said of
After these propositions, it must be admitted as a fact that it cannot be God that He directly creates evil, or He has the direct intention to
He produce evil ; this is impossible. His works are all perfectly good. only produces existence, and all existence is good ; whilst evils are of a negative character, and cannot be acted upon. Evil can only be attributed He creates evil only in so far as He to Him in the way we have mentioned. it is produces the corporeal element such as it actually is always connected with negatives, and is on that account the source of all destruction and all evil. Those beings that do not possess this corporeal element are not subject to destruction or evil ; consequently the true work of God is all good, since it
;
ON THE EVILS
is
267
the world says
and, behold,
it
existence.
"
therefore,
was very good " (Gen. i. 31). low as it in reality is, because
The book which enlightened the darkness of And God saw everything that He had made,
Even the
it is
existence of this corporeal element, the source of death and all evils, is likewise
good
permanence of the Universe and the continuation of the order Rabbi Meir of things, so that one thing departs and the other succeeds. " therefore explains the words and behold it was very good " (tab miocT) ; that even death was good in accordance with what we have observed in this Remember what I said in this chapter, consider it, and you will chapter. understand all that the prophets and our Sages remarked about the perfect goodness of all the direct works of God. In Bereshit Rabba (chap, i.) the " same idea is expressed thus No evil comes down from above."
for the
:
CHAPTER XI
which men cause to each other because of certain intendue to non-existA ence, because they originate in ignorance, which is absence of wisdom. blind man, for example, who has no guide, stumbles constantly, because he cannot see, and causes injury and harm to himself and others. In the same manner various classes of men, each man in proportion to his ignorance, bring great evils upon themselves and upon other individual members of the If men possessed wisdom, which stands in the same relation to the species. form of man as the sight to the eye, they would not cause any injury to themselves or to others ; for the knowledge of truth removes hatred and quarrels, and prevents mutual injuries. This state of society is promised to us by the " And the wolf shall dwell with the lamb," etc. ; " and prophet in the words " the cow and the bear shall feed together," etc. ; and the sucking child shall on the hole of the 6 The etc. xi. (Isa. play asp," seq.). prophet also points out what will be the cause of this change ; for he says that hatred, quarrel, and fighting will come to an end, because men will then have a true know" ledge of God. They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my h oly mountain
ALL
the great
evils
tions, desires, opinions, or religious principles, are likewise
for the earth shall
be
full of
the sea
"
the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover

it.
(ibid. ver. 9).
Note
CHAPTER
MEN
XII
frequently think that the evils in the world are more numerous than the good things ; many sayings and songs of the nations dwell on this idea. They say that a good thing is found only exceptionally, whilst evil things are
numerous and
even book
it
Not only common people make this mistake, but lasting. many who believe that they are wise. Al-Razi wrote a well-known On Metaphysics [or Theology]. Among other mad and foolish things,
good.
contains also the idea, discovered by him, that there exists more evil than For if the happiness of man and liis pleasure in the times of pros-
perity be
compared with the mishaps that befall him,
such as grief, acute pain,
it would seem as defects, paralysis of the limbs, fears, anxieties, and troubles, if the existence of man is a punishment and a great evil for him. This author
commenced
to verify his opinion
by counting
all
the evils one
by one
by
268
this
means he opposed those who hold the correct view of the benefits bestowed by God and His evident kindness, viz., that God is perfect goodness, and that all that comes from Him is absolutely good. The origin of the error is to be found in the circumstance that this ignorant man, and his party among the common people, judge the whole universe by examining one For an ignorant man believes that the whole universe only single person.
exists for
him
as
if
nothing
else
required any consideration.
If,
therefore,
anything happens to him contrary to his expectation, he at once concludes that the whole universe is evil. If, however, he would take into considerportion he
persons
stars,
ation the whole universe, form an idea of it, and comprehend what a small For it is clear that is of the Universe, he will find the truth.
who have
fallen into this
of evils in the world,
do not find the the elements, and that which
widespread error as regards the multitude evils among the angels, the spheres and
is
formed of them,
viz.,
minerals and
plants, or in the various species of living beings, but only in some individual instances of mankind. They wonder that a person, who became leprous
consequence of bad food, should be afflicted with so great an illness and or that he who indulges so much in sensuality as such a misfortune to weaken his sight, should be struck with blindness and the like. What we have, in truth, to consider is this The whole mankind at present in existence, and a fortiori, every other species of animals, form an infinitesimal " Man is like to vanity " (Ps. portion of the permanent universe. Comp. " cxliv. 4) How much less man, that is a worm and the son of man, which " " How much less in them who dwell in houses of is a worm (Job xxv. 6) ; " " " iv. Behold, the nations are as a drop of the bucket (Isa. (ibid. 19) clay There are many other passages in the books of the prophets expressxl. 15). It is of great advantage that man should know his station, ing the same idea. and not erroneously imagine that the whole universe exists only for him. We hold that the universe exists because the Creator wills it so that mankind is low in rank as compared with the uppermost portion of the universe, viz., with the spheres and the stars ; but, as regards the angels, there cannot be any real comparison between man and angels, although man is the highest
in
suffer
;
!
Man's all beings on earth ; i.e., of all beings formed of the four elements. existence is nevertheless a great boon to him, and his distinction and perThe numerous evils to which individual persons are fection is a divine gift.
of
exposed are due to the defects existing in the persons themselves. We complain and seek relief from our own faults we suffer from the evils which we, by our own free will, inflict on ourselves and ascribe them to God, who " Is destruction his is far from being connected with them Comp.
;
!
[work]
No. Ye [who call yourselves] wrongly his sons, you who are a " This is explained by (Deut. xxxii. 5). perverse and crooked generation " The foolishness of man perverteth his way, and his Solomon, who says, " heart fretteth against the Lord (Prov. xix. 3).
?
I explain this theory in the following manner. are of three kinds :

(l)
The
evils
that befall
man
The
is
first
kind of evil
is
that which
is
caused to
man by tie
circumstance
that he
is
on
It subject to genesis and destruction, or that he possesses a body. account of the body that some persons happen to have great deformities
or paralysij of
some of the organs.
This
evil
may be
part of the natural con-
ON THE EVILS
269
or landslips. We have already shown that, in accordance with the divine wisdom, genesis can only take place through destruction, and without the
stitution of these persons, or may have developed subsequently in consequence of changes in the elements, e.g., through bad air, or thunderstorms,
destruction of the individual members of the species the species themselves would not exist permanently. Thus the true kindness, and beneficence, and goodness of God is clear. He who thinks that he can have flesh and
bones without being subject to any external influence, or any of the accidents of matter, unconsciously wishes to reconcile two opposites, viz., to be at the same time subject and not subject to change. If man were never subject
to change there could be no generation ; there would be one single being, but no individuals forming a species. Galen, in the third section of his book,
The Use of the Limbs, says correctly that it would be in vain to expect to see Hying beings formed of the blood of menstruous women and the semen virile, who will not die, will never feel pain, or will move perpetually, or will shine like the sun. This dictum of Galen is part of the following more general proWhatever is formed of any matter receives the most perfect form position possible in that species of matter ; in each individual case the defects are in accordance with the defects of that individual matter. The best and most perfect being that can be formed of the blood and the semen is the species of man, for as far as man's nature is known, he is living, reasonable, and mortal. It is therefore impossible that man should be free from this species of eviL You will, nevertheless, find that the evils of the above kind which befall man are very few and rare ; for you find countries that have not been flooded or burned for thousands of years ; there are thousands of men in perfect health,
:
deformed individuals are

in
number
if
a strange and exceptional occurrence, or say few you object to the term exceptional, they are not one-hun-
dredth, not even one-thousandth part of those that are perfectly normal. (2) The second class of evils comprises such evils as people cause to each
other, when, e.g., some of them use their strength against others. evils are more numerous than those of the first kind ; their causes are
These numer-
ous and
they likewise originate in ourselves, though the sufferer This kind of evil is nevertheless not widespread in any country of the whole world. It is of rare occurrence that a man plans to kill his neighbour or to rob him of his property by night. Many persons are, however, afflicted with this kind of evil in great wars ; but these are not frequent, if the whole inhabited part of the earth is taken into consideration.
;
known
himself cannot avert them.
(3)
self
The
his
third class of evils comprises those which every one causes to him-
own action. This is the largest class, and is far more numerous than the second class. It is especially of these evils that all men complain, only few men are found that do not sin against themselves by this kind of
by
Those that are afflicted with it are therefore justly blamed in the " " words of the prophet, This hath been by your means (Mai. i. 9) ; the " same is expressed in the following passage, He that doeth it destroyeth his own soul " (Prov. vi. 32). In reference to this kind of evil, Solomon says, " The foolishness of man perverteth his way " (ibid. xix. 3). In the follow" Lo, ing passage he explains also that this kind of evil is man's own work, this only have I found, that God hath made man upright, but they have " thought out many inventions (Eccles. vii. 29), and these inventions bring the
evil.
270
evils

"
upon him. The same subject is referred to in Job (v. 6), For affliction cometh not forth of the dust, neither doth trouble spring out of the ground." These words are immediately followed by the explanation that man himself " But man is born unto trouble." This is the author of this class of evils,
man's vices, such as excessive desire for eating, indulgence in these things in undue measure, or in improper manner, or partaking of bad food. This course brings diseases and The sufferings of the body in conseafflictions upon body and soul alike. First, quence of these evils are well known ; those of the soul are twofold
class of evils originates in
drinking,
and love
the soul as are the necessary consequence of changes in the body, in so far as the soul is a force residing in the body ; it has therefore been said
such
evils of
that the properties of the soul depend on the condition of the body. Secondly, the soul, when accustomed to superfluous things, acquires a strong habit of desiring things which are neither necessary for the preservation of
the individual nor for that of the species.
This desire
is
without a
limit,
whilst things which are necessary are few in number and restricted within certain limits ; but what is superfluous is without end e.g., you desire to
have your vessels of silver, but golden vessels are still better others have even vessels of sapphire, or perhaps they can be made of emerald or rubies, or any other substance that could be suggested. Those who are ignorant
:
and perverse
possesses.
in their
as
thought are constantly in trouble and pain, because
of superfluous things as a certain other person expose themselves to great dangers, e.g., by seavoyage, or service of kings, and all this for the purpose of obtaining that which is When they thus meet with the consesuperfluous and not necessary.
they cannot get
much
They
as a rule
quences of the course which they adopt, they complain of the decrees and God they begin to blame the time, and wonder at the want of justice in its changes ; that it has not enabled them to acquire great riches, with which they could buy large quantities of wine for the purpose of making themselves drunk, and numerous concubines adorned with various kind of ornaments of gold, embroidery, and jewels, for the purpose of driving themselves to voluptuousness beyond their capacities, as if the whole Universe existed exclusively for the purpose of giving pleasure to these low people. The error of the ignorant goes so far as to say that God's power is insufficient, because He has given to this Universe the properties which they imagine cause these great evils, and which do not help all evil-disposed persons to obtain the evil which they seek, and to bring their evil souls to the aim of their desires, though these, as we have shown, are really without limit. The virtuous and wise, however, see and comprehend the wisdom of God "
judgments of
All the paths of the Lord displayed in the Universe. Thus David says, are mercy and truth unto such as keep His covenant and His testimonies "
(Ps. xxv. 10).
For those who observe the nature of the Universe and the of the Law, and know their purpose, see clearly God's mercy and truth in everything ; they seek, therefore, that which the Creator intended to be the aim of man, viz., comprehension. Forced by the claims of the body, they seek also that which is necessary for the preservation of the " bread to eat and garment to clothe," and this is very little ; but they body, seek nothing superfluous with very slight exertion man can obtain it, so long as he is contented with that which is indispensable. All the difficulties
commandments
ON THE EVILS
and troubles we meet in
271
this respect are due to the desire for superfluous things ; when we seek unnecessary things, we have difficulty even in finding that which is indispensable. For the more we desire to have that which is
superfluous, the more we meet with difficulties ; our strength and possessions are spent in unnecessary things, and are wanting when required for that which
Observe how Nature proves the correctness of this assertion. necessary a thing is for living beings, the more easily it is found and the cheaper it is ; the less necessary it is, the rarer and dearer it is. E.g., air is most necessary, for if air, water, and food are indispensable to man
is
necessary.
The more
man
is
without
air a short
time he dies
whilst he can be without water

easily
a day or two. Air is also undoubtedly found more [than water]. Water is more necessary than food ; for four or five days without food, provided they have exists in every country in larger quantities than food,
and cheaper some people can be

water
;
water also
that
and
is
also cheaper.
;
The same proportion can be
noticed in the different kinds of food
which is more necessary in a certain place exists there in larger quantities and is cheaper than that which is less necessary. No intelligent person, I think, considers musk, amber, rubies, and emerald as very necessary for man except as medicines ; and they, as well as other like substances, can be replaced for this This shows the kindness of God to His purpose by herbs and minerals. His righteousness and justice as regards creatures, even to us weak beings. all animals are well known ; for in the transient world there is among the various kinds of animals no individual being distinguished from the rest of the same species by a peculiar property or an additional limb. On the contrary, all physical, psychical, and vital forces and organs that are possessed by one individual are found also in the other individuals. If any one is somehow different it is by accident, in consequence of some exception, and not by a natural property it is also a rare occurrence. There is no difference between individuals of a species in the due course of Nature ; the difference
;
This is the necesoriginates in the various dispositions of their substances. sary consequence of the nature of the substance of that species ; the nature of the species is not more favourable to one individual than to the other.
It is no wrong or injustice that one has many bags of finest myrrh and garments embroidered with gold, while another has not those things, which are not necessary for our maintenance ; he who has them has not thereby ob-
tained control over anything that could be an essential addition to his nature, but has only obtained something illusory or deceptive. The other, who does not possess that which is not wanted for his maintenance, does not miss " He that gathered much had nothing over, and anything indispensable he that gathered little had no lack they gathered every man according to " his eating (Exod. xvi. 18). This is the rule at all times and in all places ; no notice should be taken of exceptional cases, as we have explained. In these two ways you will see the mercy of God toward His creatures, how He has provided that which is required, in proper proportions, and treated all individual beings of the same species with perfect equality. In " accordance with this correct reflection the chief of the wise men says, All " " his ways are judgment All the (Deut. xxxii. 4) ; David likewise says " paths of the Lord are mercy and truth (Ps. xxv. 10) ; he also says expressly, " The Lord is good to all ; and his tender mercies are over all his works "
:
: :
272
(ibid. cxlv. 9)
;
for it is an act of great and perfect goodness that He gave us ; and the creation of the controlling faculty in animali is a proof of His mercy towards them, as has been shown by us.
existence
CHAPTER
XIII
INTELLIGENT persons are much perplexed when they inquire into the purpose of the Creation. I will now show how absurd this question is, according to each one of the different theories [above-mentioned]. An agent that acts
with intention must have a certain ulterior object in that which he performs. This is evident, and no philosophical proof is required. It is likewise evident that that which is produced with intention has passed over from non-existence It is further evident, and generally agreed upon, that the to existence. being which has absolute existence, which has never been and will never be without existence, is not in need of an agent. We have explained this beThe question, " What is the purpose thereof ? " cannot be asked fore. about anything which is not the product of an agent therefore we cannot He has not been created. ask what is the purpose of the existence of God.
;
According to these propositions it is clear that the purpose is sought for everything produced intentionally by an intelligent cause ; that is to say, a final cause must exist for everything that owes its existence to an intelligent but for that which is without a beginning, a final cause need not be being as has been stated by us. After this explanation you will understand sought, that there is no occasion to seek the final cause of the whole Universe, neither according to our theory of the Creation, nor according to the theory of For according to ArisAristotle, who assumes the Eternity of the Universe. totle, who holds that the Universe has not had a beginning, an ultimate final cause cannot be sought even for the various parts of the Universe. Thus it cannot be asked, according to his opinion, What is the final cause of the existence of the heavens ? Why are they limited by this measure or by that number ? Why is matter of this description ? What is the purpose of the
:
Aristotle considers all this existence of this species of animals or plants ? as the result of a permanent order of things. Natural Philosophy investigates
into the object of everything in Nature, but it does not treat of the ultimate final cause, of which we speak in this chapter. It is a recognized fact in Natural Philosophy that everything in Nature has its object, or its final cause,
which
nized in most species.
the most important of the four causes, though it is not easily recogAristotle repeatedly says that Nature produces nothing in vain, for every natural action has a certain object. Thus, Aristotle says that plants exist for animals ; and similarly he shows of other parts
is
of the Universe for
what purpose they
exist.
This
is still
more obvious
in
the case of the organs of animals.
The
existence of such a final cause in the
various parts of Nature has compelled philosophers to assume the existence of a primal cause apart from Nature ; it is called by Arisu.tle the intellectual or divine cause, and this cause creates one thing for the purpose of another.
Those who acknowledge the truth will accept as the best proof for the Creation the fact that everything in Nature serves a certain purpose, so that one thing exists for the benefit of another ; this fact is supported by numerous instances, and shows that there is design in Nature ; but the existence of
THE PURPOSE OF THE CREATION

design in Nature cannot be imagined unless been produced.
it
273
be assumed that Nature has
I will now return to the subject of this chapter, viz., the final cause. Aristotle has already explained that in Nature the efficient cause of a thing, its form, and its final cause are identical ; that is to say, they are one thing in
relation to the
his
whole
its
species.
E.g., the
form of Zeid produces the form of
son
Amr
[of
man]
action consists in imparting the form of the whole species to the substance of Amr, and the final cause is Amr's possession of
;
human
vidual
form.
The same argument
is
applied by Aristotle to every indi-
of a class of natural objects which is brought to existence by another individual member. The three causes coincide in all such cases. All this refers only to the immediate purpose of a thing ; but the existence of an ultimate purpose in every species, which is considered as absolutely necessary by every one who investigates into the nature of things, is very
difficult to discover
:
member
and
whole Universe.
I infer
still more difficult is it to find the purpose of the from the words of Aristotle that according to his
opinion the ultimate purpose of the genera is the preservation of the course of genesis and destruction ; and this course is absolutely necessary [in the first instance] for the successive formation of material objects, because individual beings formed of matter are not permanent ; [secondly], for the production of the best and the most perfect beings that can be formed of matter, because the ultimate purpose [in these productions] is to arrive at perfection.
that man is the most perfect being formed of matter ; he is and most perfect of earthly beings, and in this respect it can truly be said that all earthly things exist for man, i.e., that the changes which things undergo serve to produce the most perfect being that can be produced. Aristotle, who assumes the Eternity of the Universe, need therefore not ask to what purpose does man exist, for the immediate purpose of each individual
it is clear
Now
the
last
being is, according to his opinion, the perfection of its specific form. Every individual thing arrives at its perfection fully and completely when the actions that produce its form are complete. The ultimate purpose of the species is the perpetuation of this form by the repeated succession of genesis and depossible perfection.
struction, so that there might always be a being capable of the greatest It seems therefore clear that, according to Aristotle, who assumes the Eternity of the Universe, there is no occasion for the ques-
what is the object of the existence of the Universe. But of those who accept our theory that the whole Universe has been created from nothing, some hold that the inquiry after the purpose of the Creation is necessary, and assume that the Universe was only created for the sake of man's existence,
tion
that he might serve God. Everything that is done they believe is done for man's sake ; even the spheres move only for his benefit, in order that his
wants might be supplied. The literal meaning of some passages in the books " of the prophets greatly support this idea. Comp. He formed it (viz.. the " " If my covenant of day and night earth) to be inhabited (Isa. xlv. 1 8) were not," etc. (Jer.xxxiii.25); "And spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in"
;
(Isa. xl. 22).
If the
this
this
be the case with

opinion
shall discover
sphere existed for the sake of man, how much more must all other On examining living beings and the plants.
persons ought to examine
it
all
as intelligent
different opinions,
this view,
we
the errors
includes.
Those who hold
namely,
274

God man
that the existence of
whether whether
man is the object of the whole creation, may be asked could have created man without those previous creations, or could only have come into existence after the creation of all If they answer in the affirmative, that man could have been other things. created even if, e.g., the heavens did not exist, they will be asked what is the
object of all these things, since they do not exist for their own sake but for Even if the Universe the sake of something that could exist without them ? existed for man's sake and man existed for the purpose of serving God, as has
been mentioned, the question remains, What is the end of serving God ? He does not become more perfect if all His creatures serve Him and comprehend Him as far as possible ; nor would He lose anything if nothing exIt might perhaps be replied that the service of God is not isted beside Him. intended for God's perfection ; it is intended for our own perfection, it is good for us, it makes us perfect. But then the question might be repeated, What is the object of our being perfect ? We must in continuing the inquiry as to the purpose of the creation at last arrive at the answer, It was the Will of God, or His Wisdom decreed it ; and this is the correct The wise men in Israel have, therefore, introduced in our answer.
prayers (for Ne'ilah of the " Thou hast distinguished
;
Day of Atonement) the following passage man from the beginning, and chosen him who can say unto Thee, What dost Thou ? to stand before Thee And if he be righteous, what does he give Thee ? " They have thus clearly
:
stated that it was not a final cause that determined the existence of all things, but only His will. This being the case, we who believe in the Creation must admit that God could have created the Universe in a different manner as regards the causes and effects contained in it, and this would lead to the absurd conclusion that everything except man existed without any purpose, as the principal object, man, could have been brought into existence without I consider therefore the following opinion as most the rest of the creation. correct according to the teaching of the Bible, and best in accordance with the results of philosophy namely, that the Universe does not exist for man's sake, but that each being exists for its own sake, and not because of some other thing. Thus we believe in the Creation, and yet need not inquire
;
what purpose
assume that
is
God
created
served by each species of the existing things, because we all some for their parts of the Universe by His will
;
for the sake of other beings, that include their own purIn the same manner as it was the will of God that man in themselves. pose should exist, so it was His will that the heavens with their stars should exist,
sake,
own
and some
is itself the purpose of its anything can only exist provided some other thing has previously existed, God has caused the latter to precede it as, e.g., We meet also with this view in Scripsensation precedes comprehension. " ture The Lord hath made everything (la-ma'anehu) for its pur-
that there should be angels, and each of these beings

existence.
own
When
It is possible that the pronoun in la-maanehu refers (Prov. xvi. 4). pose to the object ; but it can also be considered as agreeing with the subject ; in which case the meaning of the word is, for the sake of Himself, or His will
"
which is identical with His self [or essence], as has been shown in this treatise. We have also pointed out that His essence is also called His glory. The " words, The Lord hath made everything for Himself," express therefore the

same idea
as
275
:
" I Everything that is called by my name " have formed it ; yea, I have made it (Isa. my xliii. that is to say, everything that is described as My work has been 7) made by Me for the sake of My will and for no other purpose. The words, " " I have made it," express exactly what I pointed out I have formed it,"
the following verse,
it
have created
;
for
glory, I
to you, that there are things whose existence is only possible after certain other things have come into existence. To these reference is made in the
formed the first thing which must have preceded the matter has been formed before the production of material I have then made out of that previous creation, or after it, what I beings intended to produce, and there was nothing but My will. Study the book which leads all who want to be led to the truth, and is therefore called Torah (Law or Instruction), from the beginning of the account of the Creation to
text, as
if
to say, I have
e.g.,
other things,
;
end, and you will comprehend the opinion which we attempt to expound. For no part of the creation is described as being in existence for the sake of another part, but each part is declared to be the product of God's will, and This is expressed to satisfy by its existence the intention [of the Creator]. " And God saw that it was good " (Gen. i. 4, etc.). You by the phrase, " know our interpretation of the saying of our Sages, Scripture speaks the " " that which is in same language as is spoken by man." But we call good accordance with the object we seek. When therefore Scripture relates in " And God saw all that He had reference to the whole creation (Gen. i. 31), made, and behold it was exceedingly good," it declares thereby that everything created was well fitted for its object, and would never cease to act, and never be annihilated. This is especially pointed out by the word "exceed" for sometimes a thing is temporarily good ; it serves its purpose, ; ingly and then it fails and ceases to act. But as regards the Creation it is said that everything was fit for its purpose, and able continually to act accordingly. You must not be misled by what is stated of the stars [that God put them in the firmament of the heavens] to give light upon the earth, and to rule by day and by night. You might perhaps think that here the purpose of their This is not the case ; we are only informed of the creation is described. nature of the stars, which God desired to create with such properties that they should be able to give light and to rule. In a similar manner we must " And have dominion over the fish of the sea " (ibid. understand the passage, Here it is not meant to i. 28). say that man was created for this purpose, but only that this was the nature which God gave man. But as to the statement in Scripture that God gave the plants to man and other living It is beings, it agrees with the opinion of Aristotle and other philosophers. also reasonable to assume that the plants exist only for the benefit of the It is different with the animals, since the latter cannot live without food. stars, they do not exist only for our sake, that we should enjoy their good " " and " " influence ; for the expressions to give light to rule merely describe, as we have stated above, the benefit which the creatures on earth derive from them. I have already explained to you the character of that influence that causes continually the good to descend from one being to anits
other.
To
as if
those
who
receive the
appear
the being existed for
and kindness unto them.
good flowing down upon them, it may them alone that sends forth its goodness Thus some citizen may imagine that it was for
276
chosen.
the purpose of protecting his house by night from thieves that the king was To some extent this is correct ; for when his house is protected, and
this benefit
it
through the king whom the country had chosen, were the object of the king to protect the house of that man. In this manner we must explain every verse, the literal meaning of which would imply that something superior was created for the sake of somehe has derived
appears as
if it
thing inferior, viz., that it is part of the nature of the superior thing [to remain firm in our belief influence the inferior in a certain manner].
We
that the whole Universe was created in accordance with the will of God, and we do not inquire for any other cause or object. Just as we do not ask what
is
the purpose of God's existence, so we do not ask what was the object of will, which is the cause of the existence of all things with their present properties, both those that have been created and those that will be created. You must not be mistaken and think that the spheres and the angels were
His
Our position has already been pointed out to us, " Now compare Behold, the nations are as a drop of a bucket (Isa. xl. 15). own essence with that of the the and the stars, your spheres, Intelligences, and you will comprehend the truth, and understand that man is superior to
created for our sake.
"
everything formed of earthly matter, but not to other beings ; he is found exceedingly inferior when his existence is compared with that of the spheres, and a fortiori when compared with that of the Intelligences. Comp. " Be-
and his messengers he charged with hold, he putteth no trust in his servants folly : how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay, whose foundation
:
is
in the dust,
which are crushed before the moth
"
expression
his servants,"
beings ; this may " dwell in houses of clay ? The " servants " referred to in this place are " " his messengers the angels ; whilst by the term the spheres are undoubtedly meant. Eliphas himself, who uttered the above words, explains
? (Job iv. 1 8, 19). The occurring in this passage, does not denote human " be inferred from the words, How much less in them that
"
this [in the second speech] when he refers to it in one of his replies in other' " words, saying, Behold, he putteth no trust in his iholy ones ; yea, the heavens are not clean in his sight, how much more abominable and filthy is " He thus shows man, who drinketh iniquity like water (ibid. xv. 15, 16). " " and " his " are ones that his servants identical, and that they are holy " his messengers," mentioned in the first not human beings ; also that " are the same as the The term " folly " is explained by heavens." passage, " the phrase they are not clean in his sight," i.e., they are material ; although their substance is the purest and the most luminous, compared with " the Intelligences it appears dark, turbid, and impure. The phrase, Behe in his is in no trust reference to the servants," hold, employed putteth angels, indicating that these do not possess perpetual existence, since, as we believe, they have had a beginning ; and even according to those who assume the Eternity of the Universe, the existence of the angels is at all events depen-
dent on and therefore inferior to, the absolute existence of God. The words, " How much more abominable and filthy is man," in the one passage, corres-
pond
to the phrase
"
How much less in
those
:
who
dwell in houses of clay
"
in
Their meaning is this How much less in man who is abominable and filthy, in whose person crookedness or corporeality is mixed " " ('avlah) is identical with up and spread through all his parts. Iniquity
the other passage.

" "
277
" sometimes expressed in Scripture by ish. Comp. He who smiteth " and xxi. he die (ish) 12). (Exod. This must be our belief when we have a correct knowledge of our own self, and comprehend the true nature of everything we must be content, and not trouble our mind with seeking a certain final cause for things that have none, or have no other final cause but their own existence, which depends on the Will of God, or, if you prefer, on the Divine Wisdom.
sense
a
is
In the land of upcrookedness," as may be inferred from the passage, " " man," is here (Isa. xxvi. 10), and ish, rightness he will act with iniquity " human being " ; for " man " in a general used in the same sense as adam,
man
CHAPTER XIV
IN order to obtain a correct estimate of ourselves, we must reflect on the which have been made into the dimensions and the distances of the spheres and the stars. The distances are clearly stated in radii of the earth, and are well known, since the circumference and the It has been proved that the distance between radius of the earth are known. the centre of the earth and the outer surface of the sphere of Saturn is a journey of nearly eight thousand seven hundred solar years. Suppose a day's journey to be forty legal miles of two thousand ordinary cubits, and consider the great and enormous distance or in the words of Scripture, " Is not God in the height of heaven ? and behold the height of the stars, how high they are " (Job xxii. 12) that is to say, learn from the height of the heavens how far we are from comprehending God, for there is an enormous distance between ourselves and these corporeal objects, and the latter are greatly distinguished from us by their position, and hidden from us as
results of the investigations
! ! ;
How much more incomregards their essence and most of their actions. The great disprehensible therefore is their Maker, who is incorporeal
!
tance which has been proved is, in fact, the least that can be assumed. The distance between the centre of the earth and the surface of the sphere of the
by no means be less, but it may possibly be many times as measure of the thickness of the body of the spheres has not been proved, and the least possible has been assumed, as appears from the The same is the case with the substances which treatises On the Distances. are between every two spheres. According to logical inference, as has been mentioned by Thabit, the thickness of these substances cannot be accurately stated, since they do not contain any star, which might serve as a means of obtaining it. As to the thickness of the sphere of the fixed stars, it is at least four years' journey, as may be inferred from the measure of the stars contained in the sphere. The body of each of these stars is more than ninety times as big as the globe of the earth, and it is possible that the thickness of
fixed stars can
;
great
for the
the sphere is still greater. Of the ninth sphere, that causes the daily revolution of the whole system of spheres, we do not know the dimensions ; it contains no stars, and therefore we have no means of finding out its magnitude.
Now consider the enormous dimensions and the large number of these
!
material beings. If the whole earth is infinitely small in comparison with the sphere of the stars, what is man compared with all these created beings
How,
then, could any one of us imagine that these things exist for his sake
278
and benefit, and that they are his tools ! This is the result of an examination of the corporeal beings : how much more so will this be the result of an examination into the nature of the Intelligences !
asked against the opinion of philosophers a philosophical point of view it would be a mistake to assume that the spheres exist for the purpose of regulating the fate of one individual person or community ; but it is not
The
following question
:
may be
on
this subject
There
is
no doubt that from
absurd to think that they serve to regulate the
affairs of mankind, since these mighty individual beings would serve to give existence to the individual
members
simile
:
of the species, the
number
will never
come
to an end.
We
of which, according to the philosophers, can best illustrate this by the following
tools of a hundred-weight for the purpose of weight of a grain. If only one needle had to be produced, we admit that it would certainly be bad management, though it but if with those enormous tools needle would not be entirely a failure after needle is produced, even many hundred-weights of needles, the prea wise act and excellent management. In paration of those tools would be a similar manner the object of the spheres may be the continuance of succes-
An
artisan
makes iron
making
a small needle of the
sive genesis and destruction ; and the succession of genesis and destruction This idea is serves, as has already been said, to give existence to mankind.
The philosopher supported by Biblical texts and sayings [of our Sages]. the difference between the heavenly bodies and the tranmembers of the species consisted in their different sizes, this opinion could be maintained ; but as the difference consists in their essence, it remains improbable that the superior beings should be the means In short, this question supports our of giving existence to the lower ones. belief in the Creation ; and this is the principal object of this chapter. [It I frequently hear from those who know serves] besides [a second purpose]. something about astronomy, that our Sages exaggerated the distances [of the heavenly bodies] when they said that the thickness of each sphere is five hundred years' journey ; the distance of the seven spheres from each other five hundred years' journey, so that the distance of the outer surface of the seventh sphere from the centre of the earth is seven thousand years' journey.
If replies thus : sient individual
Those who hear such statements consider them [at first thought] as exaggerBut you may ascertain ation, and believe that the distance is not so great. from the data proved in scientific treatises on the distances, that the centre of the earth is distant from the inner surface of the seventh sphere, that of Saturn, nearly seven thousand and twenty-four years' journey. The number eight thousand and seven hundred given by us, refers to the distance of the centre of the earth from the inner surface of the eighth sphere. The distance of the spheres from each other, mentioned by astronomers, is identical with the thickness of the substance that intervenes between one sphere and the other, and does not imply that there is a vacuum. You must, however,
not expect that everything our Sages say respecting astronomical matters should agree with observation, for mathematics were not fully developed in those days ; and their statements were not based on the authority of the
Prophets, but on the knowledge which they either themselves possessed or derived from contemporary men of science. But I will not on that account
denounce what they say correctly in accordance with
real fact, as
untrue or

accidentally true.
279
On the contrary, whenever the words of a person can be interpreted in such a manner that they agree with fully established facts, it is the duty of every educated and honest man to do so.
.
CHAPTER XV
THAT which
is impossible has a permanent and constant property, which is not the result of some agent, and cannot in any way change, and consequently we do not ascribe to God the power of doing what is impossible. No thinking man denies the truth of this maxim none ignore it, but such as have no idea of Logic. There is, however, a difference of opinion among
;
Some philosophers with reference to the existence of any particular thing. of them consider its existence to be impossible, and hold that God cannot
produce the thing in question, whilst others think that it is possible, and that God can create it if He pleases to do so. E.g., all philosophers consider that it is impossible for one substratum to have at the same moment two opposite properties, or for the elementary components of a thing, substance and accident, to interchange, so that the substance becomes accident, and the accident becomes substance, or for a material substance to be without accident.
Likewise
it is
impossible that
God
should produce a being
like
Himself, or
The power of God is not assumed annihilate, corporify, or change Himself. to extend to any of these impossibilities. But the existence of accidents independent of substance is possible according to one class of philosophers,
the Mutazilah, whilst according to others it is impossible ; it must, however, be added that those who admit the existence of an accident independent of substance, have not arrived at this conclusion by philosophical research alone but it was mainly by the desire to defend certain religious principles, which In a speculation had greatly shaken, that they had recourse to this theory. similar manner the creation of corporeal things, otherwise than from a substance, is possible according to our view, whilst the philosophers say that it
;
is
impossible.
Again, whilst philosophers say that
it is
impossible to produce
a square with a diagonal equal to one of the sides, or a solid angle that includes four right angles, or similar things, it is thought possible by some
persons who are ignorant of mathematics, and who only know the words of these propositions, but have no idea of that which is expressed by them. I
wonder whether this gate of research is open, so that all may freely enter, and whilst one imagines a thing and considers it possible, another is at liberty to assert that such a thing is impossible by its very nature ; or whether the gate is closed and guarded by certain rules, so that we are able to decide with I should also like to know, certainty whether a thing is physically impossible. in the latter case, whether imagination or reason has to examine and test likewise how things imagined, and objects as to their being possible or not things conceived intellectually, are to be distinguished from each other. For it occurs that we consider a thing as physically possible, and then some one objects, or we ourselves fear that our opinion is only the result of imagination, and not that of reason. In such a case it would be desirable to ascertain whether there exists some faculty to distinguish between imagination and intellect, [and if so,] whether this faculty is different from both, or whether it is part of the intellect itself to distinguish between intellectual and imagin;
280
ary objects.

All this requires investigation,
but
it
does not belong to the
theme
of this chapter.
have thus shown that according to each one of the different theories there are things which are impossible, whose existence cannot be admitted, and whose creation is excluded from the power of God, and the assumption
that
We
God
does not change their nature does not imply weakness in God, or a
Consequently things impossible remain impossible, and do not depend on the action of an agent. It is now clear that a difference of opinion exists only as to the question to which of the two classes a thing whether to the class of the impossible, or to that of the possible. belongs
limit to His power.
;
Note
'
it.
CHAPTER XVI
THE
philosophers have uttered very perverse ideas as regards God's
;
Omni-
they have stumbled in such a manner that they cannot rise again, nor can those who adopt their views. I will further on tell you the doubts that led them to these perverse utterances on this question ; and I will also tell you the opinion which is taught by our religion, and which differs from the evil and wrong principles of the philosophers as regards God's Omniscience. The principal reason that first induced the philosophers to adopt their at first thought we notice an absence of system in human theo.ry is this affairs. Some pious men live a miserable and painful life, whilst some wicked people enjoy a happy and pleasant life. On this account the philosophers assumed as possible the cases which you will now hear. They said that only
science of everything beside Himself
:
one of two things is possible, either God is ignorant of the individual or particular things on earth, and does not perceive them, or He perceives and knows them. These are all the cases possible. They then continued thus If He perceives and knows all individual things, one of the following three cases must take place (i) God arranges and manages human affairs well, (2) He is overcome by obstacles, and is too weak perfectly and faultlessly and powerless to manage human affairs ; (3) He knows [all things] and can arrange and manage them, but leaves and abandons them, as too base, low, and vile, or from jealousy as we may also notice among ourselves some who are able to make another person happy, well knowing what he wants for his happiness, and still in consequence of their evil disposition, their wickedness and jealousy against him, they do not help him to his happiness. This is likewise a complete enumeration of all possible cases. For those who have
: :
knowledge of a certain thing necessarily either (i) take care of the thing which they know, and manage it, or (2) neglect it (as we, e.g., neglect and or (3) while forget the cats in our house, or things of less importance) taking care of it, have not sufficient power and strength for its management, although they have the will to do so. Having enumerated these different
a
;
cases,
[as
the philosophers emphatically decided that of the three cases possible the management of a thing] by one who knows that to God want of viz., thing], two are inadmissible in reference
regards
power,
or
absence
of
will
tion or weakness, neither of
because they imply either evil disposiwhich can by any means be attributed to
GOD'S OMNISCIENCE
Him.
281
Consequently there remains only the alternative that God is altogether ignorant of human affairs, or that He knows them and manages them well. Since we, however, notice that events do not follow a certain order, that they cannot be determined by analogy, and are not in accordance with what is wanted, we conclude that God has no knowledge of them in any way or for any reason. This is the argument which led the philosophers to speak such blasphemous words. In the treatise On Providence, by Alexander Aphrodisiensis, you will find the same as I have said about the different views of the philosophers, and as I have stated as to the source of their error. You must notice with surprise that the evil into which these philosophers have fallen is greater than that from which they sought to escape, and that they ignore the very thing which they constantly pointed out and explained to us. They have fallen into a greater evil than that from which they sought
to escape, because they refuse to say that and yet they maintain that His knowledge
of
God
is
is going on here on earth, that He what they constantly point out to us, in as much as they judge the whole universe by that which befalls individual men, although, according to their own view, frequently stated and explained, the evils of man originate in himself, or form part of his material nature. We have already discussed this sufficiently. After having laid this foundation, which is the ruin of all good principles, and destroys the majesty of all true knowledge, they sought to remove the opprobrium by declaring that for many reasons it is impossible
what
neglects or forgets a thing, imperfect, that He is ignorant does not perceive it. They also
ignore,
God should have a knowledge of earthly things, for the individual members of a species can only be perceived by the senses, and not by reason ; but God does not perceive by means of any of the senses. Again, the individuals
that
are infinite, but knowledge comprehends and circumscribes the object of its action, and the infinite cannot be comprehended or circumscribed ; further-
more, knowledge of individual beings, that are subject to change, necessitates some change in him who possesses it, because this knowledge itself changes constantly. They have also raised the following two objections against those who hold, in accordance with the teaching of Scripture, that God knows First, this theory implies that there things before they come into existence.
can be knowledge of a thing that does not exist at all ; secondly, it leads to the conclusion that the knowledge of an object in potentia is identical with the knowledge of that same object in reality. They have indeed come to very evil conclusions, and some of them assumed that God only knows the species, not the individual beings, whilst others went as far as to contend that God knows nothing beside Himself, because they believe that God cannot have more than one knowledge. Some of the great philosophers who lived before Aristotle agree with us, that God knows everything, and that nothing is hidden from Him. Alexander also refers to them in the above-mentioned treatise ; he differs from them, and says that the principal objection against this theory is based on
the fact that
happiness.
we
clearly see evils befalling
good men, and wicked men enjoying
In short, you see that if these philosophers would find human affairs managed according to rules laid down by the common people, they would not venture or presume to speak on this subject. They are only led to this
282
speculation because they examine the affairs of the good and the wicked, and consider them as being contrary to all rule, and say in the words of the foolish " in our nation, The way of the Lord is not right " (Ezek. xxxiii. 17).
After having shown that knowledge and Providence are connected with each other, I will now proceed to expound the opinions of thinkers on Providence, and then I shall attempt to remove their doubts as to God's knowledge of individual beings.
CHAPTER XVII
THERE
all
are
five different theories
concerning Divine Providence
they are
ancient, known since the time of the Prophets, when the true Law was revealed to enlighten these dark regions. First Theory. There is no Providence at all for anything in the Universe ; parts of the Universe, the heavens and what they contain, owe their origin to accident and chance ; there exists no being that rules and governs them or provides for them. This is the theory of Epicurus, who assumes also that
all
the Universe consists of atoms, that these have combined by chance, and have received their various forms by mere accident. There have been atheists
of
among the Israelites who have expressed the same view it is reported them " They have denied the Lord, and said he is not " (Jer. v. 12).
;
:
whole Universe could have originated by chance ; he has shown that, on the contrary, there We have already touched is a being that rules and governs the Universe. upon this subject in the present treatise.
Aristotle has proved the absurdity of the theory, that the
Second Theory. Whilst one part of the Universe owes its existence to Providence, and is under the control of a ruler and governor, another part is abandoned and left to chance. This is the view of Aristotle about ProviHe holds that God controls dence, and I will now explain to you his theory.
the spheres and what they contain : therefore the individual beings in the Alexander has also exspheres remain permanently in the same form. pressed it in his writings that Divine Providence extends down to, and ends
with, the sphere of the moon. This view results from his theory of the Eternity of the Universe ; he believes that Providence is in accordance with
the nature of the Universe : consequently in the case of the spheres with where each individual being has a permanent existence, Providence gives permanency and constancy. From the existence of the
their contents,
spheres other beings derive existence, which are constant in their species but not in their individuals : in the same manner it is said that Providence sends
forth [from the spheres to the earth] sufficient influence to secure the immortality and constancy of the species, without securing at the same time permanence for the individual beings of the species. But the individual beings
been entirely abandoned, that portion of the materia prima which has been purified and refined, and has received the faculty of growth, is endowed with properties that enable it to exist a certain time, to That portion of the attract what is useful and to repel what is useless. materia prima which has been subject to a further development, and has received the faculty of sensation, is endowed with other properties for its protection and preservation ; it has a new faculty of moving freely toward
in each species have not
DIVINE PROVIDENCE
that which
being.
283
is conducive to, and away from that which is contrary to its wellEach individual being received besides such properties as are required for the preservation of the species to which it belongs. The portion of the materia prima which is still more refined, and is endowed with the intellectual faculty, possesses a special property by which each individual,
according to the degree of his perfection, is enabled to manage, to calculate, and to discover what is conducive both to the temporary existence of the All other movements, individual and to the preservation of the species.
however, which are made by the individual members of each species are due to accident they are not, according to Aristotle, the result of rule and management ; e.g., when a storm or gale blows, it causes undoubtedly some leaves of a tree to drop, breaks off some branches of another tree, tears away a stone from a heap of stones, raises dust over herbs and spoils them, and stirs up the sea so that a ship goes down with the whole or part of her con;
tents. Aristotle sees no difference between the falling of a leaf or a stone and the death of the good and noble people in the ship nor does he distinguish between the destruction of a multitude of ants caused by an ox depositing on them his excrement and the death of worshippers killed by the fall of the house when its foundations give way ; nor does he discriminate between the case of a cat killing a mouse that happens to come in her way, or that of a spider catching a fly, and that of a hungry lion meeting a prophet and tearing
;
him.
management which
In short, the opinion of Aristotle is this Everything is the result of is constant, which does not come to an end and does not
:
change any of its properties, as e.g., the heavenly beings, and everything which continues according to a certain rule, and deviates from it only rarely and exceptionally, as is the case in objects of Nature. All these are the result of management, i.e., in a close relation to Divine Providence. But that which is not constant, and does not follow a certain rule, as e.g., incidents in the existence of the individual beings in each species of plants or animals, whether rational or irrational, is due to chance and not to management it is in no relation to Divine Providence. Aristotle holds that it is even imThis possible to ascribe to Providence the management of these things. view is closely connected with his theory of the Eternity of the Universe, and with his opinion that everything different from the existing order of It is the belief of those who turned away things in Nature is impossible. " from our Law, and said God hath forsaken the earth " (Ezek. ix. 9). Third Theory. This theory is the reverse of the second. According to this theory, there is nothing in the whole Universe, neither a class nor an individual being, that is due to chance; everything is the result of will, It is a matter of course that he who rules must know intention, and rule. The Mohammedan Ashariyah adhere to [that which is under his control]. this theory, notwithstanding evident absurdities implied in it ; for they admit that Aristotle is correct in assuming one and the same cause [viz., the wind] for the fall of leaves [from the tree] and for the death of a man [drowned in the sea]. But they hold at the same time that the wind did not blow by chance it is God that caused it to move ; it is not therefore the wind that caused the leaves to fall each leaf falls according to the Divine decree ; it is God who caused it to fall at a certain time and in a certain it could place not have fallen before or after that time or in another place, as this has pre;
:
284
viously been decreed. The Ashariyah were therefore compelled to assume that motion and rest of living beingi are predestined, and that it is not in the power of man to do a certain thing or to leave it undone. The theory further
implies a denial of possibility in these things ; they can only be either necesThe followers of this theory accepted also the lastsary or impossible, mentioned proposition, and say, that we call certain things possible, as e.g.,
the facts that Zeid stands, and that
Amr
is
coming
but they are only
possible for us, whilst in their relation to God they cannot be called possible ; they are either necessary or impossible. It follows also from this theory, that precepts are perfectly useless, since the people to any law is given
whom
are unable to
do anything they can neither do what they are commanded nor abstain from what they are forbidden. The supporters of this theory
:
was the will of God to send prophets, to command, to forbid, and to threaten, although we have no power [over our actions]. A duty would thus be imposed upon us which is impossible for us to carry out, and it is even possible that we may suffer punishment when obeying the command and receive reward when disobeying it. According to this theory, All it must also be assumed that the actions of God have no final cause.
hold that
it
to promise,
these absurdities are admitted

this theory.
by the Ashariyah
for the purpose of saving
see a person born blind or leprous, who could not have merited a punishment for previous sins, they say, It is the will of God ;
When we
when
and no
a pious worshipper is tortured injustice can be asserted to
and slain, it is likewise the will of God Him for that, for according to their opinion
;
it is proper that God should afflict the innocent and do good to the sinner. Their views on these matters are well known.
Fourth Theory.
Man
has free will
it is
therefore intelligible that the
Law
in
contains
commands and
and punishment. Him, and He does not afflict the good. The Mu'tazila profess this theory, although they do not believe in man's absolute free will. They hold also that God takes notice of the falling of the leaf and the destruction of the ant, and that His Providence extends over all things. This theory likewise imand absurdities. The absurdities are these The fact plies contradictions that some persons are born with defects, although they have not sinned pre:
prohibitions, with announcements of reward All acts of God are due to wisdom ; no injustice is found
viously, is ascribed to the wisdom of God, it being better for those persons to be in such a condition than to be in a normal state, though we do not see why
better ; and they do not suffer thereby any punishment at all, but, on the contrary, enjoy God's goodness. In a similar manner the slaughter of the pious is explained as being for them the source of an increase of reward in future life. They go even further in their absurdities. We ask them
it is
is God only just to man and not to other beings, and how has the irrational animal sinned, that it is condemned to be slaughtered ? and they reply it is good for the animal, for it will receive reward for it in the world to
why
come
also the ; untimely death
flea
:
and the louse
will there receive
compensation for their
or vulture
the same reasoning they apply to the mouse torn by a cat the wisdom of God decreed this for the mouse, in order to re-
ward
followers of
death for the mishap. I do not consider it proper to blame the any of the Past named] three theories on Providence, for they have been driven to accept them by weighty considerations. Aristotle was
it
after
DIVINE PROVIDENCE
285
guided by that which appears to be the nature of things. The Ashariyah refused to ascribe to God ignorance about anything, and to say that God whilst knowing one individual being or one portion of the Universe is ignorant of another portion ; they preferred to admit the above-mentioned absurThe Mu'tazilites refused to assume that God does what is wrong dities. and unjust ; on the other hand, they would not contradict common sense and say that it was not wrong to inflict pain on the guiltless, or that the
They
mission of the Prophets and the giving of the Law had no intelligible reason. But they likewise preferred to admit the above-named absurdities.
even contradicted themselves, because they believe on the one hand that
God knows everything, and on the other that consideration we discover the contradiction.
[first]
man
has free will.
By
a little
This is our theory, or that of our Law. I will show you Fifth Theory. the view expressed on this subject in our prophetical books, and generI will then give the opinion of some later authors ally accepted by our Sages.
us,
explain my own belief. The theory of man's one of the fundamental principles of the Law of our Teacher Moses, and of those who follow the Law. According to this principle man does what is in his power to do, by his nature, his choice, and his will and his action is not due to any faculty created for the purpose. All This is the species of irrational animals likewise move by their own free will. Will of God that is to say, it is due to the eternal divine will that all living beings should move freely, and that man should have power to act according
among
and
lastly, I will
is
perfectly free will
to his will or choice within the limits of his capacity. Against this principle we hear, thank God, no opposition on the part of our nation. Another fun-
damental principle taught by the Law of Moses is this Wrong cannot be ascribed to God in any way whatever ; all evils and afflictions as well as all kinds of happiness of man, whether they concern one individual person or a
:
community, are distributed according to justice ; they are the result of strict judgment that admits no wrong whatever. Even when a person suffers pain
in consequence of a thorn having entered into his hand, although it is at once drawn out, it is a punishment that has been inflicted on him [for sin], and
the least pleasure he enjoys
meted out by ment " (Deut.
strict justice
now fully explained to you ; everything in the varying human affairs is due to chance, according to Aristotle, to the Divine Will alone according to the Ashariyah, to Divine Wisdom according to the It is therefore Mu'tazilites, to the merits of man according to our opinion.
pious
inflicts pain on a good and possible, according to the Ashariyah, that man in this world, and keeps him for ever in fire, which is assumed to
The
xxxii. 4) ; we different theories are
[for some good action] ; all this is " all his said in Scripture, ways are judgare only ignorant of the working of that judgment.
is
reward
as
is
God
rage in the world to come ; they simply say it is the Will of God. Mu'tazilites would consider this as injustice, and therefore assume
The
that
every being, even an ant, that is stricken with pain [in this world], has comand it is due to God's Wispensation for it, as has been mentioned above dom that a being is struck and afflicted in order to receive compensation.
;
We, however,
far
believe that all these human affairs are managed with justice ; from God to do wrong, to punish any one unless the punishment is It is distinctly stated in the Law, that all is done in necessary and merited.
be
it
286

