Road Maintenance

ROAD MAINTENANCE PLANNING
INDEVELOPMENT: John van Rijn
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Road Maintenance Planning
ROAD MAINTENANCE PLANNING
Any part of this publication may be fully reproduced or translated provided that the source and author are fully acknowledged. Edition 2006.
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Table of Contents:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10.1 Introduction Shoulders Storm water drains Street markings GuardRails Barriers Traffic Signs Traffic lights Street lights Pavements Earth and Gravel Roads 4 6 7 7 8 9 10 10 10 12 14 19 21 24 43 45 51 54 56 59 61
10.2 Asphalt concrete 10.2.1 Long-term maintenance planning 10.2.2 Short and medium term maintenance planning 10.2.3 Impacts of Repairs 10.3 Concrete pavements 10.3.1 Long-Term Maintenance Planning 10.3.2 Middle-Long Term Maintenance Planning Appendix a: Life expectancy of rehabilitation Appendix B: Thaw-Frost damages Appendix C: Analysing Deflection tests
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Road composition
INTRODUCTION
A road is more than just a pavement on top of a base course, it contains various elements, who all have their specific functions. Typically a road would contain elements like: Drains, Streetlights Guard rails Street markings Traffic lights Street furniture Shoulders All sorts of structures like bridges and flyovers In many countries, the responsibilities to maintain these assets are shared by several agencies. The traffic police department may be involved. And often one differentiates between urban, rural and national road networks. This report present guidelines for preparing maintenance plans for open storm water drainage, shoulders, street lights, traffic lights, guard rails, street markings, street furniture and pavements. Guidelines for piped drainage and sewer systems and structures are presented in other documents.
Organisation of road maintenance
Road maintenance organisations usually work with the following framework Routine maintenance Periodic maintenance Reconstructions Emergency maintenance Routine maintenance are all maintenance activities that have to be carried out at least once per year, if not more frequent. Such activities include inspections, cleaning of drains, controlling of vegetations, filling of potholes and ruts, etc. Road agencies often receive a fixed budget on basis of an inventory that quantifies the assets in age; length, area or volume. In most cases the road maintenance department is free to allocate the routine budget line as it pleases, provided that it is used for damages that fit in routine maintenance. In other countries the routine maintenance program of works and their budget needs to be approved by senior management. Undersigned suggests equipping inspectors with sufficient tools, materials and equipment to carry out patching techniques. However inspectors may be prohibited to carry out small repair works. When routine works programs and their budget need prior approval by senior management, it is unlikely that the inspectors will be granted enough budgets to carry out repair works while doing their inspections. Senior management may be concerned about the consumption of the total budget of the road department for routine
Routine maintenance
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maintenance. Routine maintenance budget demands are low in comparison with any other form of maintenance and new construction projects.
Emergency maintenance
Emergency repairs are all maintenance activities that have to carried out immediately to safe lives or prevent disastrous consequences of damaged infrastructure. Typical examples of such emergencies are structural damages to flyovers due to accidents. Maintenance departments need unrestricted access to emergency maintenance budgets that allow them to carry out repairs that mitigate immediate dangers. Some senior management may wish to control access to emergency repairs for works with more long-term focus. All repairs that carried out less frequent are considered periodic maintenance. Periodic maintenance includes all sorts of repairs including resurfacing, overlays, and reconstruction of pavement, base and even subbase course. Periodic maintenance intervals vary according to the needs and may be irregular. The intervals depend to a large extend on the quality of the construction. Planners should play with different periodic maintenance scenarios to obtain the most cost-effective one. They can choose for more frequent but less effective but cheap repairs, i.e. five year intervals or to work with larger intervals choosing rehabilitation techniques that are very effective but also expensive. The interval sets performance requirements to the routine maintenance budgets and activities. Ideally planners would choose the most cost-effective scenario.
Periodic maintenance & Reconstruction
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Shoulders and slopes
SHOULDERS
The shoulder has three functions: Providing side support to the road pavement Providing space to the traffic in case of emergencies Draining water from the carriageway to the roadside ditch The usual defects of shoulders are: Obstructions on shoulders Shoulder higher than carriageway Erosion of shoulder Shoulder far lower than carriageway Reduced visibility for road users due to high vegetation and subsequently fire hazards Weak surface, it can not be used by Non-motorised transport Vegetation on slopes can cause several problems. Overgrown trees or branches can fall and block the carriageway or block the drains. Vegetation can reduce the visibility of road users, also through fire. Other problems related to the slopes are surface water erosion and earth slips. Both erosion and slips can block the drain system. Shoulder maintenance activities consist of the following activities. a) Removing obstacles b) Reshaping shoulders c) Adding shoulder materials d) Vegetation control Except for vegetation control, these maintenance activities can be initiated failure based. Vegetation control should be done a number of times per year. The number of times depend the growth of the vegetation that hinders visibility of the road users and environmental considerations. Vegetation control activities should be done preferable after the rains and in the dry seasons. Erosion prevention should be done as soon as erosion results in slips or channels. Erosion prevention interventions are refill of channels, guiding water through constructed channels, seeding vegetation on the slopes or stone pitching. It is possible to reduce risk for slips by reducing the slope angle, clearing slip material or constructing retaining walls. Bush and vegetation control should at least take place up to 3 meters from the edge of the shoulder. The minimum height of the vegetation/grasses remains 10 cm. Lower heights risks scalping of the ground. Young trees should not be allowed to grow in these areas. Trees close to the roads should be kept free from dead and sick limbs. The boughs and branches overhanging the pavement lower than 4.5 meters should be removed. It may also be necessary to remove the so-called heavy branches (branches growing in the downward direction). Blading is not a satisfactory method of vegetation control. Excessive blading can cause undesirable air and water quality problems.