;
and same idea. They clearly say without transgression." (B. T. are meted out to him in the These (Mish. Sotah, i. 7.)
accordance with justice
:
the words of our Sages generally express the
There is no death without sin, no sufferings " The deserts of man Shabbath, 55#.) Again, same measure which he himself employs." are the words of the Mishnah. Our Sages
"
implies justice
wherever opportunity is given, that the idea of God necessarily that He will reward the most pious for all their pure and upright actions, although no direct commandment was given them through a prophet ; and that He will punish all the evil deeds of men, although they have not been prohibited by a prophet, if common sense warns against " God does not them, as e.g., injustice and violence. Thus our Sages say " full of the reward its (B. T. Pes. Il8) good deed] [of deprive any being " He who says that God remits part of a punishment, will be punished again, (B. T. severely ; He is long-suffering, but is sure to exact payment." " He who has received a commandBaba K. 50^.) Another saying is this ment and acts accordingly is not like him who acts in the same manner without " being commanded to do so (B. T. Kidd. 310) ; and it is distinctly added that he who does a good thing without being commanded, receives nevertheThe same principle is expressed in all sayings of our Sages. less his reward. But they contain an additional doctrine which is not found in the Law viz., " afflictions of love," as taught by some of our Sages. the doctrine of to doctrine it is possible that a person be afflicted without this According having previously committed any sin, in order that his future reward may be increased a view which is held by the Mu'tazilites, but is not supported by the accounts of trials, such as by any Scriptural text. Be not misled " " He afflicted thee and made thee God tried Abraham " (Gen. xxii. i) hungry," etc. (Deut. viii. 3) for you will hear more on this subject later on Our Law is only concerned with the relations of men ; but (chap. xxiv.).
declare
it
; :
:
been heard of in our nation

notice
it
;
the idea that irrational living beings should receive a reward, has never before the wise men mentioned in the Talmud do not ;
heard
only some of the later Geonim were pleased with it when they from the sect of the Mu'tazilites, and accepted it. My opinion on this principle of Divine Providence I will now explain to you. In the principle which I now proceed to expound I do not rely on demonstrative proof, but on my conception of the spirit of the Divine Law, and the writings of the Prophets. The principle which I accept is far less open to objections, and is more reasonable than the opinions mentioned before.
it
:
It is this In the lower or sublunary portion of the Universe Divine Providence does not extend to the individual members of species except in the case It is only in this species that the incidents in the existence of of mankind. the individual beings, their good and evil fortunes, are the result of justice, " in accordance with the words, For all His ways are judgment." But I agree with Aristotle as regards all other living beings, and a fortiori as regards For I do not believe that it is plants and all the rest of earthly creatures. through the interference of Divine Providence that a certain leaf drops [from a tree], nor do I hold that when a certain spider catches a certain fly, that
it is
the direct result of a special decree and will of God in that moment not by a particular Divine decree that the spittle of a certain person moved, fell on a certain gnat in a certain place, and killed it ; nor is it by the
this
is
;
DIVINE PROVIDENCE
direct will of
287
God
that a certain fish catches and swallows a certain

all
worm
on the surface of the water. In opinion, entirely due to chance,

is
these cases the action
is,
as taught by Aristotle. connected with Divine intellectual influence, and the same beings which
according to my Divine Providence
are benefited
by the
latter so as to
become
intellectual,
and to comprehend
comprehensible to rational beings, are also under the control of Divine Providence, which examines all their deeds in order to reward or punish them. It may be by mere chance that a ship goes down with all her contents, as in the above-mentioned instance, or the roof of a house falls upon those within ; but it is not due to chance, according to our view, that in the one instance the men went into the ship, or remained in the house in the other instance it is due to the will of God, and is in accordance with the justice of His judgments, the method of which okr mind is incapable of understanding. I have been induced to accept this theory by the circumstance that I have not met in any of the prophetical books with a description of God's Providence otherwise than in relation to human beings. The prophets even express their surprise that God should take notice of man, who is too little and too unimportant to be worthy of the attention of the Creator ; how, then, should other living creatures be considered as proper " What is man, that thou takest objects for Divine Providence Comp. " " him What is man, that thou art mindful of ? cxliv. (Ps. 3) ; knowledge " It is clearly expressed in many Scriptural passages of him ? (ibid. viii. 8). " He fashthat God provides for all men, and controls all their deeds e.g., " ioneth their hearts alike, he considereth all their works (ibid, xxxiii. 15) " For thine eyes are open upon all the ways of the sons of men, to give every " " For his eyes are upon one according to his ways (Jer. xxxii. 19). Again " In the Law xxxii. the ways of man, and he seeth all his goings 21). (Job
things
;
!
there occur instances of the fact that

their actions are
men
are governed
In the day when I visit I will " " I will even appoint over you visit their sin upon them (Exod. xxxii. 34) ; " " Whosoever hath sinned against me, him will I terror (Lev. xxvi. 1 6) " " The same soul will I destroy " blot out of my book (Exod. xxxii. 33) ; " " I will face xxiii. even set (ibid xx. 6). ; 30) against that soul (Lev. my
examined by him.
;
"
by God, and that
Comp.
There
of
are
many
instances of this kind.
All that
is
mentioned of the history

Divine Providence ex-
Abraham,
Isaac,
and Jacob
is
a perfect proof that
But the condition of the individual beings tends to every man individually. of other living creatures is undoubtedly the same as has been stated by ArisOn that account it is allowed, even commanded, to kill animals ; we totle.
The view that other are permitted to use them according to our pleasure. living beings are only governed by Divine Providence in the way described
When Aristotle, is supported by the words of the Prophet Habakkuk. he perceived the victories of Nebuchadnezzar, and saw the multitude of " O God, it is as if men were abandoned, negthose slain by him, he said, He thus and like fish and like worms of the earth." lected, unprotected shows that these classes are abandoned. This is expressed in the following " And makest men as the fishes of the sea, as the creeping things, passage that have no ruler over them. They take up all of them with the angle," etc. (Hab. i. 14, 15). The prophet then declares that such is not the case ; for the events referred to are not the result of abandonment, forsaking, and
by
:
288

:
absence of Providence, but are intended as a punishment for the people, who He therefore says u all that befell them. Lord, Thou and O mighty God, Thou hast established them for hast ordained judgment, " them for correction (ibid. ver. 12). Our opinion is not contradicted by " He giveth to the beast his food " like the following Scriptural passages " The young lions roar after their prey, and seek their meat (Ps. cxlvii. 9) ; " " Thou openest thine hand, and satisfiest the from God (ibid. civ. 21) ; " desire of every living thing (ibid. cxlv. 16) ; or by the saying of our Sages " He sitteth and feedeth all, from the horns of the unicorns even unto the eggs of insects." There are many similar sayings extant in the writings of
well deserved
our Sages, but they imply nothing that is contrary to my view. All these in relation to species, and not to Providence in passages refer to Providence The acts of God are as it were enumerated ; relation to individual animals. how He provides for every species the necessary food and the means of subsistence.
This
is
clear
and
plain.
Aristotle likewise holds that
this
kind
Alexander also notices necessary, and is in actual existence. this fact in the name of Aristotle, viz., that every species has its nourishof Providence
is
ment prepared for its individual members otherwise the species would undoubtedly have perished. It does not require much consideration to understand this. There is a rule laid down by our Sages that it is directly prohibited in the Law to cause pain to an animal, and is based on the words " etc. " Wherefore hast thou smitten thine ass ? (Num. xxii. 32). But the that we should not assume cruel is to make us rule of this perfect object habits ; and that we should not uselessly cause pain to others ; that, on the to all living creacontrary, we should be prepared to show pity and mercy " When thy soul tures, except when necessity demands the contrary longeth to eat flesh," etc. (Deut. xii. 20). We should not kill animals for the It cannot be purpose of practising cruelty, or for the purpose of play. objected to this theory, Why should God select mankind as the object of His and not other living beings ? For he who asks this quesspecial Providence, tion must also inquire, Why has man alone, of all species of animals, been endowed with intellect ? The answer to this second question must be, It was the Will of God, according to the three afore-mentioned theories it is the decree of His Wisdom, or it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. The same answers apply to the first question. Understand thoroughly my theory, that I do not ascribe to God ignorance of anything or any kind of I hold that Divine Providence is related and closely connected weakness with the intellect, because Providence can only proceed from an intelligent
;
:
being, from a being that is itself the most perfect Intellect. Those creatures, therefore, which receive part of that intellectual influence, will become subin the same proportion as they are acted upon ject to the action of Providence
by the
Intellect.
This theory
is
in accordance with reason
and with the
teaching of Scripture, whilst the other theories previously mentioned either exaggerate Divine Providence or detract from it. In the former case they
lead to confusion and entire nonsense, and cause us to deny reason and to The latter case, viz., contradict that which is perceived with the senses.
the theory that Divine Providence does not extend to man, and that there is no difference between man and other animals, implies very bad notions
about God ; it disturbs all social order, removes and destroys and intellectual virtues of man.
all
the moral
DIVINE PROVIDENCE
CHAPTER
HAVING shown
alone
is
289
XVIII
directly
in the preceding chapter that of all living beings mankind under the control of Divine Providence, I will now add the
:
It is an established fact that species have no existence following remarks except in our own minds. Species and other classes are merely ideas formed in our minds, whilst everything in real existence is an individual object, or an aggregate of individual objects. This being granted, it must further be admitted that the result of the existing Divine influence, that reaches man-
kind through the
human
intellect,
is
identical with individual intellects really
in existence, with which, e.g., Zeid, Amr, Kaled and Bekr, are endowed. Hence it follows, in accordance with what I have mentioned in the preceding chapter, that the greater the share is which a person has obtained of this
Divine influence, on account of both his physical predisposition and his training, the greater must also be the effect of Divine Providence upon him, for the action of Divide Providence is proportional to the endowment of
intellect, as has
is
been mentioned above.

all
The
relation of Divine Providence
therefore not the same to
men
the greater the
human
perfection a
person has attained, the greater the benefit he derives from Divine Providence. This benefit is very great in the case of prophets, and varies according to the degree of their prophetic faculty ; as it varies in the case of pious
and good men according to
their piety and uprightness. For it is the intenof Divine intellectual influence that has the the sity inspired prophets, guided the good in their actions, and perfected the wisdom of the pious. In the
same proportion
as
ignorant and disobedient persons are deficient in that
Divine influence, their condition is inferior, and their rank equal to that of " " like unto the beasts irrational beings ; and they are For (Ps. xlix. 21). this reason it was not only considered a light thing to slay them, but it was even directly commanded for the benefit of mankind. This belief that God provides for every individual human being in accordance with his merits is one of the fundamental principles on which the Law is founded. Consider how the action of Divine Providence is described in reference to every incident in the lives of the patriarchs, to their occupations, and even to their passions, and how God promised to direct His attention to them. Thus God said to Abraham, " I am thy shield " (Gen. xv. l) ; to Isaac, " I " " will be with thee, and I will bless thee I am (ibid. xxvi. 3) ; to Jacob, " with thee, and will keep thee (ibid, xxviii. 15) ; to [Moses] the chief of the " " Certainly I will be with thee, and this shall be a token unto thee Prophets, " As I was with Moses, so I shall be with thee " (Exod. iii. 12) ; to Joshua, in all these cases the action of Providence has i. is dear that It 5). (Josh. been proportional to man's perfection. The following verse describes how " He will Providence protects good and pious men, and abandons fools ; keep the feet of his saints, and the wicked shall be silent in darkness ; for by " no man some men
strength shall
prevail
(i
Sam.
ii.
9).
When we
see that
escape plagues and mishaps, whilst others perish by them, we must not attribute this to a difference in the properties of their bodies, or in their physical " " for by strength shall no man prevail but it must be attriconstitution, ; buted to their different degrees of perfection, some approaching God, whilst
others
moving
awy
from Him.
Those who approach
Him
are best pro-
290
tected, and

"
;
He will keep the feet of his saints " but those who keep far away from Him are left exposed to what may befall them there is nothing
;
that could protect them from what might happen ; they are like those who walk in darkness, and are certain to stumble. The protection of the pious " He keepeth all by Providence is also expressed in the following passages
:
bones," etc. (Ps. xxxiv. 21) ; " " He shall eous (ibid. ver. 1 6) ;
his
xci.
15).
There
are in
are upon the right" (ibid. upon me and I shall answer him Scripture many more passages expressing the princall
"
The
eyes of the
Lord
ciple that
piety. in the Introduction to his

as follows
:
men enjoy Divine protection in proportion to The philosophers have likewise discussed this
Those who
their perfection
and
subject.
Abu-nasr,
Commentary on Aristotle's Nikomachean Ethics, says possess the faculty of raising their souls from virtue to virtue obtain, according to Plato, Divine protection to a higher degree. consider how by this method of reasoning we have arrived at the
Now
truth taught by the Prophets, that every person has his individual share of
Divine Providence in proportion to his perfection. For philosophical research leads to this conclusion, if we assume, as has been mentioned above, that Divine Providence is in each case proportional to the person's intellectual development. It is wrong to say that Divine Providence extends only to
the species, and not to individual beings, as some of the philosophers teach. For only individual beings have real existence, and individual beings are endowed with Divine Intellect ; Divine Providence acts, therefore, upon
these individual beings.
Study this chapter as it ought to be studied ; you will find in it all the fundamental principles of the Law ; you will see that these are in conformity with philosophical speculation, and all difficulties will be removed ; you will have a clear idea of Divine Providence. After having described the various philosophical opinions on Providence,
and on the manner how God governs the Universe, I will briefly state the opinion of our co-religionists on the Omniscience of God, and what I have to remark on this subject
CHAPTER XIX
IT is undoubtedly an innate idea that God must be perfect in every respect and cannot be deficient in anything. It is almost an innate idea that ignorance in anything is a deficiency, and that God can therefore not be ignorant But some thinkers assume, as I said before, haughtily and exof anything. citingly, that God knows certain things and is ignorant of certain other
They did so because they imagined that they discovered a certain absence of order in man's affairs, most of which are not only the result of physical properties, but also of those faculties which he possesses as a being endowed with free will and reason. The Prophets have already stated the proof which ignorant persons offer for their belief that God does not know our actions ; viz., the fact that wicked people are seen in happiness, ease, and
things.
This fact leads also righteous and pious persons to think that it is of peace. no use for them to aim at that which is good and to suffer for it through the
opposition of other people.
their
But the Prophets
at the
own thoughts were engaged on
this question,
same time relate how and how they were at last
DIVINE PROVIDENCE
291
convinced that in the instances to which these arguments refer, only the end and not the beginning ought to be taken into account. The following is a
description of these reflections (Ps. Ixxiii. n, seq.) : "And they say, How does God know ? and in the Most High ? Behold, these is^here knowledge are the ungodly who prosper in the world ; they increase in riches. Verily
have cleansed my heart in vain, and washed my hands in innocency." He " then continues, When I thought to know this, it was too painful for me, until I went into the sanctuary of God ; then understood I their end. Surely thou didst set them in slippery places ; thou castedst them down into deI
struction.
How
are utterly
consumed with
are they brought into desolation, as in a moment ! They terrors." The very same ideas have also been
expressed by the prophet Malachi, for he says thus (Mai. iii. 13-18) words have been stout against me, saith the Lord. As you have said, It
:
"
Your
vain
is
to serve
God
and what
profit
is it
that
we have kept
his ordinance,
and that
before the Lord of hosts ? And now we call the proud happy yea, they that work wickedness are set up ; yea, they that tempt God are even delivered. Then they that feared the Lord spake often one to another, etc. Then shall ye return and discern between the righteous and the wicked, between him that serveth God and him that serveth him not." David likewise shows how general this view was in his time, and how it led and caused people to sin and to oppress one another. At first he argues against this theory, and then he declares that God is omniscient. He " says as follows They slay the widow and the stranger, and murder the fatherless. Yet they say, The Lord shall not see, neither shall the God of Jacob regard it. Understand, ye brutish among the people, and ye fools,
we have walked mournfully

;
when
will you be wise ? He that planted the ear, shall he not hear ? He that formed the eye, shall he not see ? He that chastiseth nations, shall not he correct ? or he that teacheth man knowledge ? " I will now show
you the meaning of these arguments, but first I will point out how the opponents to the words of the Prophets misunderstood this passage. Many years ago some intelligent co-religionists they were physicians told me that they were surprised at the words of David ; for it would follow from his arguments that the Creator of the mouth must eat and the Creator of the the same applies to all other organs of our body. You who lungs must cry
;
study this treatise of mine, consider how grossly they misunderstood David's He who produces a vessel arguments. Hear now what its true meaning is must have had in his mind an idea of the use of that instrument, otherwise he could not have produced it. If, e.g., the smith had not formed an idea of sewing and possessed a knowledge of it, the needle would not have had the
:
form
so indispensable for sewing.
The same
is
the case with
all
instruments.
When some
philosopher thought that God, whose perception is purely intellectual, has no knowledge of individual things, which are perceivable only by the senses, David takes his argument from the existence of the senses, and
If the sense of sight had been utterly unknown to God, how could He have produced that organ of the sense of sight ? Do you think that it was by chance that a transparent humour was formed, and then another humour with certain similar properties, and besides a membrane which by accident had a hole covered with a hardened transparent substance f in short, considering the humour of the eye, its membranes and
argues thus
292
nerves, with their well-known functions, and their adaptation to the purpose of sight, can any intelligent person imagine that all this is due to chance ?
we see here necessarily design in nature, as has been shown ; by all physicians and philosophers ; but as nature is not an intellectual being, and is not capable of governing [the universe], as has been accepted by all philosophers, the government [of the universe], which shows signs of design, originates, according to the philosophers, in an intellectual cause, but is according to our view the result of the action of an intellectual being, that endows everything with its natural properties. If this intellect were inCertainly not
capable of perceiving or knowing any of the actions of earthly beings, how could He have created, or, according to the other theory, caused to emanate from Himself, properties that bring about those actions of which He is sup-
posed to have no knowledge ? David correctly calls those who believe in He then proceeds to explain that the error is this theory brutes and fools. due to our defective understanding ; that God endowed us with the intellect which is the means of our comprehension, and which on account of its insufficiency to form a true idea of God has become the source of great doubts that He therefore knows what our defects are, and how worthless the doubts The Psalmist therefore says are which originate in our faulty reasoning. " He who teaches man knowledge, the Lord, knoweth the thoughts of man " that they are vanity (ibid. xciv. 10-1 1). in this My object chapter was to show how the belief of the ignorant, that God does not notice the affairs of man because they are uncertain and un" Comp. And the Israelites uttered things that systematic, is very ancient. " In reference to this were not right against the Lord (2 Kings xvii. 9). " What have they uttered ? This Pillar [i.e., God] passage the Midrash says " does not see, nor hear, nor speak i.e., they imagine that God takes no ; notice of earthly affairs, that the Prophets received of God neither affirmative nor negative precepts ; they imagine so, simply because human affairs are not arranged as every person would think it desirable. Seeing that these " The Lord does not see us " are not in accordance with their wish, they say, " who (Ezek. viii. 12). Zephaniah (i. 12) also describes those ignorant persons I say in their heart the Lord will not do good, neither will he do evil." will tell you my own opinion as regards the theory that God knows all
;
:
things
on
earth,
but
I will before state
some propositions which
are generally
adopted, and the correctness of which no intelligent person can dispute.
CHAPTER XX
IT is generally agreed upon that God cannot at a certain time acquire knowledge which He did not possess previously ; it is further impossible that His knowledge should include any plurality, even according to those who admit the Divine attributes. As these things have been fully proved, we, who assert the teaching of the Law, believe that God's knowledge of many things does not imply any plurality ; His knowledge does not change like ours when the objects of His knowledge change. Similarly we say that the various
events are
known
to
Him
before they take place

is
and therefore no
a certain person
fresh
is
knowledge acquired by Him. non-existent at present, will come to
He constantly knows them, E.g., He knows that

existence at a certain
DIVINE PROVIDENCE
time, will continue to exist for
this person, in
293
some time, and will then cease to exist.
When
accordance with God's foreknowledge concerning him, comes into existence, God's knowledge is not increased ; it contains nothing that it did not contain before, but something has taken place that was known preThis theory implies that God's knowviously exactly as it has taken place. ledge extends to things not in existence, and includes also the infinite. We nevertheless accept it, and contend that we may attribute to God the knowledge of a thing which does not yet exist, but the existence of which God foresees and is able to effect. But that which never exists cannot be an object of His
we
knowledge ; just as our knowledge does not comprise things which consider as non-existing. doubt has been raised, however, whether His knowledge includes the infinite. Some thinkers assume that knowledge
has the species for its object, and therefore extends at the same time to all individual members of the species. This view is taken by every man who adheres
to a revealed religion
ever,
and follows the
dictates of reason.
Philosophers,
how-
have decided that the object of knowledge cannot be a non-existing Since, therefore, thing, and that it cannot comprise that which is infinite. God's knowledge does not admit of any increase, it is impossible that He should know any transient thing. He only knows that which is constant and
unchangeable. Other philosophers raised the following objection : God does not know even things that remain constant ; for His knowledge would then include a plurality according to the number of objects known ; the knowledge of every thing being distinguished by a certain peculiarity of the
thing.
God
My opinion
therefore only knows His own essence. is this the cause of the error of all these schools
:
is
their belief
each school points to something withheld from our knowledge, and either assumes that the same must be the case in God's knowledge, or at least finds some difficulty how to explain it. We must blame the philosophers in this respect more than any other persons, because they demonstrated that there is no plurality in God, and that He
is
that God's knowledge
like
ours
is not identical with His essence ; His knowledge and His essence are one and the same thing ; they likewise demonstrated, as we have shown, that our intellect and our knowledge are insufficient to comprehend the true idea of His essence. How then can they imagine that they comprehend His knowledge, which is identical with His essence ; seeing that our incapacity to comprehend His essence prevents us from understanding the way how He knows objects ? for His knowledge is not of the same kind
has no attribute that
but totally different from it and admitting of no analogy. And as an Essence of independent existence, which is, as the philosophers call it, the Cause of the existence of all things, or, as we say, the Creator of everything that exists beside Him, so we also assume that this Essence knows everything, that nothing whatever of all that exists is hidden from it, and that the knowledge attributed to this essence has nothing in common with our knowledge, just as that essence is in no way like our essence. The ho'* " misled monymity of the term knowledge [they forgot that] people the words are the the but only same, things designated by them are different ; and therefore they came to the absurd conclusion that that which is required for our knowledge is also required for God's knowledge.
as ours,
there
is
Besides, I find
it
expressed in various passages of Scripture that the fact
294
that God knows things while in a state of possibility, when their existence belongs to the future, does not change the nature of the possible in any way ; that nature remains unchanged ; and the knowledge of the realization of one
This is likewise of several possibilities does not yet effect that realization. one of the fundamental principles of the Law of Moses, concerning which
there
is
"
no doubt nor any dispute.

shalt
Otherwise
it
would not have been
said,
"
And thou
a battlement for thy roof," etc. (Deut. xxii. 8), or " Lest he die in the battle, and another man take her The (ibid. xx. 7).
make
were given to man, both affirmative and negative, supports the of future [and possible] events does not principle, that God's knowledge change their character. The great doubt that presents itself to our mind
fact that laws
the result of the insufficiency of our intellect. Consider in how many ways His knowledge is distinguished from ours according to all the teaching of every revealed religion. First, His knowledge is one, and yet embraces many
is
different kinds of objects.
Secondly,
it is
applied to things not in existence.
comprehends the infinite. Fourthly, it remains unchanged, though it comprises the knowledge of changeable things ; whilst it seems that the knowledge of a thing that is to come into [in reference to ourselves] existence is different from the knowledge of the thing when it has come into existence ; because there is the additional knowledge of its transition from
Thirdly,
it
a state of potentiality into that of reality. Fifthly, according to the teaching of our Law, God's knowledge of one of two eventualities does not determine
however certain that knowledge may be concerning the future occurrence one eventuality. Now I wonder what our knowledge has in common with God's knowledge, according to those who treat God's knowledge as an Is there anything else common to both besides the mere name ? attribute. According to our theory that God's knowledge is not different from His essence, there is an essential distinction between His knowledge and ours, like the distinction between the substance of the heavens and that of the The Prophets have clearly expressed this. Comp. " For my thoughts earth. are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, saith the Lord. For
it,
of the
heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your In short, as we cannot accurately comprehend His (Isa. Iv. 8-9). essence, and yet we know that His existence is most perfect, free from all
as the
"
ways
admixture of deficiency, change, or passiveness, so we have no correct notion of His knowledge, because it is nothing but His essence, and yet we are convinced that He does not at one time obtain knowledge which He had not
; i.e., He obtains no new knowledge, He does not increase it, and it not finite ; nothing of all existing things escapes His knowledge, but their nature is not changed thereby ; that which is possible remains possible. Every argument that seems to contradict any of these statements is founded
before
is
on the nature of our knowledge, that has only the name in common with God's The same applies to the term intention ; it is homonymously to designate our intention towards a certain thing, and the intenemployed The term " management " (Providence) is likewise homonytion of God. of used our management of a certain thing, and of God's managemously ment. In fact management, knowledge, and intention are not the same when ascribed to us and when ascribed to God. When these three terms are taken in both cases in the same sense, great difficulties must arise ; but
knowledge.
GOD'S OMNISCIENCE
when
it is
AND MAN'S FREEWILL
295
cated of
God
is
noticed that there is a great difference whether a thing is predior of us, the truth will become clear. The difference between
ascribed to
that which
in the words above mentioned,
God and that which is ascribed to man is expressed " And your ways are not my ways."
CHAPTER XXI
THERE
is a great difference between the knowledge which the producer of a thing possesses concerning it, and the knowledge which other persons Suppose a thing is produced in accordpossess concerning the same thing.
ance with the knowledge of the producer, the producer was then guided by his knowledge in the act of producing the thing. Other people, however,
this work and acquire a knowledge of the whole of it, depend knowledge on the work itself. E.g., An artisan makes a box in which weights move with the running of the water, and thus indicate how many hours have passed of the day and of the night. The whole quantity of the water that is to run out, the different ways in which it runs, every thread that all this is is drawn, and every little ball that descends fully perceived by him who makes the clock and his knowledge is not the result of observing the movements as they are actually going on but, on the contrary, the movements are produced in accordance with his knowledge. But another person who looks at that instrument will receive fresh knowledge at every movement he perceives the longer he looks on, the more knowledge does he will gradually increase his knowledge till he fully underhe acquire If an infinite number of movements were assumed stands the machinery. for this instrument, he would never be able to complete his knowledge. Besides, he cannot know any of the movements before they take place, since he only knows them from their actual occurrence. The same is the case with every object, and its relation to our knowledge and God's knowledge of it. Whatever we know of the things is derived from observation ; on that account it is impossible for us to know that which will take place in future, or that which is infinite. Our knowledge is acquired and increased in proportion to the things known by us. -This is not the case with God. His knowledge of things is not derived from the things themselves ; if this were the case, there would be change and plurality in His knowledge ; on the contrary, the things are in accordance with His eternal knowledge, which has established their actual properties, and made part of them purely spiritual, another part material and constant as regards its individual members, a third part material and changeable as regards the individual beings according to eternal and constant laws. Plurality, acquisition, and change in His knowledge is therefore impossible. He fully knows His unchangeable essence, and has thus a knowledge of all that results from anv of His acts. If we were to try to understand in what manner this is done, it would be the same as if we tried to be the same as God, and to make our knowledge identical with His knowledge. Those who seek the truth, and admit what is true, must believe that nothing is hidden from God that everything is revealed to His knowledge, which is identical with His essence that this kind of knowledge cannot be comprehended by us ; for if we knew its method, we would possess that intellect by which such
who examine
for that
296
knowledge could be acquired. Such intellect does not exist except in God, and is at the same time His essence. Note this well, for I think that this is an excellent idea, and leads to correct views ; no error will be found in it ; no dialectical argument ; it does not lead to any absurd conclusion, nor to These sublime and profound themes admit ascribing any defect to God. of no proof whatever, neither according to our opinion who believe in the teaching of Scripture, nor according to the philosophers who disagree and In all questions that cannot be demonare much divided on this question. strated, we must adopt the method which we have adopted in this question about God's Omniscience. Note it.
CHAPTER XXII
THE
strange and wonderful Book of Job treats of the same subject as we are discussing ; its basis is a fiction, conceived for the purpose of explaining the different opinions which people hold on Divine Providence. You know
that some of our Sages clearly stated Job has never existed, and has never been created, and that he is a poetic fiction. Those who assume that he has
"existed,
and that the book is historical, are unable to determine when and where Job lived. Some of our Sages say that he lived in the days of the Patriarchs ; others hold that he was a contemporary of Moses ; others place him in the days of David, and again others believe that he was one of those who returned from the Babylonian exile. This difference of opinion supBut whether he ports the assumption that he has never existed in reality. has existed or not, that which is related of him is an experience of frequent occurrence, is a source of perplexity to all thinkers, and has suggested the above-mentioned opinions on God's Omniscience and Providence. This perplexity is caused by the account that a simple and perfect person, who is upright in his actions, and very anxious to abstain from sin, is afflicted by
by loss of property, by the death of his chilAccorddren, and by bodily disease, though he has not committed any sin. ing to both theories, viz., the theory that Job did exist, and the theory
successive misfortunes, namely,
that he did not exist, the introduction to the book is certainly a fiction ; I mean the portion which relates to the words of the adversary, the words of
God
ever,
This fiction, howto the former, and the handing over of Job to him. is in so far different from other fictions that it includes profound ideas
reveals the
I will
most important you the words of our Sages that suggested to me the explanation of this great poem. " There was a man in the land Uz." The First, consider the words " term Uz has different meanings ; it is used as a proper noun. Comp. Uz, " to his first-born" (Gen. xxii. 21) it is also imperative of the verb Uz, " " The name Uz
and great mysteries, removes great doubts, and

truths.
I will
discuss it
as
fully as possible
and
also tell
take advice."
Comp. uzu,
take counsel
(Isa. viii.
10).
therefore expresses the exhortation to consider well this lesson, study it, grasp its ideas, and comprehend them, in order to see which is the right view. " The sons of God then came, to present themselves before the Lord, and the
adversary
It
is
came
:
also
And the sons of God and the adversary came to present not said " themselves before the Lord ; this sentence would have implied that the
"
among them and
in their
number "
(chap.
i.
6,
ii.
i).
JOB
existence of
are these
:
AND HIS FRIENDS

of the
297
all
that
came was
same kind and rank.
The words
used
to present themselves before the Lord, and the adversary came also among them." Such a phrase is only used in reference to one that comes without being expected or invited ; he
"
And
the sons of
God came
only comes among others whose coming has been sought. The adversary is then described as going to and fro on the earth, and walking up and down
He is in no relation to the beings above, and has no place among '* For this reason it is said, from going to and fro on the earth, and " " " and down on for his and walking " can only take it," walking up going place on the earth. [Job], the simple and righteous man, is given and handed over to the adversary whatever evils and misfortunes befell Job as regards his property, children, and health, were all caused by this adversary. When this idea is sufficiently indicated, the author begins to reflect on it ; one
thereon.
them.
represented to hold, whilst other opinions are defended by his further on expound these opinions which formed the substance of the discussion on the misfortunes of Job, caused by the adversary
opinion Job
friends.
is
I will
alone.
direct agent of mediate cause.
Job, as well as his friends, were of opinion that God Himself was the what happened, and that the adversary was not the interIt
is
remarkable in this account that wisdom
is
not ascribed
to Job. The text does not say he was an intelligent, wise, or clever man ; but virtues and uprightness, especially in actions, are ascribed to him. If he were wise he would not have any doubt about the cause of his suffering,
be shown later on. Besides, his misfortunes are enumerated in the same order as they rank in man's estimation. There are some who are not perplexed or discouraged by loss of property, thinking little of it ; but are terrified when they are threatened with the death of their children and are killed by their anxiety. There are others who bear without shock or fainting even the loss of their children, but no one endowed with sensation is able to bear bodily pain. We generally extol God in words, and praise Him as righteous and benevolent, when we prosper and are happy, or when the grief we have to bear is moderate. But [it is otherwise] when such troubles as are described in Job come over us. Some of us deny God, and believe that there is no rule
as will
is lost. Others retain their faith and order, even when suffering from loss of proOthers reperty, whereas loss of children is too much affliction for them. main firm in their faith, even with the loss of their children ; but there is no one who can patiently bear the pain that reaches his own person ; he then murmurs and complains of injustice either in his heart or with his tongue. Now consider that the phrase, " to present themselves before the Lord," is used in reference to the sons of God, both the first and the second times, but in reference to the adversary, who appeared on either occasion among them and in their number, this phrase is not used the first time, whilst in his second
in the Universe,
even
if
only their property
in the existence of justice
" the adversary also came among them to present himself before Consider this, and see how very extraordinary it is These ideas presented themselves like an inspiration to me. The phrase, " to present themselves before the Lord," implies that they are beings who are forced by God's command to do what He desires. This may be inferred from the words of the prophet Zechariah concerning the four chariots that came forth. He says " And the angel answered and said to me, These four
appearance the Lord."
298
winds of the heavens come forth from presenting themselves before the Lord " of the whole earth (Zech. vi. 5). It is clear that the relation of the sons of God to the Universe is not the same as that of the adversary. The relation The adversary of the sons of God is more constant and more permanent. has also some relation to the Universe, but it is inferior to that of the sons of God. It is also remarkable in this account that in the description of the adversary's wandering about on the earth, and his performing certain actions, whilst power has it is distinctly stated that he has no power over the soul been given to him over all earthly affairs, there is a partition between him he has not received power over the soul. This is expressed and the soul " But keep away from his soul " (Job. ii. 6). I have already in the words, " " soul shown you the homonymous use of the term (nefesK) in Hebrew in man It that element that survives him ; designates (Part I., chap. xli.). After these reit is this portion over which the adversary has no power. marks of mine listen to the following useful instruction given by our Sages, who in truth deserve the title of " wise men " ; it makes clear that which appears doubtful, and reveals that which has been hidden, and discloses most
; ;
of the mysteries of the Law. They said in the Talmud as follows R. Simeon, " The adversary (safari), evil inclination (yezer ha-rcf), and son of Lakish, says: the angel of death, are one and the same being." Here we find all that has been
:
mentioned by us in such a clear manner that no intelligent person will be in doubt about it. It has thus been shown to you that one and the same thing is designated by these three different terms, and that actions ascribed to these three are in reality the actions of one and the same agent. Again, the an** The adversary goes about and misleads, cient doctors of the Talmud said then he goes up and accuses, obtains permission, and takes the soul." You have already been told that when David at the time of the plague was shown " " the angel with the sword drawn in his hand stretched out over Jerusalem (2 Sam. xxiv. 17), it was done for the purpose of conveying a certain idea to him. The same idea was also expressed in the vision concerning the sins of
:
" And the adversary stood the sons of Joshua, the high priest, by the words, " The vision then reveals iii. his right hancr to accuse him i). (Zech. " The Lord will that [the adversary] is far from God, and continues thus : the Lord who hath chosen rebuke thee, Jerusalem will rebuke adversary, " Balaam saw prophetically the same vision in his jourthee (ibid. ver. 2). " Behold I have come forth to be a hinney, addressing him with the words, " The Hebrew, satan, is derived from the drance to thee xxii. 32). (Num. " " same root as setek, turn away (Prov. iv. 15) ; it implies the notion of
on
turning and moving away from a thing ; he undoubtedly turns us away from the way of truth, and leads us astray in the way of error. The same " idea is contained in the passage, And the imagination of the heart of man " The theory of the good and the evil is evil from his viii. 21). youth (Gen. inclinations (yezer ha-tob, ve-yezer ha-ra } is frequently referred to in our Our Sages also say, " Serve God with your good and your evil religion. evil inclination we inclinations." (B. T. Ber. 57^.) They also say that the " " receive at our birth ; for at the door sin croucheth (Gen. iv. 7), as is " And the imagination of the heart of man is evil distinctly said in the Law, " from Ris youth (ibid. viii. 21). The good inclination, however, comes when the mind is developed. In explaining the 'allegory representing the body
1
JOB AND HIS FRIENDS

of
299
man and
evil inclination
his different faculties, our Sages (B.T.Ned. 32^) said: is called a great king, whilst the good inclination is a child,
"The
All these sayings of our Sages are con(Eccles. ix. 14). poor, though wise tained in their writings, and are well known. According to our Sages the evil inclination, the adversary (satari), and the angel [of death], are un-
"
and the adversary being called angel," because he is among the sons of God, and the good inclination being in reality an angel, it is to the good and the evil inclinations that they refer in their well-known " words, Every person is accompanied by two angels, one being on his right In the Babylonian Gemara (Shabbath 119^), they say side, one on his left." See what exdistinctly of the two angels that one is good and one bad. ideas this and how false ideas it removes. discloses, traordinary passage many I believe that I have fully explained the idea contained in the account of Job ; but I will now show the character of the opinion attributed to Job, and of the opinions attributed to his friends, and support my statement by We need not take notice proofs gathered from the words of each of them. of the remaining passages which are only required for the context, as has been
doubtedly identical
;
"
explained to you in the beginning of this treatise.
CHAPTER
ASSUMING the
the
five, viz.,
XXIII
first part of the history of Job as having actually taken place, Job and his friends, agreed that the misfortune of Job was known to God, and that it was God that caused Job's suffering. They further agree that God does no wrong, and that no injustice can be ascribed to Him. You will find these ideas frequently repeated in the words of Job. When you consider the words of the five who take pa'rt in the discussion, you will easily notice that things said by one of them are also uttered by the rest.
mixed up, and interrupted by Job's description and troubles, which had come upon him in spite of his strict righteousness, and by an account of his charity, humane disposition, and good The replies of the friends to Job are likewise interrupted by exhortaacts. tions to patience, by words of comfort, and other speeches tending to make
are repeated,
The arguments
of his acute pain
him
let loose
He is told by forget his grief. the bridle of his tongue, as
them
if
to be silent that he ought not to he were in dispute with another man

; ;
that he ought silently to submit to the judgments of God. Job replies that the intensity of his pains did not permit him to bear patiently, to collect his thoughts and to say what he ought to say. The friends, on the other hand,
contend that those who act well receive reward, and those who act wickedly are punished. When a wicked and rebellious person is seen in prosperity, it may be assumed for certain that a change will take he will die, or place troubles will afflict him and his house. When we find a worshipper of God in misfortune, we may be certain that God will heal the stroke of his wound. This idea is frequently repeated in the words of the three friends, Eliphaz, It is, however, not the object Bildad, and Zofar, who agree in this opinion. of this chapter to describe in what they agree, but to define the distinguishing characteristic of each of them, and to elucidate the opinion of each as regards the question why the most simple and upright man is afflicted with the greatest and acutest pain. Job found in this fact a proof that the right;
300

:
eous and the wicked are equal before God, who holds all mankind in contempt. Job therefore says (ix. 22, 23) "This is one thing, therefore I said
destroyeth the perfect and the wicked. he will laugh at the trial of the innocent."
it,
He
If
He
the scourge slay suddenly, thus declares that when a
scourge comes suddenly, killing and destroying all it meets, God laughs at the trial of the innocent. He further confirms this view in the following pasdieth in his full strength, being wholly at ease and quiet. His And another dieth in the bitterness of his soul, and never eateth with pleasure. They shall lie down alike in the dust, and
sage
:
"
One
vessels are full of milk, etc.
worms shall cover them (ibid. xxi. 23-26). In a similar manner he shows the good condition and prosperity of wicked people ; and is even very exHe speaks thus " Even when I remember I am afraid, plicit on this point.
the
:
"
and trembling taketh hold on my flesh. Wherefore do the wicked live, become old, yea, are mighty in power ? Their seed is established in their Having thus described their prosperity, sight with them," etc. (ibid. 6-8). " he addresses his opponents, and says to them Granted that as you think, the children of this prosperous atheist will perish after his death, and their memory will be blotted out, what harm will the fate of his family cause him For what pleasure hath he in his house after him, when after his death ? " the number of his months is cut off in the midst ? (ibid. 21). Job then is no after so the cause that there that death, explains hope [of the misfortune of the righteous man] is nothing else but entire neglect on the part of God. He is therefore surprised that God has not abandoned the creation of man and that after having created him, He does not take any notice altogether of him. He says in his surprise " Hast thou not poured me out as milk, and " etc. curdled me like cheese ? This is one of the different (ibid. x. 10, seq.). views held by some thinkers on Providence. Our Sages (B. T. Baba B. 160) condemned this view of Job as mischievous, and expressed their feeling in " " " dust should have filled the mouth of Job words like the following Job " " " wished to upset the dish Job denied the resurrection of the dead "
:
He commenced
to blaspheme."
and
his colleagues,
"
When, however, God

of
said to Eliphaz
is
our Sages assume as the cause of this rebuke, Man is not punished for that which he utters in his pain " the maxim and that God ignored the sin of Job [in his utterances], because of the acuteness of his suffering. But this explanation does not agree with the object The words of God are justified, as I will show, by of the whole allegory. the fact that Job abandoned his first very erroneous opinion, and himself proved that it was an error. It is the opinion which suggests itself as plausible at first thought, especially in the minds of those who meet with mishaps, This is adwell knowing that they have not merited them through sins. mitted by all, and therefore this opinion was assigned to Job. But he i? represented to hold this view only so long as he was without wisdom, and
my
servant Job hath "
"
You have not spoken

(xlii. 7),
me
the thing that
right, as
knew God only by tradition, in the same manner as religious people generally know Him. As soon as he had acquired a true knowledge of God, he conis undoubtedly true felicity in the knowledge of God it by all who acquire that knowledge, and no earthly trouble can So long as Job's knowledge of God was based on tradition and disturb it. communication, and not on research, he believed that such imaginary good
fessed that there
is
attained
JOB
as
is
AND HIS FRIENDS
301
possessed in health, riches, and children, was the utmost that men can this was the reason why he was in perplexity, and why he uttered ; the above-mentioned opinions, and this is also the meaning of his words
attain
:
have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear ; but now mine eye seeth thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and repent because of dust and ashes " (xlii. 5, 6) ; that is to say, he abhorred all that he had desired before, and " that he was sorry that he had been in dust and ashes ; comp. and he sat down among the ashes " (ii. 8). On account of this last utterance, which " for you implies true perception, it is said afterwards in reference to him, have not spoken of me the thing that is right, as my servant Job hath."
I
"
The opinion set forth by Eliphaz in reference to Job's suffering is likewise one of the current views on Providence. He holds that the fate of Job W2^ in accordance with strict justice. Job was guilty of sins for which he de" served his fate. Is not thy wickedness Eliphaz therefore says to Job " and thine infinite He then points out to him ? great, (xxii. 5). iniquities that his upright actions and his good ways, on which he relies, need not be so perfect in the eyes of God that no punishment should be inflicted on him. " and his angels he chargeth Behold, he putteth no trust in his servants how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay," etc. (iv. with folly 17-18). Eliphaz never abandoned his belief that the fate of man is the result of justice, that we do not know all our shortcomings for which we are punished, nor the way how we incur the punishment through them. Bildad the Shuhite defends in this question the theory of reward and comHe therefore tells Job that if he is innocent and without sin, his pensation. terrible misfortunes will be the source of great reward, will be followed by the best compensation, and will prove a boon to him as the cause of great bliss " in the future world. This idea is expressed in the words If thou be pure and upright, surely now he will awake for thee, and make the habitation of thy righteousness prosperous. Though thy beginning was small, yet thy " latter end will greatly increase This opinion concerning Pro(viii. 6-8). vidence is widespread, and we have already explained it. Zofar the Naamathite holds that the Divine Will is the source of everyno further cause can be sought for His actions, and it thing that happens cannot be asked why He has done this and why He has not done that. That which God does can therefore not be explained by the way of justice or the result of wisdom. His true Essence demands that He does what He wills we are unable to fathom the depth of His wisdom, and it is the law and rule of this wisdom that whatever He does is done because it is His will and for " no other cause. Zofar therefore says to Job But oh that God would and his thee and that he would show thee the ; speak, open lips against secrets of wisdom, for wisdom hath two portions Know, therefore, that God exacteth of thee less than thine iniquity deserveth. Canst thou by searching find out God ? canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfec" tion
:
(xi.
6-7).
manner consider well how the Book of Job discusses the problem, which has perplexed many people, and led them to adopt in reference to Divine Providence some one of the theories which I have explained above
In
this
;
all
The problem is possible different theories are mentioned therein. described either by way of fiction or in accordance with real fact, as having
302
manifested itself in a man famous for his excellency and wisdom. The view ascribed to Job is the theory of Aristotle. Eliphaz holds the opinion taught in Scripture, Bildad's opinion is identical with that of the Mu'tazilah, whilst
Zofar defends the theory of the Asha'riyah. These were the ancient views later on a new theory was set forth, namely, that ascribed this reason he is placed above the others, and described as younger in years but greater in wisdom. He censures Job for his foolishly exalting himself, expressing surprise at such great troubles befalling a good man, and dwelling on the praises of his own deeds. He also tells the three friends .that their minds have been weakened by great age. A profound and wonderful discourse then follows. Reflecting on his words we may at first thought be surprised to find that he does not add anything to the words of Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zofar ; and that he only repeats their ideas in other terms and more explicitly. For he likewise censures and rebukes Job, attributes justice to God, relates His wonders in nature, and holds that God is not affected by the service of the worshipper, nor by the disobedience of the All this has already been said by His colleagues. But after due rebellious. consideration we see clearly the new idea introduced by Elihu, which is the principal object of his speech, an idea which has not been uttered by those who spoke before him. In addition to this he mentions also other things set forth by the previous speakers, in the same manner as each of the rest, The purviz., Job and his three friends, repeat what the others have said. pose of this repetition is to conceal the opinion peculiar to each speaker, and to make all appear in the eyes of the ordinary reader to utter one and the
on Providence ; to Elihu. For
same view, although in reality this is not the case. The new idea, which is peculiar to Elihu and has not been mentioned by the others, is contained in
metaphor of the angel's intercession. It is a frequent occurrence, he man becomes ill, approaches the gates of death, and is already given up by his neighbours. If then an angel, of any kind whatever, intercedes on his behalf and prays for him, the intercession and prayers are accepted ; the patient rises from his illness, is saved, and returns to good intercession and deliverance health. This result is not always obtained do not always follow each other ; it happens only twice, or three times. " Elihu therefore says If there be an angel with him, an interpreter, one a to show unto man his uprightness," etc. (xxxiii. 29). He among thousand, then describes man's condition when convalescent and the rejoicing at his " Lo, all these things worketh God twice, recovery, and continues thus " three times with man This idea occurs only in the words of (ibid. 29).
his
says, that a
;
: :
likewise
His description of the method of prophecy in preceding verses is " new. He says Surely God speaketh in one way, yea in two ways, man it not. In a dream, in a vision of the night, when deep yet perceiveth " He (ibid. 14, 15). sleep falleth upon man, in slumberings upon the bed
Elihu.
:
" ence contained in the following passage In a moment they die, and at " the become tumultuous and pass away (xxxiv. 20). midnight ; people " He breaketh in pieces Great wars are described in the following verse " (ibid. 24). mighty men without number, and setteth others in their stead
:
:
afterwards supports and illustrates his theory by a description of many natural phenomena, such as thunder, lightning, rain, and winds ; with these are mixed up accounts of various incidents of life, e.g., an account of pestil-
JOB AND HIS FRIENDS

There
303
In a similar manner the Revelaare many more passages of this kind. tion that reached Job (chap, xxxviii., chap, xli.), and explained to him the error of his whole belief, constantly describes natural objects, and nothing
else it describes the elements, meteorological phenomena, and peculiarities The sky, the heavens, Orion and Pleiades of various kinds of living beings. are only mentioned in reference to their influence upon our atmosphere, so
;
is in this prophecy only called to things below the lunar Elihu likewise derives instruction from the nature of various kinds sphere. " He teacheth us through the beasts of the earth, of animals. Thus he says :
that Job's attention
and maketh us wise through the fowls of heaven" (xxxv. II). He dwells longest on the nature of the Leviathan, which possesses a combination of bodily peculiarities found separate in different animals, in those that walk, those that swim, and those that fly. The description of all these things serves to impress on our minds that we are unable to comprehend how these
come into existence, or to imagine how their natural properties commenced to exist, and that these are not like the things which we are able to produce. Much less can we compare the manner in which
transient creatures
God rules and manages His creatures with the manner in which we rule and manage certain beings. We must content ourselves with this, and be" lieve that nothing is hidden from God, as Elihu says For his eyes are upon the ways of man, and he seeth all his goings. There is no darkness nor shadow of death, where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves " But the term management, when applied to God, has not (xxxiv. 21, 22). the same meaning which it has when applied to us ; and when we say that He rules His creatures we do not mean that He does the same as we do when we rule over other beings. The term " rule " has not the same definition in both cases it signifies two different notions, which have nothing in common but the name. In the same manner, as there is a difference between works of nature and productions of human handicraft, so there is a difference between God's rule, providence, and intention in reference to all natural forces, and our rule, providence, and intention in reference to things which This lesson is the are the objects of our rule, providence, and intention. it lays down this principle of principal object of the whole Book of Job faith, and recommends us to derive a proof from nature, that we should
:
not
or
fall
His
know
hap our
into the error of imagining His knowledge to be similar to ours, When we intention, providence, and rule similar to ours. this we shall find everything that may befall us easy to bear ; mis-
will create
affairs
no doubts
in our hearts concerning
God, whether
H/:
knows
" and as our Sages say The pious do everything out of 6) and rejoice in their own afflictions." (B. T. Shabb. 88.) If you pay to my words the attention which this treatise demands, and examine all that is said in the Book of Job, all will be clear to you, and you will find that I have grasped and taken hold of the whole subject ; nothing has been left unashes
or not, whether He provides for us or abandons us. On the contrary, our fate will increase our love of God ; as is said in the end of this " Therefore I abhor myself and repent concerning the dust and prophecy
:
"
(xlii.
love,
noticed, except such portions as are only introduced because of the context
and the whole plan of the
allegory.
have explained
this
method
several
times in the course of this treatise.
304

CHAPTER XXIV
THE
doctrine of
trials is
to objections than
open to great objections ; it is in fact more exposed any other thing taught in Scripture. It is mentioned in
People have generally Scripture six times, as I will show in this chapter. the notion that trials consist in afflictions and mishaps sent by God to man,
not as punishments for past sins, but as giving opportunity for great reward. This principle is not mentioned in Scripture in plain language, and it is only in one of the six places referred to that the literal meaning conveys this
notion.
I will
" faithfulness, and there is no iniquity in him (Deut. xxxii. 4). The teaching of our Sages, although some of them approve this general " For they say, belief [concerning trials], is on the whole against it. There is no death without sin, and no affliction without transgression." (See p. 285.) Every intelligent religious person should have this faith, and should not ascribe any wrong to God, who is far from it he must not assume that a person is innocent and perfect and does not deserve what has befallen him. The trials mentioned in Scripture in the [six] passages, seem to have been tests
;
taught in Scripture
explain the meaning of that passage later on. " is exactly the reverse ; for it is said
:
The
He
is
principle God of
and experiments by which God desired to learn the intensity of the faith and the devotion of a man or a nation. [If this were the case] it would be very difficult to comprehend the object of the trials, and yet the sacrifice of Isaac seems to be a case of this kind, as none witnessed it, but God and the " For two concerned [Abraham and Isaac], Thus God says to Abraham,
now
it is
know
"
:
that thou fearest
God,"
etc.
(Gen.
xxii. 12).
In another passage
God proveth you to know whether ye love," etc. (Deut. xiii. 4). Again, "And to prove thee to know what was in thine I will now remove all the difficulties. heart," etc. (ibid. viii. 2). The sole object of all the trials mentioned in Scripture is to teach man
said
For the Lord your
what he ought
trial is
to
do or believe
;
so that the event
not the end desired
it is
" to know (la-da af) Hence the words guidance. do not mean that God desires to know whether they loved
i
i
but an example
which forms the actual our instruction and whether ye love," etc.,
for
God
to know," has here the same meaning as already knows it ; but la-da at, " " in the phrase to know (la-da'at) that I am the Lord that sanctifieth you
"
for
He
(Exod. xxxi. 13),
i.e.,
that
all
sanctifieth you. In a similar pretend to be a prophet, and
nations shall know that I am the Lord who manner Scripture says If a man should rise, show you his signs by which he desired to con:
vince you that his words are true, know that God intends thereby to prove to the nations how firmly you believe in the truth of God's word, and how
well
you have comprehended the true Essence of
God
that you cannot be
misled by any tempter to corrupt your faith in God. Your religion will then afford a guidance to all who seek the truth, and of all religions man will
choose that which
is
formance of
it is
a miracle.
so firmly established that it is not shaken by the perFor a miracle cannot prove that which is impossible ;
\
useful only as a confirmation of that which is possible, as ve have ex(Yesode ha-torah vii. f. viii. 3.) plained in our Mishneh-torah. " Having shown that the term to know" means "that all people may know,"
we apply
this interpretation to the following
words
said in reference to the
THE OBJECT OF TRIALS

manna
"
:
305
To humble
thee,
and to prove
thee, to
know what was

"
in
thine heart, whether thou wouldst keep his commandments, or not (Deut. All nations shall know, it shall be published throughout the world, viii. 2). that those who devote themselves to the service of God are supported beyond
their expectation. In the same sense it was said when the manna commenced to come down, " that I may prove them whether they will walk in
;
" my law or no (Exod. xvi. 4) i.e., let every one who desires try and see whether it is useful and sufficient to devote himself to the service of God. " Who fed thee It is, however, said a third time in reference to the manna in the wilderness with manna, which thy fathers knew not, that he might humble thee, and that he might prove thee, to do thee good at thy latter end " (Deut. viii. 16). This might induce us to think that God sometimes afflicts man for the purpose of increasing his reward. But in truth this is not the case. We may rather assume one of the two following explanations ; either this passage expresses the same idea as is expressed in the first and second passages, viz., to show [to all people] whether faith in God is sufficient to secure man's maintenance and his relief from care and trouble, or not. Or the Hebrew term le-nassoteka means " to accustom thee " ; " the word is used in this sense in the following passage She has not accus" tomed (nisseta) the sole of her foot to set it upon the ground (ibid, xxviii. " The above would then be God has first of the 56). meaning passage trained you in the hardships of the wilderness, in order to increase your welfare when you enter the land of Canaan." It is indeed a fact that the It transition from trouble to ease gives more pleasure than continual ease. is also known that the Israelites would not have been able to conquer the land and fight with its inhabitants, if they had not previously undergone the trouble and hardship of the wilderness. Scripture says in reference to " this For God said, Lest peradventure the people repent when they see But God led the people about, through the war, and they return to Egypt. way of the wilderness of the Red Sea and the children of Israel went up harnessed out of the land of Egypt" (Exod. xiii. 17, 18). Ease destroys and this was [also bravery, whilst trouble and care for food create strength for the Israelites] the good that ultimately came out of their wanderings in " the wilderness. The passage, For God is come to prove you, and that his " fear may be before your faces, that ye sin not (ibid. xx. 20), expresses the same idea as is expressed in Deuteronomy (xiii. 4) in reference to a person who prophesies in the name of idols, namely in the words " For the Lord your God provetb you to know whether ye love the Lord." We have already explained the meaning of the latter passage. In the same sense Moses said " to the Israelites when they stood round Mount Sinai Do not fear the object of this great sight which you perceived is that you should see the truth with your own eyes When the Lord your God, in order to show your
:
: : :
reverse of
Him, will prove you by a false prophet, who will tell you the what you have heard, you will remain firm and your steps will not slide. If I had come as a messenger as you desired, and had told you that which had been said unto me and which you had not heard, you would perhaps consider as true what another might tell you in opposition to that which you heard from me. But it is different now, as you have heard it in the
faithfulness to
midst of the great sight."
306
The account of Abraham our father binding his son, includes two great ideas or principles of our faith. First, it shows us the extent and limit of Abraham is commanded to perform a certain act, which the fear of God.
is
not equalled by any surrender of property or by any
sacrifice of life, for it
surpasses everything that can be done, and belongs to the class of actions which are believed to be contrary to human feelings. He had been without
for a child ; he had great riches, and was exa that nation should After all hope of a son spring from his seed. pecting had already been given up, a son was born unto him. How great must have
child,
and had been longing
been his delight in the child how intensely must he have loved him And yet because he feared God, and loved to do what God commanded, he thought little of that beloved child, and set aside all his hopes concerning
!
!
him, and consented to kill him after a journey of three days. If the act by which he showed his readiness to kill his son had taken place immediately when he received the commandment, it might have been the result of confusion and not of consideration. But the fact that he performed it three days after he had received the commandment, proves the presence of thought, proper consideration, and careful examination of what is due to the Divine command and what is in accordance with the love and fear of God. There is no necessity to look for the presence of any other idea or of anything that might have affected his emotions. For Abraham did not hasten to kill Isaac out of fear that God might slay him or make him poor, but solely because it is man's duty to love and to fear God, even without hope of reward or fear
know," etc. (ibid. ver. 12), that is, from this action, for which you deserve to be truly called a God-fearing man, all people shall This idea is confirmed in Scriplearn how far we must go in the fear of God. it is distinctly stated that one sole thing, fear of God, is the object of ture the whole Law with its affirmative and negative precepts, its promises and " If thou wilt not observe to do all the its historical examples, for it is said, words of this Law that are written in this book, that thou mayest fear this This glorious and fearful name, the Lord thy God," etc. (Deut. xxviii. 58). is one of the two purposes of the 'akedah (sacrifice or binding of Isaac). The second purpose is to show how the prophets believed in the truth of We shall not that which came to them from God by way of inspiration. think that what the prophets heard or saw in allegorical figures may at times have included incorrect or doubtful elements, since the Divine communication was made to them, as we have shown, in a dream or a vision and through the imaginative faculty. Scripture thus tells us that whatever the Prophet perceives in a prophetic vision, he considers as true and correct and not open it is in his eyes like all other things perceived by the senses to any doubt or by the intellect. This is proved by the consent of Abraham to slay " his only son whom he loved," as he was commanded, although the commandment was received in a dream or a vision. If the Prophets had any doubt or suspicion as regards the truth of what they saw in a prophetic dream or perceived in a prophetic vision, they would not have consented to do whaf is unnatural, and Abraham would not have found in his soul strength enough to perform that act, if he had any doubt [as regards the truth of the commandment]. It was just the right thing that this lesson derived from thI
; ;
of punishment. " For says to him,
We
have repeatedly explained
this.
The
angel, therefore,
now
GOD'S
Isaac.
WORK NOT PURPOSELESS
307
'akedah (" sacrifice ") should be taught through Abraham and a man like For Abraham was the first to teach the Unity of God, to establish
:
it to remain among coming generations, and to " I know fellow-men for his doctrine ; as Scripture says of him him, that he will command," etc. (Gen. viii. 19). In the same manner as he was followed by others in his true and valuable opinions when they were heard from him, so also the principles should be accepted that may be learnt from his actions especially from the act by which he confirmed the principle of the truth of prophecy, and showed how far we must go in the fear
the faith [in Him], to cause
vvin his
and the love of God. This is the way how we have to understand the accounts of trials ; we must not think that God desires to examine us and to try us in order to know what He did not know before. Far is this from Him He is far above that which ignorant and foolish people imagine concerning Him, in the evil of
;
their thoughts.
Note
this.
CHAPTER XXV
[MAN'S] actions are divided
object which
is
as
are either purposeless, unimportant, in vain, or good.
regards their object into four classes ; they An action is in vain if the
sought by
it is
Thus people frequently
ference to a person who undertakes the troubles of a journey for his business without profit. Our endeavours and exertions are in vain as regards a patient that is not cured.
use the phrase thou hast worked in vain in relooks out for some one and cannot find him ; or who
not obtained on account of some obstacles. " "
This applies to all actions which are intended for certain purposes that are not realized. Purposeless are such actions, which serve no purpose at all. Some persons, e.g., do something with their hands whilst thinking of someUnthing else. The actions of the insane and confused are of this kind. important are such actions by which a trivial object is sought, an object that This is the case when a person is not necessary and is not of great use. dances without seeking to benefit his digestion by that exercise, or performs
certain actions for the purpose of causing laughter. Such actions are cerWhether an action belongs to this class or not depends tainly mere pastimes.
on the intention of those who perform it, and on the degree of their perFor many things are necessary or very useful in the opinion of one person and superfluous in the opinion of another. E.g., bodily exercise, in
fection.
its different kinds, is necessary for the proper preservation of health in the opinion of him who understands the science of medicine ; writing is conWhen people take exercise by playing sidered as very useful by scholars. with the ball, wrestling, stretching out the hands or keeping back the breath-
do certain things as preparation for writing, shape the pen and get the paper ready, such actions are mere pastimes in the eyes of the ignorant, but the wise do not consider them as unimportant. Useful are such actions as serve a proper purpose being either necessary or useful for the purpose which is to be attained. This division [of man's actions] is, as I believe, not
ing, or
;
open to any objection.

purpose or
is
For every action is either intended for a certain not intended and if intended for a certain purpose, that pur;
308
pose may be important or unimportant, is sometimes attained and sometimes missed. This division is therefore complete. After having explained this division, I contend that no intelligent person can assume that any of the actions of God can be in vain, purposeless, or unimportant. According to our view and the view of all that follow the Law
of Moses,
all
actions of
God
are
"
"
And God saw everything that he had made, and behold, it was very good " And that which God made foi a certain thing is necessary or (Gen. i. 31).
Thus food
is
exceedingly good."
Thus Scripture
says,
the existence of that thing. [at least] very useful for

for the existence of living beings
his life,
;
is
necessary
the possession of eyes
very useful to
man
although food only serves to sustain living beings a certain during time, and the senses are only intended to procure to animals the advantages of sensation. The philosophers likewise assume that in Nature there is nothing in vain, so that everything that is not the product of human industry There are serves a certain purpose, which may be known or unknown to us. thinkers that assume that God does not create one thing for the sake of another, that existing things are not to each other in the relation of cause and effect ; that they are all the direct result of the Will of God, and do not serve any purpose. According to this opinion we cannot ask why has He made this and not that ; for He does what pleases Him, without following a Those who defend this theory must consider the actions of fixed system. God as purposeless, and even as inferior to purposeless actions ; for when we perform purposeless actions, our attention is engaged by other things and we do not know what we are doing but God, according to these theorists,
;
knows what
ever.
The
doing, and knowingly does it for no purpose or use whatabsurdity of assuming that some of God's actions are trivial, is apparis
He
ent even at
first sight,
and no notice need be taken of the nonsensical idea
Such opinions originate only in that monkeys were created for our pastime. man's ignorance of the nature of transient beings, and in his overlooking the
it was intended by the Creator to produce in its present form everything whose existence is possible ; a different form was not decreed by the Divine Wisdom, and the existence [of objects of a different form] is therefore impossible, because the existence of all things depends on the decree of God's wisdom. Those who hold that God's works serve no purpose what-
principle that
ever believe that an examination of the totality of existing things compels them to adopt this theory. They ask what is the purpose of the whole Universe ? they necessarily answer, like all those who believe in the Creation, that
The same answer they
God willed it so, and for no other purpose. apply to all parts of the Universe, and do not admit that the hole in the uvea and the transparency of the cornea are intended for the purpose of allowing the spiritus visus to pass and to perceive certain
it
was created because
, they do not assume that the hole in the uvea and the because of the sight, but because of sight could have been created in a
1
objects
;
these circumstances are causes for the
sight
transparent matter over it are not there the Will of God, although the sense of
different form.
There
"
the Bible which at
first
The Lord hath done whatever he pleased E.g., " " soul desired it and he made it (Job xxiii. 13) ;
What
doest thou
"
sight
we might understand
are passages in to imply this theory.
Who
"
His (Ps. cxxxv. 6) ; will say unto thee,

of these
"
(Eccles.
viii. 4).
The meaning
and
similar
THE OBJECT OF THE CREATION
309
verses is this : whatever God desires to do is necessarily done ; there is nothing that could prevent the realization of Kis will. The object of His will is only that which is possible, and of the vhings possible only such as His
produce the best work, no and that work. This is the opinion held by all religious people, also by the philosophers it is also our For although we believe that God created the Universe from opinion. nothing, most of our wise and learned men believe that the Creation was not the exclusive result of His will but His wisdom, which we are unable to comprehend, made the actual existence of the Universe necessary. The same unchangeable wisdom found it as necessary that non-existence should precede
decrees upon.
desires to
wisdom
When God
obstacle or hindrance intervenes
between
Him
the existence of the Universe. Our Sages frequently express this idea in the " He hath made everything beautiful in his time " explanation of the words, (Eccles. iii. ll), only in order to avoid that which is objectionable, viz., the opinion that God does things without any purpose whatever. This is the belief
of
most of our Theologians
and
in a similar
manner have the Prophets ex-
pressed the idea that all parts of natural products are well arranged, in good order, connected with each other, and stand to each other in the relation of cause and effect ; nothing of them is purposeless, trivial, or in vain ; they are
manifold are thy is full of thy " " riches And all his works are done in truth " (ibid, xxxiii. (Ps. civ. 24) ; " The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth " (Prov. iii. 19). This 4) ;
all
the result of great wisdom.

!
works
in
wisdom
hast thou
Comp. made them
"
all
Lord, the
:
how
earth
idea occurs frequently ; there is no necessity to believe otherwise ; sophic speculation leads to the same result ; viz., that in the whole of
philo-
Nature there is nothing purposeless, trivial, or unnecessary, especially in the Nature of the spheres, which are in the best condition and order, in accordance with
their superior substance.
Know that the difficulties which lead to confusion in the question what is the purpose of the Universe or of any of its parts, arise from two causes : first, man has an erroneous idea of himself, and believes that the whole world
only for his sake ; secondly, he is ignorant both about the nature of the sublunary world, and about the Creator's intention to give existence to all beings whose existence is possible, because existence is undoubtedly good. The consequences of that error and of the ignorance about the two things
exists
named, are doubts and confusion, which lead many to imagine that some of God's works are trivial, others purposeless, and others in vain. Those who adopt this absurd idea that God's actions are utterly purposeless, and refuse
them as the result of His wisdom, are afraid they might otherwise be compelled to admit the theory of the Eternity of the Universe, and guard themselves against it by the above theory. I have already told you the view
to consider
which
is set forth in Scripture on this question, and which it is proper to It is this it is not unreasonable to assume that the works of God, accept. their existence and preceding non-existence, are the result of His wisdom, but we are unable to understand many of the ways of His wisdom in His
:
works.
On
this principle
the whole
all
this principle
"
And God saw

i.
that
Law of Moses is based He had made, and,

;
it begins with behold, it was
very
good" (Gen.
is
perfect
His work
"
31);
and
it
ends with this principle:

4).
(Deut. xxxii.
Note
it.
"The Rock, When /ou examine this
3io
view and that of the philosophers, taking into consideration all preceding chapters which are connected with this subject, you will find that there is
of opinion as regards any portions of the Universe, except that the philosophers believe in the Eternity of the Universe and we believe in the Creation. Note this.
no other difference
CHAPTER XXVI
As Theologians are divided on the question whether the actions of God are the result of His wisdom, or only of His will without being intended for any purpose whatever, so they are also divided as regards the object of the commandments which God gave us. Some of them hold that the commandments have no object at all; and are only dictated by the will of God. Others are of opinion that all commandments and prohibitions are dictated by His wisdom and serve a certain aim consequently there is a reason for each one of the precepts they are enjoined because they are useful. All
; ;
of us, the
is
common
to us,
for every precept,
unknown
people as well as the scholars, believe that there is a reason although there are commandments the reason of which and in which the ways of God's wisdom are incomprehen;
sible.
statutes
is distinctly expressed in Scripture; comp. "righteous " the judgments of the Lord are and judgments " (Deut. iv. 8) " xix. There are commandments true, and righteous altogether 10). (Ps. " which are called hukkim, ordinances," like the prohibition of wearing garments of wool and linen (sha'atnez), boiling meat and milk together, and the sending of the goat [into the wilderness on the Day of Atonement]. " These are Our Sages use in reference to them phrases like the following have ordained for thee and dare not criticize which I fully you things " " Your evil inclination is turned against them " and non-Jews them " ; But our Sages generally do not think that such prefind them strange." cepts have no cause whatever, and serve no purpose ; for this would lead us to assume that God's actions are purposeless. On the contrary, they hold that even these ordinances have a cause, and are certainly intended for some use, owing either to the deficiency of our knowalthough it is not known to us
: ;
This view
ledge or the weakness of our intellect.
Consequently there
is
a cause for
every
every positive or negative precept serves a useful object ; in some cases the usefulness is evident, e.g., the prohibition of murder and theft ; in others the usefulness is not so evident, e.g., the prohibition of enjoying the fruit of a tree in the first three years (Lev. xix. 23),
;
commandment
or of a vineyard in which other seeds have been growing (Deut. xxii. 9). " Those commandments, whose object is generally evident, are called judg" ments (mishpatim) ; those whose object is not generally clear are called
"
ordinances
"
(hukkim).
It
is
Kilo dabar
xxxii. 74)
;
rek bu mi-kern
Thus they say "

(lit.
for it
is
"
[in reference to the words of Moses] : not a vain thing for you," Deut.
not in vain, and
if it
is
in vain,
it is
only so through you."
to say, the giving of these commandments is not a vain thing and without any useful object ; and if it appears so to you in any commandment,
That
it is
is
owing to the deficiency
in
your comprehension.
the famous saying that Solomon " red heifer." except that of the
You certainly know knew the reason for all commandments Our Sages also said that God concealed
THE DIVINE COMMANDMENTS
311
the causes of commandments, lest people should despise them, as Solomon did in respect to three commandments, the reason for which is clearly stated. I In this sense they always speak ; and Scriptural texts support the idea. have, however, found one utterance made by them in Bereshit-rabba (sect,
which might at first sight appear to imply that some commandments have no other reason but the fact that they are commanded, that no other object is intended by them, and that they do not serve any useful object.
xliv.),
mean
the following passage

is
What
difference does
it
make
to
God whether
?
a beast
killed
by cutting the neck
in front or in the back
Surely the
are only intended as a means of trying man ; in accordance " " with the verse, The word of God is a test (lit. tried) (Ps. xviii. 31). Although this passage is very strange, and has no parallel in the writings of our Sages, I
commandments
explain it, as you shall soon hear, in such a manner that I remain in accord with the meaning of their words and do not depart from the principle which we agreed upon, that the commandments serve a useful object ; " for it is not a vain thing for you " "I have not said to the seed of Jacob, seek me "
;
in vain.
I the
xlv. 19). I this respect
Lord speak righteousness, declare that which is right (Isa. will now tell you what intelligent persons ought to believe in
namely, that each
commandment
has necessarily a cause, as
far as its general character is concerned, and serves a certain object ; but as regards its details we hold that it has no ulterior object. Thus killing ani-
mals for the purpose of obtaining good food is certainly useful, as we intend to show (below, ch. xlviii.) ; that, however, the killing should not be performed by nehirah (poleaxing the animal), but by shehitah (cutting the
neck), and by dividing the oesophagus and the windpipe in a certain place ; these regulations and the like are nothing but tests for man's obedience, fn this sense you will understand the example quoted by our Sages [that there
is no difference] between killing the animal by cutting its neck in front and I give this instance only because it has been mencutting it in the back. tioned by our Sages ; but in reality [there is some reason for these regulaFor as it has become necessary to eat the flesh of animals, it was tions]. intended by the above regulations to ensure an easy death and to effect it
by suitable means whilst decapitation requires a sword or a similar instrument, the shehitah can be performed with any instrument ; and in order to ensure an easy death our Sages insisted that the knife should be well
;
sharpened.
more
suitable instance can be cited

sacrifices.
from the detailed commandments
concerning
The law
shown
of great use, as will be
that sacrifices should be brought is evidently by us (infra, chap, xlvi.) ; but we cannot say
should be a lamb, whilst another is a ram ; and why a fixed should be brought. Those who trouble themselves to find a cause for any of these detailed rules, are in my eyes void of sense ; they do not remove any difficulties, but rather increase them. Those who believe
why one offering number of them
as
that these detailed rules originate in a certain cause, are as far from the truth those who assume that the whole law is useless. You must know that
Divine
made
it
necessary no certain object ;
it or, if you prefer, say that circumstances that there should be parts [of His work] which have and as regards the Law, it appears to be impossible that should not include some matter of this kind. That it cannot be avoided
it
Wisdom demanded
312
You ask why must a lamb be sacseen from the following instance. and not a ram ? but the same question would be asked, why a ram had been commanded instead of a lamb, so long as one particular kind is required. The same is to be said as to the question why were seven lambs the same question might have been asked if there sacrificed and not eight were eight, ten, or twenty lambs, so long as some definite number of lambs were sacrificed. It is almost similar to the nature of a thing which can We must not receive different forms, but actually receives one of them. ask why it has this form and not another which is likewise possible, because we should have to ask the same question if instead of its actual form the thing had any of the other possible forms. Note this, and understand it. The may be
rificed
;
repeated assertion of our Sages that there are reasons for all commandments, and the tradition that Solomon knew them, refer to the general purpose of the commandments, and not to the object of every detail. This being the
convenient to divide the six hundred and thirteen precepts each class will include many precepts of the same kind, or reI will [first] explain the reason of lated to each other by their character. each class, and show its undoubted and undisputed object, and then I shall discuss each commandment in the class, and expound its reason. Only very few will be left unexplained, the reason for which I have been unable to trace unto this day. I have also been able to comprehend in some cases even the object of many of the conditions and details as far as these can be discovered. You will hear all this later on. But in order to fully explain these reasons I
case, I find it
into classes
must premise several chapters the basis of my theory. I will
now begin
in these I will discuss principles these chapters.
which form
CHAPTER XXVII
THE
the well-being of the soul, and general object of the Law is twofold the well-being of the body. The well-being of the soul is promoted by correct opinions communicated to the people according to their capacity. Some of these opinions are therefore imparted in a plain form, others alle:
because certain opinions are in their plain form too strong for the ; capacity of the common people. The well-being of the body is established by a proper management of the relations in which we live one to another. This we can attain in two ways : first by removing all violence from our
gorically
midst
is
that
able to
common
as
we do not do every one as he pleases, desires, and but every one of us does that which contributes towards the welfare. Secondly, by teaching every one of us such good morals
is
;
to say, that
do
Of these two objects, the one, the a good social state. of correct opinions, comes unor communication of the the soul, well-being doubtedly first in rank, but the other, the well-being of the body, the government of the state, and the establishment of the best possible relations among men, is anterior in nature and time. The latter object is required first ;
must produce
treated [in the Law] most carefully and most minutely, because the well-being of the soul can only be obtained after that of the body has been For it has already been found that man has a double perfection : secured.
it is also
the
first
perfection
is
that of the body, and the second perfection
is
that of

the soul.
relations,
313
his material
The
and
;
first consists
is
in the
most healthy condition of

has
all his
wants supplied, as if he has his food, and other things needful for his body, e.g., they arise But one man alone cannot procure all this ; it shelter, bath, and the like. is impossible for a single man to obtain this comfort ; it is only possible in society, since man, as is well known, is by nature social. The second perfection of man consists in his becoming an actually intellii.e., he knows about the things in existence all that a person gent being This second perfection certainly perfectly developed is capable of knowing. does not include any action or good conduct, but only knowledge, which is
this
only possible
when man
by speculation, or established by research. and superior kind of perfection can only be attained when the first perfection has been acquired ; for a person that is suffering from great hunger, thirst, heat, or cold, cannot grasp an idea even if communicated by others, much less can he arrive at it by his own reasoning. But when a person is in possession of the first perfection, then he may possibly acquire the second perfection, which is undoubtedly of a superior kind, and is alone the source of eternal life. The true Law, which as we said is one, and beside which there is no other Law, viz., the Law of our teacher
It
is
arrived at
clear that the second
Moses, has for its purpose to give us the twofold perfection. It aims first at the establishment of good mutual relations among men by removing injustice and creating the noblest feelings. In this way the people in every land are enabled to stay and continue in one condition, and every one can acquire
his first perfection.
Secondly,
it
seeks to train us in faith,
and to impart
correct and true opinions when the intellect is sufficiently developed. Scripture clearly mentions the twofold perfection, and tells us that its acquisition
is
the object of
all
commanded
us to do
And the Lord the divine commandments. Comp. all these statutes, to fear the Lord our God, for our
"
"
good always, that he might preserve us alive as it is this day (Deut. vi. 24). Here the second perfection is first mentioned because it is of greater imporThis tance, being, as we have shown, the ultimate aim of man's existence.
expressed in the phrase, " ' that it interpretation of our Sages,
perfection
is
"
for our
'
may be
good always." well with thee
You know
'
the
(ibid. xxii. 7),
namely, in the world that is all good, and that thou mayest prolong thy ' days (ibid.}, i.e., in the world that is all eternal." In the same sense I ex" for our good always," to mean that we may come into the plain the words, world that is all good and eternal, where we may live permanently ; and " the words, that he might preserve us alive as it is this day," I explain as reto our first and ferring temporal existence, to that of our body, which cannot
be
as
in a perfect and good condition except by the co-operation of society, has been shown by us.
CHAPTER XXVIII
IT is necessary to bear in mind that Scripture only teaches the chief points of those true principles which lead to the true perfection of man, and only demands in general terms faith in them. Thus Scripture teaches the Existence, the Unity, the Omniscience, the Omnipotence, the Will, and the Eternity of God. All this is given in the form of final results, but they
314
cannot be understood fully and accurately except after the acquisition of many kinds of knowledge. Scripture further demands belief in certain truths, the belief in which is indispensable in regulating our social relations ; such is the belief that God is angry with those who disobey Him, for it leads There are us to the fear and dread of disobedience [to the will of God]. other truths in reference to the whole of the Universe which form the substance of the various and many kinds of speculative sciences, and afford the means of verifying the above-mentioned principles as their final result. But Scripture does not so distinctly prescribe the belief in them as it does in the " " to love the Lord it is implied in the commandment, first case (Deut. " from the And thou shalt love the inferred Lord It be ri. 13). words, may " and with all and with all all with God heart, soul, thy thy might thy thy
;
what stress is laid on this commandment to love God. We have in the Mishneh-torah (Yes. ha-torab ii. 2) that this love is only shown already possible when we comprehend the real nature of things, and understand the We have likewise mentioned there what divine wisdom displayed therein. our Sages remark on this subject. The result of all these preliminary remarks is this The reason of a commandment, whether positive or negative, is clear, and its usefulness evident, if it directly tends to remove injustice, or to teach good conduct that furthers the well-being of society, or to impart a truth which ought to be believed either on its own merit or as being indispensable for facilitating the removal There is no occasion to ask for of injustice or the teaching of good morals. the object of such commandments for no one can, e.g., be in doubt as to the
(ibid. vi. 5),
:
why we have been commanded to believe that God is one why we are forbidden to murder, to steal, and to take vengeance, or to retaliate, or why we But there are precepts concerning are commanded to love one another.
reason
;
which people are in doubt, and of divided opinions, some believing that they are mere commands, and serve no purpose whatever, whilst others believe that they serve a certain purpose, which, however, is unknown to man. Such are those precepts which in their literal meaning do not seem to further any to impart some truth, to teach some of the three above-named results moral, or to remove injustice. They do not seem to have any influence upon
:
upon the well-being body by suggesting such ways and rules as are useful in the government Such are the prohibitions of a state, or in the management of a household. of wearing garments containing wool and linen ; of sowing divers seeds, or of boiling meat and milk together ; the commandment of covering the blood and birds], the ceremony of breaking the neck of a calf [of slaughtered beasts found slain, and the murderer being unknown] [in case of a person being I am prepared to the law concerning the first-born of an ass, and the like. tell you my explanation of all these commandments, and to assign for them a true reason supported by proof, with the exception of some minor rules, and of a few commandments, as I have mentioned above. I will show that all these and similar laws must have some bearing upon one of the following
the well-being of the soul by imparting any truth, or
of the
;
the regulation of our opinions, or the improvement of our which implies two things, the removal of injustice, and the teaching of good morals. Consider what we said of the opinions [implied in the laws] ; in some cases the law contains a truth which is itself the only
three things,
viz.,
social relations,
315
object of that law, as e.g., the truth of the Unity, Eternity, and Incorpormeans of securing the eality of God ; in other cases, that truth is only the removal of injustice, or the acquisition of good morals ; such is the belief
angry with those who oppress their fellow-men, as it is said, will be kindled, and I will slay," etc. (Exod. xxii. 23) ; or the belief that God hears the crying of the oppressed and vexed, to deliver them " And it shall out of the hands of the oppressor and tyrant, as it is written, come to pass, when he will cry unto me, that I will hear, for I am gracious "
that
God
is
"
Mine anger
(Exod.
xxii. 25).
CHAPTER XXIX
IT is well known that the Patriarch Abraham was brought up in the religion and the opinion of the Sabeans, that there is no divine being except the stars. I will tell you in this chapter their works which are at present extant in Arabic translations, and also in their ancient chronicles ; and I will show you their opinion and their practice according to these books. You will then see clearly that they consider the stars as deities, and the sun as the chief deity. They believe that all the seven stars are gods, but the two luminaries
are greater than all the rest. They say distinctly that the sun governs the world, both that which is above and that which is below ; these are exactly their expressions. In these books, and in their chronicles, the history of
Abraham our father is given in the following manner. Abraham was brought up in Kutha when he differed from the people and declared that there is a Maker besides the sun, they raised certain objections, and mentioned in their
;
arguments the evident and manifest action of the sun in the Universe. " You are right," said Abraham ; " [the sun acts in the same manner] as ' " Then some of his the axe in the hand of him hews with
that
it.'
argu-
ments against his opponents are mentioned. In short, the king put him in prison ; but he continued many days, while in prison, to argue against them. At last the king was afraid that Abraham might corrupt the kingdom, and turn the people away from their religion ; he therefore expelled Abraham
into Syria, after having deprived
him
of
all his
property.
This is their account which you find clearly stated in the book called The Nabatean Agriculture. Nothing is said there of the account given in our trustworthy books, nor do they mention what he learnt by way of prophecy for they refused to believe him, because he attacked their evil doctrine. I do not doubt that when he attacked the doctrine of all his fellowmen, he was cursed, despised, and scorned by these people who adhered to their erroneous opinions. When he submitted to this treatment for the sake of God, as ought to be done for the sake of His glory, God said to him.
;
"
And
I will bless
xii. 3).
them
(Gen.
most people,
as
The we see
that bless thee, and curse them that curse thee result of the course which Abraham took, is the fact that
at present, agree in praising him, and being proud of who are not his descendants call themselves by his
"
him
so that even those
No one opposes him, and no one ignores his merits, except some Ignoble remnants of the nations left in the remote corners of the earth, like the savage Turks in the extreme North, and the Indians in the extreme
name.
South.
These are remnants of the
Sabeans,
who once
filled
the
earth..
3 i6
able to think, and were philosophers in those days, could only raise themselves to the idea that God is the spirit of the spheres ; the Abu-beer spheres with their stars being the body, and God the spirit. al-Zaig mentions this in his Commentary on the book of Physics. All the Sabeans thus believed in the eternity of the Universe, the heavens
Those who were
being in their opinion God. Adam was in their belief a human being born from male and female, like the rest of mankind he was only distinguished from his fellow-men by being a prophet sent by the moon he accordingly called men to the worship of the moon, and he wrote several works on agriThe Sabeans further relate that Noah was an agriculturist, and culture. that he was not pleased with the worship of idols they blame him for that, and say that he did not worship any image. In their writings we meet even with the statement that Noah was rebuked and imprisoned because he worshipped God, and with many other accounts about him. The Sabeans contend that Seth differed from his father Adam, as regards the worship of the moon. They manufactured ridiculous stories, which prove that their authors were very deficient in knowledge, that they were by no means philoAdam, they sophers, but on the contrary were extremely ignorant persons. say, left the torrid zone near India and entered the region of Babylon, bringing with him wonderful things, such as a golden tree, that was growing, and had leaves and branches a stone tree of the same kind, and a fresh leaf of a tree proof against fire. He related that there was a tree which could shelter ten thousand men, although it had only the height of a man ; two leaves he brought with him, each of which was sufficient to cover two men. Of these stories the Sabeans have a wonderful abundance. I am surprised that per; ; ; ;
sons
who
think that the Universe
is
eternal, can yet believe in these things
which nature cannot produce, as is known to every student of Natural Science. They only mention Adam, and relate the above stories about him, in order to support their theory of the Eternity of the Universe ; from this theory they then derive the doctrine that the stars and the spheres are When [Abraham] the " Pillar of the World " appeared, he became deities. convinced that there is a spiritual Divine Being, which is not a body, nor a force residing in a body, but is the author of the spheres and the stars ; and he saw the absurdity of the tales in which he had been brought up. He
therefore began to attack the belief of the Sabeans, to expose the falsehood
of their opinions, and to proclaim publicly in opposition to them, the name of the Lord, the God of the Universe " (Gen. xxi. 33), which procla-
"
mation included
at the
same time the Existence of God, and the Creation of
the Universe by God. In accordance with the Sabean theories images were erected to the stars, golden images to the sun, images of silver to the moon, and they attributed
certain planet
the metals and the climates to the influence of the planets, saying that a is the god of a certain zone. They built temples, placed in
them images, and assumed that the stars sent forth their influence upon these images, which are thereby enabled (to speak) to understand, to comprehend, to inspire human beings, and to tell them what is useful to them. They
apply the same to trees which
a certain tree, this star,
fall
to the lot of these stars.
When, namely,
which
and
peculiar to a certain star, is dedicated to the name of certain things are done for the tree and to the tree, the
is

spiritual force of that star
317
speaks to
them when they

your
prophets of Asherah," mentioned in Scripture, in whose hearts the Sabean theories had taken root, who forsook God, and called, " Baal, hear " us (i Kings xviii. 26) ; because these theories were then general, ignorance had spread, and the madness with which people adhered to this kind of imaginations had increased in the world. When such opinions were adopted among the Israelites, they had observers of clouds, enchanters, witches,
the
spirits, wizards, and necromancers. have shown in our large work, Mishneh-torah (Hilkot,'j4bodab-zarab, i. 3), that Abraham was the first that opposed these theories by arguments and by soft and persuasive speech. He induced these people, by showing kindness to them, to serve God. Afterwards came the chief of the prophets, and completed the work by the commandment to slay those unbelievers, to blot out their name, and to uproot them from the land of the living. Comp. " Ye shall destroy their altars," etc. (Exod. xxxiv. 13). He forbade us to *' follow their ways he said, Ye shall not walk in the manners of the heathen,"
which "
I will call
which influences that tree, inspires men, and are asleep. All this is written in their works, to " attention. It applies to the prophets of Baal," and
charmers, consulters with familiar
We
etc. (Lev. xx. 23).
You know from the repeated declarations in the Law that the principal purpose of the whole Law was the removal and utter destruction of idolatry, and all that is connected therewith, even its name, and everything that might lead to any such practices, e.g., acting as a consulter
spirits, or as a wizard, passing children through the "fire, divining, observing the clouds, enchanting, charming, or inquiring of the dead. The law prohibits us to imitate the heathen in any of these deeds,
with familiar
and a
fortiori to
adopt them entirely.
It
is
everything which idolaters consider
as service
" for every approaching them, is rejected and despised by God comp. abomination to the Lord, which he hateth, have they done unto their gods " In the books which I shall name to you later on, it is stated (Deut. xii. 31). that on certain occasions they offered to the sun, their greatest god, seven This alone suffices to show how beetles, and seven mice, and seven bats. Thus all precepts disgusting their practice must be to human nature. cautioning against idolatry, or against that which is connected therewith, leads to it, or is related to it, are evidently useful. They all tend to save us from the evil doctrines that deprive us of everything useful for the acquisition of the twofold perfection of man, by leading to those absurd practices " in which our fathers and ancestors have been brought up. Comp. And all the said unto Thus saith the Lord God of Israel, your Joshua people, fathers dwelt on the other side of the river in eld time, even Terah, the " father of Abraham, and the father of Nahor, and they served other gods
;
distinctly said in the to their gods, and a
Law
that
means of
(Josh. xxiv. 2)
It
is
prophets exclaim, They walked after [vain] things, which do not profit." How great is the usefulness of every precept that delivers us from this great
error,
"
in reference to these [idolatrous ideas] that the true
and
rules the
leads us back to the true faith : that God, the Creator of all things, Universe ; that He must be served, loved, and feared, and not
those imaginary deities. According to this faith we approach the true and obtain His favour without having recourse to burdensome means
God,
;
for
nothing
else
is
required but to love and fear
Him
this
is
the aim in serving
318
God,
as will

" be shown. Comp. And now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy I shall require of thee but to fear the Lord" ? etc. (Deut. x. 12).
this subject later
God
complete
on
now
let us
return to the theme [of this
chapter]. I say that
my knowledge
has given
me
an insight into
of the belief, practice, and worship of the Sabeans many of the divine precepts, and has led me to
know their reason. You will confirm it when I shall give the reason of commandments which are seemingly purposeless. I will mention to you the works from which you may learn all that I know of the religion and the
opinions of the Sabeans ; you will thereby obtain a true knowledge of theory as regards the purpose of the divine precepts.
my
The great book on this subject is the book On the Nabatean Agriculture, In a succeeding chapter I shall explain why translated by Ibn Wahshiya. the Sabeans had their religious doctrines written in a work on agriculture.
is full of the absurdities of idolatrous people, and with those things which the minds of the multitude easily turn and adhere [perseveringly] it speaks of talismans, the means of directing the influence [of the stars] There occur witchcraft, spirits, and demons that dwell in the wilderness. also in this book great absurdities, which are ridiculous in the eyes of intelligent people. They were intended as a criticism and an attack on the evident miracles by which all people learnt that there exists a God who is judge " over all people. Comp. That thou mayest know how that the earth is " " the Lord's ix. That I am the Lord in the midst of the earth "
The book
to
(Exod.
29),
(ibid. viii. 1 8).
describes things as having been mentioned by Adam in his book which is found in India, and has the peculiarity that any branch taken from it and thrown to the ground creeps along and moves like serpents it also mentions a tree which in its root resembles a human being, utters a loud a plant is mentioned which has this sound, and speaks a word or words peculiarity, that a leaf of it put on the neck of a person conceals that person from the sight of men, and enables him to enter or leave a place without being seen, and if any part of it is burnt in open air a noise and terrible sounds are heard whilst the smoke ascends. Numerous fables of this kind are introduced in the description of the wonders of plants and the properties of This leads the author to argue against the [true] miracles, and agriculture. to say that they were the result of artifice. Among other fables we read there that the plant althea, one of the Asherot, which they made, as I told you, stood in Nineveh twelve thousand years. This tree had once a quarrel with the mandragora, which wanted to take the place of the former. The person who had been inspired by this tree ceased to receive inspiration when after some time the prophetical power had returned to him, he was told by the althea that the latter had been engaged in a dispute with the mandragora. He was then commanded to write to the magicians that they should decide whether the althea or the mandragora was better and more effective in witchcraft. It is a long story, and you may learn from it, when you read it, the opinions and the wisdom of the men of that time. Such were in those days of darkness the wise men of Babel, to whom reference is made in Scripture, and such were the beliefs in which they were trained. And were it not that the theory of the Exist-
The book
a tree
319
ence of God is at present generally accepted, our days would now have been I return now to darker than those days, though in other respects. my
subject.
In that book the following story is also related : One of the idolatrous prophets, named Tammuz. called upon the king to worship the seven planets and the twelve constellations of the Zodiac whereupon the king killed him
;
night of his death the images from all parts of the land came together in the temple of Babylon which was devoted to the image of the Sun, the great golden image. This image, which was suspended between heaven and earth, came down into the midst of the temple,
in a dreadful
manner.
The
and surrounded by all other images commenced to mourn for Tammuz, and All other image* cried and mourned the to relate what had befallen him. at dawn they flew away and returned to their temples in whole night Hence the regular custom arose for the women every corner of the earth. to weep, lament, mourn, and cry for Tammuz on the first day of the month
;
of
Tammuz.
Consider what opinions people had in these days. The legend of Tammuz is very old among the Sabeans. This book will disclose to you most of the But you perverse ideas and practices of the Sabeans, including their feasts. must be careful and must not be misled to think that we have real incidents in the life of Adam, or of any other person, or any real fact in the stories which they relate about Adam, the serpent, the tree of knowledge of good and evil, and the allusion to the garment of Adam which he had not been accustomed to wear. A little consideration will lay open the falsehood of all these accounts ; it will show that they have been invented in imitation of the Pentateuch when The account of the Creation was heard, it became known among the nations. arid it was taken entirely in its literal sense. They have done this in order that the ignorant may hear it, and be persuaded to assume the Eternity of the Universe, and to believe that the Scriptural account contained facts which happened in the manner as has been assumed by the Sabeans. You have It is by no means necessary to point this out to men like you. acquired sufficient knowledge to keep your mind free from the absurdities
of the
But
Kasdim, Chaldeans, and Sabeans, who are bare of every true science. wish to exhort you that you should caution others, for ordinary people
are very
much
inclined to believe these fables.
Aristotle,
class of books we count the book Istimachis, attributed to can by no means have been its author ; also the books on Talismans, such as the book of Tomtom ; the book al-Sarb ; the book on the degrees of the sphere and the constellations rising with each degree ; a book on Talismans attributed to Aristotle, a book ascribed to Hermes, a book of the Sabean Ishak in defence of the Sabean religion, and hisdarge
To the same
who
work on Sabean customs, details of their religion, ceremonies, festivals, offerings, prayers and other things relating to their faith. All these books which I have mentioned are works on idolatry translated into Arabic there is no doubt that they form a very small portion in comparison to that which has not been translated, and that which is no longer But those works which are extant, but has been lost in the course of time. at present extant, include most of the opinions of the Sabeans and their still in vogue in the world. practices, which are to some degree
;
320

describe
They
in
how
them,
altars erected
thereon, festivals other kinds of service

call
temples are built and images of metal and stone placed and sacrifices and various kinds of food are offered celebrated, meetings held in the temples for prayer and
;
how
they select certain very distinguished places and

;
them temples of Intellectual Images (or Forms) how they make images " on the high mountains " (Deut. xii. 2), rear asherot, erect pillars, and do
many other things which you can learn from The knowledge of these theories and practices
" Lest your heart be persuaded," etc. (Deut. xi. 16), whose xxix. The etc. actual abolition of (ibid. 17). away to-day," " Ye shall destroy their altars, idolatry is expressed in the following passage " " and ye shall destroy their and burn their groves in fire (Deut. vii. 5),
"
Scripture says heart turneth
: :
For it plaining the reasons of the precepts. Law and the axis round which it turns, to blot out these opinions from man's heart and make the existence of idolatry impossible. As regards the former
the books mentioned by us. of great importance in exis the principal object of the
is
These two things are frequently repeated they form object of the whole Law, as our Sages distinctly told " all that God commanded us in their traditional explanation of the words " " for Hence we learn hand of Moses xv. the 23) (Num. they say, you by that those who follow idolatry deny as it were their adhesion to the whole Law, and those who reject idolatry follow as it were the whole Law." (B. T. Kidd, 40*.) Note it.
name,"
etc. (xii. 3).
;
the principal and
first
CHAPTER XXX
ON
examining these old and foolish doctrines we find that
it
was most
generally believed by the people that by the worship of stars the earth will become inhabited, and the ground fertilized. The wise, pious, and sinfearing men among them reproved the people and taught them that agri-
on which the preservation of mankind depended, would become perfect and satisfy man's wishes, when he worshipped the sun and the stars. If man provoked these beings by his rebelliousness, the towns would beculture,
come empty and
In the above-named books it is stated that Mars waste. was angry with [lands, that form now] deserts and wastes, and in consequence of that anger they were deprived of water and trees, and have become the habitation of demons. Tillers of the ground and husbandmen are praised in those books, because they are engaged with the cultivation of the land in accordance with the will and desire of the stars. The idolaters also held cattle in esteem on account of their use in agriculture, and went even so far as to say, that it is not allowed to slay them, because they combine in themselves strength and willingness to do the work of man in tilling the ground. The oxen, notwithstanding their great strength, o this, and submit to man, because it is the will of God that they should be employed in When these views became generally known, idolatry was conagriculture. nected with agriculture, because the latter is indispensable for the maintenance of man, and of most animals. The idolatrous priests then preached to the people who met in the temples, and taught them that by certain religious acts, rain
fruit,
would come down, the trees of the field would yield their and the land would be fertile and inhabited. See what is said in the

:
321
God (Deut. xxviii. 6-9). It is frequently expressed in all parts of Scripture, that the worship of the stars would be followed by absence of But rain, devastation of the land, bad times, diseases, and shortness of life. abandonment of that worship, and the return to the service of God, would
be the cause of the presence of rain, fertility of the ground, good times, health and length of life. Thus Scripture teaches, in order that man should abandon idolatry, the reverse of that which idolatrous priests preached to
the people,
for, as
Nabatean Agriculture in the chapter on vineyards. The following words of " the Sabeans are quoted there All ancient wise men advised, and prophets likewise commanded and enjoined to play before the images on certain instruments during the festivals. They also said and what they said is true that the deities are pleased with it, and reward those who do it. They promise, indeed, very great reward for these things ; e.g., length of life, protection from illness, exemption from great bodily deformities, plenty of the produce of the earth, and of the fruits of the trees." These are the words of the Sabeans. When these ideas spread, and were considered as true, God, in His great mercy for us, intended to remove this error from our minds, and to protect our bodies from trouble ; and therefore desired us to discontinue the practice of these useless actions. He gave us His Law through Moses, our teacher, who told us in the name of God, that the worship of stars and other corporeal beings would effect that rain would cease, the land be waste, and would not produce anything, and the fruit of the trees would wither ; calamities would befall the people, their bodies would be deformed, and life " would be shortened. These are the contents of the words of the covenant which made "
has been
remove
this doctrine,
shown by us, the principal object of the and to destroy its traces.
Law is
to
CHAPTER XXXI
THERE
are persons who find it difficult to give a reason for any of the commandments, and consider it right to assume that the commandments and They are led to adopt this prohibitions have no rational basis whatever. theory by a certain disease in their soul, the existence of which they perceive, but which they are unable to discuss or to describe. For they imagine that these precepts, if they were useful in any respect, and were commanded because of their usefulness, would seem to originate in the thought and reason But as things which are not objects of reason and of some intelligent being. serve no purpose, they would undoubtedly be attributed to God, because no
thought of
man
could have produced them.
According to the theory of
those weak-minded persons, man is more perfect than his Creator. For what man says or does has a certain object, whilst the actions of God are different ; He commands us to do what is of no use to us, and forbids us to
do what
the contrary, the sole object of the " for our Scriptural passage, " as it is this that He us alive, day (Deut. vi. 24). might preserve good always, " which shall hear all those statutes (hukkim), and say, surely this Again, " He thus says nation is a wise and (ibid. iv. 6). great understanding people " " convinces all nations of that even every one of these statutes the
is
harmless.
Far be
this
On
Law
is
to benefit us.
Thus we explained the
wisdom and understanding
it
includes.
But
if
no reason could be found
for
322
these statutes,
if

who
they produced no advantage and removed no rvil, why then them and follows them be wise, reasonable, and so to raise the admiration of all nations ? But the truth is undoubthave said, that every one of the six hundred and thirteen
believes in
should he
as
excellent as
edly
we
precepts serves to inculcate some truth, to remove some erroneous opinion, to establish proper relations in society, to diminish evil, to train in good
manners, or to warn against bad habits. opinions, morals, and social conduct.
All this depends
We
on three things do not count words, because

:
precepts, whether positive or negative, if they relate to speech, belong to those precepts which regulate our social conduct, or to those which spread
Thus these three principles suffice truth, or to those which teach morals. for assigning a reason for every one of the Divine commandments.
CHAPTER XXXII
ON considering the Divine acts, or the processes of Nature, we get an insight into the prudence and wisdom of God as displayed in the creation of animals, with the gradual development of the movements of their limbs and the relative positions of the latter, and we perceive also His wisdom and plan in the successive and gradual development of the whole condition of each indi-
vidual.
The
gradual development of
the animals' movements and the
relative position of the limbs may be illustrated by the brain. The front part is very s )ft, the back part is a little hard, the spinal marrow is still harder, and the farther it extends the harder it becomes. The nerves are the organs
nerves are only required for sensation, or movement of the eyelids or of the jaws ; The nerves which are required for the these nerves originate in the brain. movements of the limbs come from the spinal marrow. But nerves, even
of sensation
for slight
and motion.
Some
movements,
as, e.g.,
the
come directly from the spinal cord, are too soft to set the joints in motion ; therefore God made the following arrangement the nerves branch out into fibres which are covered with flesh, and become muscles the nerves that come forth at the extremities of the muscles and have already commenced to harden, and to combine with hard pieces of ligaments, are the sinews which are joined and attached to the limbs. By this gradual development the nerves are enabled to set the limbs in motion. I quote this one instance because it is the most evident of the wonders described in the book On the use of the limbs but the use of the limbs is clearly perceived by all who examine them with a sharp eye. In a similar manner did God provide When such an animal for each individual animal of the class of mammalia. is born it is extremely tender, and cannot be fed with dry food. Therefore breasts were provided which yield milk, and the young can be fed with moist food which corresponds to the condition of the limbs of the animal, until the latter have gradually become dry and hard.
those that
: ;
Many precepts
in our
Law
It
is,
same Supreme Being. extreme to the other

possible for
are the result of a similar course adopted by the namely, impossible to go suddenly from one
it is
therefore according to the nature of
man im-
him suddenly
accustomed.
priests
Now God
to discontinue everything to which he has been sent Moses to make [the Israelites] a kingdom of
and
holy nation (Exod. xix. 6) by means of the knowledge of God.

is
323
it was showed that thou mightest know that the Lord " Know therefore this day, and consider it in thine (Deut. iv. 35) ; " heart, that the Lord is God (ibid. v. 39). The Israelites were commanded " to devote themselves to His service comp. and to serve him with all your shall serve the Lord your God" (Exod. heart" (ibid. xi. 13); "and you " xxiii. 25) and ye shall serve him " (Deut. xiii. 5). But the custom which was in those days general among all men, and the general mode of worship in which the Israelites were brought up, consisted in sacrificing animals in those
" Comp. " Unto thee
God
bow down to those images, and burn incense before them religious and ascetic persons were in those days the persons that were devoted to the service in the temples erected to the stars, as has been explained by us. It was in accordance with the wisdom and plan of God, as displayed in the whole Creation, that He did not command us to give up and to discontinue all these manners of service ; for to obey such a commandment it would have been contrary to the nature of man, who generally cleaves to that to which he is used it would in those days have made the same impression as a prophet would make at present if he called us to the service of God and told us in His name, that we should not
temples which contained certain images, to
;
to
that we should pray to Him, not fast, not seek His help in time of trouble serve Him in thought, and not by any action. For this reason God allowed these kinds of service to co itinue ; He transferred to His service that which
;
" An (Exod. xxv. 8) ; to have the altar erected to His name ; comp. " altar of earth thou shalt make unto me (ibid. xx. 21) ; to offer the sacrifices " " If any man of you bring an offering unto the Lord to Him ; comp. (Lev. i. He has for2), to bow down to Him and to burn incense before Him. " bidden to do any of these things to any other being ; comp. He who sacri"
tuary
ficeth
had formerly served as a worship of created beings, and of things imaginary and unreal, and commanded us to serve Him in the same manner viz., to " build unto Him a temple comp. And they shall make unto me a sanc; ;
(Exod.
14). shall
unto any God, save the Lord only, he shall be utterly destroyed " " For thou shalt bow down to no other God " (ibid, xxxiv. xxii. 19) He selected priests for the service in the temple comp. " And they " minister unto me in the priest's office He made it (ibid, xxviii. 41).
; ;
obligatory that certain gifts, called the gifts of the Levites and the priests, should be assigned to them for their maintenance while they are engaged in the service of the temple and its sacrifices. By this Divine plan it was effected that the traces of idolatry were blotted out, and the truly great principle of our faith, the Existence and Unity of God, was firmly established ; this result was thus obtained without deterring or confusing the minds of the people by the abolition of the service to which they were accustomed and which alone
was familiar to them. I know that you will at first thought reject this idea and find it strange ; you will put the following question to me in your heart : How can we suppose that Divine commandments, prohibitions, and important acts, which are fully explained, and for which certain seasons are fixed, should not have been commanded for their own sake, but only for the sake of some other thing ; as if they were only the means which He employed for His primary object ? What prevented Him from making His primary object a direct commandment to us, and to give us the capacity of obeying it ? Those precepts which in your opinion are only the means and not the
324
Hear my answer, which will cure object would then have been unnecessary. your heart of this disease and will show you the truth of that which I have pointed out to you. There occurs in the Law a passage which contains ex" God led them not through the it is the following actly the same idea way of the land of the Philistines, although that was near for God said, Lest peradventure the people repent when they see war, and they return to Egypt ; but God led the people about, through the way of the wilderness of
;
:
Here God led the people about, the Red Sea," etc. (Exod. xiii. 17). away from the direct road which He originally intended, because He feared they might meet on that way with hardships too great for their ordinary strength ; He took them by another road in order to obtain thereby His In the same manner God refrained from prescribing what original object. the people by their natural disposition would be incapable of obeying, and gave the above-mentioned commandments as a means of securing His chief object, viz., to spread a knowledge of Him [among the people], and to cause them to reject idolatry. It is contrary to man's nature that he should suddenly abandon all the different kinds of Divine service and the different customs in which he has been brought up, and which have been so general, that they were considered as a matter of course it would be just as if a person trained to work as a slave with mortar and bricks, or similar things, should It interrupt his work, clean his hands, and at once fight with real giants. was the result of God's wisdom that the Israelites were led about in the For it is a well-known fact that travelwilderness till they acquired courage. ling in the wilderness, and privation of bodily enjoyments, such as bathing,
;
produce courage, whilst the reverse is the source of faint-heartedness besides, another generation rose during the wanderings that had not been accustomed to degradation and slavery. All the travelling in the wilderness " At the was regulated by Divine commands through Moses comp. commandment of the Lord they rested, and at the commandment of the Lord they journeyed they kept the charge of the Lord and the commandment of the Lord by the hand of Moses " (Num. ix. 23). In the same way the portion of the Law under discussion is the result of divine wisdom, according to which people are allowed to continue the kind of worship to which they have been accustomed, in order that they might acquire the true You ask, What faith, which is the chief object [of God's commandments]. could have prevented God from commanding us directly, that which is the This would chief object, and from giving us the capacity of obeying it ? lead to a second question, What prevented God from leading the Israelites through the way of the land of the Philistines, and endowing them with strength for fighting ? The leading about by a pillar of cloud by day and a A third question fire by night would then not have been necessary. pillar of would then be asked in reference to the good promised as reward for the keeping of the commandments, and the evil foretold as a punishment for As it is the chief object and purpose of It is the following question sins. God that we should believe in the Law, and act according to that which is written therein, why has He not given us the capacity of continually believing in it, and following its guidance, instead of holding out to us reward for obedience, and punishment for disobedience, or of actually giving all the reward and punishment ? For [the promises and the threats] are
;
predicted
325
but the means of leading to this chief object. What prevented Him from giving us, as part of our nature, the will to do that which He desires us to do, and to abandon the kind of worship which He rejects ? There is one general
answer to these three questions, and to all questions of the same character Although in every one of the signs [related in Scripture] the natural property of some individual being is changed, the nature of man is never changed by God by way of miracle. It is in accordance with this important " O that there were such an heart in them, that they principle that God said,
;
it is this
would
fear
me,"
etc.
(Deut.
v. 26).
It
is
also for this reason that
He
dis-
the prohibitions, the reward ind the punishment. This principle as regards miracles has been frequently explained by us in our works ; I do not say this because I believe that it is difficult for God to change the nature of every individual person ; on the continctly stated the
trary, it is possible, and it is in His power, according to the principles taught in Scripture ; but it has never been His will to do it, and it never will be. If it were part of His will to change [at His desire] the nature of any person, the mission of prophets and the giving of the Law would have been alto-
commandments and
gether superfluous. I now return to
my
theme.
As the
sacrificial service is
not the primary
object [of the commandments about sacrifice], whilst supplications, prayers, and similar kinds of worship are nearer to the primary object, and indispensable for obtaining it, a great difference was made in the Law between these two kinds of service. The one kind, which consists in offering sacrifices,
although the
sacrifices are offered to
the
name
of
God, has not been made
were not obligatory for us to the same extent as it had been before. commanded to sacrifice in every place, and in every time, or to build a temple in every place, or to permit any one who desires to become priest and to
sacrifice.
We
On the contrary, all this is prohibited unto us. Only one temple " " has been appointed, in the place which the Lord shall choose (Deut xii. " Take heed to thy26) ; in no other place is it allowed to sacrifice ; comp.
that thou offer not thy burnt-offerings in every place that thou seest and only the members of a particular family were allowed to ; officiate as priests. All these restrictions served to limit this kind of worship,
(ibid. v. 13)
"
self,
it within those bounds within which God did not think it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether. But prayer and supplication can be offered everywhere and by every person. The same is the case with the
and keep
commandment
tefillin
of zizit (Num. xv. 38) ; mezuzah (Deut. vi. 9 ; xi. 20) ; (Exod. xiii. 9, 16) ; and similar kinds of divine service. Because of this principle which I explained to you, the Prophets in their books are frequently found to rebuke their fellow-men for being over-zealous and exerting themselves too much in bringing sacrifices ; the prophets thus distinctly declared that the object of the sacrifices is not very essential, and " that God does not require them. Hath the Lord Samuel therefore said,
as great delight in burnt-offerings
the Lord
and sacrifices as in obeying the voice ol " To what purpose is the Sam. xv. 22) ? Isaiah exclaimed, " multitude of your sacrifices unto me ? saith the Lord (Isa. i. 1 1) Jeremiah " declared For I spake not unto your fathers, nor commanded them in the
"
(l
;
:
day that
or sacrifices.
brought them out of the land of Egypt, concerning burnt-offerings But this thing commanded I them, saying, Obey my voice, and
326
I will
" be your God, and ye shall be my people This (Jer. vii. 22, 23). passage has been found difficult in the opinion of all those whose words I read or heard ; they ask, How can Jeremiah say that God did not command us
sacrifice, seeing so many precepts refer to sacrifice ? sense of the passage agrees with what I explained to you. Jeremiah says [in the name of God] the primary object of the precepts is this, Know " I will be your God, and ye shall be me, and serve no other being ; my
about burnt-offering and
The
But the commandment that sacrifices shall be (Lev. xxvi. 12). brought and that the temple shall be visited has for its object the success of and for its sake I have transferred these modes that principle among you of worship to my name idolatry shall thereby be utterly destroyed, and Jewish faith firmly established. You, however, have ignored this object, and taken hold of that which is only the means of obtaining it ; you have " doubted my existence, ye have denied the Lord, and said he is not " (Jer. " burnt incense unto Baal, and walked after other v. 12) ; ye served idols not. And come and stand before me in this house " whom know gods ye i.e., you do not go beyond attending the temple of the (ibid. vii. 9-10) Lord, and offering sacrifices but this is not the chief object. I have another way of explaining this passage with exactly the same result. For it is distinctly stated in Scripture, and handed down by tradition, that the first commandments communicated to us did not include any law at all about You must not see any difficulty in the Passover burnt-offering and sacrifice. which was commanded in Egypt there was a particular and evident reason Besides it was revealed in for that, as will be explained by me (chap. xlvi.). the land of Egypt ; whilst the laws to which Jeremiah alludes in the above For passage are those which were revealed after the departure from Egypt. " in the day that I brought them out from this reason it is distinctly added, the land of Egypt." The first commandment after the departure from " If thou wilt diligently Egypt was given at Marah, in the following words, hearken to the voice of the Lord thy God, and wilt do that which is right in " His sight, and wilt give ear to His commandments (Exod. xv. 26). " There he made for them a statute and an ordinance, and there he proved them " (ibid. ver. 25). According to the true traditional explanation, " " statute alludes to SabSabbath and civil laws were revealed at Marah " " to civil laws, which are the means of removing ordinance bath, and The chief object of the Law, as has been shown by us, is the injustice. It teaching of truths ; to which the truth of the creatio ex nihilo belongs. is known that the object of the law of Sabbath is to confirm and to establish In this principle, as we have shown in this treatise (Part. II. chap. xxxi.). addition to the "caching of truths the Law aims at the removal of injustice from mankind. We have thus proved that the first laws do not refer to The same burnt-offering and sacrifice, which are of secondary importance. idea which is contained in the above passage from Jeremiah is also expressed in the Psalms, where the people are rebuked that they ignore the chief object, and make no distinction between chief and subsidiary lessons. The Psalmist " O Israel, and I will testify Hear, O my people, and I will speak says I will not reprove thee for thy against thee : I am God, even thy God. I sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings, they have been continually before me. " will take no bullock out of thy house, nor he-goats out of thy folds (Ps. 1.
people
; ; ; ; ; ; ; : ;
"

29).
327
Consider
it
well,
Wherever this subject and reflect on it.
is
mentioned,
this
is its
meaning.
CHAPTER XXXIII
IT
is
duce
also the object of the perfect his desires as much as is in his
Law
to
make man
reject, despise,
and
re-
power.
He
should only give way to them
It is well known that it is intemperance in absolutely necessary. eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse that people mostly rave and indulge in ; and these very things counteract the ulterior perfection of man, impede
when
same time the development of his first perfection, and generally disturb the social order of the country and the economy of the family. For by following entirely the guidance of lust, in the manner of fools, man loses his
at the intellectual energy, injures his body, and perishes before his natural time ; sighs and cares multiply ; there is an increase of envy, hatred, and warfare
for the purpose of taking what another possesses. The cause of all this is the circumstance that the ignorant considers physical enjoyment as an object to be sought for its own sake. God in His wisdom has therefore given us such
as would counteract that object, and prevent us altogether from directing our attention to it, and has debarred us from everything that leads only to excessive desire and lust. This is an important thing included in the objects of our Law. See how the Law commanded to slay a person from whose conduct it is evident that he will go too far in seeking the " enjoyment of eating and drinking. I mean the rebellious and stubborn " " son he is described as a glutton and a drunkard " (Deut. xxi. 20). The Law commands to stone him and to remove him from society lest he grow up in this character, and kill many, and injure the condition of good men by
;
commandments
his great lust.
Politeness
is
another virtue promoted by the Law.
Man
shall listen to
the words of his neighbour ; he shall not be obstinate, but shall yield to the wish of his fellow-men, respond to their appeal, act according to their desire, " and do what they like. Thus the Law commands, Circumcise therefore " the foreskin of your heart, and be no more stiff-necked (Deut. x. 16) ; " " " Take heed and hearken " (ibid, xxvii. 9). If you be willing and obedient
i. Those who listen [to the words of others] and accept as much 19). " " will hear and do right are represented as saying, (Deut. v. 24), " or in a figurative style, Draw me, we will run after thee " (Song i. 4).
(Isa.
as
is
We
The Law
teaching
a
is
be explained by us. For when God commanded [Moses] " to sanctify the people for the receiving of the Law, and said, Sanctify them " to-day and to-morrow (Exod. xix. 10), Moses [in obedience to this com" " mand] said to the people, Come not at your wives (ibid. ver. 15). Here it is But clearly stated that sanctification consists in absence of sensuality. abstinence from drinking wine is also called holiness ; in reference to the " Nazarite it is therefore said, He shall be holy " (Num. vi. 5). According " " to Siphra the words, sanctify yourselves and be ye holy (Lev. xx. 7),
will
them minimum, as
also intended to give its followers purity and holiness to suppress sensuality, to guard against it and to reduce
by
to
it
refer
to the sanctification effected

as
As the obedience to such precepts
by performing the divine commands. have been mentioned above is called by
328
the Law sanctification and purification, so is defilement applied to the transgression of these precepts and the performance of disgraceful acts, as will be shown. Cleanliness in dress and body by washing and removing sweat and
is included among the various objects of the Law, bat only if connected with purity of action, and with a heart free from low principles and bad habits. It would be extremely bad for man to content himself with a purity obtained by washing and cleanliness in dress, and to be at the same time voluptuous and unrestrained in food and lust. These are described by Isaiah "
dirt
as follows
They that sanctify themselves and purify themselves in the gardens, but continue their sinful life, when they are in the innermost [of " their houses], eating swine's flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse
:
to say, they purify and sanctify themselves outwardly to the sight of the people, and when they are alone in exposed their chambers and the inner parts of their houses, they continue their
(Isa. Ixvi. 17)
:
that
is
as
much
as
is
and disobedience, and indulge in partaking of forbidden food, such as [the flesh of] swine, worms, and mice. The prophet alludes perhaps " in the phrase behind one tree in the midst " to indulgence in forbidden The sense of the passage is therefore this lust. They appear outwardly clean, but their heart is bent upon their desires and bodily enjoyments, and this is contrary to the spirit of the Law. For the chief object of the Law is to [teach man to] diminish his desires, and to cleanse his outer appearance after he has purified his heart. Those who wash their body and cleanse their
rebelliousness
:
garments whilst they remain dirty by bad actions and principles, are de" a scribed by Solomon as generation that are pure in their own eyes, and yet are not washed from their filthiness ; a generation, oh how lofty are their eyes!" etc. (Prov. xxx. 12-13). Consider well the principles which we mentioned in this chapter as the final causes of the Law for there are many precepts, for which you will be unable to give a reason unless you possess a knowledge of these principles, as will be explained further on.
;
CHAPTER XXXIV
important to note that the Law does not take into account excep* it is not based on conditions which rarely occur. Whatever the Law teaches, whether it be of an intellectual, a moral, or a practical character, is founded on that which is the rule and not on that which is the exception ; it ignores the injury that might be caused to a single person through a certain maxim or a certain divine precept. For the Law is a divine institution, and [in order to understand its operation] we must consider how in Nature the various forces produce benefits which are general, but in some solitary cases they cause also injury. This is clear from what has been said by ourselves as well as by others. We must consequently not be surprised when we find that the object of the Law iocs not fully appear in every individual ; there must naturally be people who are not perfected by the instruction of the Law, just as there are beings which do not receive from the specific forms in Nature all that they require. For all this comes " from one God, is the result of one act they are all given from one shep" xii. It is herd and we have aln). (Eccles. impossible to be otherwise readv explained (chap, xv.) that that which is impossible always remains
IT
is
also
tional circumstances
329
From this consideration it also follows that impossible and never changes. the laws cannot like medicine vary according to the different conditions of persons and times ; whilst the cure of a person depends on his particular constitution at the particular time, the divine guidance contained in the Law must be certain and general, although it may be effective in some cases and
If the Law depended on the varying conditions of man, it would be imperfect in its totality, each precept being left indefinite. For this reason it would not be right to make the fundamental principles of on the contrary, the Law dependent on a certain time or a certain place the statutes and the judgments must be definite, unconditional, and general, " in accordance with the divine words As for the congregation, one ordi" nance shall be for you and for the stranger (Num. xv. 15) they are inall for as has been stated tended, before, persons and for all times.
ineffective in others.
After having premised these introductory remarks

the exposition of that which
I
I will
now proceed
to
intended to explain
CHAPTER XXXV
IN accordance with
this intention I find it
convenient to divide
all
precepts
into fourteen classes.
The
ciples,
first
class
such
as
we have enumerated
comprises those precepts which form fundamental prinin Hilkot yesode ha-torah. Repentance
belong also to this class, as will be shown. second class comprises the precepts which are connected with the prohibition of idolatry, and which have been described by us in Hilkot a'bodab-zarah. The laws concerning garments of linen and wool, concerning the fruit of trees in the first three years after they have been planted, and concerning divers seeds in a vineyard, are likewise contained in this class.
fasts
and
The
The
object of these precepts is to establish certain true principles and to perpetuate them among the people.
The
third class
is
formed by commandments which are connected with
the improvement of the moral condition [of mankind] ; these are mentioned in Hilkot de'ot. It is known that by a good moral state those social relations,
which are indispensable

fourth
for the well-being of
mankind, are brought to
perfection.
class includes precepts relating to charity, loans, gifts, and the " the rules respecting valuations," (scil., of things devoted to sacred " " Lev. xxvii. purposes, (ibid. ver. 28) ; laws concerning 1-27); things devoted
The
like, e.g.,
loans and servants, and all the laws enumerated in the section Zera'im, except " " " the rules of mixtures and the fruit of trees in the first three years."
is clear ; their benefit concerns all people by he who is rich to-day may one day be poor either he himself or his descendants ; and he who is now poor, he himself or his son may be rich to-morrow. The fifth class contains those precepts which relate to the prevention of wrong and violence ; they are included in our book in the section Nezikin, Their beneficial character is evident. 1'he sixth class is formed of precepts respecting fines, e.g., the laws on theft and robbery, on false witnesses, and most of the laws contained in the
The
object of these precepts

;
turns
for
330

:
Their benefit is apparent ; for if section Sbo/ftim belong to this class. sinners and robbers were not punished, injury would not be prevented at all and persons scheming evil would not become rarer. They are wrong who
suppose that
it
would be an
act of
mercy to abandon the laws of compensa-
tion for injuries ; on the contrary, it would be perfect cruelty and injury to the social state of the country. It is an act of mercy that God commanded
"judges and
xvi. 18).
officers
thou shalt appoint to thee in
all
thy gates" (Deut.
The
seventh
class
actions of
men with
comprises those laws which regulate the business transeach other ; e.g., laws about loans, hire, trust, buying,
selling, and the like ; the rules about inheritance belong to this class. have described these precepts in the sections Kinyan and Mishpatim.
We
The
object of these precepts is evident, for monetary transactions are necessary for the peoples of all countries, and it is impossible to have these transactions without a proper standard of equity and without useful regulations.
The eighth class includes those precepts which relate to certain days, as Sabbaths and holydays ; they are enumerated in the section Zemannim. The Law states clearly the reason and object of each of these precepts ; they
means for establishing a certain principle among us, or securing bodily recreation, or effecting both things at the same time, as will
are to serve as a
be shown by me. The ninth class comprises the general laws concerning religious rites and ceremonies, e.g., laws concerning prayers, the reading pf Shema', and the other rules given in the section Ahabah, with the exception of the law conscribe actions
cerning circumcision. The object of these laws is apparent ; they all prewhich firmly establish the love of God in our minds, as also the Him and His attributes. belief concerning right
The
vessels,
tenth
class is
formed
;
and
its
ministers
of precepts which relate to the Sanctuary, its they are contained in the section 'Abodah. The
object of these precepts has already been mentioned by us (//>ra,chap.xxxii.). The eleventh class includes those precepts which relate to Sacrifices.
Most
not.
of these laws
We
we have mentioned in the sections 'Abodah and Korbahave already shown the general use of the sacrificial laws, and
their necessity in ancient time.
The twelfth class comprises the laws concerning things unclean and clean. The general object of these laws is, as will be explained by me, to discourage
people from [frequently] entering the Sanctuary ; in order that their minds be impressed with the greatness of the Sanctuary, and approach it with respect and reverence. The thirteenth class includes the precepts concerning forbidden food and we have given them in Hilkot maakalot asurot the laws the like ;
;
object of all these laws is to restrain the growth of desire, the indulgence in seeking that which to consider the appetite for eating and drinkis pleasant, and the disposition
also to this class.
about vows and temperance belong
The
have explained this in our Coming as the end [of man's existence]. mentary on the Mishnah, in the Introduction (chap, iv.) to The Sayings of the Fathers. The fourteenth class comprises the precepts concerning forbidden sexual
intercourse
;
We
they are given in the section Nashim and Hilkot issure-biah.

The
as
is
331
object of these precepts
laws concerning the intermixture of cattle belong to this class. The is likewise to diminish sexual intercourse, to restrain
much as possible indulgence in lust, and [to teach] that this enjoyment have not, as foolish people think, the final cause of man's existence. explained this in our Commentary on The Sayings of the Fathers (Introd.,
We
chap.
viii.).
is
The laws about circumcision belong to
this class.
well known, the precepts are also divided into two classes, viz., precepts concerning the relation between man and God, and precepts concerning the relation between man and man. Of the classes into which we divide
As
the precepts and which we have enumerated, the fifth, sixth, and seventh, and part of the third, include laws concerning the relation of man to man. The other classes contain the laws about the relation of man to God, i.e., positive or negative precepts, which tend to improve the moral or intellectual condition of mankind, or to regulate such of each man's actions which For these are called [directly] only concern him and lead him to perfection. laws concerning man's relation to God, although in reality they lead to results which concern also his fellow-men because these results become only apparent after a long series of intermediate links, and from a general whilst directly these laws are not intended to prevent man point of view from injuring his fellow-man. Note this.
;
;
Having described the laws of these classes, I will now again consider the precepts of each class, and explain the reason and use of those which are believed to be useless or unreasonable, with the exception of a few, the object
of
which
have not yet comprehended.
CHAPTER XXXVI
THE
reason of
all
precepts of the
first class, viz.,
of the principles enumerated
by us in the Hilkot yesode ka-torah, is obvious. Consider them one by one, and you will find that the lesson which every one of them contains is correct and demonstrable. It is also evident that the precepts which exhort and command us to learn and to teach are useful ; for without wisdom there cannot be any good act or any true knowledge. The law which prescribes to honour the teachers of the Law is likewise useful for if they were not considered by the people as great and honourable men, they would not be followed as guides in their principles and actions. The Law demands also " that we be humble and modest [in their presence]. Thou shalt rise up " before the hoary head (Lev. xix. 32). This class includes also the commandment to swear by the name of God and the prohibition of swearing The reason for all these precepts is evident they aim at falsely or in vain. the glorification of God they prescribe acts which lead to the belief in God's
; ; ;
greatness.
"
We
ful
Likewise the commandment to cry to God in time of trouble, " to blow an alarm with the trumpets (Num. x. 9), belongs to this class. are told to offer up prayers to God, in order to establish firmly the true
principle that
if
God
we worship Him,
takes notice of our ways, that He can make them successor disastrous if we disobey Him, that [success and
failure] are
not the result of chance or accident. In this sense we must " " understand the passage, If ye walk with me by chance (beken, Lev. xxvi.
21)
;
i.e., if I
bring troubles
upon you
for
punishment, and you consider

z
332
as mere accidents, I will again send you some of these accidents as yon them, but of a more serious and troublesome character. This is ex" If ye walk with me by chance then I will walk with pressed in the words " For the belief of the of chance also in the (ibid. vers. 27, 28). fury you people that their troubles are mere accidents causes them to continue in their evil principles and their wrong actions, and prevents them from aban" Thou hast stricken them, but they have doning their evil ways. Comp. " For this reason God commanded us to pray to not grieved v. 3). (Jer. Him, to entreat Him, and to cry before Him in time of trouble. It is clear that is to say, it is one of that repentance is likewise included in this class those principles which are an indispensable element in the creed of the For it is impossible for man to be entirely free from followers of the Law. error and sin he either does not know the opinion which he has to choose, or he adopts a principle, not for its own merits, but in order to gratify his If we were convinced that we could never make our desire or passion. crooked ways straight, we should for ever continue in our errors, and perhaps add other sins to them since we did not see that any remedy was left to us.
them
call
But the belief in the effect of repentance causes us to improve, to return to the best of the ways, and to become more perfect than we were before we sinned. For this reason many things are prescribed for the promotion of
very useful principle ; e.g., confessions and sacrifices for sins committed unknowingly, and in some cases even for sins committed intentionally, and fasts, and that which is common to all cases of repentance from sin, the resolve to discontinue sinning. For that is the aim of this principle. Of all
this
these precepts the use
is
obvious.
CHAPTER XXXVII
THE
precepts of the second class are those which we have enumerated in the " section On idolatry." It is doubtless that they all tend to save man from
the error of idolatry and the evil practices connected with it ; e.g., observing the times, enchantment, witchcraft, incantation, consulting with familiar When you read the books which I mentioned to you, spirits, and the like.
will find that witchcraft, which will be described to you, is part of the customs of the Sabeans, Kasdim, Chaldeans, and to a higher degree of the Egyptians and Canaanites. They caused others to believe, or they them-
you
selves believed, that
by means
of these arts they
would perform wonderful
things in reference to an individual person, or to the inhabitants of a whole country, although no analogy and no reasoning can discover any relation
between these performances of the witches and the promised

they are careful to collect certain plants at
definite
a particular time,
result.
Thus
and to take a
number
,
witchcraft
they
There are many things comprised by of certain objects. may be divided into three classes first, witchcraft con:
animals, or minerals. Secondly, witchcraft dependent for its performance on a certain time ; and thirdly, witchcraft dependent on the performance of certain acts of man, such as
viz., plants,
nected with objects in Nature,
dancing, clapping, laughing, jumping with one leg, lying on the ground with the face upward, burning a thing, fumigating with a certain material, or speaking intelligible or unintelligible words.

These
are the various kinds of witchcraft.
333
all
In some cases
these various
:
performances are required.
Thus the witches sometimes order
take a leaf
of a certain plant, when the moon is seen in a certain degree [of the Zodiac] in the east point or in one of the other cardinal points [of the horizon], also
a certain
animal
when
quantity of the horn, the sweat, the hair and the blood of a certain the sun is, e.g., in the middle of the sky, or in some other de-
and a portion of a certain mineral or minerals, melted at a ; certain conjunction of sun and moon, and at a definite position of the stars ; speak then, and say certain words, and fumigate with those leaves or similar
finite place
instances of witchcraft
suffices.
ones to that molten image, and such and such a thing will happen. In other it is assumed that one of the above performances
added that women must perform means of obtaining rain, that ten virgins dressed with diadems and red garments should dance, push each other, moving backwards and forwards, and make signs to the sun the result of this long process was believed [by the idolaters] to be a downpour
In most cases the condition
is
these actions.
Thus
it is
stated in reference to the
of rain.
It
is
further stated that
if
four
women
lay on their back, with their feet
spread and lifted up, said certain words and did certain things whilst in this disgraceful position, hail would discontinue coming down in that place.
The number of these stupid and mad things is great in all of them without exception women are required to be the agent. Witchcraft is intimately
;
connected with astrology ; those that practise it assign each plant, animal, or mineral to a certain star, and believe that the above processes of witchcraft
act,
are different forms of worship offered to that star, which word, or offering of incense, and fulfils their wishes.
is
pleased with that
when you have read such and have been mentioned by me, hear what I will tell you. It is the object and centre of the whole Law to abolish idolatry and utterly uproot it, and to overthrow the opinion that any of the
After this remark, which you will understand
of their works as are at present extant,
could interfere for good or evil in human matters, because it leads to the worship of stars. It was therefore necessary to slay all witches as being undoubtedly idolaters, because every witch is an idolater ; they only have their own strange ways of worship, which are different from the common mode of
stars
worship offered to those

laid
deities.
But
in
all
performances of witchcraft
it is
;
down
as a rule
and therefore the xxii. 17). Another reason

This
is
women should be employed in the chief operation Law says, " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live " (Exod.
that
is
man or woman in the law of idolatry it is said " " the man or the woman (Deut. rvii. 2), and again repeated a second time, a phrase which does not occur in the law about the breaking (ibicL ver. 5)
also the cause
the natural reluctance of people to slay "
women.
"
why
of Sabbath, or in
women.
any other law ; for great sympathy is naturally shown to the witches believed that they produced a certain result by their witchcraft ; that they were able through the above-mentioned actions
Now
to drive such dangerous animals as lions, serpents, and the like out of the cities, and to remove various kinds of damage from the products of the earth.
Thus they imagine
that they are able by certain acts to prevent hail from coming down, and by certain other acts to kill the worms in the vineyards, whereby the latter are protected from injury: in fact, the killing of the
334

mentioned in the Nabatean
in vineyards, and other superstitions Agriculture, are fully described by the Sabeans.
worms
They
they
ideas,
know
certain acts
by which they can prevent the dropping
likewise imagine that of leaves
from the trees and the untimely falling of their fruit. On account of these " which were general in those days, the Law declares in the words of " the covenant as follows The same idolatry and superstitious performances which, in your belief, keep certain misfortunes far from you, will
:
cause those very misfortunes to befall you.
"
I will also
send wild beasts
among you
fruit of
"
eat
them, with thy land, and "
I will also send the teeth of wild beasts upon (Lev. xxvi. 22) ; " " the poison of those that creep in dust The (Deut. xxxii. 24).
all
"
up
(ibid, xxviii.
thy labours, "
shall a nation,
33).
Thou
shalt plant vineyards
which thou knowest not, and dress them,
but shalt neither drink of the wine nor gather the grapes, etc. Thou shalt have olive trees throughout all thy coasts, but thou shalt not anoint thyself " with the oil (Deut. xxviii. 39, 40). In short, in spite of the schemes of
idolaters to support and firmly establish their doctrine, and to believe that by idolatry certain misfortunes could be averted
make people and certain
" benefits gained, worship of idols will, on the contrary, as is stated in the words of the covenant," prevent the advantages and bring the troubles. The reader will now understand why, of all kinds of curses and blessings, " " have those mentioned in the words of the covenant been selected by the Law, and particularly pointed out. Note also the greatness of the benefit
[of these laws].
In order that we may keep far from all kinds of witchcraft, we are warned not to adopt any of the practices of the idolaters, even such as are connected with agriculture, the keeping of cattle, and similar work. [The Law prohibits] everything that the idolaters, according to their doctrine, and con-
and acting in the manner of certain " Neither shall ye walk in their ordinances " mysterious forces. Comp. " And ye shall not walk in the manners of the nation which (Lev. xviii. 3). " Our Sages call such acts " the ways I cast out before you (ibid. xx. 23). " of the Amorite ; they are kinds of witchcraft, because they are not arrived
trary to reason, consider as being useful
at by reason, but are similar to the performances of witchcraft, which is necessarily connected with the influences of the stars ; thus [" the manners of the nations "] lead people to extol, worship, and praise the stars. Our
" " whatever is used as medicine does not come under Sages say distinctly, " " for they hold that only such cures the ways of the Amorite the law of ; as are recommended by reason are permitted, and other cures are prohibited.
When,
:
therefore, the
dictum was quoted
a tree that casts off its fruit
may
be laden with stone or dyed with red colour, the following objection was The loading of the tree with stones may be justified on the plea that raised it serves to weaken the strength of the tree, but why should it be permitted This question shows that the dyeing of to dye the tree with red colour ? the tree with red colour, and all similar things which are not explained by " ways of the Amorite." For the analogy from nature, are prohibited as " The uterus of animals which have been selected reason our same Sages said, for the Sanctuary must be buried ; it must not be suspended from a tree, ' and not buried in the cross-road, because this is one of the ways of the
Amorite.'
"
Hence you may
learn
how
to treat similar cases.

;
335
It is not inconsistent that a nail of the gallows and the tooth of a foi have been permitted to be used as cures for these things have been considered in those days as facts established by experiment. They served as cures, in the same manner as the hanging of the peony over a person subject to epileptic
fits, or the application of a dog's refuse to the swellings of the throat, and of the vapours of vinegar and marcasite to the swelling of hard tumours. For the Law permits as medicine everything that has been verified by experiment, although it cannot be explained by analogy. The above-named cures are
permitted in the same way as the application of purgatives. Learn, reader, " these noteworthy lessons from this my work, and keep them ; for they are " a diadem of grace for thy head (Prov. iv.). We have explained in our large work that it is prohibited to round the corners of the head, and to mar the corners of the beard, because it was the
custom of idolatrous priests. For the same reason, the wearing of garments made of linen and wool is prohibited ; the heathen priests adorned themselves with garments containing vegetable and animal material, whilst they held in their hand a seal made of a mineral. This you find written in their The same is also the reason of the precept, " The woman shall not books. " wear that which pertaineth unto a man (Deut. xxii. 5). You find it in the book Tomtom, that a male person should wear coloured woman's dress when he stands before Venus, and a female, when standing before Mars, should wear a buckler and other armour. I think that this precept has also another reason namely, that the interchange of dress creates lust and leads to im;
morality.
understood why it is prohibited to derive any benefit whatever For sometimes a person buys it with the intention to break it, but keeps it, and it becomes a snare to him. Even if he broke it, recast it, and sold it to a heathen, he must not use the money which he received in because people frequently mistake accidental circumexchange for the idol stances for essential causes thus most people say of a certain person that he has become rich and wealthy after having dwelt in a certain house, or bought a certain animal or vessel ; and that these things were a blessing to him. In the same way a person may be successful and make a good profit on the business in which he employed the money received for the idol he might then think that the idol was the cause of his success, and that the blessing of the money received for it brought him the profit he would then believe in
It
is
from an
easily idol.
just the reverse of the chief object of the Law, as is clearly seen in every word of it. For this same reason, we are forbidden to turn to our use the covering of the idol, its offerings and vessels. are
the idol
a belief
which
is
We
In those thus guarded against the idea [of ascribing our success to idols]. days the belief in the stars was very strong ; it was generally assumed that life and death, good and evil, depended on the stars. The Law employed
therefore strong means, as .covenant, witnesses, great oaths, and the aboveare mentioned [blessings and] curses, in order to overthrow that belief.
We
thus
commanded
to abstain
;
from taking any portion of the
idol,
and deriving
and God tells us that if money received for idols be any benefit from it mixed with any person's property, it will bring loss and ruin to that property. " This warning is contained in the words Neither shalt thou bring an " abomination into thine house, lest thou be a cursed thing Hke it (Deut.
:
336
vii. 26). in idols.

How much more wrong must it be to believe that there is a blessing
When you
examine
is
all the precepts that relate to idolatry, you will obvious, and Lthat they serve to make us abandon this evil belief, and keep at the greatest possible distance from it. must also point out that originators of false, baseless, and useless prin-
find that their reason
We
ciples
scheme and plan
for the firm establishment of their faith
and
tell
their fellow-men that a certain plague will befall those who will not perform the act by which that faith is supported and confirmed for ever ; this plague
may one day accidentally befall a person, who will then direct his attention to the performance of that act, and adopt idolatry. It being well known that people are naturally most in fear and dread of the loss of their property
and
their children, the worshippers of fire spread the tale, that if any one did not pass his son and daughter through the fire, he will lose his children by death. There is no doubt that on account of this absurd menace every one at once obeyed, out of pity and sympathy for the child ; especially as it
and a light thing that was demanded, in passing the child over must further take into account that the care of young children is intrusted to women, who are generally weak-minded, and ready to believe everything, as is well known. The Law makes, therefore, an earnest stand against this practice, and uses in reference to it stronger terms than in any " he defileth my sanctuary, and profaneth other kind of idolatry ; namely,
was a
trifling
the
fire.
We
my
of
" (Lev. xx. 3). The true prophet then declares in the name holy name that the very act which is performed for the purpose of keeping the child alive, will bring death upon him who performs it, and destruction upon "
God
Comp. And I will set my face against that man and against his Know that traces of this practice have survived family," etc. (ibid. xx. 5). even to the present day, because it was widespread in the world. You can
his seed.
see
how midwives
take a
young
child
wrapped
in its swaddling-clothes,
and
having placed incense of a disagreeable smell on the fire, swing the child in the smoke over that fire. This is certainly a kind of passing children through the fire, and we must not do it. Reflect on the evil cunning of the author of this doctrine how people continued to adhere to this doctrine, and how, in spite of the opposition of the Law during thousands of years, its name is not blotted out, and its traces are still in existence. Idolaters have acted similarly in reference to property. They made it a law that a certain tree, the asherah, should be worshipped, and that of its fruit one part should be offered, and the rest consumed in the temple of the idol this is stated in the regulations concerning the asherah. In the same manner, they made it a rule, that the first-fruit of every fruit-tree should be It partly offered as a sacrifice and partly consumed in the idol's temple. was also a widespread belief that if the first-fruit of any tree was not treated in this manner, the tree would dry up, its fruit would be cast off, its increase would be diminished, or some disease would come over it ; just as they spread the belief that every child, that was not passed through the fire, must
after
; ;
die.
People in their anxiety for their property obeyed
also
this
precept
unhesitatingly.
in opposition to this doctrine, commanded us to burn the produce of fruit-trees the first three years ; for some trees bear fruit after one year, whilst some begin to yield fruit after two, and others after
The Law,
three years.
The law
is
based upon the nature of trees grown in an ordinary

:
337
way, namely, in one of the three well-known methods planting, propagaThe Law does not tion, and inoculation (neti'ab, babrakab, and harcabah). take notice of the case that a kernel or stone is sown ; for the ordinances of
the Law are based on the usual condition of things, and as a rule a young tree in Palestine bears fruit for the first time not later than the third year
it has been According to the divine promise, the waste and planted. destruction of this first-fruit of the tree will be followed by years of plenty
after
of fruit
for it
"
is
said,
that
it
may
increase unto
you the
"
fruit thereof
"
(Lev. xix. 25).
The
fruit of the fourth year
we
are
commanded
to eat before
instead of [the heathen custom of] eating 'orlab, the fruit of the preceding years," in the temples of the idols, as has been described by us.
God,
It
is
aters caused certain things named in that stood in a certain degree [of the ecliptic],
further mentioned in the Nabatean Agriculture that the ancient idolwork to rot, waited till the sun
and then they performed many
They believed that that substance should be kept ready by every one, and when a fruit-tree is planted, a portion of that rotten substance should be scattered round the tree or under it ; the tree would then
acts of witchcraft.
grow quicker and produce more

that this process
is
fruit
than
is
generally the case.
They
say
very extraordinary ; it acts like a talisman, and is more efficient than any kind of witchcraft in accelerating the productiveness of I have already shown and explained to you how the Law opposes fruit-trees.
all kinds of witchcraft. The Law, therefore, prohibits us to use the fruit yielded by a tree in the first three years after it has been planted, so that there should be no opportunity for accelerating, according to their imagina-
After three years most fruit-trees in tion, the productiveness of any tree. Palestine yield fruit by the ordinary course of nature, without the application of those magical performances which were very general in those days. Note
this
remarkable
is
fact.
Another
Sabeans,
belief
this
:
which was very
common
in those days,
and survived the
grafted into another in the time of a certain conjunction of sun and moon, and is fumigated with certain substances whilst a formula is uttered, that tree will produce a thing that will be found
a tree
is
When
More general than anything mentioned by the heathen ceremony of grafting an olive branch upon a citron tree, as described in the beginning of the Nabatean Agriculture. I am of opinion that the book of medicines which Hezekiah put away ( B. T. Pes. 5612) was undoubtedly
exceedingly useful.
writers was the
They also said that when one species is grafted upon another, the branch which is to be grafted must be in the hand of a beautiful damsel, whilst a male person has disgraceful and unnatural sexual intercourse with her ; during that intercourse the woman grafts the branch into the tree. There is no doubt that this ceremony was general, and that nobody refused to perform it, especially as the pleasure of love was added to the (supposed)
of this kind.
results of the grafting. The Law, therefore, prohibits us to mix different species together, i.e., to graft one tree into another, because we must keep away from the opinions of idolaters and the abominations of their
f uture
unnatural sexual intercourse.

trees,
we
are forbidden to
other.
When
In order to guard against the grafting of sow any two kinds of seed together or near each you study the traditional explanation of this precept, you will
find that the prohibition of grafting, the principal element in this
command-
338
ment, holds good for all countries, and is punishable by forty stripes ; but the sowing of seeds one near the other is only prohibited in Palestine. In the Nabatean Agriculture it is further distinctly stated that it was the custom of the people in those days to sow barley and stones of grapes together, in the belief that the vineyard could only prosper in this way. Therefore the Law prohibits us to use seed that has grown in a vineyard, and commands For the pracus to burn both the barley and the produce of the vineyard. tices of the heathen, which they considered as of a magic and talismanic character, even if not containing any idolatrous element, are prohibited, as we " have stated above (p. 334) in reference to the dictum of our Sages, We must not hang upon a tree the foetus of an animal belonging to the Sanctuary." The Law prohibits all heathen customs, called by our Sages " the ways of the Amorite," because they are connected with idolatry. On considering the customs of the heathen in their worship, you will find that in certain kinds of worship they turn toward stars, in others to the two great luminaries ; frequently they choose the rise of signs in the Zodiac for sowing and
the circuits made by those who plant or sow, some to the five planets, with the exclusion corresponding complete of the two luminaries ; others go seven times round, according to the number of the planets, when including sun and moon. They believe that all these
fumigating
and
as to
five circles,
Thus those practices are magic charms of great efficiency in agriculture. and therefore all practices of those practices lead to the worship of stars ;
Ye shall not walk in the manners nations have been prohibited, in the words, " of the nation which I cast out before you (Lev. xx. 23). Those practices which were more general and common, or were distinctly connected with
idolatry, are particularly pointed out as prohibited ; e.g., eating the fruit of a tree during the first three years, intermixing of species and the mixed I am surprised as the dictum of Rabbi Joshiyah, species sown in a vineyard.
as legally binding, in reference to the mixed seed in a vineyard, viz., that the law is only transgressed when wheat, barley, and the He must undoubtedly have seen stone of a grape are sown simultaneously.
"
which has been adopted
It must now be clear the source of that kind of the ways of the Amorite. and no room can be left for any doubt, that the prohibition of wearing garments of wool and linen, of using the fruit of a tree in the first three years,
to you,
and of mixing divers species, are directed against idolatry, and that the prohibition against adopting heathen manners serves to remove anything which leads to idolatry, as has been shown by us.
CHAPTER XXXVIII
THE
precepts of the third class are identical with those which we have enumerated in Hilkot de'ot. Their use is evident ; they are rules concerning moral conduct by which the social relations of men are regulated. This is Know that some presufficiently clear, and I need not dwell long on it. cepts prescribe certain acts which are considered as arbitrary decrees without any purpose, but are nevertheless the means of acquiring some moral prinWe shall explain every one of them in its proper place. But of all ciple. those precepts which are mentioned in Hilkot de<ot, it is distinctly stated that their object is to inculcate good moral principles.

CHAPTER XXXIX
THE
339
precepts in the fourth class, include the laws which in our work are contained in the section Zera'im, excepting the laws on the mixture of species ; " " " " the rules about things to be valued and things devoted (Hilkot 'erekin va-haramim), and those concerning lender and borrower (Hilkot
malveh ve-loveti) and slaves (Hilkot 'abadim). When you examine these they teach us to precepts you will clearly see the use of every one of them have sympathy with the poor and infirm, to assist the needy in various ways ;
:
not to hurt the feelings of those
who
are in want,
and not to vex those who
" and the tithe is distinctly stated for he hath no portion and inheritance " with thee (Deut. xiv. 29). You certainly know that the Levites had no portion, because their whole tribe was to be exclusively engaged in the service of God and the study of the Law. They shall not plow or cut the corn, " but shall only minister to God. thy judgments They shall teach Jacob " and Israel thy law they shall put incense before thee (Deut. xxxiii. 10). " In the Law we meet frequently with the phrase, the Levite, the stranger, and the orphan and the widow " ; for the Levite is reckoned among the poor because he had no property. The second tithe was commanded to be spent on food in Jerusalem in this way the owner was compelled to give part of it away as charity. As he was not able to use it otherwise than by way of eating and drinking, he must have easily been induced to give it gradually away. This rule brought multitudes together in one place, and strengthened the bond of love and brotherhood among the children of men. The law concerning the fruit of a tree in its fourth year has some relation to idolatrous customs, as has been stated by us (chap, xxxvii.), and is connected with the law concerning the fruit of a tree in its first three years. But it has in addition the same object as the law concerning the heave-offering (Deut. xviii.
: :
are in a helpless condition [viz., the widow, the orphan, and the like]. The purpose of the laws concerning the portions which are to be given to the poor is likewise obvious ; the reason of the laws concerning the heave-offerings
4),
19),
is
the dough-offering (hallab") (Num. xv. 20), the first-fruit (Exod. xxiii. and the first of the shearing (Deut. xviii. 4). For the first of everything to be devoted to the Lord ; and by doing so man accustoms himself to be
liberal,
same
and his desire for property. The the priest took the shoulder, the two cheeks, and the maw (Deut. xviii. 3) ; the cheek being the first part of the body of animals, the right shoulder the first of the extremities of the body, and the maw the
and to
limit his appetite for eating
is
the reason
why
first
of
all
inwards.
reciting of a certain portion of the Law when the first-fruits are brought to the temple, tends also to create humility. For he who brings the first-fruits takes the basket upon his shoulders and proclaims the kindness
The
and goodness of God.

service of
tress, in
God
to
This ceremony teaches man that it is essential in the remember the times of trouble and the history of past dis-
"
days of comfort
comp.
v.
And thou
For
it is
15).
on this duty in several places hast been a slave," etc. (Deut. to be feared that those who become great in riches and
lays stress
;
The Law
shalt
remember that thou
-omfort might, as is generally the case, fall into the vices of insolence and " haughtiness, and abandon all good principles. Comp. Lest thou eat and
340
be
full, etc.,

and thine heart be
lifted
viii. 12-14) account of this fear the
"And
Law
Jeshurun waxed
glory,
" up and thou forget the Lord (ibid. fat and kicked" (ibid. xxx. 15). On
us to read each year a certain poroffer the first-fruit.
Law commanded
that
;
You know remember the plagues that " have befallen the Egyptians comp. That thou mayest remember the day " when thou earnest forth out of the land of Egypt all the days of thy life " in thou tell the ears That of son what rvi. mayest thy things I 3) (ibid. " have wrought in Egypt (Exod. x. 2). Such a law was necessary in order to
tion before the
Lord and His

insists
when we
shall
how much
the
we
always
perpetuate the
memory
of the departure
from Egypt
because such events
of reward and punishment. The benefit verify prophecy and the doctrine of every commandment that serves to keep certain miracles in remembrance,
or to perpetuate true faith, is therefore obvious. In reference to the law concerning the first-born of
distinctly said,
"And
it
came
to pass,
man and cattle it is when Pharaoh would hardly let us
in the land of Egypt, etc., therefore go, that the Lord slew all the "first-born But it can easily be explained I sacrifice to the Lord," etc. (Exod. xiii. 15).
why
as
only cattle, sheep, and asses are mentioned in this law ; these are kept domestic animals, and are found in most places, especially in Palestine,
where the
"
comp.
xlvii.
3).
Thy
were shepherds, they, their fathers, and forefathers ; " servants are shepherds, both we and also our fathers (Gen. Horses and camels, however, are not wanted by shepherds, and
Israelites
all places ; thus in the booty of Midian (Num. xxxi.) no other animals are mentioned but oxen, sheep, and asses. But asses alone are indispensable to all people, especially to those who are engaged in the field " " I have oxen and asses or in the forest. Thus Jacob says, (Gen. xxxii. 5). Camels and horses are not possessed by many people, but only by a few, and The law that the first-born of an ass was to are only found in a few places. have its neck broken [in case it is not redeemed], will only ensure the redemp-
are not found in
It has, therefore, been said that the act of redeeming the ass. to be preferred to that of breaking its neck. As to the precepts enumerated in the laws concerning the year of release and the jubilee (Hilkot shemittah ve-yobel) some of them imply sympathy
tion of the
ass is
with our fellow-men, and promote the well-being of mankind ; for in refer" That the poor of thy people ence to these precepts it is stated in the Law, " and xxiii. 1 the land will also increase its
besides, proremains fallow for some time. Other precepts of this class prescribe kindness to servants and to the poor, by renouncing all claims to debts [in the year of release], and relieving the slaves of their bon-
may
eat
(Exod.
1)
duce and improve when
it
" could not be sold. And the land shall not be sold for ever " In this way the property of a person remains intact for him and his heirs, and he can only enjoy the produce thereof. I have thus explained the reason of all precepts contained in our work in the Section Zera'im, with the exception of the laws concerning the intermixture of different species of beasts the reason of which will be given (chap. xlix.). " the laws In the same manner we find that all the precepts comprised in
dage [in the seventh year]. There are some precepts in this class that serve to secure for the people a permanent source of maintenance and support by providing that the land should remain the permanent property of its owners,
it
and that
(Lev. xxv. 23).

;
341
on valuations," and on " things devoted " are based on the principle of charity some of them prescribe what should be given to the priests ; others tell us what must be devoted to the repairs of the temple. The practice of all these things accustoms man to act liberally and to spend money unhesiFor it is in the nature of man to strive to gain tatingly to the glory of God. money and to increase it and his great desire to add to his wealth and honour is the chief source of misery for man. Also the precepts contained " " in the laws concerning the relation between lender and borrower (Hilkot malveh veloveh) will be found, on being carefully examined, to be nothing but commands to be lenient, merciful and kind to the needy, not to deprive
;
them
man
of the use of anything indispensable in the preparation of food. No shall take the nether or the upper millstone to pledge : for he taketh a
life
"
(Deut. xxiv. 6). " " the laws concerning slaves (Hilkot 'abadim), precepts contained in likewise prescribe only acts of pity, mercy and kindness to the poor. It is an act of mercy to give liberty to a Canaanite servant for the loss of one
man's
to pledge
"
The
of his limbs (Exod. xxi. 26, 27), in order that he should not suffer from The law applies even to the case that slavery and illness at the same time. a tooth of a slave has been knocked out, much more to the mutilation of other limbs.
He
stated in Misbneh-torah.
and
kills
could only be corrected with a rod or reed or the like, as we have Besides, if the master strikes the slave too hard him, he is punished with death as for ordinary murder. Mercy is
also the object of the law,
"
Thou
his
shalt
not deliver unto

(Deut.
xxiii.
his
;
master the ser-
vant that
is
escaped from
master
"
15)
but
it
teaches
besides a very useful lesson, namely, that we must always practise this virtue, help and protect those who seek our help, and not deliver them unto those
from
whom they flee ; and it is not sufficient to give assistance to those who are in need of our help ; we must look after their interests, be kind to them, " and not hurt their feeling by words. Thus the Law says He shall dwell
:
with thee, even among you, in that place which he shall choose in one of thy thou shalt not vex him " (ibid. ver. 16). gates, where it liketh him best This we owe to the lowest among men, to the slave how much more must we do our duty to the freeborn, when they seek our assistance ? But, on the other hand, when sinners and evildoers seek our help, it must not be granted no mercy must be shown to them, and the course of justice must not be interfered with, even if they claim the protection of that which is noblest and " for Thou shalt take him from mine altar that he may die " highest Here a person comes to seek the help of God, and claims xxi. (Exod. 14). the protection of that which is devoted to his name ; God, however, does not help him, and commands thatfhe be delivered up to the prosecutor, from whom he fled. Much less need any one of us help or pity his fellow-men because mercy on sinners is cruelty to all crea[under such circumstances] " tures. These are undoubtedly the right ways designated righteous statutes " and judgments (Deut. iv. 8), and different from the ways of the fools, who consider a person praiseworthy when he helps and protects his fellow-men, without discriminating between the oppressor and the oppressed. This is well known from their words and songs. The reason and usefulness of every precept of this class has thus been clearlv demonstrated.
:
342

CHAPTER XL
"
THE
On Damages " precepts of the tilth class, enumerated in the Section and the prevention of injury. (Stpber nezikin), aim at the removal of wrong
are strongly recommended to prevent damage, we are responsible for every damage caused by our property or through our work in so far as it is in our power to take care and to guard it from becoming injurious. We are, therefore, responsible for all damage caused by our cattle ; we must guard
As we
them. The same is the case with fire and pits they are made by man, and he can be careful that they do not cause damage. I will point out the equity No compensation is enforced for damage of the various laws in this respect. becaused by the mouth or the foot of an animal in a public thoroughfare cause this cannot be guarded against, and the damage caused there is not
; ;
very large.
Those who place their things in a public place are themselves and expose their property to injury. But compensation of neglect, guilty' is given for damage caused to the property of a person in his own field by the
It is different in the case of damage caused tooth or the foot of an animal. by the horn of animals or the like. The animal can be guarded everywhere [and prevented from causing injury], whilst those who pass public thoroughIn this case fares cannot sufficiently take care against accidents of this kind. the law is the same for all places ; but there is a difference whether the owner If the of the animal has been warned concerning it or not (mu'ad or tarn). animal has not been in the habit of causing damage, the o'wner need only but damage caused by an animal which has been in pay half the damage the habit of doing so, and has been known as savage, must be paid in full.
;
The compensation
for a free
for a slave
is
uniformly estimated at half the value fixed
man.
For in the law concerning the valuation of man you find
the highest valuation at sixty shekels, whilst the

is
money
to be paid for a slave
fixed at thirty shekels silver.
The
human
being (Exod.
insinuate
dissenters
xxi. 28, 29) is against us, but
killing of an animal that has killed a not a punishment to the animal, as the
it
is
fine
imposed on the owner
of that animal.
owner
it
;
prohibited. The of an animal will, therefore, take the greatest possible care in guarding he will know that if any person is killed by the animal, whether that person
For the same reason the use of
its flesh is
be grown up or young, free or in bondage, he forfeits at least the animal and in case he has already received a warning concerning it, he will have to pay a ransom in addition to the loss of the animal. This is also the reason why a beast is killed that has been used by a human being for an immoral purpose (Lev. xx. 15, 16) its owner will be more careful as regards his beast, will guard it, and never lose sight of it, just as he watches his household
; ; :
for people fear the loss of their property as
much
as that of their
own
life
some even more, but most people hold both in the same estimation. " " Comp. and to take us for bondmen, and our asses (Gen. xliii. 18). This class includes also the duty of killing him who pursues another person ; that is to say, if a person is about to commit a crime we may prevent it by killing him. Only in two cases is this permitted viz., when a person runs after another in order to murder him, or in order to commit fornication because in these two cases the crime, once committed cannot be remedied.
; ; ;
In the case of other
sins,
punished with death by the court of law. such
as
343
idolatry and profanation of the Sabbath, by which the sinner does no harm to another person, and which concern only his own principles, no person may
be
killed for the It

is
known
mere intention, if he has not carried it out. that desire is denounced because it leads to coveting, and the
latter
is
The
Secondly, its benefit is mutual ; for if a person does not return the lost property of his fellow-man, nobody will restore to him what he may lose, just as those who do not honour their parents cannot expect to be
1-3) is character.
prohibited because it leads to robbery, as has been said by our Sages. object of the law of restoring lost property to its owner (Deut. xxii. In the first instance, it is in itself a good feature in man's obvious.
honoured by
xxi.
their children.
go into exile (Exod. 13; Num. xxxv. 11-28); because the anger of "the avenger of the " blood (Num. xxxv. 19) cools down while the cause of the mischief is out of The chance of returning from the exile depends on the death of [the sight. high-priest], the most honoured of men, and the friend of all Israel. By his death the relative of the slain person becomes reconciled (ibid. ver. 25) ;
a natural phenomenon that we find consolation in our misfortune the same misfortune or a greater one has befallen another person. Amongst us no death causes more grief than that of the high-priest. The beneficial character of the law concerning " the breaking of the neck " of a heifer (Deut. xxi. 1-8) is evident. For it is the city that is nearest to the slain person that brings the heifer, and in most cases the murderer comes
A person who killed another person unknowingly must
for
it is
when
The elders of the place call upon God as their witness, place. according to the interpretation of our Sages, that they have always kept the roads in good condition, have protected them, and have directed every one
from that
that asked his
way
that the person has not been killed because they were
careless in these general provisions, and they do not know who has slain him. As a rule the investigation, the procession of the elders, the measuring, and
the taking of the heifer, make people talk about it, and by making the event public, the murderer may be found out, and he who knows of him, or has heard of him, or has discovered him by any clue, will now name the person that is the murderer, and as soon as a man, or even a woman or handmaid, rises up and names a certain person as having committed the murder, the
heifer
is
not
killed.
It
is
well
known
that
it is
considered great wickedness
and
guilt
on the part
him
whilst the
the murderer.
who knows the murderer, and is silent about elders call upon God as witness that they know nothing about Even a woman will, therefore, communicate whatever knowof a person
If
ledge she has of him.
law
king
is
apparent.
find
may
him
;
stantial evidence
When the murderer is discovered, the benefit of the the court of justice cannot sentence him to death, the guilty, who has the power to sentence to death on circumand if the king does not put him to death, the avenger of
shown the use
have thus plan his death, and at last kill him. of the law concerning the breaking of the neck of the heifer in discovering the murderer Force is added to the law by the rule that the place in which the neck of the heifer is broken should never be cultivated 01
blood
may scheme and
We
sown.
The owner
of the land will therefore use all
means
in his
power
tc
search and to find the murderer, in order that the heifer be not killed and hii land be not made useless to him.
344

CHAPTER XLI
THE
us.
sinner.
precepts of the sixth class comprise the different ways of punishing the Their general usefulness is known and has also been mentioned by I will here describe them one by one and point out their nature in
detail.
The punishment of him who sins against his neighbour consists in the if he general rule that there shall be done unto him exactly as he has done injured any one personally, he must suffer personally ; if he damaged the
:
property of his neighbour, he shall be punished by loss of property. But the person whose property has been damaged should be ready to Design his claim of Only to the murderer we must not be lenient because totally or partly. " And and no ransom must be accepted of him. the greatness of his crime the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein but by the blood " of him that shed it (Num. xxxi. 33). Hence even if the murdered person continued to live after the attack for an hour or for days, was able to speak " Pardon my and possessed complete consciousness, and if he himself said, murderer, I have pardoned and forgiven him," he must not be obeyed. We
;
must take life for life, and estimate equally the life of a child and that of a grown-up person, of a slave and of a freeman, of a wise man and of a fool. For there is no greater sin than this. And he who mutilated a limb of his " As he hath caused a blemish in a neighbour, must himself lose a limb. " him be done to shall it so man, again (Lev. xxiv. 20). You must not raise an objection from our practice of imposing a fine in such cases. For we have proposed to ourselves to give here the reason for the precepts mentioned in the Law, and not for that which is stated in the Talmud. I have, however,
an explanation for the interpretation given in the Talmud, but it will be communicated viva voce. Injuries that cannot be reproduced exactly in " another person, are compensated for by payment ; only he shall pay for " the loss of his time, and shall cause him to be thoroughly healed (Exod. If any one damaged the property of another, he must lose exactly xxi. 19). " whom the judges shall condemn he shall as much of his own property " his neighbour unto double (Exod. xxii. 8); namely, he restores that pay which he has taken, and adds just as much [to it] of his own property. It is
:
right that the more frequent transgressions probability of their being committed, the
and sins are, and the greater the more severe must their punishment be, in order to deter people from committing them ; but sins which For this reason one are of rare occurrence require a less severe punishment. who stole a sheep had to pay twice as much as for other goods, i.e., four times but this is only the case when he has disposed the value of the stolen object As a rule, the sheep remained alof it by sale or slaughter (Exod. xxi. 37). ways in the fields, and could therefore not be watched so carefully as things
;
kept in town. The thief of a sheep used therefore to sell it quickly before the theft became known, or to slaughter it and thereby change its appearAs such theft happened frequently, the punishment was severe. The ance. compensation for a stolen ox is still greater by one-fourth, because the
The sheep keep together when they feed, and is easily carried out. can be watched by the shepherd, so that theft when it is committed can only But oxen when feeding are very widely scattered, take place by night.
theft

AS is also mentioned watch them properly
345
in
;
theft of oxen
false witnesses
the Nabatean Agriculture^ and a shepherd cannot is therefore a more frequent occur-
rence.
The law
concerning
shall suffer exactly the same loss which If they intended to bring a sentence of
if
(Deut. xix. 19) prescribes that they they intended to inflict upon another. death against a person, they are killed ;
they aimed at the punishment of stripes, they receive stripes ; and if they make a person pay money, they are sentenced to pay exactly the same sum. The object of all these laws is to make the punishment equal to " the crime and it is also on this account that the judgments are righteous " (Deut. iv. 8). A robber with violence is not ordered to pay anything as fine (Lev. v. 24) the additional fifth part [of the value of the robbed goods] is only an atonement-offering for his perjury. The reason of this rule is to be found in the rare occurrence of robbery ; theft is committed more frequently than robbery, for theft can be committed everywhere robbery is not possible in towns, except with difficulty besides, the thief takes things exposed as well as things hidden away ; robbery applies only to things exposed against robbery we can guard and defend ourselves ; we cannot do so against theft ; again, the robber is known, can be sought, and forced to return that which he has robbed, whilst the thief is not known. On account of all these circumstances the law fines the thief and not the robber. Preliminary Remark. Whether the punishment is great or small, the pain inflicted intense or less intense, depends on the following four condesire to
; ; ; ; ;
ditions.
1.
The
greatness of the sin.
Actions that cause great
harm
are punished
severely, whilst actions that cause little harm are punished less severely. 2. The crime that is frequently committed frequency of the crime.
must be put down by severe punishment ; crimes of rare occurrence may be suppressed by a lenient punishment considering that they are rarely committed.
of temptation. Only fear of a severe punishment restrains which there exists a great temptation, either because we have a great desire for these actions, or are accustomed to them, or feel un3.
The amount
us
from actions
for
happy without them.

4. The facility of doing the thing secretly, and unseen and unnoticed. From such acts we are deterred only by the fear of a great and terrible
punishment. After this preliminary remark,

:
I say that the precepts of the Law may be divided into the following four classes with respect to the punishment for their transgression (i) Precepts whose transgression is followed by sen-
tence of death pronounced by a court of law. (2) Precepts whose transgression is punished with excision, such transgression being held to be a
cases the transgression is punished by very great sin. (3) In some stripes administered with a strap (such transgression not being considered a " death by Heagrievous sin, as it concerns only a simple prohibition) or by ven." (4) Precepts the transgression of which is not punished [even] by But Prohibitions of this kind are all those that involve no act. stripes. there are the following exceptions : [First], Swearing falsely, because it is
;
gross neglect of man's duty,
who ought
to bear constantly in
mind the
great-

ness of God. [Secondly], Changing an animal devoted to the sanctuary for another (Lev. xxvii. 10), because this change leads to contemning sacrifices devoted to the name of God. [Thirdly], Cursing a person by the name of God (ibid. xix. 14) ; because many dread the effect of a curse more than bodily harm. The transgression of other negative commandments that involve no act causes little harm, and cannot always be avoided, as it consists in
mere words
moreover, man's back would be inflicted with stripes
all
the
year round if he were to be punished with stripes for each transgression of There is this kind. Besides, previous warning is impossible in this case. also wisdom in the number of stripes ; for although the number of their
maximum is given, there is no fixed number how many are to be applied to each person ; each man receives only as many stripes as he can bear, but not more than forty (Deut. xxv. 3), even if he be strong enough for a hundred.
is not inflicted for the the court of law transgression of any of the dietary laws ; because in such a case no great harm is done, and the temptation of man to transgress these laws is not so great as the temp-
The " death by
"
enjoyment of sexual intercourse. In some of the dietary laws This is the case with the prohibition of eating is excision. blood (Lev. xvii. 26). For in ancient days people were very eager and anxious to eat blood as a kind of idolatrous ceremony, as is explained in the book Tomtom, and therefore the prohibition of eating blood is made very stringent. because people enjoy it, and Excision is also the punishment for eating fat because it was distinguished and sanctified by its use in the offerings. The eating of leavened bread on Passover (Exod. xii. 15), and breaking the fast on the Day of Atonement (Lev. xxiii. 29), are likewise punished with exof the great discomfort which the obedience to the cision [first] on account law causes in these cases ; [secondly] on account of the principles of faith which the laws of Passover and of the Day of Atonement inculcate they confirm fundamental principles of the Law, viz., the belief in the wonderful departure [of Israel] from Egypt, and in the effect of repentance, according " " For on this day will he forgive you to the words, (Lev. xvi. 31). Just as in the case of eating fat, so is excision also announced as a punishment when a person eats that which is left [of a sacrifice beyond its limited time], or or when an unclean partakes of a sacrifice which has been made abominable
tation to the
the punishment
person eats of holy things (ibid. vii. 16-21). The object of this severity is to increase the estimation of the offering in the eyes of the people, as has
been shown.
Death by the court of law is decreed in important cases undermined, or a great crime is committed, viz., idolatry,
or actions that lead to these crimes.
;
when
faith
is
It
is
further decreed
incest, murder, for breaking the
because the keeping of Sabbath is a confirmation Sabbath (Exod. xxxi. 15) of our belief in the Creation ; a false prophet and a rebellious elder are put he who strikes his to death on account of the mischief which they cause father or his mother is killed on account of his great audacity, and because he undermines the constitution of the family, which is the foundation of the state. A rebellious and disobedient son is put to death (Deut. xxi. 1 8 seq.) on account of what he might become, because he will likely be a murderer ; he who steals a human being is killed, because he is also prepared to kill him
;

whom
house
is
347
he
steals (Exod. xxi. prepared for murder
16).
Likewise he
who
is
(ibid. xxii. l), as
our Sages stated.
found breaking into a These three,
the rebellious and disobedient son, he who steals and sells a human being, and he who breaks into a house, become murderers in the course of time, as is well known. Capital punishment is only decreed for these serious crimes, and in no other case. Not all forbidden sexual intercourse is visited with the penalty of death, but only in those cases in which the criminal act can easily be done, is of frequent occurrence, is base and disgraceful, and of a tempting character ; otherwise excision is the punishment. Likewise not all kinds of idolatry are capital crimes, but only the principal acts of idolatry, such as praying to an idol, prophesying in its name, passing a child through the fire, consulting with familiar spirits, and acting as a wizard or witch. As punishments and judgments are evidently indispensable, it was necessary
to appoint judges throughout the country in every town ; witnesses must be heard ; and a king is required whom all fear and respect, who is able to restrain the people by various means, and who can strengthen and support the authority of the judges. Although I have shown the reason of all " " the laws contained in the Section of Judges (Sefer Shofetim), I find it
necessary, in accordance with the object of this treatise, to explain a few of these laws, e.g., the laws concerning a rebellious elder. God knew that the judgments of the Law will always require an extension
in
events,
cases and curtailment in others, according to the variety of places, and circumstances. He therefore cautioned against such increase " and diminution, and commanded, Thou shalt not add thereto nor diminish from it " (Deut. xiii. i) ; for constant changes would tend to disturb the whole system of the Law, and would lead people to believe that the Law is not of Divine origin. But permission is at the same time given to the wise men, i.e., the great court (Synhedrion) of every generation to make fences round the judgments of the Law for their protection, and to introduce bye-laws (fences) in order to ensure the keeping of the Law. Such fences once erected " remain in force for ever. The Mishnah therefore teaches And make a fence round the Law" (Abot i. i). In the same manner they have the power temporarily to dispense with some religious act prescribed in the Law, or to allow that which is forbidden, if exceptional circumstances and events require it ; but none of the laws can be abrogated permanently, as has been explained by us in the Introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah in treating of temporary legislation. By this method the Law will remain perpetually the same, and will yet admit at all times and under all circum:
some
stances such temporary modifications as are indispensable. If every scholar had the power to make such modifications, the multitude of disputes and differences of opinion would have produced an injurious effect. Therefore
it
was commanded that of the Sages only the great Synhedrion, and none else, should have this power ; and whoever would oppose their decision should be killed. For if any critic were allowed to dispute the decision of the Synhedrion, the object of this law would not be attained ; it would be useless. Transgressions may be divided into four classes, viz. (i) involuntary
transgressions, (2) sins
(4) sins
committed
in ignorance, (3) sins

sins involuntarily
is,
done
spitefully.
He who
done knowingly, and according to the disfree
tinct declaration of the
Law, exempt from punishment, and
from
all
AA
348

"
Unto the damsel thou shalt do nothing ; there is in the blame ; comp. " damsel no sin worthy of death (Deut. xxii. 26). If a person sins, in ignorfor if blamable he had been more considerate and careful, he he is ance, would not have erred. Although he is not punished, his sin must be atoned The Law distinguishes in for, and for this reason he brings a sin-offering. this respect between a private person and a king, a high-priest or Teacher of
;
Halakah.
Hence we conclude that
person
who
acts
wrongly, or
who
teaches wrongly, guided by his own reasoning except in the case of the great Synhedrion or the high-priest is treated as mezid (as one who sins knowingly), and does not belong to the category of shogegim (of those who
by error). A rebellious elder is therefore put to death, although he acted and taught according to his view. But the great Synhedrion must teach according to its opinion, and if the opinion is wrong, the sin is considered as " due to error. In reference to such a case the Law says, And if the whole of is Israel err" etc. iv. It on this (Lev. 13). congregation principle that our " The error in learning amounts to intentional sin " (Abot iv. Sages say, 13) ; he who has studied insufficiently, and teaches and acts according to his defective knowledge, is to be considered as if he sinned knowingly. For
sin
person eats of the fat of the kidneys in the belief that it is the fat of the his error is not so grave as the error of him who, eating of the fat of the kidneys, knows that it is that fat, but is ignorant of the fact that it is prohibited. The latter brings a sin-offering although he is almost an intentional transgressor. But this is only the case as far as he acts according to
if
rump,
but if he decides a religious question [wrongly], he is unknowledge doubtedly an intentional sinner. The Law admits the plea of error in a religious decision only in the case of the great Synhedrion. He who has sinned knowingly must pay the penalty prescribed in the Law ; he is put to death or receives stripes, or for transgression of prohibitions not punishable by stripes other corporal punishment, or pays a fine. There are some sins for which the punishment is the same, whether they have been committed knowingly or unknowingly ; because they are frequent, and are easily done, consisting only in the utterance of words, and involving no action besides Intercourse with e.g., false swearing by witnesses, or by trustees. a betrothed handmaid is likewise easy and frequent she is exposed unprotected, being in reality neither handmaid nor a free person, nor a married
his
; ; ;
to the traditional interpretation of this precept. presumptuously, so that in sinning he shows impudence and seeks publicity, if he does not sin only to satisfy his appetite, if he does what is prohibited by the Law, not only because of his evil inclinations, but " " in order to oppose and resist the Law, he (Num. reproacheth the Lord None will act in such a rv. 30), and must undoubtedly be put to death. manner but such as have conceived the idea to act contrary to the Law. According to the traditional interpretation, therefore, the above passage speaks of an idolater who opposes the fundamental principles of the Law ; for no one worships a star unless he believes [ contrary to the teachings of Scripture ] that the star is eternal, as we have frequently stated in our work. I think that the same punishment [viz., sentence of death] applies to every Even if an sin which involves the rejection of the Law, or opposition to it.
woman, according
If a
person
sins
Israelite eats
meat
[boiled] in milk, or wears garments of
wool and
linen, or

clearly that
349
inhabitants of a are slain for their unbelief, and city misled to idolatry not by way of punishment for crime ; wherefore their property is destroyed by fire, and is not given to their heirs, as is the case with the property of other criminals condemned to death. According to my opinion, all the members of
an' Israelitish community which has insolently and presumptuously transThis is proved by gressed any of the divine precepts, must be put to death. " " the history of the sons of Reuben and the sons of Gad (Josh, xxii.),
rounds the corners of his head, out of spite against the Law, in order to show " he does not believe in its truth, I apply to him the words, he reproacheth the Lord," and [I am of opinion] that he must suffer death as an unbeliever, though not for a punishment, but in the same manner as the " "
When against whom the whole congregation of Israel decided to make war. warning was given to the supposed offenders, it was explained to them that they had relinquished their faith, because by agreeing to transgress one particular law they rejected the truth of the whole Law. For they were ad" dressed as follows What trespass is this that ye have committed against " the God of Israel, to turn away this day from following the Lord ? (Josh, " xxii. 1 6) and they replied The Lord knoweth, etc., if it be in rebellion, or if in transgression against the Lord." etc. (ibid. 22). Take well notice of
: ;
:
these principles in respect to punishments. The Section on Judges includes also the
commandment
to blot out the
Amalek (Deut. xxv. 17-19). In the same way as one individual person is punished, so must also a whole family or a whole nation be punished, in order that other families shall hear it and be afraid, and not accustom themselves to practise mischief. For they will say, we may suffer in the same way as those people have suffered and if there be found among them
memory
of
wicked, mischievous man, who cares neither for the evil he brings upon himself nor for that which he causes to others, he will not find in his family any one ready to help him in his evil designs. As Amalek was the first to
a
attack Israel with the sword (Exod. xvii. 8-16), it was commanded to blot out his name by means of the sword ; whilst Ammon and Moab, who have not been friendly simply from meanness, and have caused them injury by cunning, were only punished by exclusion from intermarriage with the Israelites, and
from
punishment "
their friendship. All these things which God has commanded as a are not excessive nor inadequate, but, as is distinctly stated, " according to the fault (Deut. xxv. 2).
This section contains also the law concerning preparing a place without " " the camp," and having a paddle upon the weapon (Deut. xxiii. 12, 13). As I have told you, it is one of the objects of the Law to train Israel to cleanliness ; that they should keep free from dirt and filth, and that men should
not be degraded to the condition of cattle. Another object of this law is to confirm by these preparations the belief of the warriors that God dwells in their midst. The reason of the law is therefore stated thus " For the Lord " in the midst of thy The mention God walketh thy camp (ibid." ver. 14$ of this reason gave occasion to add another lesson : That he see no unclean " These words warn and thing in thee and turn away from thee (ibid.'). caution us against the usual inclination of soldiers to fornication, when they
:
"
away from their homes a long time. God therefore commanded us to do certain things which remind us that He is in our midst ; we will thereby
are
350

"
and thy camp shall be holy* be saved from those evil practices ; as it is said, " Even those who are unclean that he see no unclean thing in thee (ibid.). by pollution were compelled to stop outside the camp till the evening, and " then he shall come into the camp again." It will thus be confirmed in
the heart of every one of the Israelites that their camp must be like a sanctuary of the Lord, and it must not be like the camps of the heathen, whose sole object is corruption and sin ; who only seek to cause injury to others
and to take
vice of
only text of the Law. propose to give here such reasons as are apparent from the " To the same class belongs also the law concerning the marriage of a " (Deut. xxi. 10 seq.). There is a well-known saying of our captive woman " law is only a concession to human weakness." This law This Sages contains, nevertheless, even for the nobler class of people, some moral lessons
:
God, and to
their property ; whilst our object is to lead mankind to the sera good social order. I have told you already that I
For although the soldier may be overunable to suppress or to restrain, he must take " into the inner of his house " (Deut. the object of his lust to a private place, xxi. 12), and he is not permitted to force her in the camp. Similarly our Sages say, that he may not cohabit with her a second time before she leaves She must not be preoff her mourning, and is at ease about her troubles.
to which I will call your attention.
come by
his desire
which he
is
vented from mourning and crying, and she must be permitted to abstain " and she shall weep for her from bathing, in accordance with the words, " for mourners find comfort in crying father and for her mother (ibid.) and in excitement till the body has not sufficient strength to bear the inner
;
as happy persons find rest in various kinds of merciful to her and gives her permission to continue her mourning and weeping till she is worn out. You know certainly that he married her as a heathen, and that during the thirty days she openly keeps her religion and even continues her idolatrous practices ; no interference with her faith was allowed during that time ; and after all that she could not
emotions
play.
in the
same manner
is
Thus the Lord
be
sold,
nor treated
as a
handmaid,
if
she could not be induced to accept the
Thus the Law does not ignore the cohabitation of the Israelite with the captive woman, although it involved disobedience to God The Law to some extent, having taken place when she was still a heathen. " Thou shalt not make merchandise of her, because thou hast prescribes humbled her " (ibid. 14). We have thus shown the moral lessons contained in these laws, and we have explained the reason of every precept of this
statutes of the
Law.
section.
CHAPTER XLII
THE precepts of the seventh class
on Judgments, and part
precepts
actions
are the civil laws
of the Section
enumerated in the Section on Property. The object of these
is obvious. They define the ways of equity in the various transwhich must take place between man and man. Those that are engaged in such transactions must mutually promote each other's interests ; neither of the parties must strive to increase only his own profit, and that he In the first place, alone should enjoy the whole benefit of the transaction. no overcharge is permitted ; only the ordinary and known rate of profit may

be taken.
is
351
The law
fixes
valid.
is
Even imposition
the limits of profits within which the transaction in mere words [where no material harm is in-
flicted]
of bailees
his
Next comes the law of the four kinds forbidden, as is well known. If one the fairness of the law is evident. ; keeps the property of
neighbour for nothing, without deriving therefrom any benefit for himand is only obliging his neighbour, he is free from all responsibility, and if any injury is done to the property, the owner alone must bear the loss. He who borrows a thing keeps it only for his own advantage, whilst the owner lends it to him to oblige him ; he is therefore responsible for everything any loss in the property must be borne by the borrower. If one
self,
;
wages for keeping the property or pays for using it, he as well as the owner profit thereby the losses must therefore be divided between them. It is done in this manner the bailee pays for any loss caused through want
takes
; ;
of care, namely, when the property is stolen or lost ; for this happens only when the bailee does not take sufficient precaution. The owner, on the other hand, bears such losses as cannot be prevented ; namely, if by accident the
animal
or
falls
and breaks
if it dies.
The Law
its limbs, or is carried away by armed men as booty, further ordains merciful conduct towards hired work-
men because of their poverty. Their wages should be paid without delay, and they must not be wronged in any of their rights they must receive their pay according to their work. Another instance of kindness to workmen is this according to the regulations of this law, workmen, and even animals, must be permitted to partake of the food in the preparation of which they have been engaged. The laws which relate to property include laws concerning inheritance. They are based on the sound principle that man must " " not withhold good from those to whom it is due (Prov. iii. 27), and when he is about to die, he must not conceive ill-will against his heirs, by squandering his property, but leave it to the one who has the greatest claim on it, " unto his kinsman that is next to that is, to him who is his nearest relation, " him of his stated that the son has xxvii. 1 It is
;
:
the (Num. 1). family clearly claim, then comes the daughter, then the brother, and then the father's The father must leave the right of the first-born brothers, as is well known.
first
to his eldest son, because his love for this son came first ; he must not be guided by his inclination. He may not make the son of the beloved first-
born before the son of the hated (Deut. xxi. 16). Thus our highly equitable Law preserves and strengthens the virtue of respecting all kinsmen, and doing " well unto them, as the prophet says He that is cruel troubleth his own " flesh The Law correctly says, " Thou shalt open thine hand (Prov. xi. 17). wide unto thy brother, unto thy poor " (Deut. xv. 1 1).. Our Sages bestow much praise upon him who is kind to his relatives, and him who marries the daughter of his sister. The Law has taught us how far we have to extend this principle of favouring those who are near to us, and of treating kindly every one with whom we have some relationship, even if he offended or even if he is very bad, we must have some consideration for wronged us " him. Thus the Law says Thou shalt not abhor an Edomite, for he is " (ibid, xxiii. 7). thy brother Again, if we find a person in trouble, whose assistance we have once enjoyed, or of whom we have received some benefit, even if that person has subsequently done evil to us, we must bear in mind " his previous [good] conduct. Thou shalt not abhor Thus the Law tells us
:
352

a stranger in his land
(ibid.), although the Egyptians have subsequently oppressed us very much, as is well-known. See how many moral lessons we have derived from these precepts. The last two precepts do not belong to the seventh class ; but the discussion of the
an Egyptian, because thou wast
"
preference due to relatives as regards inheritance led us to speak of the Egyptians and the Edomites.
CHAPTER
THE
them
precepts
(Sefer
XLIII
of the eighth ckss
Seasons"
zemannim).
With
are stated in the Law. The no explanation. The rest it affords to man is known ; one-seventh of the life of every man, whether small or great, passes thus in comfort, and in rest from trouble and exertion. This the Sabbath effects in addition to the perpetuation and confirmation of the grand doctrine of the Creation. The object
enumerated in "the Section on few exceptions, the reasons for all of object of Sabbath is obvious, and requires
are
a
Atonement is evident. The Fast creates the sense of repentthe same day on which the chief of all prophets came down [from Mount Sinai] with the second tables, and announced to the people the divine pardon of their great sin ; the day was therefore appointed for ever as a day devoted to repentance and true worship of God. For this reason all material enjoyment, all trouble and care for the body, are interdicted, no work may
of the Fast of
ance
it is
the day must be spent in confession ; ever" one shall confess his ; and abandon them. Other holy days are appointed for rejoicing and for such pleasant gathering as people generally need. They also promote the good feeling that men should have to each other in their social and political relations. The
be done
sins
appointment of the
for the Passover
is
seven days
is
is
The reason special days for such purposes has its cause. It is kept seven days, because the period of the unit of time intermediate between a day and a month. It
well known.
is the importance of this period in Nature, and in For the Law always follows Nature, and in some respects brings it to perfection ; for Nature is not capable of designing and thinking, whilst the Law is the result of the wisdom and guidance of God,
also
known how
great
many
religious duties.
who
is the author of the intellect of all rational This, however, is beings. not the theme of the present chapter ; let us return to our subject. The Feast of Weeks is the anniversary of the Revelation on Mount Sinai. In order to raise the. importance of this day, we count the days that pass since the preceding festival, just as one who expects his most intimate friend on a This is the reason why we certain day counts the days and even the hours. count the days that pass since the offering of the Omer, between the anniversary of our departure from Egypt and the anniversary of the Lawgiving. The latter was the aim and object of the exodus from Egypt, and thus God " " I brought you unto myself said, (Exod. xix. 4). As that great revelation but if took place only on one day, so we keep its anniversary only one day the eating of unleavened bread on Passover were only commanded for one day, we should not have noticed it, and its object would not have been maniFor it frequently happens that we take the same kind of food for two fest.
;
353
day repentance, which we are stirred up from our forgetfulness. For this reason the shofar is blown on this day, as we have shown in Mishneh-torah. The day is. as it were, a preparation k for and an introduction to the day of the Fast, as is obvious from the national tradition about the days between New- Year and the Day of Atonement. The Feast of Tabernacles, which is a feast of rejoicing and gladness, is kept seven days, in order that the idea of the festival may be more noticeable. The reason why it is kept in the autumn is stated in the Law, " When thou
hast gathered in thy labours out of the field (Exod. xxiii. 16) ; that is to Aristotle, in the ninth say, when you rest and are free from pressing labours.
or three days. But by our continuing for a whole period [of seven days] to eat unleavened bread, its object becomes clear and evident. New- Year is likewise kept for one day ; for it is a of on
"
book of
his Ethics,
mentions
In ancient times the sacrifices and assemblies of the people took says : place after the ingathering of the corn and the fruit, as if the sacrifices were Another reason is this in this season offered on account of the harvest."
it is
He
"
this as a general
custom among the nations.
possible to dwell in tabernacles, as there

rain.
is
neither great heat nor trouble-
some
The two festivals, Passover and the Feast of Tabernacles, imply also the teaching of certain truths and certain moral lessons. Passover teaches us to remember the miracles which God wrought in Egypt, and to perpetuate their memory ; the Feast of Tabernacles reminds us of the miracles wrought in
the wilderness.
The
moral lessons derived from these

repeatedly, to lead a modest
feasts
is
this
man
ought to remember be induced to thank

eat, therefore,
his evil
days in his days of prosperity.
He
will
thereby
God
and humble
life.
We
unleavened bread and bitter herbs on Passover in memory of what has happened unto us, and leave [on Succoth] our houses in order to dwell We in tabernacles, as inhabitants of deserts do that are in want of comfort. " I shall thereby remember that this has once been our condition [comp.] " made the children of Israel to dwell in booths (Lev. xxiii. 43) ; although
;
we dwell now in elegant houses, in the best and most fertile land, by the kindness of God, and because of His promises to our forefathers, Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob, who were perfect in their opinions and in their conduct. This idea is likewise an important element in our religion ; that whatever and ever will receive of God, is owing to the merits good we have received " do and
of the Patriarchs,
who
ment " (Gen.
kept the
xviii. 19).
We
justice judgway of the Lord to join to the Feast of Tabernacles the Feast of
the Eighth Day, in order to complete our rejoicings, which cannot be perfect As regards the four in booths, but in comfortable and well-built houses. and the willows the the of the branches tree, citron, myrtle, palm species [the of the brook] our Sages gave a reason for their use by way of Agadic interof which is well known to those who are acquainted pretation, the method of our with the They use the text of the Bible only as a kind of
Sages. style their poetical language [for interpretation of the text.
tions,
intend thereby to give an ideas], and do not As to the value of these Midrashic interpretawe meet with two different opinions. For some think that the Midrash
own
contains the real explanation of the text, whilst others, finding that it cannot be reconciled with the words quoted, reject and ridicule it. The former
354
and to confirm such interpretations according to struggle and fight to prove their opinion, and to keep them as the real meaning of the text ; they conNeither of the two classes sider them in the same light as traditional laws.
understood it, that our Sages employ biblical texts merely as poetical exof which is clear to every reasonable reader. This pressions, the meaning in ancient days ; all adopted it in the same way as poets style was general " in reference to the words, and a [adopt a certain style]. Our Sages say, " shalt have upon thy weapon Deut. xxiii. thou [azeneba, paddle (yated) Do not read azeneka, " thy weapon," but ozneka, " thy ear." You 14] are thus told, that if you hear a person uttering something disgraceful, put
:
your fingers into your ears. Now, I wonder whether those ignorant persons [who take the Midrashic interpretations literally] believe that the author of this saying gave it as the true interpretation of the text quoted, and as the " " the paddle," is used for truth yated, the meaning of this precept that in " thy ear." I cannot think that any person finger," and azeneka denotes whose intellect is sound can admit this. The author employed the text as a beautiful poetical phrase, in teaching an excellent moral lesson, namely this It This lesson is poetically is as bad to listen to bad language as it is to use it. connected with the above text. In the same sense you must understand the " Do not read so, but so," wherever it occurs in the Midrash. I phrase, have departed from my subject, but it was for the purpose of making a re;
:
I now return useful to every intellectual member of the Rabbanites. I believe that the four species are a symbolical expression of " no place of seed, our rejoicing that the Israelites changed the wilderness,
mark
to our theme.
or of
figs,
with a country
take the fruit
or of vines, or of pomegranates, or of water to drink (Num. xx. In order to remember this full of fruit-trees and rivers.
"
5),
we
which smell
which is the most pleasant of the fruit of the land, branches most beautiful leaves, and also the best of herbs, i.e., the willows of the brook. These four kinds have also those three purposes First, they were plentiful in those days in Palestine, so that every one could
best,
:
easily get
them.
Secondly, they have a good appearance, they are green
some
of them, viz., the citron and the myrtle, are also excellent as regards their smell, the branches of the palm-tree and the willow having neither
good nor bad smell. Thirdly, they keep fresh and green for seven days, which is not the case with peaches, pomegranates, asparagus, nuts, and the
like.
CHAPTER XLIV
THE precepts of the
Their reason
is
ninth
class are
those enumerated in the Section on Love.
actions prescribed by them serve to remind us continually of God, and of our duty to fear and to love Him, to keep all His commandments, and to believe concerning God that which every reli-
obvious.
The
must believe. This class includes the laws of Prayer, Reading of Shema, Grace, and duties connected with these, Blessing of the priests, Tea scroll of the Law, and reading in it at fillin, Mezuzah, Zizit, acquiring The performance of all these precepts inculcates into our certain times. heart useful lessons. All this is clear, and a further explanation is superfluous, as being a mere repetition and nothing else.
gious person

CHAPTER XLV
355
precepts of the tenth class are those enumerated in the laws on the (Hilkot bet ba-behirah\ the laws on the vessels of the temple and on the ministers in the temple [Hilkot kele ha-mikdash veha-'obedim bo]. The use of these precepts we have stated in general terms. It is known
THE
Temple
that idolaters selected the highest possible places on high mountains where to build their temples and to place their images. Therefore Abraham, our father, chose Mount Moriah, being the highest mount in that country, and proclaimed there the Unity of God. He selected the west of the mount as
the place toward which he turned during his prayers, because [he thought that] the most holy place was in the West ; this is the meaning of the saying
of our Sages,
"
The
it
Shekinab
is
Baba B 250)
father
I
and
(the Glory of God) is in the West (B. T. distinctly stated in the Talmud Yoma that our
it
"
"
Most Holy was built. was then a general rite to worship the sun as a deity. Undoubtedly all people turned then to the East [worshipping the Sun]. Abraham turned therefore on Mount Moriah to the West, that is, the site of the Sanctuary, and turned his back toward the sun ; and the Israelites, when they abandoned their God and returned to the early bad " with their backs toward the Temple of the Lord and principles, stood their faces toward the East, and they worshipped the sun toward the " East (Ezek. viii. 16). Note this strange fact. I do not doubt that the spot which Abraham chose in his prophetical spirit, was known to Moses our for Abraham commanded his children that on this Teacher, and to others Thus the Targum says distinctly, place a house of worship should be built. "'And Abraham worshipped and prayed there in that place, and said before " God, Here shall coming generations worship the Lord (Gen. xxii. 14). For three practical reasons the name of the place is not distinctly stated in " the Law, but indicated in the phrase To the place which the Lord will " choose 1 xii. if the nations had learnt that this place 1, etc.). (Deut. First, was to be the centre of the highest religious truths, they would occupy it, or fight about it most perseveringly. Secondly, those who were then in possession of it might destroy and ruin the place with all their might. Thirdly, and chiefly, every one of the twelve tribes would desire to have this place in its borders and under its control this would lead to divisions and discord, such as were caused by the desire for the priesthood. Therefore it was
chose the west side, the place where the
believe that he did so because
; ' ' ;
Abraham
commanded that the Temple should not be built before king who would order its erection, and thus remove the
the election of a
cause of discord.
We
up
have explained
is
It
known
the Section on Judges (ch. xli.). that the heathen in those days built temples to
this in
stars,
and
set
in those temples the image which they agreed upon to worship ; because the spherei. it was in some relation to a certain star or to a portion of one of
were, therefore, commanded to build a temple to the name of God, and to place therein the ark with two tables of stone, on which there were written
We
the
" Thou shalt have no other the Lord," etc., and God before me," etc. Naturally the fundamental belief in prophecy precedes the belief in the Law, for without the belief in prophecy there can be no belief in the Law. But a prophet only receives divine inspiration through
commandments "
am
356

"
"
The angel of the Lord called (Gen. the agency of an angel. Comp. " The angel of the Lord said unto her " (ibid. xvi. ll) ; and other xxii. 15) ;
innumerable instances. Even Moses our Teacher received his first prophecy " And an angel of the Lord appeared to him in the flame through an angel.
of
fire
"
(Exod.
iii.).
It
is
therefore clear that the belief in the existence of
angels precedes the belief in prophecy, and the latter precedes the belief in the Law. The Sabeans, in their ignorance of the existence of God, believed
that the spheres with their stars were beings without beginning and without end, that the images and certain trees, the Asherot, derived certain powers
from the spheres, that they inspired the prophets, spoke to them in visions, and told them what was good and what bad. I have explained their theory when speaking of the prophets of the Ashera. But when the wise men discovered and proved that there was a Being, neither itself corporeal nor residing as a force in a corporeal body, viz., the true, one God, and that there existed besides other purely incorporeal beings which God endowed with His goodness and His light, namely, the angels, and that these beings are not included in the sphere and its stars, it became evident that it was these angels and not the images or Asherot that charged the prophets. From the preceding remarks it is clear that the belief in the existence of angels is connected with the belief in the Existence of God ; and the belief in God and angels leads to the belief in Prophecy and in the truth of the Law. In order to firmly
establish this creed, God commanded [the Israelites] to make over the ark the form of two angels. The belief in the existence of angels is thus inculcated
into the minds of the people, and this belief is in importance next to the belief in God's Existence ; it leads us to believe in Prophecy and in the Law,
and opposes idolatry. If there had only been one figure of a cherub, the people would have been misled and would have mistaken it for God's image which was to be worshipped, in the fashion of the heathen ; or they might have assumed that the angel [represented by the figure] was also a deity, and would thus have adopted a Dualism. By making two cherubim and dis" the Lord is our God, the Lord is One," Moses clearly tinctly declaring proclaimed the theory of the existence of a number of angels ; he left no
room
that]
God
for the error of considering those figures as deities, since [he declared is one, and that He is the Creator of the angels, who are more
than one.
put in front of the curtain, as a sign of honour and Temple. For a chamber in which a continual light burns, hidden behind a curtain, makes a great impression on man, and the Law lays great stress on our holding the Sanctuary in great estimation and regard, and that at the sight of it we should be filled with humility, mercy, and softdistinction for the
A candlestick was then
And ye shall reverence my expressed in the words, (Lev. xix. 30), and in order to give these words more weight, sanctuary they are closely joined to the command to keep the Sabbath.
heartedness.
This
"
is
"
The
vessels
is
use of the altar for incense and tke altar for burnt-offering and their obvious ; but I do not know the object of the table with the bread
continually,
upon
it
reason to this
and up to commandment.
this
day
have not been able to assign any
The commandment
no iron
that the stones of the altar shall not be
tool shall be lifted
up upon them (Deut.
xxvii. 5), has
hewn and that been explained
357
by our Sages as follows : It is not right that the tool that shortens man's life should be lilted up upon that which gives length of life. As an Agadic exbut the real reason is this the heathen used to build planation this is good For this their altars with hewn stones ; we ought not to imitate them. " Thou shalt make unto me an reason we have to make an altar of earth " altar of earth (Exod. xx. 24) ; if it should be impossible to dispense altogether with stones, they must not be hewn, but employed in their natural Thus the Law ajso prohibits from worshipping over painted stones state. (Lev. xxvi. l), or from planting any tree near the altar of the Lord (Deut. The object of all these commandments is the same, namely, that we xvi. 21). shall not employ in the worship of God anything which the heathen employed In general terms this is repeated in the followin the worship of their idols. " Take heed, that thou inquire not after their gods, saying, ing passage How did these nations serve their gods ? even so will I do likewise " (Deut. " as is expressly added xii. 30) ; the Israelites shall not do this, because every abomination unto the Lord,which he hateth, have they done unto their gods." The mode of worshipping Peor, then very general among the heathen,
: ; : :
The priests were therefore comconsisted in uncovering the nakedness. manded to make breeches for themselves to cover their nakedness during the
service, and, besides,
no
steps
ness be not discovered thereon
were to lead up to the "

(Exod. xx. 23).
"
altar,
that thy naked-
The Sanctuary was constantly guarded and surrounded [by Levites] as a mark of respect and honour ; and at the same time the layman, the unclean, and mourners, were prevented from entering the Sanctuary, as will be explained. Among other things that tend to display the greatness and the glory of the Temple and to inspire us with awe, is the rule that none shall
approach
i.e.,
it in a state of drunkenness or uncleanness, or in a disorderly state, the hair undressed and the garments rent ; and that every one who officiated as priest should first wash his hands and his feet. In order to raise the estimation of the Temple, those who ministered
therein received great honour
and the
priests
and Levites were therefore
distinguished from the rest. It was commanded that the priests should be " clothed properly with beautiful and good garments, holy garments for
(Exod. xxviii. 2). priest that had a blemish was glory and for beauty not allowed to officiate ; and not only those that had a blemish were excluded from the service, but also according to the Talmudic interpretation
those that had an abnormal appearance ; for the multitude does not estimate man by his true form but by the perfection of his bodily limbs and the beauty of his garments, and the Temple was to be held in great reverence by all. The Levites did not sacrifice ; they were not considered as being agents in the atonement of sins, for it was only the priest who was commanded " " " to make atonement for to make atonement for him (Lev. iv. 26) and " The was the xii. of the Levites her 8). (Lev. duty performance of vocal music ; and a Levite became therefore disabled for service when he lost
of this precept
"
The object of the singing is to produce certain emotions ; this object can only be attained by pleasing sounds and melodies accompanied by music, as was always the case in the Temple. Again, the priests, even when fit for service, and actually officiating in the
his voice.
358
Temple, were not allowed to sit down, or enter it whenever they liked ; the Most Holy was only entered by the high-priest four times on the Day of Atonement, and on no other occasion. The object of all these rules was to
raise
Since
the estimation of the Sanctuary in the eyes of the people. many beasts were daily slaughtered in the holy place, the flesh cut
and the entrails and the legs burnt and washed, the smell of the would undoubtedly have been like the smell of slaughter-houses, if place nothing had been done to counteract it. They were therefore commanded to burn incense there twice every day, in the morning and in the evening (Exod. xxx. 7, 8), in order to give the place and the garments of those who officiated " In there a pleasant odour. There is a well-known saying of our Sages,
in pieces
Jericho they could smell the incense [burnt in the Temple]. This proIf there had vision likewise tended to support the dignity of the Temple. not been a good smell, let alone if there had been a stench, it would have
"
produced in the minds of the people the reverse of respect ; for our heart generally feels elevated in the presence of good odour, and is attracted by it, but it abhors and avoids bad smell.
The anointing oil (Exod. xxx. 22-33) served a double purpose to give the anointed object a good odour, and to produce the impression that it was something great, holy, and distinguished, and better than other objects of
:
it made no difference whether that object was a human All this aimed at producing due respect toa vessel. or garment, wards the Sanctuary, and indirectly fear of God. When a person enters the Temple, certain emotions are produced in him ; and obstinate hearts are
the same species
being, a
These plans and indirect means were devised by the and humble man's heart at entering the holy place, in order that he might entrust himself to the sure guidance of God's commandments. " And thou shalt eat before the Lord thy This is distinctly said in the Law he shall choose to place his name there, the tithe of which in the God, place thine and and of the firstlings of thy herds and of of oil, wine, corn, thy thy " (Deut. thy flocks that thou mayest learn to fear the Lord thy God always
softened and humbled.
Law,
to soften
xiv. 23).
The
object of
all
these ceremonies
is
now
clear.
The
reason
why
we
are not allowed to prepare [for

is
is
common
;
use] the anointing oil
incense (ibid. ver. 32, 38)

incense]
obvious
for
when
the odour [of
and the the oil and
perceived only in the Sanctuary, the desired effect is great ; besides [if it were allowed for every one to prepare the anointing oil], people might anoint themselves therewith and imagine themselves distinguished much disorder and dissension would then follow.
;
on
when the ark was carried on the shoulder, and was not put was done out of respect towards it, and also to prevent its being damaged in its form and shape ; even the staves were not moved out In order that the form of the ephod and the of the rings, for this reason. The garments breastplate should not be spoiled, they were never separated. were also entirely woven and not cut, in order not to spoil the work of the
It a
is
clear that
it
waggon,
weaving.
Those that ministered in the Temple were strictly prohibited to interfere with each other's work for if in public duties and offices, each one would not have assigned to him his particular task, general carelessness and neglect would soon be noticed.
;

It
is
359
different places, to the Temple the Hall of women, to the Hall,
evident that the object of giving different degrees of sanctity to the mount, the place between the two walls, to
and
the respect and reverence of the
on up to the Most Holy, was to raise Temple in the heart of every one that
so
all
approached it. We have thus described the reason of
precepts of this
class.
CHAPTER XLVI
THE
precepts of the eleventh class are enumerated in the Section on Divine Service (Sefer 'abodah} and the Section on Sacrifices (Sefer ba-korbanof). have described their use in general terms (chap, xxxii.). I will now
We
proceed to give the reason of each precept separately. Scripture tells us, according to the Version of Onkelos, that the Egyptians worshipped Aries, and therefore abstained from killing sheep, and held shep" herds in contempt. Comp. Behold we shall sacrifice the abomination of " the Egyptians," etc. (Exod. viii. 26) ; For every shepherd is an abomina" tion to the Egyptians xlvi. Some sects among the Sabeans (Gen. 34). worshipped demons, and imagined that these assumed the form of goats, and " " called them therefore This worship was widespread. goats \se'irim\. " Comp. And they shall no more offer their sacrifices unto demons, after whom they have gone a whoring " (Lev. xvii. 7). For this reason those secti
abstained from eating goats' flesh. Most idolaters objected to killing cattle, holding this species of animals in great estimation. Therefore the people oi Hodu [Indians] up to this day do not slaughter cattle even in those countriel
where other animals are slaughtered.

ciples, the " Ye shall
In order to eradicate these false prinus to offer sacrifices only of these three kinds : bring your offering of the cattle [viz.], of the herd and of the " flock (Lev. i. 2). Thus the very act which is considered by the heathen as
Law commands
the greatest crime,
is
pardon for our
sins.
the means of approaching God, and obtaining His In this manner, evil principles, the diseases of the
human
This
soul, are
is
cured by other principles which are diametrically opposite.
also
the reason
why we were commanded
to
kill
lamb on
had Passover, and to sprinkle the blood thereof outside on the gates. to free ourselves of evil doctrines and to proclaim the opposite, viz., that the
very act which was then considered as being the cause of death would be the " cause of deliverance from death. Comp. And the Lord will pass over the
door, and will not suffer the destroyer to
We
"
you
(Exod.
xii.
23).
come unto your houses to 8 nite Thus they were rewarded for performing openly a
service every part of
To the above
which was objected to by the idolaters. reason for the exclusive selection of the three kinds of animals
for sacrifices, we may add the following, namely, that these species are animals which can be got very easily, contrary to the practice of idolaters that sacrifice lions, bears, and wild beasts, as is stated in the book Tomtom. As, how-
ever,
also
many could not afford to offer a beast, the Law commanded that birds should be sacrificed, but only of those species which are found abundantly in Palestine, are suitable, and can easily be obtained, namely, turtledoves and pigeons. Those who are too poor to offer a bird, may bring bread of any of the kinds then in use baked in the oven, baked in a pan, or in a
:
360
frying-pan.
If

the baking of the bread is too much trouble for a person, All this concerns only those who desire to sacrifice ;
told that the omission of the sacrificial service
may bring flour. for we are distinctly
he
on our thou shalt forbear to vow, it shall The idolaters did not offer any other bread but leavened, and chose sweet things for their sacrifices, which they seasoned with honey, as is fully described in the books which I named before ; but salt is not mentioned in any of their sacrifices. Our Law therefore forbade us to offer leaven or honey, and commanded us to have salt in every " With all thine offerings thou shalt offer salt " (Lev. ii. 13). It sacrifice is further ordained that the offerings must all be perfect and in the best condition, in order that no one should slight the offering or treat with contempt " Offer it now unto thy governor ; that which is offered to God's name " will he be pleased with thee ? (Mai. i. 8). This is the reason why no animal could be brought that was not yet seven days old (Lev. xxii. 26) it an like Because of their is and birth. untimely imperfect contemptible, " the hire of a harlot and the degraded character it was prohibited to bring
part will not be reckoned to us a sin " be no sin in thee (Deut. xxiii. 22).
"
If
(Deut. xxiii. 18) into the Sanctuary. In order to bring the price of a dog offering in the best condition, we choose the old of the turtle-doves and the young of the pigeons, the old pigeons being less agreeable. The oblation
"
mingled with oil, and must be of fine flour (Lev. ii. i), for Frankincense is prescribed (ibid.") it is good and pleasant. because its fumes are good in places filled with the odour of burnt flesh. The burnt-offering was flayed (Lev. i. 16), and its inwards and legs, although they were entirely burnt, had to be previously washed (ibid. ver. 9), in order that due respect should be shown to the sacrifice, and it should not appear despicable and contemptible. This object is constantly kept in view, and is often " Ye say, The table of the Lord is polluted and the fruit thereof, taught, " even his meat, is contemptible (Mai. i. 12). For the same reason no body uncircumcised, or unclean (Lev. xxii. 4), was allowed to partake of any offernor could any offering be eaten that had become unclean (Lev. vii. 19), ing or was left till after a certain time (ibid. vii. 15-17), or concerning which an and it had also to be consumed in a illegal intention had been conceived Of the burnt-offering, which is entirely devoted to God, particular place. nothing at all was eaten. Those sacrifices which are brought for a sin, viz., sin-offering and guilt-offering, must be eaten within the court of the Sanctuary ('azarah"), and only on the day of their slaughtering and the night following, whilst peace-offerings, which are next in sanctity, being sacrifices of the second degree, may be eaten in the whole of Jerusalem, on the day they have been offered and on the following day, but not later. After that time the sacrifices would become spoiled, and be unfit for food. In order that we may respect the sacrifices and all that is devoted to the name of God, we are told that whosoever takes part of a holy thing for common use has committed a trespass, must bring a sin-offering, and restore what he has taken with an addition of the fifth part of its value, although he may have committed the trespass in ignorance. For the same reason animals nor is the shearing reserved for holy purposes must not be employed in work The law concerning the change of such animals permitted (Deut. xv. 19). of a sacrifice must be considered as a preventive ; for if it were permitted to
must
likewise be
in this condition

aubstitute a
361
good animal for a bad one, people would substitute a bad animal for a good one, and say that it was better than the original ; it was therefore " the rule that, if any such change had taken place, both the original sacrifice " and the exchange thereof should be holy When a person (Lev. xxvii. 9). redeems a thing devoted by him to the Sanctuary, he must likewise add one-
Man is usually selfish, (Lev. xxvii. 13, 15) ; the reason for this is plain. He would therefore naturally inclined to keep and save his property. not take the necessary trouble in the interest of the Sanctuary ; he would not
fifth
and
is
expose his property sufficiently to the sight of the valuer, and its true value would not be fixed. Therefore the owner had to add one-fifth, whilst a
These rules were laid down in order stranger paid only the exact value. that people should not despise that with which the name of God is connected,
and which serves as a means of approaching God. The oblation of the priest was entirely burnt (Lev. vi. 16), because the priest offered up his oblation by himself, and if he were to offer it, and at the same time to eat it, it would For nothing was offered appear as if he had not performed any service.
upon the altar of the ordinary oblations of any person except the frankincense and a handful of the flour or cake and if, in addition to the fact that
;
the offering was small, he

sacrificial
vi.
who
offered
it
were himself to eat

is
it,
nothing of
service
would be noticed.
It
therefore entirely burnt (Lev.
16).
reason of the particular laws concerning the Passover lamb is clear. fire (Exod. xii. 8-9) in one house, and without breaking the bones thereof (ibid. ver. 46). In the same way as the Israelites were
It
The
was eaten roasted by
to eat unleavened bread, because they could prepare it hastily, were commanded, for the sake of haste, to roast the lamb, because there was not sufficient time to boil it, or to prepare other food even the delay caused by breaking the bones and to extract their marrow was pro" hibited ; the one principle is laid down for all these rules, Ye shall eat it " in haste the bones cannot be xii. But when haste is (Exod. ll). necessary for the company could broken, nor parts of it sent from house to house not wait with their meal till he returned. Such things would lead to laxity and delay, whilst the object of these rules was to make a show of the hurry and haste, in order that none should be too late to leave Egypt with the main body of the people, and be thus exposed to the attacks and the evil [designs of the enemy]. These temporary commandments were then made perma" And nent, in order that we may remember what was done in those days. thou shalt keep this ordinance in his season from year to year " (Exod. xiii. Each Passover lamb was only eaten by those who had previously agreed 10). to consume it together, in order that people should be anxious to procure it, and should not rely on friends, relations, or on chance, without themselves The reason of the prohibition taking any trouble about it before Passover. that the uncircumcised should not eat of it (Exod. xii. 48) is explained by our Sages as follows The Israelites neglected circumcision during their
so they
; ;
:
commanded
long stay in Egypt, in order to make themselves appear like the Egyptians. When God gave them the commandment of the Passover, and ordered that no one should kill the Passover lamb unless he, his sons, and all the male persons in his household were circumcised, that only " then he could come near and keep it " (ibid. xii. 48), all performed this commandment, and the number
362
of the circumcised being large the blood of the Passover and that of the circumcision flowed together. The Prophet Ezekiel (xvi. 6), referring to " When I saw thee sprinkled with thine own blood I said this event, says,
unto thee, Live because of thy [two kinds of] blood," i.e., because of the blood of the Passover and that of the circumcision. Although blood was very unclean in the eyes of the Sabeans, they nevertheless partook of it, because they thought it was the food of the spirits ; by eating it man has something in common with the spirits, which join him and tell him future events, according to the notion which people generally have
There were, however, people who objected to eating blood, as of spirits. a thing naturally disliked by man they killed a beast, received the blood in
;
a vessel or in a pot,
and ate of the
flesh of that beast, whilst sitting
blood.
They imagined
that in this
manner the
spirits
round the would come to par-
which was their food, whilst the idolaters were eating the that love, brotherhood, and friendship with the spirits were established, because they dined with the latter at one place and at the same time ; that the spirits would appear to them in dreams, inform them of coming
take of the blood
flesh
;
Such ideas people liked and accepted events, and be favourable to them. in those days ; they were general, and their correctness was not doubted by any one of the common people. The Law, which is perfect in the eyes of
those
who know it, and

"
seeks to cure
mankind
of these lasting diseases, forbade
the eating of blood, and emphasized the prohibition exactly in the same terms " I will set my face against that soul that eateth as it emphasizes idolatry :
blood
"
(Lev. xvii. 10). The same language is employed in reference to him who giveth of his seed unto Molech " " then I will set my face against " There is, besides idolatry and eating blood, no that man (ibid. xx. 5).
;
other sin in reference to which these words are used.
For the eating of blood
Our Law declared the leads to a kind of idolatry, to the worship of spirits. blood as pure, and made it the means of purifying other objects by its touch.
shalt take of the blood and sprinkle it upon Aaron, and . . garments, and upon his sons, and upon the garments of his sons with him. And he shall be hallowed, and his garments, and his sons," etc. Furthermore, the blood was sprinkled upon the altar, (Exod. xxix. 21)
.
"
And thou
his
upon
and in the whole
service it was insisted upon pouring it out, and not upon " collecting it. Comp. And" he shall pour out all the blood at the bottom " And the blood of thy sacrifices shall be poured of the altar (Lev. iv. 18) ; " out upon the altar of the Lord thy God (Deut. xii. 27). Also the blood
of those beasts that
were killed for common use, and not for sacrifices, must " " be poured out, Thou shalt pour it upon the earth as water (ibid. ver. 24). We are not allowed to gather and have a meal round the blood, " You shall " As the Israelites were inclined to not eat rou'ud the blood (Lev. xix. 26). continue their rebellious conduct, to follow the doctrines in which they had been brought up, and which were then general, and to assemble round the blood in order to eat there and to meet the spirits, God forbade the Israelites to eat ordinary meat during their stay in the wilderness they could only
;
partake of the meat of peace-offerings. The reason of this precept is distinctly stated, viz., that the blood shall be poured out upon the altar, and " To the end that the the people do not assemble round about. Comp.
children of Israel
may
bring their
sacrifices,
which they
offer in the
open

field,
363
. .
even that they
may
bring
them unto the Lord.
And
the
priest shall sprinkle the blood upon the altar, . . . and they shall no more offer " their sacrifices unto the spirits there remained to (Lev. xvii. 5-7).
Now
provide for the slaughtering of the beasts of the field and birds, because those beasts were never sacrificed, and birds did never serve as peace-offerings
The commandment was therefore given that whenever a beast (Lev. iii.) or a bird that may be eaten is killed, the blood thereof must be covered with
earth (Lev. xvii. 13), in order that the people should not assemble round the blood for the purpose of eating there. The object was thus fully gained to break the connexion between these fools and their spirits. This belief
nourished about the time of our Teacher Moses. People were attracted and " misled by it. We find it in the Song of Moses (Deut. xxxii.) They sacri" ficed unto spirits, not to God (ibid. 17). According to the explanation of our Sages, the words lo eloha imply the following idea They have not only not left off worshipping things in existence ; they even worship imaginary " It is This is expressed in Sifri as follows not enough for them things. to worship the sun, the moon, the stars ; they even worship their babuah. The word babuah signifies " shadow." Let us now return to our The prohibition of slaughtering cattle for common use applied subject. " " it was then the only to the wilderness, because as regards the spirits general belief that they dwelt in deserts, that there they spoke and were In visible, whilst in towns and in cultivated land they did not appear. accordance with this belief those inhabitants of a town who wanted to per: : :
form any of those stupid
practices, left the
town and went
to
woods and
waste places. The use of cattle for when the Israelites entered Palestine.
common
food was therefore allowed
Besides, there were great hopes that the disease would become weakened, and .the followers of the doctrines would decrease. Furthermore, it was almost impossible that every one who wanted to eat meat should come to Jerusalem. For these reasons the above restric-
tion was limited to the stay of the Israelites in the wilderness. The greater the sin which a person had committed, the lower was the
from which the sin-offering was brought. The offering for worshipping idols in ignorance was only a she-goat, whilst for other sins an ordinary person brought either a ewe-lamb or a she-goat -(Lev. iv. 27-35), tne
species
females bring, as a rule, in every species, inferior to the males.
There
is
no
The greater sin than idolatry, and also no inferior species than a she-goat. offering of a king for sins committed ignorantly was a he-goat (ibid. vers.
22-26), as a mark of distinction. The high priest and the Synhedrion, who only gave a wrong decision in ignorance, but have not actually committed
a sin,
brought
a bull for their sin-offering (ibid. ver. 3-21),
or a he-goat,
sins for
when
which
the decision referred to idolatry

guilt-offerings a sin-offering.
(Num.
xv. 22-26).
The
were brought were not as bad as transgressions that required The guilt-offering was therefore a ram, or a lamb, so that the species as well as the sex were superior in this latter case, for the guiltFor the same reason we see the burnt-offering, offering was a male sheep. which was entirely burnt upon the altar, was selected from the superior sex ; for only male animals were admitted as burnt-offerings. It is in accordance with the same principle that luxury and incense were absent from the oblations of a sinner (Lev. v. 1 1), and of a sotah, i.e., a woman suspected of
BB
364
adultery

(Num.
;
In these cases the oil and the frankincense were 15). luxury was absent, because the persons that brought the oblation were not good and proper in their deeds, and they are, as it were, to be reminded by their offerings that they ought to repent ; as if they were " Your offering is without any ornamental addition on account of the told, wickedness of your deeds." As the sotah acted more disgracefully than any person who sins in ignorance, her offering consisted of the lowest kind, viz., of
v.
not added
this
Thus the reasons of all these particular laws are well barley flour (ibid). connected, and show that the precepts are wonderful in their significance. Our Sages say that the offering for the eighth day of dedication was " a
young bullock, for a sin-offering (Lev. xi. 2), in order to atone for the sin of the Israelites in making a golden calf. The sin-offering, which was brought on the Day of Atonement (ibid. vi. 3), was likewise explained
calf, a
"
being an atonement for that sin. From this argument of our Sages I deduce that he-goats were always brought as sin-offerings, by individual persons and also by the whole congregation, viz., on the Festivals, New-moon, Day of Atonement, and for idolatry, because most of the transgressions and sins of the Israelites were sacrifices to spirits (se'irim, lit., goats), as is clearly " " stated, They shall no more offer their sacrifices unto spirits (Lev. xvii. 7). Our Sages, however, explained the fact that goats were always the sin-offerings of the congregation, as an allusion to the sin of the whole congregation " of Israel And for in the account of the selling of the pious Joseph we read, " Do not consider this as a killed a kid of the xxxvii.
as
;
they
goats
these ceremonies to impress on the mind of every sinner and transgressor the necessity of continually remem" And my sin is bering and mentioning his sins. Thus the Psalmist says,
weak argument
for it
is
(Gen. the object of
31).
all
ever before
me
"
(Ps.
li.
3).
show us that when we commit
our children, require atonement If a person has sinned in respect to property he must to the sin committed. liberally spend his property in the service of God ; if he indulged in sinful bodily enjoyments he must weary his body and trouble it by a service of If he went astray privation and fasting, and rising early before daybreak. in respect to his moral conduct he must oppose his failings by keeping to the opposite extreme, as we have pointed out in Mishneh-torah Hilkot De'ot If his intellectual faculties have been concerned in the (chap, ii.) et passim.
sin, if
The above-mentioned sin-offerings further a sin, we, our children, and the children of for that sin by some kind of service analogous
intellect,
on account of the insufficiency of his and proper study, he must remedy his fault by away from worldly affairs, and directing them exclusively to intellectual exercise, and by carefully reflecting on that " which ought to form the subject of his belief. Comp. And my heart hath " been secretly enticed, but my hand touched my mouth (Job XXJQ. 27). These words express figuratively the lesson that we should pause and stop at that which appears doubtful, as has been pointed out by us in the beginning of this treatise. The same we notice in the case of Aaron. He had his share in the sin of the golden calf, and therefore a bullock and a calf were brought by him and his successors as an offering. Similarly, the sin connected with a kid of goats was atoned for by a kid of goats. When this theory has been well established in the minds of the people, they must certainly be led
he has believed something
false
his neglect of research turning his thoughts entirely
and
365
by it to consider disobedience to God as a disgraceful thing. Every one will then be careful that he should not sin, and require a protracted and burdensome atonement he will be afraid he might not be able to complete it, and
;
will therefore altogether abstain
from sinning, and avoid
it.
This object
[of the laws under discussion] is very clear, and note it likewise. I will here call your attention to a very remarkable thing, although it does
first thought to belong to our subject. It is only the goat " a sin-offering brought on New-moon as a sin-offering that the law calls " unto the Lord (Num. xxviii. 15). The sin-offerings brought on the three festivals (ibid. vers. 22, 30; xxix. 5, II, etc.) are not called so, nor are any other sin-offerings. The reason thereof is, according to my opinion, un-
not seem at
this : The additional offerings brought by the congregation at " certain periods were all burnt-offerings ; only one kid of goats to make an atonement " was offered on every one of these exceptional days. The latter
doubtedly
was eaten [by the priests], whilst the burnt-offerings were entirely consumed " an offering made by fire unto the Lord." The by fire, and are called " " and " a a phrases sin-offering unto the Lord peace-offering unto the Lord " do not occur in the law, because these were eaten by man but even those sin-offerings that were entirely burnt (Lev. iv. 12, 21) cannot be called " an offering made by fire unto the Lord," as will be explained in the course
;
It is therefore impossible that the goats which are eaten " [by the priests], and are not entirely burnt, should be called sin-offerings unto the Lord." But as it was found that the kid offered on New-moon
of this chapter.
might be mistaken
Egyptians,
as
an offering brought to the moon, in the manner of the
who
sacrificed to the
is
moon on
the days of
distinctly stated that this goat and not in honour of the moon.
offered in obedience to God's
New-moon, it was command,
This fear did not apply to the sin-offerings
on the Festivals, nor to any other sin-offering, because they were not offered on the days of New-moon, or on any other day marked out by Nature, but on such days as were selected by the Divine Will. Not so the days of New-moon ; they are not fixed by the Law [but by Nature], On the New-moon the idolaters sacrificed to the moon, in the same manner as they sacrificed to the sun when it rose and set in certain particular degrees. This is described in
the works [mentioned above]. On this account the extraordinary phrase " A sin-offering unto the Lord " is exceptionally introduced in reference to the goat brought on New-moon, in order to remove the idolatrous ideas
that were
likewise.
still
sin-offering
Note this exception lingering in the sorely diseased hearts. which is brought in the hope to atone for one or
more great sins, as, e.g., the sin-offering [of the Synhedrion or the high-priest] committed in ignorance, and the like, are not burnt upon the altar, but without the camp upon the altar only the burnt-offering, and the like,
for a sin
;
are burnt, wherefore it was called the altar of the burnt-offering. The " " burning of the holocaust, and of every memorial," is called a sweet savour unto the Lord " ; and so it undoubtedly is, since it serves to remove idola-
But the burning of hearts, as we have shown. symbol that the sin [for which the offering is brought] is utterly removed and destroyed, like the body that is being burnt ; of the sinful seed no trace shall remain, as no trace is left of the sin-offering, which is " a sweet savour unto entirely destroyed by fire ; the smoke thereof is not
trous doctrines
from our
is
these sin-offerings
366
the Lord," but, on the contrary, a smoke despised and abhorred. For this reason the burning took place without the camp. Similarly we notice that " an offering of memorial, bringing iniquity the oblations of a sotah is called
v. 15) ; it is not a pleasing thing [to the Lord]. goat [of the Day of Atonement] that was sent [into the wilderness] (Lev. xvi. 20, seq.) served as an atonement for all serious transgressions more than
to
remembrance" (Num.
The
any other sin-offering of the congregation. As it thus seemed to carry off was not accepted as an ordinary sacrifice to be slaughtered, burnt, or even brought near the Sanctuary ; it was removed as far as possible, and sent forth into a waste, uncultivated, uninhabited land. There is no doubt that sins cannot be carried like a burden, and taken off the shoulder of one being to be laid on that of another being. But these ceremonies are of a symbolic character, and serve to impress men with a certain idea, and to induce them to repent; as if to say, we have freed ourselves of our previous deeds, have cast them behind our backs, and removed them from us as far as possible. As regards the offering of wine (Num. xv. 5, seq), I am at a loss to find a reason why God commanded it, since idolaters brought wine as an offering.
all sins, it
But though I am unable to give a reason, another person suggested the following one : Meat is the best nourishment for the appetitive faculty, the source of which is the liver ; wine supports best the vital faculty, whose
is the heart ; music is most agreeable to the psychic faculty, the source which is in the brain. Each one of our faculties approaches God with that which it likes best. Thus the sacrifice consists of meat, wine, and music. The use of keeping festivals is plain. Man derives benefit from such assemblies the emotions produced renew the attachment to religion they lead to friendly and social intercourse among the people. This is especially the object of the commandment to gather the people together on the " that they may hear, and that Feast of Tabernacles, as is plainly stated " and the Lord xxxi. learn fear The same is the object (Deut. 12). they may of the rule that the money for the second tithe must be spent by all in one
centre
of
The place (ibid. xiv. 22-26), as we have explained (chap, xxxix. p. 184). fruit of trees in their fourth year, and the tithe of the cattle, had to be brought to Jerusalem. There would therefore be in Jerusalem the meat of the
the wine of the fruit of the fourth year, and the money of the second Plenty of food would always be found there. Nothing of the above things could be sold ; nothing could be set aside for another year ; the Law " " orders that they should be brought (Deut. xiv. 22) ; the year by year owner was thus compelled to spend part of them in charity. As regards the
tithes,
tithe.
And thou shalt rejoice in thy feast, thou, and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy man-servant, and thy maid-servant, " and the Levite, the stranger, and the fatherless, and the widow (ibid. xvi. 14). We have thus explained the reason of every law belonging to this class, and
Festivals it
is
"
especially enjoined
even
many
details of the laws.
CHAPTER XLVII
THE
precepts of the twelfth class are those which
we have enumerated
in the
(Sefer tohorah). Although we have mentioned their Purity use in general, we will here offer an additional explanation, and [first] fully
section
on
"
"

discuss the object of the commandment, as far as
367
whole class, and then show the reason of each single we have been able to discover it. I maintain that the Law which was revealed to Moses, our Teacher, and which is called by his name, aims at facilitating the service and lessening the burden, and if a person complains that certain precepts cause him pain and great trouble, he cannot have thought of the habits and doctrines that were general in those Let him consider the difference between a man burning his own son days. in serving his god, and our burning a pigeon to the service of our God. " for even their sons and their daughters they burn in the Scripture relates, " fire to their gods (Deut. xii. 31). This was the way in which the heathen worshipped their gods, and instead of such a sacrifice we have the burning of a pigeon or a handful of flour in our worship. In accordance with this fact, " the Israelites, when disobedient, were rebuked by God as follows O My have I done what unto thee ? and wherein have I wearied thee ? people, " " Have I been a wilderness unto (Mic. vi. 3). Again, Testify against me Israel ? a land of darkness ? Wherefore say my people, We are miserable we will come no more unto thee " (Jer. ii. 31) ; that is to say, Through which of the commandments has the Law become burdensome to the IsraelIn the same manner God asks the people, ites, that they renounce it ? " What iniquity have your fathers found in me, that they are gone far from me ? " etc. (ibid. ii. 5). All these passages express one and the same idea. This is the great principle which you must never lose sight of. After having stated this principle, I repeat that the object of the Sanctuary was to create in the hearts of those who enter it certain feelings of awe and rever" " in accordance with the You shall reverence
: ;
ence,
(Lev. xix. 30).
command, But when we continually
my sanctuary
see
an object, however sublime
it
be, our regard for that object will be lessened, and the impression WP have received of it will be weakened. Our Sages, considering this fact, said
may
we should not enter the Temple whenever we liked, and pointed to the " words Make thy foot rare in the house of thy friend " (Prov. xxv. 17). For this reason the unclean were not allowed to enter the Sanctuary, although
that
:
many kinds of uncleanliness, that [at a time] only a fewpeople are clean. For even if a person does not touch a beast that died of its own accord (Lev. xi. 27), he can scarcely avoid touching one of the eight
kinds of creeping animals (ibid. 29, seq.), the dead bodies of which we find at all times in houses, in food and drink, and upon which we frequently tread wherever we walk ; and, if he avoids touching these, he may touch a woman in
there are so
her separation
ver. I, seq.
(ibid. xv.
8),
and
25, seq), or a leper (ibid.
or a male or female that have a running issue (ibid. xiii. 46), or their bed (ibid. xv. 5).
Escaping these, he
pollution kinds of uncleanliness, he cannot enter the Sanctuary till after sunset ; but not being enabled to enter the Sanctuary at night time, although he is clean after sunset, as may be inferred from Middot and Tamid, he is again, during
(ibid. 15),
may become unclean by cohabitation with his wife, or by and even when he has cleansed himself from any of these
the night, subject to becoming unclean either by cohabiting with his wife or by some other source of uncleanliness, and may rise in the morning in the same condition as the day before. All this serves to keep people away from the Sanctuary, and to prevent them from entering it whenever they liked. Our Sages, as is well known, said, " Even a clean person may not enter the
368
Sanctuary for the purpose of performing divine service, unless he takes preBy such acts the reverence [for the Sanctuary] will continue, the right impression will be produced which leads man, as is intended,
viously a bath."
to humility.
The
easier the diffusion of uncleanliness

is
is,
the more difficult and the more

uncleanliness
communicated by under the same roof, especially to relatives. The purification can only be completed by means of the ashes of the red heifer, however scarce it may be, and only in seven days (Nun. xix. n).
retarded
its
purification.
Most
easily
is
the dead
body
to those
who
are
The
uncleanness caused by a
is
woman
having running
issue
or during her
objects ; separation seven days are therefore required for their purification (Lev. xv. 19, 28), whilst those that touch them are only unclean one day (ibid. vii. 18). Males
more frequent than that caused by contact with unclean
or females that are unclean through running issue, and a woman after childbirth, must in addition bring a sacrifice, because their uncleanness occurs
less
frequently than that of women in their separation. All these cases of uncleanliness, viz., running issue of males or females, menstruations, leprosy, dead bodies of human beings, carcases of beasts and creeping things, and issue
of semen, are sources of dirt and filth. precepts are very useful in many respects.
We
have thus shown that the above

First,
they keep us at a distance
from dirty and filthy objects ; secondly, they guard the Sanctuary ; thirdly, they pay regard to an established custom (for the Sabeans submitted to very troublesome restrictions when unclean, as you will soon hear) fourthly, they lightened that burden for us ; for we are not impeded through these laws in our ordinary occupations by the distinction the Law makes between For this distinction applies that which is unclean and that which is clean. and the holy objects connected with it only in reference to the Sanctuary " She shall touch no hallowed thing, nor it does not apply to other cases. " come into the Sanctuary (Lev. xii. 4). Other persons [that do not intend to enter the Sanctuary or touch any holy thing], are not guilty of any sin if they remain unclean as long as they like, and eat, according to their pleasure, ordinary food that has been in contact with unclean things. But the practice of the Sabeans, even at present general in the East, among the few still left of the Magi, was to keep a menstruous woman in a house by herself, to burn that upon which she treads, and to consider as unclean every one that if a wind passed over her and a clean person, the latter speaks with her ; even was unclean in the eyes of the Sabeans. See the difference between this " whatever services a wife generally does to her practice and our rule, that " in her separation to him ; husband, she may do only cohabitation is proAnother custom among the hibited during the days of her uncleanness. whatever is separated from the Sabeans, which is still widespread, is this
; ;
:
or blood, is unclean ; every barber is therefore unclean in their estimation, because he touches blood and hair ; whenever a person passes Such burdensome a razor over his skin he must take a bath in running water.
body,
as hair, nail,
practices
were numerous among the Sabeans, whilst we apply the laws that distinguish between the unclean and the clean only with regard to hallowed " And ye shall sanctify yourthings and to the Sanctuary. The divine words, " selves, and ye shall be holy (Lev. xi. 44), do not refer to these laws at all. According to Sifra, they refer to sanctity by obedience to God's command-

interpretation holy," i.e. obedient to His transgression of commandments
369
"
ments.
The same
is
given in Sifra of the words,
Ye
shall
be
commandments
is
(xix.
2).
Hence
or
the
also
called
uncleanliness
defile-
" to adultery we read, my holy name (ibid. xx. 3). In reference " " Defile not ye yourselves in any of these things (ibid, xviii. 24), and " " Defile not the land xxxv. 34) in reference to murder. It is there(Num. " " fore clear that the term defilement [or uucleanliness] is used homonjrI. Of man's violation and transgression of that mously of three things which he is commanded as regards his actions and his opinions. 2. Of dirt " and filth ; comp. Her filthiness in her skirts " (Lam. i. 9). 3. Of the abovenamed imaginary defilement such as touching and carrying certain objects, or being with them under the same roof. In reference to the third kind, our Sages said, The words of the Law are not subject to becoming unclean " " In the same manner the term holiness is used homony(B. T. Ber. 22*2). of to the three kinds of three uncleanness. As mously things corresponding uncleanness caused by a dead body could only be removed after seven days, by means of the ashes of the red heifer, and the priests had constantly occasion to enter the Sanctuary, the Law exceptionally forbids them to defile themselves by a dead body (Lev. xxi. l), except in cases where defilement is necesFor it would be unnatural to sary, and the contrary would be unnatural. abstain from approaching the dead body of a parent, child, or brother. As it was very necessary that the high-priest should always be in the Sanctuary, " in accordance with the Divine command, And it shall always be on his " forehead he was xxviii. not (Exod. 38), permitted to defile himself by any dead body whatever, even of the above-named relatives (Lev. xxi. 10-12). Women were not engaged in sacrificial service ; the above law consequently " does not apply to women the sons of Aaron," and not it is addressed to " to the daughters of Aaron." It was, however, impossible to assume that none of the Israelites made a mistake, by entering the Sanctuary, or eating hallowed things in a state of uncleanliness. It was even possible that there were persons who did this knowingly, since there are wicked people who
profane
:
ment. This term is especially used of the chief and principal crimes, which are idolatry, adultery, and murder. In reference to idolatry it is said, " He hath given of his seed unto Molech to defile my sanctuary, and to
commit knowingly even the greatest crimes ; for this reason certain sacrifices were commanded as an atonement for the defilement of the Sanctuary and its hallowed things. They were of different kinds ; some of them atoned
for defilement caused ignorantly, others for defilement caused knowingly. For this purpose were brought the goats on the Festivals and the New-moon
(Num. xxviii. 15, 22, etc.), and the goat sent away on the Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi. 16), as is explained in its place (Mishnah Shebnot, i. 4). These sacrifices serve to prevent those who defiled the Sanctuary of the Lord
days
know
knowingly from thinking that they had not done a great wrong ; they should that they obtained atonement by the sacrifice of the goat, as the Law " That they die not in their uncleanness " (Lev. xv. 31) " That Aaron says, " bear the iniquity of the holy things may (Exod. xxviii. 38). This idea is
;
frequently repeated. The uncleanness through leprosy we have already explained. Our Sage! have also clearly stated the meaning thereof. All agree that leprosy is a
370
punishment for slander. The disease begins in the walls of the houses If the sinner repents, the object is attained ; if he re(Lev. xiv. 33, seql). mains in his disobedience, the disease affects his bed and house furniture ; if he still continues to sin, the leprosy attacks his own garments, and then his body. This is a miracle received in our nation by tradition, in the same
manner as the effect of the trial of a faithless wife (Num. v. II, seq). The good effect of this belief is evident. Leprosy is besides a contagious disease, and people almost naturally abhor it, and keep away from it. The purification was effected by cedar-wood, hyssop, scarlet thread, and two birds (Lev. siv. 4) ; their reason is stated in various Midrashic sayings, but the I do not know at present the explanation does not agree with our theory. nor why cedar-wood, hyssop, and scarlet were reason of any of these things used in the sacrifice of the red heifer (Num. xix. 6) nor why a bundle of hyssop was commanded for the sprinkling of the blood of the Passover-lamb (Exod. xii. 22). I cannot find any principle upon which to found an explanation why these particular things have been chosen.
; ;
The red heifer is called a sin-offering, because it effects the purification of persons that have become unclean through the dead body of a human being, and enables them to enter the Sanctuary [and to eat of hallowed
The idea taught by this law is this Those who have defiled things]. themselves would never be allowed to enter the Sanctuary, or to partake of holy things, were it not for the sacrifice of the red heifer, by which this sin is
:
removed
in the
same manner
as
the plate [which the high-priest wears on
his forehead] atones for uncleanness, and as a similar object is attained by the For this reason those were unclean who were engaged goats that are burnt.
in the sacrifice of the heifer or the goats
which were burnt, and even their same was the law in the case of the goat that unclean. The were garments was sent away [on the Day of Atonement] for it was believed that it made unclean those who touched it, because it carried off so many sins. We have now mentioned the reasons for those commandments of this class, for which we were able to give a satisfactory reason according to our view.
;
CHAPTER XL VIII
THE
the
precepts of the thirteenth class are those which we have enumerated in Laws concerning forbidden food " (Hilkot maakalot asurot), " Laws " " Laws con(Hilkot shehitab'), and concerning killing animals for food
"
have (Hilkot nedarim u-nezirof). fully explicitly discussed the object of this class in this treatise, and in our Commentary on the Sayings of the Fathers. will here add a few
cerning vows and Nazaritism
"
We
and very
We
remarks in reviewing the single commandments which are mentioned there. I maintain that the food which is forbidden by the Law is unwholesome. There is nothing among the forbidden kinds of food whose injurious charin these cases the
doubted, except pork (Lev. xi. 7), and fat (ibid. vii. 23). But also doubt is not justified. For pork contains more moisture than necessary [for human food], and too much of superfluous matter. The principal reason why the Law forbids swine's flesh is to be found in the circumstance that its habits and its food are very dirty and loathsome. It has already been pointed out how emphatically the Law enjoins the removal of
acter
is
371
the sight of loathsome objects, even in the field and in the camp ; how much more objectionable is such a sight in towns. But if it were allowed to eat
swine's flesh, the streets and houses would be more dirty than any cesspool, as at present in the country of the Franks. may be seen saying of our Sages " declares : The mouth of a swine is as dirty as dung itself " (B.T. Ber. 254).
The fat of the intestines makes us full, interrupts our digestion, and produces cold and thick blood ; it is more fit for fuel [than for human food]. Blood (Lev. xvii. 12), and nebelah, i.e., the flesh of an animal that died of
itself
becoming a nebelah. The characteristics given in the Law (Lev. zi., and Deut. xiv.) of the permitted animals, viz., chewing the cud and divided hoofs for cattle, and fins and scales for fish, are in themselves neither the cause of the permission when
signs
(Deut. xiv. 21), are indigestible, and injurious as in a diseased state (Exod. xxii. 30), is on the way of
food
Trefah, an animal
they are present, nor of the prohibition when they are absent ; but merely by which the recommended species of animals can be discerned from
those that are forbidden.
The
(Gen.
reason
why
the sinew that shrank
is
prohibited
is
stated in the
Law
xxxii. 33).
It is prohibited to cut off a limb of a living animal and eat it, because such act would produce cruelty, and develop it ; besides, the heathen kings used to do it ; it was also a kind of idolatrous worship to cut off a certain limb of a living animal and to eat it. Meat boiled in milk is undoubtedly gross food, and makes overfull ; but I think that most probably it is also prohibited because it is somehow connected with idolatry, forming perhaps part of the service, or being used on
heathen. I find a support for this view in the circummentions the prohibition twice after the commandment " Three times in the year all thy males shall given concerning the festivals " before the Lord God (Exod. xxiii. 17, and xxxiv. 23), as if to say, appear " When you come before me on your festivals, do not seethe your food in the manner as the heathen used to do." This I consider as the best reason for the prohibition but as far as I have seen the books on Sabean rites, nothing is mentioned of this custom.
festival of the
some
stance that the
Law
the natural food of the best meat

is
The commandment concerning the killing of animals is necessary, because man consists of vegetables and of the flesh of animals
No doctor that of animals permitted to be used as food. has any doubts about this. Since, therefore, the desire of procuring good food necessitates the slaying of animals, the Law enjoins that the death of
It is not allowed to torment the animal by cutting the throat in a clumsy manner, by poleaxing, or by cutting off a limb whilst the animal is alive. It is also prohibited to kill an animal with its young on the same day (Lev. xxii. 28), in order that people should be restrained and prevented from killing the two together in such a manner that the young is slain in the sight of the mother for the pain of the animals under such circumstances is very great. There is no difference in this case between the pain of man and the pain oi other living beings, since the love and tenderness of the mother for her young ones is not produced by reasoning, but by imagination, and this faculty exists not only in man but in most living beings. This law applies only to ox and
the animal should be the easiest.
372
lamb, because of the domestic animals used as food these alone are permitted to us, and in these cases the mother recognises her young.
The same reason applies to the law which enjoins that we should let the mother fly away when we take the young. The eggs over which the bird sits, and the young that are in need of their mother, are generally unfit for food, and when the mother is sent away she does not see the taking of her young In most cases, however, this commandones, and does not feel any pain. ment will cause man to leave the whole nest untouched, because [the young or the eggs], which he is allowed to take, are, as a rule, unfit for food. If the
Law
men.
much more
provides that such grief should not be caused to cattle or birds, how careful must we be that we should not cause grief to our fellow-
When in the Talmud (Ber. p. 33^) those are blamed who use in " their prayer the phrase, Thy mercy extendeth to young birds," it is the of of the one the two opinions mentioned by us, namely, that the expression
precepts of the Law have no other reason but the Divine will. the other opinion.
We follow
The
it
reason
why we
kill
only
when we
cover the blood when we kill animals, and why we do clean beasts and clean birds, has already been explained
by
us (supra, chap, xlvi., p. 362).
In addition to the things prohibited by the Law, we are also commanded to observe the prohibitions enjoined by our own vows (Num. xxx.). If we say, This bread or this meat is forbidden for us, we are not allowed to partake
The object of that precept is to train us in temperance, that we should be able to control our appetites for eating and drinking. Our Sages " Vows are a fence for abstinence." As women are easily say accordingly, to anger, owing to their greater excitability and the weakness of provoked
of that food.
mind, their oaths, if entirely under their own control, would cause great grief, quarrel, and disorder in the family ; one kind of food would be another kind forbidden allowed for the husband, and forbidden for the wife Therefore the Law gives for the daughter, and allowed for the mother. the father of the family control over the vows of those dependent on him. A woman that is independent, and not under the authority of a chief of the I mean a woman family, is, as regards vows, subject to the same laws as men that has no husband, or that has no father, or that is of age, i.e., twelve years and six months. The object of Nazaritism (Num. vi.) is obvious. It keeps away from wine " that has ruined people in ancient and modern times. Many strong men " " But they also have erred through have been slain by it (Prov. xxvii. 26). " In the law about the priest and the prophet wine, (Isa. xxviii. 7). " he shall eat nothing that is the Nazarite we notice even the prohibition, made of the vine tree " (Num. vi. 4), as an additional precaution, implying the lesson that man must take of wine,\mly as much as is absolutely necessary. " " his For he who abstains from drinking it is called ; sanctity is made holy equal to that of the high-priest, in not being allowed to defile himself even This honour is given him because to his father, to his mother, and the like. he abstains from wine.
their
; ;
.
CHAPTER XLIX
THE
precepts of the fourteenth class are those
which we enumerated
in the
Section on
Women,
the
Laws concerning forbidden
sexual intercourse, and

The law concerning
373
cross-breeding of cattle (Sefer nashim, Hilkot issure biah ve-kalee bfhemab'). circumcision belongs also to this class. The general
us.
purpose of these precepts has already been described by proceed to explain them singly.
It
is
We
will
now
well
known
that
man
requires friends
all his
lifetime.
Aristotle ex-
book of his Nikomachean Ethics. When man is in good health and prosperous, he enjoys the company of his friends in time of trouble he is in need of them ; in old age, when his body is weak, he is assisted by them. This love is more frequent and more intense between parents and children, and among [other] relations. Perfect love, brotherhood, and mutual assistance is only found among those near to each other by relationship. The members of a family united by common descent from the same grandfather, or even from some more distant ancestor, have towards each other a certain feeling of love, help each other, and sympathize with each other. To effect this is one of the chief purposes of the Law. Professional harlots were therefore not tolerated in Israel (Deut. xxiii. 1 8), because their existence would disturb the above relationship between man and man. Their children are strangers to everybody no one knows to what family
plains this in the ninth
; ;
nor does any person recognize them as relatives. And this is the greatest misfortune that can befall any child or father. Another importhey belong
;
lust
tant object in prohibiting prostitution is to restrain excessive and continual for lust increases with the variety of its objects. The sight of that to ;
which a person has been accustomed for a long time does not produce such an ardent desire for its enjoyment as is produced by objects new in form and character. Another effect of this prohibition is the removal of a cause for for if the prohibition did not exist, several persons might by chance strife come to one woman, and would naturally quarrel with each other ; they would in many cases kill one another, or they would kill the woman. This " is known to have occurred in And they assembled themselves days of old, " In order to prevent these great by troops in a harlot's house (Jer. v. 7). evils, and to effect the great boon that all men should know their relationship to each other, prostitutes (Deut. xxiii. 17) were not tolerated, and sexual intercourse was only permitted when man has chosen a certain female, and married her openly for if it sufficed merely to choose her, many a person would bring a prostitute into his house at a certain time agreed upon between them, and say that she was his wife. Therefore it is commanded to perform the act of engagement by which he declares that he has chosen her to take her for his wife, and then to go through the public ceremony of " marriage. Comp. And Boaz took ten men," etc. (Ruth iv. 2). It may husband that and wife do not agree, live without love and peace, and happen do not enjoy the benefit of a home in tliat case he is permitted to send her away. If he had been allowed to divorce her by a mere word, or by turning her out of his house, the wife would wait for some negligence [on the part of the husband], and then come out and say that she was divorced ; or having committed adultery, she and the adulterer would contend that she had then been divorced. Therefore the law is that divorce can only take place by " means of a document which can serve as evidence, He shall write her a bill " of divorcement are There xxiv. (Deut. i). frequently occasions for susLaws picion of adultery and doubts concerning the conduct of the wife.
; ; ;
374
concerning a wife suspected of adultery (sotah) are therefore prescribed (Num. v.) ; the effect of which is that the wife, out of fear of the "bitter waters," is most careful to prevent any ill-feeling on the part of her husband
against her. Even of those that felt quite innocent and safe most were rather willing to lose all their property than to submit to the prescribed treatment ; even death was preferred to the public disgrace of uncovering the head, un-
doing the hair, rending the garments and exposing the heart, and being led round through the Sanctuary in the presence of all, of women and men, and also in the presence of the members of the Synhedrion. The fear of this trial
keeps
away great diseases that ruin the home comfort. As every maiden expects to be married, her seducer therefore is only ordered to marry her ; for he is undoubtedly the fittest husband for her. He will better heal her wound and redeem her character than any other husband. If, however, he is rejected by her or her father, he must give the If he uses violence he has to submit to the additional xxii. 15). dowry (Exod." " he may not put her away all his days (Deut. xxii. 29). punishment, The reason of the law concerning marrying the deceased brother's wife is It was a custom in force before the Law stated in the Bible (Deut. xxv. 5). The ceremony of balizah (ibid. was given, and the Law perpetuated it. " 6, sfq.), taking off the shoe," has been introduced, because in those days it was considered disgraceful to go through that ceremony, and in order to avoid the disgrace, a person might perhaps be induced to marry his deceased " This is evident from the words of the Law : So shall it brother's wife. his brother's house. And his be done unto that man that will not build up
" be called in Israel, The house of him that hath his shoe loosed of we In the action notice an Judah may perhaps example (Deut. xxv. 9). He said " Let her take of a noble conduct, and uprightness in judgment. it to her, lest we be shamed behold, I sent this kid, and thou hast not found " before the Lawgiving, the intercourse with a For xxxviii. her 23). (Gen. harlot was as lawful as cohabitation of husband and wife since the LawThe hire giving ; it was perfectly permitted, nobody considered it wrong. which was in those days paid to the harlot in accordance with a previous agreement, corresponds to the ketubah which in our days the husband pays It is a just claim on the part of the wife, to his wife when he divorces her. " Let her take it and the husband is bound to pay it. The words of Judah, to her, lest we be shamed," etc., show that conversation about sexual intercourse, even of that which is permitted, brings shame upon us ; it is proper to be silent about it, to keep it secret, even if the silence would lead to loss In this sense Judah said It is better for us to lose property, and of money. to let her keep what she has, than to make our affair public by inquiring after This is the lesson, as regards conher, and bring still more shame upon us. As to the uprightness to be learned duct, to be derived from this incident. therefrom, it is contained in the words of Judah when he wanted to show that he had not robbed her, that he has not in the least departed from his " Behold, I sent this kid, and thou hast agreement with her. For he said, not found her." The kid was probably very good, therefore he points to it, " This is the uprightness which he had inherited from this kid." saying, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob that man must not depart from his given word, nor deviate from what he agreed upon ; but he must give to others all that
name
shall

is
375
due to them. It makes no difference whether he holds a portion of his neighbour's property as a loan or a trust, or whether he is in any other way his neighbour's debtor, owing him wages or the like. The sum which the husband settles upon his wife (ketubab) is to be
same way as the wages of a hired servant. There is no difference whether a master withholds the wages of a hired servant, or deprives his wife of that which is due to her ; whether a master wrongs a hired servant, and brings charges against him with the intention to send him away without payment, or a husband treats his wife in a manner that would enable him to
treated in the
send her away without the payment of the promised sum. The equity of the statutes and judgments of the Law in this regard may be noticed in the treatment of a person accused of spreading an evil report
(Deut. xxii. 13, seq.). There is no doubt that the man that bad, does not love his wife, and is not pleased with her. If he desired to divorce her in a regular manner, there is nothing to prevent him, but he would be bound to give her what is due unto her ; but instead of this,
about
his wife
is
did this
he gives occasion of speech against her (ibid. xxii. 14), in order to get rid of his wife without paying anything ; he slanders her, and utters falsehood
in order to keep in his possession the fifty shekels of silver, the dowry fixed in the Law for maidens, which he is obliged to pay unto her. He is therefore
"
"
sentenced to pay one hundred shekels of silver, in accordance with the prin" Whom the judges shall condemn, he shall pay double unto his ciple, " (Exod. xxii. 9). The Law is also analogous to that about false neighbour For he inwitnesses, which we have explained above (chap. xli. p. 195). tended to cheat her of her fifty shekels of silver, he must therefore [add fifty, and] pay her a hundred shekels. This is his punishment for withholding from her her due, and endeavouring to keep it. But in so far as he degraded her, and spread the rumour that she was guilty of misconduct, he was also de" and they shall graded, and received stripes, as is implied in the words, " chastise him (Deut. xxii. 18). But he sinned besides in clinging to lust, and seeking only that which gave pleasure to him ; he was therefore punished " by being compelled to keep his wife always, he may not put her away all " his days for he has been ; brought to all this only because he may (ibid. 19) have found her ugly. Thus are these bad habits cured when they are treated according to the divine Law ; the ways of equity are never lost sight of ; they are obvious and discernible in every precept of the Law by those who consider it well. See how, according to the Law, the slanderer of his wife, who only intended to withhold from her what he is bound to give her, is treated in the same manner as a thief who has stolen the property of his neighbour ; and the false witness (Deut. xix. i6,seq.) who schemes to injure,
although the injury was in reality not inflicted, who have actually caused injury and wrong, viz.,
punished like those the thief and the slanderer. The three kinds of sinners are tried and judged by one and the same law. See how wonderful are the divine laws, and admire His " wonderful deeds. Scripture says The Rock, His work is perfect for all His ways are judgment " (Deut. xxxii. 4), i.e., as His works are most perfect, so are His laws most equitable but our mind is too limited to comprehend the perfection of all His works, or the equity of all His laws ; and as we are able to comprehend some of His wonderful works in the organs of living
is
like
376
some
beings and the motions of the spheres, so we understand also the equity of of His laws ; that which is unknown to us of both of them is far more
is
than that which

sent chapter.
known
to us.
I will
now
return to the theme of the pre-
The law about forbidden sexual intercourse seeks in all its parts to inculcate we ought to limit sexual intercourse altogether, hold it in contempt, and only desire it very rarely. The prohibition of pederasty
the lesson that
(Lev. xviii. 22) and carnal intercourse with beasts (ibid. 23) If in the natural way the act is too base to be performed except
is
very clear.
when needed,
how much more
base
is it if
performed
in
an unnatural manner, and only for
the sake of pleasure.
The female relatives whom a man may not marry are alike in this respect that as a rule they are constantly together with him in his house ; they would easily listen to him, and do what he desires ; they are near at hand, and he
would have no difficulty in procuring them. No judge could blame him if found in their company. If to these relatives the same law applied as to all other unmarried women, if we were allowed to marry any of them, and were only precluded from sexual intercourse with them without marriage, most people would constantly have become guilty of misconduct with them. But as they are entirely forbidden to us, and sexual intercourse with them is most emphatically denounced unto us as a capital crime, or a sin punishable with extinction (karff), and as there is no means of ever legalizing such intercourse, there is reason to expect that people will not seek it, and will not think of it. That the persons included in that prohibition are, as we have For as a rule, the mother stated, at hand and easily accessible, is evident. of the wife, the grandmother, the daughter, the granddaughter, and the the husband meets them always when sister-in-law, are mostly with her he goes out, when he comes in, and when he is at his work. The wife stays It is also frequently in the house of her husband's brother, father, or son. also well known that we are often in the company of our sisters, our aunts, and the wife of our uncle, and are frequently brought up together with them. These are all the relatives which we must not marry. This is one of the But according reasons why intermarriage with a near relative is forbidden. to my opinion the prohibition serves another object, namely, to inculcate Licence between the root and the branch, between chastity into our hearts. The intercourse bea man and his mother, or his daughter, is outrageous. tween root and branch is forbidden, and it makes no difference whether the male element is the root or the branch, or both root and branch combine in the intercourse with a third person, so that the same individual cohabits with the root and with the branch. On this account it is prohibited to marry a woman and her mother, the wife of the father or of the son for in all these cases there is the intercourse between one and the same person on the one side and root and branch on the other. The law concerning brothers is like the law concerning root and branch. The sister is forbidden, and so is also the sister of the wife and the wife of the
; ;
because in the latter cases two persons who are considered like root and branch, cohabit with the same person. But in these prohibitions brothers and sisters are partly considered as root and branch and partly as one body ; the sister of the mother is therefore like the mother, and the
brother
;

sister of
377
the father, and both are prohibited ; and since the sister is not included in the number of prohibited relatives, so may we also marry the daughter of the brother or the sister. Tht apparent anomaly, that the brother of the father may marry the father
like
daughter of the parent's brother or
woman
not marry a
that has been the wife of his brother's son, whilst the nephew must woman that has been the wife of his father's brother, can be ex-
For the nephew is plained according to the above-mentioned first reason. frequently in the house of his uncle, and his conduct towards the wife of his uncle is the same as that towards his brother's wife. The uncle, however,
not so frequent in the house of his nephew, and he is consequently less intimate with the wife of his nephew ; whilst in the case of father and son. the familiarity of the father with his daughter-in-law is the same as that of
is
is
the son with the wife of his father, and therefore the law and punishment the same for both [father and son]. The reason why it is prohibited to cohabit with a menstruous woman (Lev. xviii. 19) or with another man's wife (ibid. 20), is obvious, and requires no further explanation. It is well known that we must not indulge in any sensual enjoyment whatever with the persons included in the above prohibitions ; we must not even
if we intend to derive We have explained pleasure therefrom. " the laws about forbidden sexual intercourse (Hilkot issure blah, xxi. 1-2), and shown that according to the Law we must not even engage our thoughts with the act of cohabitation (ibid. 19) or irritate the organ of
look at
this in
them
"
generation
tion,
and when we find ourselves unintentionally in a state of irritawe must turn our mind to other thoughts, and reflect on some other thing till we are relieved. Our Sages (B.T. Kidd 30^), in their moral lessons,
;
My son, if that monster meets you, drag it to the house of study. It will melt if it is of iron; it will ' break in pieces if it is of stone as is said in Scripture, Is not my word like a ' fire ? saith the Lord, and like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces ? his to thus exhorts son to the xxiii. The author of this go (Jer. 29). saying house of study when he finds his organ of generation in an irritated state. By reading, disputing, asking, and listening to questions, the irritation will certainly cease. See how properly the term monster is employed, for that irritation is indeed like a monster. Not only religion teaches this lesson, the I have already quoted verbatim the words of philosophers teach the same. Aristotle. He says " The sense of touch which is a disgrace to us, leads
: :
'
which give perfection to the virtuous, say as follows
"
us to indulge in eating and sensuality," etc. He calls people degraded who seek carnal pleasures and devote themselves to gastronomy ; he denounces This in extenso their low and objectionable conduct, and ridicules them.
passage occurs in his Ethics and in his Rhetoric. In accordance with this excellent principle, which
follow, our Sages teach us that moment of their copulation.
we ought
strictly to
we ought not
to look at beasts or birds in the
According to my opinion, this is the reason the cross-breeding of cattle is prohibited (Lev. xix. 19). It is a fact that animals of different species do not copulate together, unless by force. It is well known that the low class of breeders of mules are regularly engaged in this work. Our Law objected to it that any Israelite should degrade
why
himself
by doing these things, which require so much vulgarity and indecency, and doing that which religion forbids us even to mention, how
378

to witness or to practise, except when necessary. Crossis not I think that the prohibition to bring necessary. species in any kind of work, as included in the words, "Thou
much more
together two
breeding, however,
shalt not
" ass together (Deut. xxii. 10), is only a intercourse of the two For if it were allowed to preventive against species. join such together in any work, we might sometimes also cause their interThat this is the reason of the commandment is proved by the fact course. that it applies to other animals besides ox and ass ; it is prohibited to plow
plow with an ox and an
not only with ox and ass together, but with any two kinds. But Scripture mentions as an instance that which is of regular occurrence. As regards circumcision, I think that one of its objects is to limit sexual inteTcourse, and to weaken the organ of generation as far as possible, arid Some people believe that circumcision is thus cause man to be moderate. to remove a defect in man's formation ; but every one can easily reply How can products of nature be deficient so as to require external completion, especiaHyTs the use of the fore-skin to that organ is evident. This commanHment has not been enjoined as a complement to a deficient physical creation, but as a means for perfecting man's moral shortcomings. The bodily injury
:
caused to that organ is exactly that which is desired ; it does not interrupt any vital function, nor does it destroy the power of generation. Circumcision simply counteracts excessive lust; for there is no doubt that circumcision weakens the power of sexual excitement, and sometimes lessens the natural enjoyment ; the organ necessarily becomes weak when it loses blood and is deprived of its covering from the beginning. Our Sages (Beresh. Rabba, c. 80) say
distinctly
intercourse, to separate
hard for a woman, with whom an uncircumcised had sexual from him. This is, as I believe, the best reason for the commandment concerning circumcision. And who was the first to perform this commandment ? Abraham, our father of whom it is well known how " Behe feared sin ; it is described by our Sages in reference to the words, " hold, now I know that thou art a fair woman to look upon (Gen. xii. 1 1). There is, however, another important object in this commandment. It gives to all members of the same faith, i.e., to all believers in the Unity of God, a common bodily sign, so that it is impossible for any one that is a stranger, to say that he belongs to them. For sometimes people say so for
:
It
is
the purpose of obtaining some advantage, or in order to make some attack upon the Jews. No one, however, should circumcise himself or his son for any other reason but pure faith ; for circumcision is not like an incision on
It is also a the leg, or a burning in the arm, but a very difficult operation. fact that there is much mutual love and assistance among people that are united by the same sign when they consider it as [the symbol of] a covenant.
Circumcision
is
likewise the [symbol of the] covenant
in connexion with the belief in
God's Unity.
So
also
which Abraham made every one that is
circumcised enters the covenant of Abraham to believe in the unity of God, " To be a God unto thee, and to in accordance with the words of the Law, " This after thee xvii. seed (Gen. 7). purpose of the circumcision is as thy
important as the first, and perhaps more important. This law can only be kept and perpetuated in its perfection, if circumcision is performed when the child is very young, and this for three good reasons. First, if the operation were postponed till the boy had grown up,
379
he would perhaps not submit to it. Secondly, the young child has not much pain, because the skin is tender, and the imagination weak ; for grown-up persons are in dread and fear of things which they imagine as coming, some time before these actually occur. Thirdly, when a child is very young, the parents do not think much of him ; because the image of the child, that leads the parents to love him, has not yet taken a firm root in their minds.
That image becomes stronger by the continual sight it grows with the development of the child, and later on the image begins again to decrease and to vanish. The parents' love for a new-born child is not so great as it is when the child is one year old and when one year old, it is less loved by them than when six years old. The feeling and love of the father for the child would have led him to neglect the law if he were allowed to wait two or three years, whilst shortly after birth the image is very weak in the mind
; ;
of the parent, especially of the father who of this commandment. The circumcision
is
responsible for the execution
must take place on the eighth
day (Lev. xii. 3), because all living beings are after birth, within the first seven days, very weak and exceedingly tender, as if they were still in the womb of their mother not until the eighth day can they be counted among
;
those that enjoy the light of the world. That this is also the case with " beasts may be inferred from the words of Scripture Seven days shall it " be under the dam if xxii. as it had no (Lev. 27), vitality before the end of
:
In the same manner man is circumcised after the completion that period. of seven days. The period has been fixed, and has not been left to everybody's judgment.
precepts of this class include also the lesson that we must not injure any way the organs of generation in living beings (ibid. xxii. 24). The " " lesson is based on the principle of righteous statutes and judgments in mean we must not iv. we must the (Deut. 8) golden keep everything for the Law combe excessive in love, but must not suppress it entirely " " Be fruitful, and multiply mands, (Gen. i. 22). The organ is weakened The natural by circumcision, but not destroyed by the operation. It is prohibited faculty is left in full force, but is guarded against excess. " for an Israelite that is wounded in the stones, or hath his privy member " because the sexual cut off (Deut. xxiii. 2), to marry an Israelitish woman and that marriage would be a intercourse is of no use and of no purpose source of ruin to her, and to him who would claim her. This is very clear. In order to create a horror of illicit marriages, a bastard was not allowed to marry an Israelitish woman (ibid, xxiii. 3) ; the adulterer and the adulteress were thus taught that by their act they bring upon their seed In every language and in every nation the issue of irreparable injury. licentious conduct has a bad name the Law therefore raises the name of the Israelites by keeping them free from the admixture of bastards. The to marry a harlot, or a priests, who have a higher sanctity, are not allowed woman that is divorced from her husband, or that is profane (Lev. xxi 7) the high-priest, the noblest of the priests, must not marry even a widow, or Of all a woman that has had sexual intercourse of any kind (ibid. xxi. 14). If bastards were prohibited to marry any these laws the reason is obvious. member of the congregation of the Lord, how much more rigidly had
in
; ; ; ;
;
The
slaves
and handmaids to be excluded.
The reason
of the prohibition of inter-
cc
380

:
" is stated in the Law And thou take of their and a their unto daughters go thy sons, whoring after their gods, daughters " and make thy sons go a whoring after their gods (Exod. xxxiv. 16). " " reason of which is unknown to us statutes the Most of the (hukkitri), That I cannot explain some details of the serve as a fence against idolatry. above laws or show their use is owing to the fact that what we hear from others is not so clear as that which we see with our own eyes. Thus my knowledge of the Sabean doctrines, which I derived from books, is not as complete as the knowledge of those who have witnessed the public practice of those idolatrous customs, especially as they have been out of practice and If we knew all the entirely extinct since two thousand years. particulars of the Sabean worship, and were informed of all the details of those doctrines, we would clearly see the reason and wisdom of every detail in the sacrificial
marriage with other nations
concerning things that are unclean, and in other laws, I have no doubt that all these the object of which I am unable to state. laws served to blot out wrong principles from man's heart, and to exterminate the practices which are useless, and merely a waste of time in vain
service, in the laws
and purposeless things. Those principles have turned the mind of the people away from intellectual research and useful actions. Our prophets " therefore describe the ways of the idolaters as follows (They go) after " vain things which cannot profit nor deliver ; for they are vain (i Sam. " inherited and have our fathers xii. 21) ; lies, vanity things wherein Surely " Consider how great the evil consequences there is no profit (Jer. xvi. 19). of idolatry are, and say whether we ought with all our power to oppose it or
:
not
Most
of the precepts serve, as has been stated
by
us, as a
mere fence
the great and heavy burdens, from the pains and inflictions which formed part of the worship of idols. Every positive or negative precept, the reason of which is unknown to thee, take as a remedy against some of those diseases with
against those doctrines [of idolatry],
relieve
and
man from
which we are unacquainted

belief of
dictum
I
This should be the at present, thank God. educated men who know the true meaning of the following divine " I said not unto the seed of " (Isa. xlv. 19). Jacob, Seek me in vain
now mentioned all the commandments of these fourteen classses one by one, and pointed out the reason of each of them, with the exception of a few for which I was unable to give the reason, and of some details of less importance but implicitly we have given the reason even of these, and
have
;
every intelligent reader will easily find it. The reasons of the Precepts are now complete.
CHAPTER L
THERE
I
are in the
misunderstood by
mean
portions which include deep wisdom, but have been many persons ; they require, therefore, an explanation. the narratives contained in the Law which many consider as being
families
x.)
;
Law
of
no use whatever ; e.g., the list of the various Noah, with their names and their territories (Gen.
(ibid, xxxvi.
descended from
the sons of Seir the

(ibid. 31, seq.}
;
Horite
20-30)
the kings that reigned in
Edom
and the like. There is a saying of our Sages (B.T. Sanh. 99^) that the wicked king Manasse frequently held disgraceful meetings for the sole purpose of " He held meetings and made biascriticising such passages of the Law.
THE NARRATIVE ELEMENT IN THE TORAH
381
phemous observations on Scripture, saying, Had Moses nothing else to write " than, And the sister of Lotan was Timna (Gen. xxxvi. 22) ? With reference to such passages, I will first give a general principle, and then discuss them seriatim, as I have done in the exposition of the reasons of the precepts. Every narrative in the Law serves a certain purpose in connexion with
It either helps to establish a principle of faith, or to religious teaching. regulate our actions, and to prevent wrong and injustice among men ; and I will show this in each case. It is one of the fundamental principles of the Law that the Universe has been created ex nihilo, and that of the human race, one individual being, Adam, was created. As the time which elapsed from Adam to Moses was not more than about two thousand five hundred years, people would have doubted the truth of that statement if no other information had been added, seeing that the human race was spread over all parts of the earth in different families and with different languages, very unlike the one to the other. In order to remove this doubt the Law gives the genealogy of the nations (Gen. v. and x.), and the manner how they branched off from a common root. It names those of them who were well known, ami tells who their fathers It describes also the cause that led were, how long and where they lived. to the dispersion of men over all parts of the earth, and to the formation of their different languages, after they had lived for a long time in one place, and spoken one language (ibid, xi.), as would be natural for descendants of one person. The accounts of the flood (ibid, vi.-viii.) and of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (ibid, xix.), serve as an illustration of the doctrine " that Verily there is a reward for the righteous verily He is a God that
judgeth in the earth
"
(Ps. Iviii. 12).
exposed himself to the dangers of warfare in order to save him. We further from this narrative how contented and satisfied Abraham was, thinking " I will not take little of property, and very much of good deeds he said, from a thread even to a shoe-latchet " (Gen. xiv. 23). The list of the families of Seir and their genealogy is given in the Law For God (ibid, xxxvi. 20-30), because of one particular commandment. name distinctly commanded the Israelites concerning Amalek to blot out his
learn
;
(ibid, xiv.) shows how, by few undisciplined men, defeated four mighty kings. It illustrates at the same time how Abraham sympathized with his relative, who had been brought up in the same faith, and how he
The
narration of the war
among
the nine kings

a
means
of a miracle,
Abraham, with
(Deut. xxv. 17-19).

of
Lotan
(ibid, xxxvi. 12).
commandment.
is
of Eliphas and Timna, the sister other sons of Esau were not included in this But Esau was by marriage connected with the Seirites, as
Amalek was the son
The
and Seirites were therefore his children ; distinctly stated in Scripture he reigned over them ; his seed was mixed with the seed of Seir, and ultimately all the countries and families of Seir were called after the sons of Esau who were the predominant family, and they assumed more particularly the name Amalekites, because these were the strongest in that family. If the genealogy of these families of Seir had not been described in full they would all have been killed, contrary to the plain words of the commandment. For this reason the Seirite families are fully described, as if to say, the people that live in Seir and in the kingdom of Amalek are not all Amalekites they
; ;
382
are the descendants of
some other man, and are called Amalekites because the mother of Amalek was of their tribe. The justice of God thus prevented the
destruction of an [innocent] people that lived in the midst of another people [doomed to extirpation] ; for the decree was only pronounced against the seed The reason of this decree has already been stated by us (p. 205). of Amalek.
The kings that have reigned in the land of Edom are enumerated (Gen " Thou mayst not set a stranger over xxxvi. 31, seq.) on account of the law, " thee, which is not thy brother (Deut. xvii. 15). For of these kings none
was an Edomite ; wherefore each king is described by his native land ; one Now I think that it was king from this place, another king from that place. then well known how these kings that reigned in Edom conducted themselves, what they did, and how they humiliated and oppressed the sons of Esau. Thus God reminded the Israelites of the fate of the Edomites, as if saying unto them, Look unto your brothers, the sons of Esau, whose kings were so and so, and whose deeds are well known. [Learn therefrom] that no nation ever chose a foreigner as king without inflicting thereby some great or small injury upon the country. In short, what I remarked in reference to our ignorance of the Babean worship, applies also to the history of those If the religious rules of the Sabeans and the events of those days were days. known to us, we should be able to see plainly the reason for most of the things mentioned in the Pentateuch. The view we take It is also necessary to note the following observations. of things described by others is different from the view we take of things seen by us as eye-witnesses. For that which we see contains many details which are essential, and must be fully described. The reader of the description believes that it contains superfluous matter, or useless repetition, but if he had witnessed the event of which he reads, he would see the necessity of
every part of the description.
When we
therefore notice narratives in the
Torah, which are in no connexion with any of the commandments, we are inclined to think that they are entirely superfluous, or too lengthy, or contain repetitions ; but this is only because we do not see the particular incidents which make those narratives noteworthy. Of this kind is the enumeration of the stations [of the Israelites in the wilderness] (Num. xxxiii.). At first sight it appears to be entirely useless ; but in order to obviate such a " notion Scripture says, And Moses wrote their goings out according to their
journeys by the
commandment of the Lord " (ibid. ver. 2). It was indeed most necessary that these should be written. For miracles are only convincing to those who witnessed them ; whilst coming generations, who know them only from the account given by others, may consider them as untrue. But miracles cannot continue and last for all generations ; it is even inconceivable [that they should be permanent]. Now the greatest of the miracles described in the Law is the stay of the Israelites in the wilderness for forty This wilderness, as described in Scripyears, with a daily supply of manna.
ture, consisted of places
" wherein were fiery serpents and scorpions, and " where there was no water (Deut. viii. 15) drought, places very remote from cultivated land, and naturally not adapted for the habitation of man, " It is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates, neither is " "A land that no man passed there any water to drink (Num. xx. 5) reference to the of ii. and where no man dwelt "
; ;
through,
(Jer.
6).
[In
stay
THE TRUE WORSHIP OF GOD

"
383
the Israelites in the wilderness], Scripture relates, Ye have not eaten bread, " neither have ye drunk wine or strong drink (Deut. xix. 5). All these miracles were wonderful, public, and witnessed by the people. But God
knew
these miracles
narratives
;
that in future people might doubt the correctness of the account of in the same manner as they doubt the accuracy of other
;
they might think that the Israelites stayed in the wilderness in a place not far from inhabited land, where it was possible for man to live [in the ordinary way] ; that it was like those deserts in which Arabs live at present ; or that they dwelt in such places in which they could plow, sow, and reap, or live on some vegetable that was growing there ; or that manna came always down in those places as an ordinary natural product ; or that there were wells of water in those places. In order to remove all these doubts
and to firmly establish the accuracy of the account of these miracles, Scripture enumerates all the stations, so that coming generations may see them, and learn the greatness of the miracle which enabled human beings to live
In those places forty years. For this very reason Joshua cursed
(Josh. vi. 26)
one
who
him who would ever build up Jericho the effect of the miracle was to remain for ever, so that any would see the wall sunk in the ground would understand that it was
;
not in the condition of a building pulled down by human hands, but sunk " At the commandment through a miracle. In a similar manner the words,
Lord the children of Israel journeyed, and at the commandment of Lord they pitched" (Num. ix. 18), would suffice as a simple statement of facts and the reader might at first sight consider as unnecessary additions " all the details which follow, viz., And when the cloud tarried long And so it was when the cloud was a few days. ... Or whether it were two But I will show you the reason why all these days," etc. (ibid. ix. 19-22). details are added. For they serve to confirm the account, and to contradict the opinion of the nations, both of ancient and modern times, that the Israel" ites lost their way, and did not know where to go ; that they were enof the
the
tangled in the land (Exod. xiv. 3) ; wherefore the Arabs unto this day call " that desert Al-tih, the desert of going astray," imagining that the Israelites
erred about, and did not know the way. Scripture, therefore, clearly states and emphatically declares that it was by God's command that the journeyings were irregular, that the Israelites returned to the same places several times, and that the duration of the stay was different in each station ; whilst the stay in one place continued for eighteen years, in another place it lasted one day, and in another one night. There was no going astray, but the " " the rising of the pillar of cloud (Num. ix. 17). journey was regulated by
"
Therefore all these details are given. Scripture clearly states that the way was near, known, and in good condition I mean the way from Horeb, " Ye whither they came intentionally, according to the command of God, " shall serve God upon this mountain (Exod. ii. 12), to Kadesh-barnea, the " Behold, we are now in beginning of inhabited land, as Scripture says, " Kadesh, a city in the uttermost of thy border (Num. xx. 1 6). That way " was a journey of eleven days Eleven days' journey from Horeb, comp. " by the way of mount Seir, unto Kadesh-barnea (Deut. i. 3). In such a
;
;
journey
it is impossible to err about for forty years cause of the delay.
but Scripture
states the
384

:
In like manner there is a good reason for every passage the object of which we cannot see. We must always apply the words of our Sages " It is not a
vain thing for
"
you
(Deut. xxxii. 47), and
if it
seems vain,
it
seems your
fault.
CHAPTER
THE
LI
present chapter does not contain any additional matter that has not been treated in the [previous] chapters of this treatise. It is a kind of conclusion, and at the same time it will explain in what manner those worship God who have obtained a true knowledge concerning God it will direct them how to come to that worship, which is the highest aim man can attain, and show how God protects them in this world till they are removed to
;
eternal
life.
begin the subject of this chapter with a simile. A king is in his all his Of subjects are partly in the country, and partly abroad. the former, some have their backs turned towards the king's palace, and their faces in another direction ; and some are desirous and zealous to go to the
I will
palace,
and
to inquire in his temple," and to minister before him, but have not yet seen even the face of the wall of the house. Of those that desire to go to the palace, some reach it, and go round about in search of the entrance gate ; others have passed through the gate, and walk about in the ante-chamber ; and others have succeeded in entering into the inner part of the palace, and being in the same room with the king in the royal palace. But even the latter do not immediately on entering the palace see the king, or speak to him ; for, after having entered the inner part of the palace, another effort is required before they can stand before the king at a dishear his words, or speak to him. I will now explain the tance, or close by The people who are abroad are all those that simile which I have made. have no religion, neither one based on speculation nor one received by tradition. Such are the extreme Turks that wander about in the north, the Kushites who live in the south, and those in our country who are like these. I consider these as irrational beings, and not as human beings they are below mankind, but above monkeys, since they have the form and shape of man,
palace, seeking
;
"
and a mental faculty above that of the monkey. Those who are in the country, but have their backs turned towards the king's palace, are those who" possess religion, belief, and thought, but happen to hold false doctrines, which they either adopted in consequence of great mistakes made in their own speculations, or received from others who misled them. Because of these doctrines they recede more and more from the to proceed. These are worse than the first royal palace the more they seem it circumstances under certain and class, may become necessary to slay them, and to extirpate their doctrines, in order that others should not be misled. Those who desire to arrive at the palace, and to enter it, but have never yet
seen
it,
divine
commandments, but
are the mass of religious people ; are ignorant.
Those who
the multitude that observe the arrive at the palace,
but go round about it, are those who devote themselves exclusively to the study of the practical law ; they believe traditionally in true principles of faith, and learn the practical worship of God, but are not trained in philothe Law, and do not endeavour to sophical treatment of the principles of
HOW THE PERFECT WORSHIP GOD

establish the truth of their faith
385
by proof. Those who undertake to investigate the principles of religion, have come into the ante-chamber ; and there is no doubt that these can also be divided into different But those grades.
who have succeeded in finding a proof for everything that can be proved, who have a true knowledge of God, so far as a true knowledge can be attained,
und are near the truth, wherever an approach to the truth is possible, they have reached the goal, and are in the palace in which the king lives. My son, so long as you are engaged in studying the Mathematical Sciences and Logic, you belong to those who go round about the palace in search of " the gate. Thus our Sages figuratively use the phrase Ben-zoma is still outside." When you understand Physics, you have entered the hall and when, after completing the study of Natural Philosophy, you master Metaphysics, you have entered the innermost court, and are with the king in the same palace. You have attained the degree of the wise men, who include
:
men of different grades of perfection. There are some who direct all their mind toward the attainment of perfection in Metaphysics, devote themselves entirely to God, exclude from their thought every other thing, and employ all their intellectual faculties in the study of the Universe, in order to derive therefrom a proof for the existence of God, and to learn in every they form the class of those who have possible way how God rules all things
;
entered the palace, namely, the class of prophets. One of these has attained so much knowledge, and has concentrated his thoughts to such an extent in " the idea of God, that it could be said of him, And he was with the Lord
forty days," etc. (Exod. xxxiv. 28) ; during that holy communion he could ask Him, answer Him, speak to Him, and be addressed by Him, enjoying " beatitude in that which he had obtained to such a degree that he did neither
eat bread nor drink water
"
(ibid.)
his intellectual
energy was so predomi-
coarser functions of the body, especially those connected with Some prophets are only able to see, the sense of touch, were in abeyance.
nant that
all
and of these some approach near and see, whilst others see from a distance " The Lord hath appeared from far unto me " (Jer. xxxi. 3). We comp. have already spoken of the various degrees of prophets ; we will therefore return to the subject of this chapter, and exhort those who h?v attained a This is the knowledge of God, to concentrate all their thoughts in God. worship peculiar to those who have acquired a knowledge of the highest truths ; and the more they reflect on Him, and think of Him, the more are they engaged in His worship. Those, however, who think of God, and frequently mention His name, without any correct notion of Him, but merely another person, following some imagination, or some theory received from the and distant outside who remain like those in palace are, my opinion, from it. They do not mention the name of God in truth, nor do they That which they imagine and mention does not correspond reflect on it.
:
to any being in existence ; it is a thing invented by their imagination, as has been shown by us in our discussion on the Divine Attributes (Part I. chap. I.).
The
true worship of God is only possible when correct notions of Him have When you have arrived by way of intellectual previously been conceived. of God and His works, then commence to devote research at a
knowledge
yourselves to Him, try to approach to Him. is the link that joins you
Him
Thus
and strengthen the "

Scripture says,
intellect,
Unto
thee
which it was
386

;
" (Deut. iv. 35) showed, that thou mightest know that the Lord He is God " Know therefore this day, and consider it in thine heart, that the Lord He " " Know ye that the Lord is God " (Ps. c. 3) Thus is God (ibid. 36) ; the Law distinctly states that the highest kind of worship to which we refer in this chapter, is only possible after the acquisition of the knowledge of God. " For it is said, To love the Lord your God, and to serve Him with all your " heart and with all your soul (Deut. xi. 1 3), and, as we have shown several is identical with His of God love man's knowledge of Him. The times, Divine service enjoined in these words must, accordingly, be preceded by the love of God. Our Sages have pointed out to us that it is a service in the man concentrates all heart, which explanation I understand to mean this his thoughts on the First Intellect, and is absorbed in these thoughts as much
:
as possible.
and and For and
exhorts
him
David therefore commands his son Solomon these two things, to acquire a true knowledge of God, earnestly to do them
:
to be earnest in His service after that knowledge has been acquired. " he says, And thou, Solomon my son, know thou the God of thy father,
serve
;
be found Chron. The exhortation refers to the intellectual conceptions, not to xxviii. 9). " " for the latter are not called that the imaginations knowledge," but " which cometh into your mind (Ezek. xx. 32). It has thus been shown that it must be man's aim, after having acquired the knowledge of God, to deliver himself up to Him, and to have his heart constantly filled with longing He accomplishes this generally by seclusion and retirement. after Him. Every pious man should therefore seek retirement and seclusion, and should only in case of necessity associate with others. I have shown you that the intellect which emanates from God Note. unto us is the link that joins us to God. You have it in your power to strengthen that bond, if you choose to do so, or to weaken it gradually till
a perfect heart
if
him with
if
...
thou seek him, he
will
of thee
but
thou forsake him, he

;
will cast thee off for ever
"
(i
it
it
It will only become strong when you employ breaks, if you prefer this. in the love of God, and seek that love ; it will be weakened when you direct
your thoughts to other things.

wisest
that even if you were the knowledge of God, you break the bond between you and God whenever you turn entirely your thoughts to the necessary food or any necessary business you are then not with God, and He is not with you ; for that relation between you and Him is actually The pious were therefore particular to interrupted in those moments. restrict the time in which they could not meditate upon the name of God, and cautioned others about it, saying, " Let not your minds be vacant from '* reflections upon God." In the same sense did David say, I have set the Lord always before me because he is at my right hand, I shall not be moved " (Ps. xvi. 8) ; i.e., I do not turn my thoughts away from God He is like my right hand, which I do not forget even for a moment on account of the ease of its motions, and therefore I shall not be moved, I shall not fall. We must bear in mind that all such religious acts as reading the Law, praying, and the performance of other precepts, serve exclusively as the means of causing us to occupy and fill our mind with the precepts of God, and free it from worldly business for we are thus, as it were, in communication with God, and undisturbed by any other thing. If we, however,
You must know
man
in respect to the true
387
pray with the motion of, cur lips, and our face toward the wall, but at the same time think of our business ; if we read the Law with our tongue, whilst our heart is occupied with the building of our house, and we do not think of
what we
limbs,
are reading
we
are like those
if we perform the commandments only with our who are engaged in digging in the ground, or hewing
wood in the forest, without reflecting on the nature of those acts, or by whom they are commanded, or what is their object. We must not imagine that [in this way] we attain the highest perfection ; on the contrary, we are then " like those in reference to whom Thou art near in their Scripture says, "
mouth, and
I will
far
from
their reins
(Jer. xii. 2).
now commence
to
show you the way how

:
to educate
and
train your-
selves in
order to attain that great perfection.
Turn your thoughts away from everyfirst thing you must do is this while read Shema' or the Tefillah, and do not content yourduring you thing self with being devout when you read the first verse of Shema, or the first
paragraph of the prayer.
The
many years,
and
all
try in reading the
When you have successfully practised this for Law or listening to it, to have all your heart
your thought occupied with understanding what you read or hear. when you have mastered this, accustom yourself to have your mind free from all other thoughts when you read any portion of the and to have your other books of the prophets, or when you say any blessing attention directed exclusively to the perception and the understanding of 7 hen you have succeeded in properly performing these what you utter. acts of divine service, and you have your thought, during their performance, entirely abstracted from worldly affairs, take then care that your thought be not disturbed by thinking of your wants or of superfluous things. In short, think of worldly matters when you eat, drink, bathe, talk with your wife and These times, which little children, or when you converse with other people.
After some time
;
are frequent and long, I think, must suffice to you for reflecting on everything that is necessary as regards business, household, and health. But when you are engaged in the performance of religious duties, have your mind
exclusively directed to When you are alone
careful to meditate in worship of God, viz.,
what you are doing. by yourself, when you are awake on your couch, be such precious moments on nothing but the intellectual to approach Him and to minister before Him in the
true
I
manner which
have described to you
consider as the highest perfection wise
men
not in hollow emotions. This can attain by the above
training.
When we have acquired a true knowledge of God, and rejoice in that knowledge in such a manner, that whilst speaking with others, or attending to our bodily wants, our mind is all that time with God ; when we are with our heart constantly near God, even whilst our body is in the society of men ; when we are in that state which the Song on the relation between God and " I sleep, but my heart man poetically describes in the following words " then it is the voice of my beloved that knocketh waketh (Song v. 2) we have attained not only the height of ordinary prophets, but of Moses, " And Moses alone shall come near our Teacher, of whom Scripture relates " " as for thee, stand thou here by But xxxiv. before the Lord (ibid, 28) me " (Deut. v. 28). The meaning of these verses has been explained by us.
:
388

Patriarchs likewise attained this degree of perfection ; they apGod in such a manner that with them the name of God became
:
The
known
the
proached
Thus we read in Scripture " The God of Abraham, " and the God of Jacob. This is My name for ever (Exod. iii. 15). Their mind was so identified with the knowledge of God, " that He made a lasting covenant with each of them Then will I remember my covenant with Jacob," etc. (Lev. xxvi. 42). For it is known from statements made in Scripture that these four, viz., the Patriarchs and Moses, had their minds exclusively filled with the name of God, that is, with His knowledge and love ; and that in the same measure was Divine Providence attached to them and their descendants. When we therefore find them also, engaged in ruling others, in increasing their property, and endeavouring to obtain possession of wealth and honour, we see in this fact a proof that when they were occupied in these things, only their bodily limbs were at work, whilst their heart and mind never moved away from the name of God.
in the world.
God
of Isaac,
think these four reached that high degree of perfection in their relation to of Divine Providence, even in their endeavours to increase their property, feeding the flock, toiling in the field,
I
God, and enjoyed the continual presence
or managing the house, only because in all these things their end and aim was to approach God as much as possible. It was the chief aim of their
whole life to create a people that should know and worship God. Comp. " For I know him, that he will command his children and his household after him " the xviii. The of all their labours was to
(Gen.
19).
object
publish
Unity of God in the world, and to induce people to love Him and it was on this account that they succeeded in reaching that high degree ; for even those [worldly] affairs were for them a perfect worship of God. But a person like myself must not imagine that he is able to lead men up to this degree of It is only the next degree to it that can be attained by means perfection of the above-mentioned training. And let us pray to God and beseech Him that He clear and remove from our way everything that forms an obstruction and a partition between us and Him, al Ji >ugh most of these obstacles are our own creation, as has several times been shown in this treatise. Comp. " Your iniquities have separated between you and your God " (Isa. lix. 2). An excellent idea presents itself here to me, which may serve to remove many doubts, and may help to solve many difficult problems in metaphysics. We have already stated in the chapters which treat of Divine Providence,
;
of intellect
that Providence watches over every rational being according to the amount which that being possesses. Those who are perfect in their per-
influence of Providence.
mind is never separated from Him, enjoy always the But those who, perfect in their knowledge of God, turn their mind sometimes away from God, enjoy the presence of Divine Providence only when they meditate on God when their thoughts are
ception of God, whose
;
engaged in other matters, divine Providence departs from them. The absence of Providence in this case is not like its absence in the case of those who do not reflect on God at all ; it is in this case less intense, because when a person perfect in his knowledge [of God] is busy with worldly matters, he has not knowledge in actuality, but only knowledge in potentiality [though ready to become actual]. This person is then like a trained scribe when he is not Those who have no knowledge of God are like those who are writing.
HOW THE PERFECT WORSHIP GOL

in constant darkness
389
(i Sam. ii. 9), knowledge of God, and have their thoughts entirely directed to that knowledge, are, as it were, always in bright sunshine and those who have the knowledge, but are at times engaged in other the sun does not shine for them themes, have then as it were a cloudy day on account of the cloud that intervenes between them and God. Hence it appears to me that it is only in times of such neglect that some of the ordinary evils befall a prophet or a perfect and pious man ; and the
:
sense the words
and have never seen " The wicked shall be
light. silent in darkness
We
have explained in this "
whilst those
who
possess the
intensity of the evil is proportional to the duration of those the character of the things that thus occupy their mind.
case,
moments, or to Such being the
the great difficulty is removed that led philosophers to assert that Providence does not extend to every individual, and that man is like any other living being in this respect, viz., the argument based on the fact that good
men are afflicted with great evils. We have thus explained this question even in accordance with the philosophers' own principles. Divine Providence is constantly watching over those who have obtained that
and pious
difficult
is prepared for those who endeavour to obtain it. If man thoughts from worldly matters, obtains a knowledge of God in the right way, and rejoices in that knowledge, it is impossible that any kind of evil should befall him while he is with God, and God with him. When he does not meditate on God, when he is separated from God, then God is also separated from him ; then he is exposed to any evil that might befall him ; for it is only that intellectual link with God that secures the presence of
blessing
which
frees his
Providence and protection from evil accidents. Hence it may occur that the perfect man is at times not happy, whilst no evil befalls those who are imperfect ; in these cases what happens to them is due to chance. This " principle I find also expressed in the Law. Comp. And I will hide my face
from them, and they

befall
us,
shall
them
so that they will say in that day,
because our
God
is
not
among
be devoured, and many evils and troubles shall Are not these evils come upon " us xxxi. is clear that we
?
(Deut.
17).
It
ourselves are the cause of this hiding of the face, and that the screen that This is the meaning of the separates us from God is of our own creation.
words
they
"
And
I will
" have wrought (ibid. ver. 18). There is undoubtedly no difference in this regard between one single person and a whole community. It is now clearly established that the cause of our being exposed to chance, and abandoned to destruction like cattle, is to be found in our separation from God. Those who have their God dwelling in their hearts, are not touched by any " evil whatever. For God says Fear thou not, for I am with thee ; be " " When thou passest not dismayed, for I am thy God (Isa. xli. 10). through the waters, I will be with thee ; and through the rivers, they shall " For if we prepare ourselves, and attain not overflow thee (ibid, xliii. 2). tbe influence of the Divine Intellect, Providence is joined to us, and we are " guarded against all evils. Comp. The Lord is on my side ; I will not fear " " what can man do unto me ? (Ps. cxviii. 6). Acquaint now thyself with " and turn unto Him, and you will be be at xxii. him, i.e., 21) peace (Job
shall
: ;
surely hide
my
face in that day, for
all
the
evils
which
safe
from
all evil.
Consider the Psalm on mishaps, and see
how
the author describes that
39<>
great Providence, the protection and defence from all mishaps that concern the body, both from those that are common to all people, and those that
from those that are due to the laws of concern only one certain individual Nature, and those that are caused by our fellow-men. The Psalmist says " Surely he will deliver thee from the snare of the fowler, and from the noisome pestilence. He shall cover thee with his feathers, and under his His truth shall be thy shield and buckler. Thou wings shalt thou trust shalt not be afraid for the terror by night ; nor for the arrow that flieth by " day (Ps. xci. 3-5). The author then relates how God protects us from the troubles caused by men, saying, If you happen to meet on your way with an army fighting with drawn swords, killing thousands at your left hand and myriads at your right hand, you will not suffer any harm you will behold and see how God judges and punishes the wicked that are being slain, whilst " A thousand shall fall at thy side, and ten thousand at you remain unhurt. hand shall not come nigh thee. but it thy right Only with thine eyes shalt thou behold and see the reward of the wicked " (ibid. vers. 7, 8). The author then continues his description of the divine defence and shelter, and shows the cause of this great protection, saying that such a man is well guarded " Because he hath set his love upon me, therefore will I deliver him I will " set him on high, because he hath known my name We have (ibid. ver. 14). shown in previous chapters that by the " knowledge of God's name," the knowledge of God is meant. The above passage may therefore be para" This man is well guarded, because he hath known me, phrased as follows and then (bi chashak) loved me." You know the difference between the " two Hebrew terms that signify to love," ahab and kashak. When a man's love is so intense that his thought is exclusively engaged with the object of
;
: :
is expressed in Hebrew by the term hasbak. philosophers have already explained how the bodily forces of man in his youth prevent the development of moral principles. In a greater mea-
his love, it
The
sure this
is the case as regards the purity of thought which man attains through the perfection of those ideas that lead him to an intense love of God. Man can by no means attain this so long as his bodily humours are hot. The more the forces of his body are weakened, and the fire of passion quenched, in the same measure does man's intellect increase in strength and light ; his knowledge becomes purer, and he is happy with his knowledge. When this perfect man is stricken in age and is near death, his knowledge mightily increases, his joy in that knowledge grows greater, and his love for the object of his knowledge more intense, and it is in this great delight that the soul To this state our Sages referred, when in reference separates from the body. to the death of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, they said that death was in these three cases nothing but a kiss. They say thus We learn from the words, "
:
And Moses
mouth
" is used of Aaron And Aaron the priest went up into Mount Hor ... by the mouth of the Lord, and died there '' (Num. xxxiii. 38). Our Sages said that the same was the case with Miriam but the phrase " by the mouth of the Lord " is not employed, because it was not considered
expression
:
the servant of the Lord died there in the land of Moab by the " of the Lord The same (Deut. xxxiv. 5), that his death was a kiss.
appropriate to use these words in the description of her death as she was a female. The meaning of this saying is that these three died in the midst of
391
the pleasure derived from the knowledge of God and their great love for Him. When our Sages figuratively call the knowledge of God united with intense love for Him a kiss, they follow the well-known poetical diction,
"
Let him
kiss
me
with the
kisses of
his
mouth " (Song
i.
2).
This kind of
death, which in truth is deliverance from death, has been ascribed by our Sages to none but to Moses, Aaron, and Miriam. The other prophets and
pious men are beneath that degree ; but their knowledge of God is strengthened when death approaches. Of them Scripture says, " Thy righteousness shall go before thee the glory of the Lord shall be thy rereward " (Isa. Iviii. 8). The intellect of these men remains then constantly in the same condition, since the obstacle is removed that at times has intervened between the intellect and the object of its action it continues for ever in that great We have explained this in our delight, which is not like bodily pleasure. work, and others have explained it before us. Try to understand this chapter, endeavour with all your might to spend more and more time in communion with God, or in the attempt to approach Him ; and to reduce the hours which you spend in other occupations, and during which you are not striving to come nearer unto Him. This instruc; ;
tion suffices for the object of this treatise.
CHAPTER
WE
in the
LIT
do not sit, move, and occupy ourselves when we are alone and at home, same manner as we do in the presence of a great king we speak and
;
open our mouth as we please when we are with the people of our own household and with our relatives, but not so when we are in a royal assembly. If we therefore desire to attain human perfection, and to be truly men of God, we must awake from our sleep, and bear in mind that the great king that is over us, and is always joined to us, is greater than any earthly king, greater than David and Solomon. The king that cleaves to us and embraces us is the We Intellect that influences us, and forms the link between us and God. perceive God by means of that light that He sends down unto us, wherefore
the Psalmist says,
looks
"
In
Thy
light shall
we
see light
"
(Ps. xxxvi. 9)
so
God
us through that same light, and is always with us beholding " Can any hide himself in secret and watching us on account of this light. " Note this particularly. shall see him xxiii. that I not ? (Jer. 24). places
down upon
When the perfect bear this in mind, they will be filled with fear of God, humility, and piety, with true, not apparent, reverence and respect of God, in such a manner that their conduct, even when alone with their wives or in the bath, will be as modest as they are in public intercourse with other people.
Thus
it is related of our renowned Sages that even in their sexual intercourse " Who with their wives they behaved with great modesty. They also said, is modest ? He whose conduct in the dark night is the same as in the day." " You know also how much they warned us not to walk proudly, since the " fulness of the whole earth is His glory They thought that by (Isa. vi. 3). these rules the above-mentioned idea will be firmly established in the hearts of men, viz., that we are always before God, and it is in the presence of His The great men among our Sages would not glory that we go to and fro. uncover their heads because they believed that God's glory was round them
392
and over them ; for the same reason they spoke little. In our Commentary on the Sayings of the Fathers (chap. i. 17) we have fully explained how we " For God is in heaven and thou upon have to restrict our speech. Comp. " earth, therefore let thy words be few (Eccles. v. l).
What I have here pointed out to you is the object of all our religious acts. For by [carrying out] all the details of the prescribed practices, and repeating them continually, some few pious men may attain human perfection. They and bearing in mind will be filled with respect and reverence towards God who is with them, they will perform their duty. God declares in plain words that it is the object of all religious acts to produce in man fear of God and obedience to His word the state of mind which we have demonstrated in this chapter for those who desire to know the truth, as being our duty to " seek. Comp. If thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this law that are written in this book, that thou mayest fear this glorious and fearful name, " the Lord thy God (Deut. xxviii. 58). Consider how clearly it is stated " " all the words of this law here that the only object and aim of is to [make " and fearful name." That this end is attained fear the glorious by man] " If certain acts we karn likewise from the phrase employed in this verse that thou mayest fear." For this phrase thou wilt not observe to do clearly shows that fear of God is inculcated [into our hearts] when we act in accordance with the positive and the negative precepts. But the truths which the Law teaches us the knowledge of God's Existence and Unity
;
: .
God, as we have shown repeatedly. You know how fre" And thou shall love the quently the Law exhorts us to love God. Comp. Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy " might (Deut. vi. 5). The two objects, love and fear of God, are acquired The love is the result of the truths taught in the two different means. by Law, including the true knowledge of the Existence of God ; whilst fear of God is produced by the practices prescribed in the Law. Note this excreate in us love of
planation.
CHAPTER
THIS chapter
treats of the
LIII
which we find necessary ("judgment"), and
meaning
of three terms
to explain, viz., hesed (" loving - kindness "), mishpat
zedakah (" righteousness "). In our Commentary on the Sayings of the Fathers (chap. v. 7) we have explained the expression hesed as denoting an excess [in some moral quality].
It
is
especially used of extraordinary kindness.

:
Loving-kindness
is
practised
in
two ways first, we show kindness to those who have no claim whatever secondly, we are kind to those to whom it is due, in a greater upon us
;
In the inspired writings the term hesed occurs is due to them. mostly in the sense of showing kindness to those who have no claim to it For this reason the term hesed is employed to express the good whatever. " " I will mention the loving-kindness of the Lord bestowed upon us by God of the creation is an act of God's On this the act Ixiii. account, (Isa. 7). very " " I have said, The Universe is built up in loving-kindness loving-kindness. of is an act of the the Universe Ixxxix. i.e., ; 3) building up loving-kind(Ps. " And ness. Also, in the enumeration of God's attributes, Scripture says " xxxiv. abundant in loving-kindness 6). (Exod.
measure than
HESED. MISHPAT. ZEDAKAH

The term zedakah
act of giving every ing as it deserves.
is
393
;
derived from zedek,
"
righteousness"
it
denotes the
one
in the first sense, others. When we therefore give the hired labourer his wages, or pay a debt, we do not perform an act of zedakah. But we do perform an act of zedakah
and of showing kindness to every being accordIn Scripture, however, the expression zedakah is not used and does not apply to the payment of what we owe to
his due,
when we
Thus
ll).
fulfil
those duties towards our fellow-men which our moral con-
science imposes
:
upon
us
e.g.,
when we
heal the
wound
of the sufferer.
Scripture says, in reference to the returning of the pledge [to the poor " And it shall be zedakah (righteousness) unto thee " (Deut. xxiv. debtor]
When we
intellectual faculty,
is
walk in the way of virtue we act righteously towards our and pay what is due unto it ; and because every virtue
thus zedakah, Scripture applies the term to the virtue of faith in God. " And he believed in the Lord, and he accounted it to him as right" " eousness And it shall be our righteousness " (Deut. vi. 25). (Gen. xv. 6) ; " The noun mishpat, judgment," denotes the act of deciding upon a certain action in accordance with justice which may demand either mercy or
Comp.
punishment. We have thus shown that hesed denotes pure charity zedakah kindness, prompted by a certain moral conscience in man, and being a means of attain;
ing perfection for his soul, whilst mishpat

in revenge, in other cases in mercy.
may
in
some
cases find expression
In discussing the impropriety of admitting attributes of God (Part I., liii., seq.), we stated that the divine attributes which occur in Scripture " are attributes of His actions ; thus He is called hasid, kind," because He " created the Universe ; zaddik, righteous," on account of His mercy with and the weak, in providing for every living being according to its powers " shofet, judge," on account of the relative good and the great relative evils that are decreed by God's justice as directed by His wisdom. These three " names occur in the Pentateuch Shall not the Judge (shofet) of all the " " earth," etc. (Gen. xviii. 25) Righteous (zaddik) and upright is he " " xxxiv. Exod. xxxii. in
chap,
;
:
(Deut.
4)
Abundant
We
loving-kindness
(hesed,
6).
intended in explaining these three terms to prepare the reader for the
next chapter.
CHAPTER LIV
THE term hokmah
(l) It
(" ") in Hebrew is used of four different things denotes the knowledge of those truths which lead to the knowledge of God. Comp. " But where shall wisdom be found ? " (Job xxviii. 12) " " If thou seekest her like silver The word occurs frequently (Prov. ii. 4).
wisdom
in this
workmanship.
hokmah denotes also knowledge of any " expression And every wise-hearted among you shall come and " make all that the Lord hath commanded " (Exod. xxxv. 10) ; And all the " women that were wise-hearted did spin (ibid. ver. 25). (3) It is also used " of the acquisition of moral And teach his senators principles. Comp. " " " wisdom for it is cv. xii. With the is wisdom
sense.
(2)
The
Comp.
ancient (Ps. 12) ; 22) ; (Job chiefly the disposition for acquiring moral principles that is developed by old age alone. (4) It implies, lastly, the notion of cunning and subtlety ;
"
comp.
Come
on, let us deal wisely^with
them " (Exod.
i.
10).
In the same
394
sense the
used in the following passages And fetched thence a " " xiv. 2) ; (2 They are wise to do evil (Jer. iv. 22). It is possible that the Hebrew fyokmak (" wisdom ") expresses the idea of cunning and planning, which may serve in one case as a means of acquiring intellectual perfection, or good moral principles ; but may in another case produce skill in workmanship, or even be employed in establishing bad
term
"
is
"
wise
woman
Sam.
opinions and principles. The attribute frakam (" wise ") is therefore given to a person that possesses great intellectual faculties, or good moral principles, or skill in art ; but also to persons cunning in evil deeds and principles.
According to this explanation, a person that has a true knowledge of the whole Law is called wise in a double sense he is wise because the Law instructs him in the highest truths, and secondly, because it teaches him good
;
Law are taught by way of method, the knowledge of the Law, and the acquisition of true wisdom, are treated in the books of the Prophets and in the words of our Sages as two different things ; real wisdom demonstrates by proof those truths which Scripture teaches us by way of tradition. It is to this kind of wisdom, which proves the truth of the Law, that Scripture refers when it extols wisdom, and speaks of the high value of this perfection, and
morals.
But
as
the truths contained in the

a philosophical
tradition, not
by
of the consequent paucity of men capable of acquiring it, in sayings like " these : Not many are wise " (Job xxxii. 9) ; " But where shall wisdom be found " (ibid, xxviii. 12) ? In the writings of our Sages we notice likewise many passages in which distinction is made between knowledge of the Law
and wisdom. They say of Moses, our Teacher, that he was Father in the knowledge of the Law, in wisdom and in prophecy. When Scripture says " of Solomon, And he was wiser than all men " (i Kings v. n), our Sages " " " than all men," is but not greater than Moses ; and the phrase, add, " " all men of his for to than this reason [only] mean, ; generation explained " Heman, Chalcol, and Darda, the sons of Mahol," the renowned wise men Our Sages further say, that man has first to render of that time, are named. account concerning his knowledge of the Law, then concerning the acquisition of wisdom, and at last concerning the lessons derived by logical conclusions from the Law, i.e., the lessons concerning his actions. This is also we must first learn the truths by tradition, after this we the right order must be taught how to prove them, and then investigate the actions that help to improve man's ways. The idea that man will have to render account concerning these three things in the order described, is expressed by our " When man comes to the trial, he is first Sages in the following passage ' Hast thou fixed certain seasons for the study of the Law ? Hast asked, thou been engaged in the acquisition of wisdom ? Hast thou derived from ' This proves that our Sages distinguished one thing another thing ? between the knowledge of the Law on the one hand, and wisdom on the other, as the means of proving the lessons taught in the Law by correct
:
'
reasoning.
The
Hear now what I have to say after having given the above explanation. ancient and the modern philosophers have shown that man can acquire
four kinds of perfection.
The
first
kind, the lowest, in the acquisition of

;
which people spend their days, is perfection as regards property session of money, garments, furniture, servants, land, and the
like
the posthe ;
MAN'S PERFECTION
possession of the title of a great king belongs to this class.
395 There
is is
no
close
connexion between
ginary relation
this possession
when on
a perfectly imaaccount of the great advantage a person derives

its
and
possessor
it
from these
my
self
money, he will find that
house, this is possessions, he says, This is and these are hosts and armies. For when
my
my
servant, this
is
my
he examines himtheir qualities are
all
these things are external,
and
entirely
independent of the possessor. When, therefore, that relation ceases, he that has been a great king may one morning find that there is no difference between him and the lowest person, and yet no change has taken place in the things which were ascribed to him. The philosophers have shown that he whose sole aim in all his exertions and endeavours is the possession of this kind of perfection, only seeks perfectly imaginary and transient things ; and even if these remain his property all his lifetime, they do not
give
him any
perfection.
is
The
second kind
more
closely related to
man's body than the
first.
It
includes the perfection of the shape, constitution, and form of man's body ; the utmost evenness of temperaments, and the proper order and strength of his limbs. This kind of perfection must likewise be excluded from forming
our chief aim

possess it as
because
it is
man, but
as a living
a perfection of the body, and man does not being ; he has this property besides in common
with the lowest animal ; and even if a person possesses the greatest possible strength, he could not be as strong as a mule, much less can he be as strong as a lion or an elephant ; he, therefore, can at the utmost have strength that
might enable him to carry a heavy burden, or break a thick substance, or do similar things, in which there is no great profit for the body. The soul derives no profit whatever from this kind of perfection. The third kind of perfection is more closely connected with man himself It includes moral perfection, the highest than the second perfection. degree of excellency in man's character. Most of the precepts aim at probut even this kind is only a preparation for another ducing this perfection For all moral principles perfection, and is not sought for its own sake.
;
concern the relation of
man
to his neighbour
the perfection of man's moral
of mankind. Imagine principles is, as it were, given to man for the benefit a person being alone, and having no connexion whatever with any other and person, all his good moral principles are at rest, they are not required,
These principles are only necessary and give man no perfection whatever. useful when man comes in contact with others.
The fourth kind of perfection is the true perfection of man ; the possession of the highest intellectual faculties ; the possession of such notions which With this perfection jead to true metaphysical opinions as regards God. man has obtained his final object ; it gives him true human perfection ; it
remains to him alone
called
him immortality, and on its account he is three kinds of perfection, you will find that, if you possess them, they are not your property, but the property of others ; according to the ordinary view, however, they belong to you and to others.
;
it
gives
first
man.
Examine the
But the
part of
last
it,
(Prov. v. that is exclusively yours, and you ought not to continue to
kind of perfection is exclusively yours j no one else owns any " shall be only thine own, and not strangers' with thee Your aim must therefore be to attain this [fourth] perfection 17).
"
They
work and weary
DD
3g6
yourself for that which belongs to others, whilst neglecting your soul till it has lost entirely its original purity through the dominion of the bodily powers over it. The same idea is expressed in the beginning of those poems,
which allegorically represent the state of our soul. My mother's children were angry with me ; they made me the keeper of the vineyards ; but mine
"
" (Song i. 6). Also the following passage vineyard have I not kept " Lest thou give thine honour unto others, and refers to the same subject, " (Prov. v. 9). thy years unto the cruel The prophets have likewise explained unto us these things, and have ex-
own
pressed the same opinion on them as the philosophers. that perfection in property, in health, or in character,
They
is
say distinctly
a perfection
not
worthy to be sought as a cause of pride and glory for us ; that the knowledge of God, i.e., true wisdom, is the only perfection which we should seek, and in which we should glorify ourselves. Jeremiah, referring to these four " kinds of perfection, says Thus saith the Lord, Let not the wise man glory
:
in his
wisdom, neither
let
the mighty
;
man
rich
man
glory in his riches
me (Jer. ix. 22, 23). See how the prophet arranged them according to their estimation in the eyes of the multitude. The rich man occupies the first rank ; next is the mighty man ; and then the wise man ; that is, the man of good moral principles for in the eyes of the multitude, who are addressed in these words, he is likewise a great man. This is the reason why the three classes are enumerated in this order.
understandeth and knoweth
:
but let him that glorieth glory in "
glory in his might, let not the this, that he
Our
lessons,
viz.,
Sages have likewise derived from this passage the above-mentioned and stated the same theory that has been explained in this chapter,
that the simple term hokmah, as a rule, denotes the highest aim of man, the knowledge of God ; that those properties which man acquires, makes his peculiar treasure, and considers as his perfection, in reality do not include any perfection and that the religious acts prescribed in the Law, viz., the various kinds of worship and the moral principles which benefit all people in their social intercourse with each other, do not constitute the ultimate aim of man, nor can they be compared to it, for they are but preparations leading to it. Hear the opinion of our The passage occurs in Bereshit Sages on this subject in their own words. " ' In one place Scripture says, And all things that are Rabba, and runs thus, desirable (hafazim) are not to be compared to her' (Prov. viii. n) ; and ' in another place, And all things that thou desirest (hafazeha) are not to be compared unto her ' " (ibid. iii. 15). By " things that are desirable " the performance of Divine precepts and good deeds is to be understood, " " refer to whilst things that thou desirest precious stones and pearls. Both things that are desirable, and things that thou desirest cannot be " compared to wisdom, but in this let him that glorieth glory, that he understandeth and knoweth me." Consider how concise this saying is, and how
;
perfect
its
author
how nothing is
here omitted of
all
that
we have put
forth
after lengthy explanations
and preliminary remarks.
Having stated the sublime ideas contained in that Scriptural passage, and quoted the explanation of our Sages, we will now complete what the remainder of that passage teaches us. The prophet does not content himself with explaining that the knowledge of God is the highest kind of perfection
;
AM APS PERFECTION
for
if
397
"
But in this let me," and would " have stopped there or he would have said, that he uaderstandeth and knoweth me that I am One," or, " that I have not any likeness," or, " that there is none like me," or a similar He says, however, that man can phrase. only glory in the knowledge of God and in the knowledge of His ways and attributes, which are His actions, as we have shown (Part I. liv.) in expound" Show me now thy ways " (Exod. xxxviii. 13). We are ing the passage, thus told in this passage that the Divine acts which ought to be known, and " ought to serve as a guide for our actions, are, fated, loving-kindness," " " and Another very immishpat, zedakah, judgment," righteousness."
this
him who
only had been his intention, he would have said, glorieth glory, that he understandeth and knoweth
;
portant lesson
a
" is in the earth." It implies taught by the additional phrase, fundamental principle of the Law ; it rejects the theory of those who boldly assert that God's providence does not extend below the sphere of the moon, and that the earth with its contents is abandoned, that " the Lord hath for" saken the earth It teaches, as has been taught by the (Ez. viii. 12). " of all wise men in the The earth is the Lord's "
greatest
29), that
words, (Exod. ix. His providence extends to the earth in accordance with its nature, in the same manner as it controls the heavens in accordance with their " This is expressed in the words, That I am the Lord which exercise nature.
loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness in the earth." The prophet thus, " in conclusion, says, For in these things I delight, saith the Lord," i.e.,
My
object [in saying this] is that you shall practise loving-kindness, judgment, and In a similar manner we have shown (Part I. liv.) righteousness in the earth.
that the object of the enumeration of God's thirteen attributes is the lesson that we should acquire similar attributes and act accordingly. The object of the above passage is therefore to declare, that the perfection, in which
man can
is
truly glory, is attained by him when he has acquired as far as this the knowledge of God, the knowledge of His^Providence, possible for man and of the manner in which it influences His creatures in their production
and continued existence. Having acquired this knowledge he will then be determined always to seek loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness, and
thus to imitate the ways of God.
this treatise.
We
I
have explained
this
many
times in
considered useful for
and which I by the help of God, you will, after due reflection, comprehend all the things which I have treated here. May He grant us and all Israel with us to attain what He promised " Then the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf us,
This
is all
that
thought proper to
discuss in this treatise,
men
like
you.
hope
that,
shall
be unstopped "
(Isa.
have seen a great light ; " hath the light shined (ibid. ix. l). God is near to all who call Him, if they call Him in truth, and turn to Him. He is found by every one who seeks Him, if he always goes towards Him, and never goes astray. AMEJI.
The people that walked in darkness xxxv. 5) ; they that dwell in the shadow of death upon them
"
DO*
INDEX
INDEX OF SCRIPTURAL PASSAGES.
PAGE
Genesis
i.-iii.
i.
La
ii. i. i.
10
ii
L 17
i. i.
18
20 22 i.26
i.
la?
L 28 L 30
i.
31
i
ii. ii.
ii.
2
>,
ii-
ii. ii. ii. ii.

ii.
6
7 16
20 23
sq.
ii.
iii.
iii.
24
5
iii.
iii. iii. iii. iii.
7
8
i6
18
iv. iv.
24 7
25
v. v. 3
vi. viii.
vi.
vi. 3 vi. 5 vi. 6
12 13 vii. 2 vii. 15 vii. 17

vi. vi.
viii. viii. viii.
21
22
ix-3
400
Genesis
xxiii.
INDEX
PAGE
17 xxiv. 3 . xxiv. 7 .
.
.
FACE
Genesis xlvi. 4 xlvi. 29 xlvi. 34
xlvii. 3 xlviii. 3
1.
xxiv. 16. xxiv. 51. zxv. 18 .
24 218 188 28 250

53
..
.
. .
.
.
38 107
.359
.
XXV. xxv. xxv. xxv.
22 23 24 26
.
. . . .
236 236
29
Fôdus
.
i.
10
14
17-
ii-4
ii. ii-
. .
xxvi. 3
xxvii. 27 xxvii. 31 xxvii. 35 xxvii. 41 xxviii. 12 xxviii. 13 xxviii. 15 xxviii. 16
7,
.
243 289 60 364 32 97 166

31
ii.
iii.
25
i
.. ..
.
. .
.29 393 .25

-
34 243
97
2 42
iii.
iii. iii. iii.
-54. 162,
.
6 7
9
.
.
.98 356 .18 -65 6

5
7, 25,
.
iiiiii.
iii-
289 243
17
xxix. 2
. . .
in.
iii.
12 13 14 15
229, 289, 383
xx ix. 10
xxix. 31 xxix. 32 xxix. 35
. .
. .
257 65
16, 18
...
. . .
. .
-93
3
.
-
.
.
iv. i
iv. iv. iv. iv.
. .
. .
.
xxx. 30
xxxi. xxxi. xxxi. xxxi. xxxi. xxxi.
xxxii. xxxii. xxxii. xxxii. xxxii.
3 . ii.
12 13
.
. .
65 25 37 . 235 36, 235, 240, 243 65

.
2 ii
20
.
94 94 94 263, 266 98
7
.
25 iv. 31
v. 5
vi. 3 vi. 9
viii.
....
.
24 49
2
36 236
31
65 97 224
5
33 237
.
viii.
4 . 6 . 22 24 xxxii 25 xxxii. 31 xxxii. 33

xxxiii. 3.
160 340
31
viii.
12 18 22
. .
397 3^8 359

61
ix. ix.
.
.
.
. .
237
.237 .237
.
.
fsxxiii.
371 30 76
23 29 x. 2 x. 13 x. 19
xi. 8
xii. 8 sq. xii. ii
xii. xii.
... ....
.
33
3i8,397 340
55
55.
....
.
.
.
214 36 3& 1
36i
xxxiii. ii xxxiii. 14
XXXV. I . XXXV. IO xxxv. 13 XXXV. 22

xxxvi. 12 xxxvi. 20 sqq xxxvi. 22 xxxvi. 31 sq. xxxvii. 15 xxxvii. 31 xxx viii. 23 xxxix. 6 . . xl.7
.
.
76 37 235 235 23 34
.
.
xii.
xii.
xii.
12 15 19 22
.3 346
5* 370 32, 359
32
. .
.
23
25
381 380, 381 381 380, 381

.
xii.
xii.
....
.
. .
238 364 374

13 52
46 xii. 48 xiii. 9 xiii. 10

xiii.
xiii. xiii.
.
.
.361 .361
325
.
.
27, 361
15
34
325
305,
.
16
. .
43 xli. 46 xlii. 26 xlii. 30

xli.
xliii.
.
.
107
25
. .
. .
18
29 89 342
31
32,
17 sq. 19 . . xiv. 3 xiv. 10 . xiv. 27 . . xv. 4

xiii.
324
339 383
...
.
. . .
.
.18
.
.
. .
.
. .
xliii.
xliv. xliv. 1 8
26 4
.
.
xlv. 7 xlv. 7, 8 xlv. 16 . xlvi. 2 sq.
36 . . 27 . 250 . 250 58 36, 235, 236, 243
xv. xv. xv. xv.

xvi. xvi. xvi. xvi.
6 10
18
4
. . .
.61
.
210 107 213 203 326
25 sq.
7 18 32
.....58
.
..
35
.
.
.
.
. .
.28
.271
INDEX
401
402
INDEX
INDEX
403
404
INDEX
INDEX
405
406
INDEX
INDEX
Micah
iv. xz vi. 3
i.
407
Nahum
2
i. i.
Habakkuk
i.
12 . 13 14 sq.
3
S
.
.
iii.
iii. iii.
16
Zephaniah
i.
3 sq.
i.
12
Haggaii. 13
ii.
6 sq.
408
Psalms
cxi. 3
.
INDEX
INDEX
Lamentations
i.
409
JNDEX
INDEX OF QUOTATIONS FROM THE TALMUD.
PAGE
PAGE
Shabbat.
gza, The spirit rests on the
rich
1 076,
MISHNAH BERAKOT.
T.3 SHABBATH.
vi.
372
335
10
God
.....
feedeth
all
of prophecy only wise, brave, and
220
288
HAGIGAH.
ii.
creatures,
etc
43
1196,
Two
angels
.
accompany
.
YOMA.
iii.3
every person
368
I46a,
1490,
The serpent
299
infected
.
Eve
SOTAH.
i-7
286
SANHEDRIN.
x. t
223
ABOT
i.
i
i,
ii.
ii.
I.
347 64
IT
iii.
17 13 iv. 13
v. 6, I. v. 13-14,
I.
372 348 99 76
MlDDOT.
i.
i, III.
367
TAMID.
Li, III
367
BABYL. TALMUD.
Berakot.
. . 5a, Afflictions of love 7a. Moses beheld the similitude
with poison, etc. .217 Let your thought never be vacant from God 386 Erubin. i8a, Adam and Eve were at first one being 256 Pesahim, The from 49, pious keep away banquets 263 . . 56a Book of Medicine 337 n8a, God does not deprive any . 286 being of its due i iga, Mysteries of the Law 251 Hagigah. ?a, Visit thy friend sparingly 367 lift, Ma" as eh bereshit, ma'aseh mercabah . . .3, 29, 44, 48 i2a, The heavens and the earth were created simultaneously 213 I2&, There are seven heavens 105
. .
.... ....
. . . .
i3a,
The
elders of
285
18
and R. Joseph about ma'asekmercabah

I3&, Isaiah
of God, etc io&, Elisha is called holy, etc. i8a, The righteous, even after death, are said to be alive 220, The words of the Law are not . subject to defilement . 250, The mouth of a swine is
.
saw
263
saw, etc.
57
369
371
130, Explanation of hashmal . 146, Four entered the garden,

etc.
.
.... ....
all
.
Pumbaditha
258 259 260
that Ezekiel
.42, 215
.
150, In the world
dirt itself
rise, etc.
28a, In holy matters

330, 556,
Use
of attributes in prayers dream interpreted in a
dream
57a, Serve
God with your good

evil inclinations
is
.
.... ....
.
we must
22
85
above there is no bodily enjoyment . i6a, Every person is accomtwo . . panied by angels
Rosh-ha-shanah. na, All things were created with
full size
24
299 216
76
238
298
225 9 57
ii
176,
Explanation of Exod. xxiv.
6
2i&,
and your
576,
Dream
one-sixtieth
.
.
of
.
.
prophecy
death
63, It is time to act, etc. 78, The righteous live

.
...
.
even in
Shabbat. 3oa, Solomon contradicts himself 300, A prophet is not inspired when in a state of sadness
3 1 a,
Solomon not greater than Moses 3 in, The world will remain six . thousand years, etc . Yoma. zga, Thoughts about sin are worse than sin
396, Pronunciation of the Tetra-
.... ....
.
394
209
...
. .
263
grammaton
227
When man
how he
appears for his

is
.
676, These things I have ordained, . obey unconditionally .
.92
310
45
trial,
35 b. If so, to different interpretations

550, 67*, 87^, 886,
examined you expose your words

.
394
328
Succah.
456,
I
noticed
No death without sin Ways of the Amorite

.
the good
286, 304
.
.
Laws revealed at Marah The pious do everything

.
334 326
Ta'anit. za, True worship in the heart
306,
out of love
303
Moses did not prophesy during God's anger with Israel

.
.... ....
is
how few were

the service
386
*27
INDEX
PACE
MegitlaH. 130, Moses
Baba-batra.
was father
of the
in
.
the
.
knowledge
Yebamot.
6zb, It
Law
394
150, Satan and evil inclination . . aie the same Condemnation of Job's i6a,
is a laudable act to marry the sister's daughter The 1036, serpent infected Eve, etc 1040, How great is his boldness in likening the Creator to His creatures
. .
utterances 351
i6a, i7a,
22fl,
....
. . . .
.
298
301
Modesty Death of Moses, Aaron,

to eat
-377
390
4
etc.
217
62
use of the verb " " Figurative
2$a,
Ketubot. 46, 6ia,

150,
The Skechinah is in the west n6a, Should not the Law, etc.
266.
355 195
What
is
separation
a woman in her allowed to do

.
Abodah-zarah.
interpretation Deut. xxiii. 14
Agadic
...
.
.
368
353
Modesty
-377
of
54&, Everything follows its natural . . course.
.210
161
Sanhedrin.
386,
Ifiddushin.
zifc,
Deut. xxi. 10
is
only a con-
cession to man's weakness

306,
350
377
285 39 1
When
lust
overcomes you
.
56 b, Laws revealed at Marah . 6i&, Evil inclination acts in man

. from his youth 916, Explanation of Neh. ix. 6 . and Job xxxviii. 7
God does nothing without contemplating the host above
326
298 159
turn to the
Law
3ia, Obligatory and voluntary performance of God's precepts

. . 3ia, Haughtiness 356, Lev. xxi. i, 2, applies to the sons of Aaron, not the daugh-
ters
. 390, Sowing diverse seeds 396, Explanation of Deut. xxii. 7 Good and evil inclinations 7ia, Name of God of twelve let.
369 337
97a, The world remains 6,000 years 996, King Manasseh mocks at por . tions of the Law .
....
200
380
222
Maccot.
243, Israel at Sinai
heard only the

.
320
92
first
two commandments
Hora yot.
8a, Idolatry equals apostasy
.
ters
Gittin.
320
91
Menahot.
vivd
6ob, Things communicated voce must not be written down
108
iog&, Hullin.
The Tetragrammaton
Nedarim.
206,
The modesty
of the Sages
396 Succah.
iâ, Imitate the ways of God . 380, Explanation of Num. vi. 27
391 299 198 91
. jb, Pinehas b. Yair . 130, They continue in the ways . of their father? 6oa, All things were created with full size, etc . . 770, Ways of the Amorite
263
...
.
-52
216 334
247
Baba-Kamma.
150, 500,
Job never existed
296
286
He who
says that
mits punishment, will suffer

for it
....
. .
God
re-
goa, Scripture employs hyperbolic expressions . i6oa, Leprosy, punishment for . . slander
Keritot.
-369
.
Baba-mezi'a.
316,
7<, Violation of a
Jer.
handmaid
34
guage of man 326, Cruelty to animals
The Torah speaketh
the lan-
Talm. Betakot.
35
i.i,
The
thickness of each sphere
278
288
23
Peak.
v. 7,
Baba-batra. I2a, Explanation of Ps. xc. 12
We must
.
not
criticize
t
Aga.
dic sayings
"
REFERENCES TO WORKS OF MAIMONIDES.

PACK
PAGE
L 17 v. 6 v. 7 Mishneh-torah
2, 7, 32,
Comm. on Mishnah
Hagigah
Sanh.
Introduction ii. 7
x. i
.
.
108, 347
*53. 392 55
211
392
et
4
2
55.
i
Abot
iDtroduction
51,55, 106, 108, 223,
passim.
8 331- 370
412
INDEX
REFERENCES TO WORKS ON SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY.
PAGE
TNDEX
God. image of . immutability of
throne of
will of
.
413
wisdom of word of work of

Golden
calf
4 I4
INDEX
PAGE
RECDYRL
OCT
21*00
DC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
TJ
lilliilii A 000669012
7
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LIBRARY

THE GUIDE FOR THE

TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL ARABIC TEXT

SECOND EDITION, REVISED THROUGHOUT

LONDON & KEGAN

Printed in Great Britain by Butler

& Tanner Ltd., Frome and London

Translation of Maimonides' DaldSt

al-Hairin being exhausted

the three volumes of the

edition have been reduced to one

volume by the elimination of the notes

Hebrew words and

have been eliminated or transliterated.

these changes the translator

produce a cheap edition in order to

Maimonides within the reach

Theology and Jewish

COLLEGE, July 1904.

PREFACE TO VOLUME ONE OF

the present volume

to his alleged apostasy.

work from the

with explanatory and

by the former, and the

twenty-five chapters by the latter.

with such information

Similes Directions for the Study of this

..... ........... ......

On kisse On 'alabj yarad

.......16 10. ...... .18 .........22

Angels Figurative Expressions applied to ' . . On Faith .

Necessity of Proving the Inadmissibility of Attributes . . . . . . reference to God Classification of Attributes

.... ..... ... ....

xxxiii. 13 ; xxxiv. 7. . Attributes implying Corporeality,

....... ...... ........

Emotion, Non-existence and

.105 107 .113

.156 .156 159 .160

Three Different Theories about the Beginning of the Universe

.174 .176 .178

preferable to that of the Eternity of

........ ........ ........

Miracles wrought by them

the Mental, Physical and the Divine Influence upon

...... ...... ........

.219 the .221

Moral Faculties of the Prophets . Man's Imaginative and Mental Faculties

Further Explanation of the Hayyot and Ezek. x.

Faces with four different peculiarities

Ofannim derived from

........ ..... .........

Prevents him from Attaining Perfec-

........ ........ .....

277 279 280 282

The Law Promotes

Oppose Idolatry instead of Uprooting

Another chief Object of the Law

XXXIV The Law