Shoulder maintenance
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When the soil on the slope or shoulders is higher than the actual pavement, water will accumulate on the pavement, causing problems to both the pavement as well as the road users. Accumulation of silt on the shoulders and slopes can not be predicted nor is it worthwhile to monitor their progress. Such problems should simple be taken care off with the routine maintenance budget.
STORM WATER DRAINS
The purpose of the Drainage System is to rapidly collect and conduct rain and ground water away from the carriageway. Water can cause widespread damage to the road by weakening the pavement structure. The drainage system is therefore a very important component of the road. An open storm-water drainage system consists of ditches & drains, culverts, drifts and causeways. The usual defects of open storm-water drainage systems are difficult to predict and therefore maintenance is initiated after the failure occurs. However there are some use-based initiated activities.
Season Before rains
During the rains
End of rains
Activity Clean culverts and drifts Clean side and mitre drains Repair side drain erosion and scour checks Inspect and remove obstacles Clean culvert and drifts Clean side and mitre drains Repair side drain erosion and scour checks Repair erosion on shoulders, on back slopes and in drains Reinstate scour checks
STREET MARKINGS
Markings are usually painted lines and symbols to inform the road users about alignment of the road and traffic rules. The main defect is off course when the markings are no longer visible. When normal road paint is used, lines will deteriorate within one year under any circumstances. Painted symbols usually last up to 3 years. Thermoplastic lines usually have longer life span. Depending on the traffic intensity and the climate it may last between 5 and 7 years. Thermoplastic is hardly ever used for symbols.
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GUARDRAILS
Guardrails should avoid accidents by preventing vehicles driving off the pavement and hitting other vehicles or objects. Subsequently guardrails and barriers are designed in a way that they reduce the harm for drivers and occupants of the vehicles hitting it. Guardrails are usually composed of a number of galvanised steel items. The usual defects of guardrails are corrosion, cracking of the posts and sinking of the guardrails. The last defect is usually a result of inadequate foundation. The steel is usually galvanised with a layer of sink. Recycling and expanding the life of the steel is possible through re-galvanising the different steel items. The minimum remaining depth of the sink layer should be at least 12 m. The thickness of the plank itself should be at least 2.4 mm and the minimum wall thickness of the poles should be 3.5 mm. It is close to impossible to measure the thickness of the sink layer in a uniform manner. Research in the Netherlands has indicated that the progression of the corrosion is almost linear and depending on the distance to industries, sea and the road. The progressions of corrosion (in m/year) in the Netherlands are: Class A; 1.8 Class B: 2.4 Class C: 4.8 The class type was determined with the table below. Distance to industry less than 25 km X X X X Distance to sea less than 20 km X X X X Distance to driving lanes less than 1.5 m X X X X Class type A A A A B B B C
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The average life of an undamaged guard rail is about 40 years. Damage Gouges and Dents Leaning or Bent Posts Rusting surface Anchor Bolts Loose from Embedment Repair Touch up gouges with zinc paint Replace guardrail sections Replace tubular backup sections Replace posts Clean and paint with zinc paint Clean and metallize Replace Touch up gouges with zinc paint Replace guardrail sections Replace tubular backup sections Life Years Years Years years Years Years Years Years Years Years
10 40 40 40 10 40 40 10 40 40
BARRIERS
As reinforced concrete barriers hardly ever decay, with exception of accidents, their maintenance cycle for long-term maintenance planning is simple based on replacing them every 30 years. Problem Surface Scaling/surface popouts Cracks < 1.5 mm wide Cracks > 1.5 mm wide Delamination of the surface Repair Clean and seal with Silane Clean and seal with epoxy/urethane seal with HMWM route out crack and seal with flexible caulk Remove unsound concrete; sawcut around perimeter; remove and patch with fast setting patch material If thin areas (25 mm or less) patch with trowelable mortar Sawcut around and remove unsound areas full-depth and recast in-kind Replace entire barrier Life 10 Years 15 Years 10 Years 10 Years 15 years
10 years 30 Years 30 Years
Widespread surface deterioration
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TRAFFIC SIGNS
The most important aspect of traffic signs is that they should be visible under most circumstances. Sometimes traffic signs are removed illegally or were not placed on the correct position. In these cases the traffic signs need either to be replaced or its position corrected. In some countries steel traffic signs are often stolen. If this is common practice, other materials should be considered for which is less demand in society. Subsequently traffic signs do get dirty and require cleansing on regular basis. A good practice would be to clean all signs, once every three years.
TRAFFIC LIGHTS
The common defects on traffic lights are the corrosion and reduction of the sink layer on the post, drop out of the lights, dirty lenses and mirrors, loose wires and jamming doors. To avoid jamming doors, the hinges need to be oiled every three years. The lenses and mirrors need to be cleaned annually. Because the yellow lamps are more used than the red and green lights, their life expectancy is usually a lot shorter. If the electricity supply does not fluctuate too much, the lamps replacement can be initiated use based. Basically this means that the green and red lamps are replaced every three years and the yellow lamp every year. In the occasion that a failure of the lamp may occur, fast replacement (preferably within a day) is required to avoid unnecessary accidents or congestion. Red lights may even have to be replaced sooner, e.g. 8 hours. Furthermore oil coating of all moving parts is necessary once in the 3 years. Repairs for the other defects are usually failure based initiated.
STREET LIGHTS
Streetlights are usually approached in the same way as the traffic lights, with the difference that the reaction time for the replacement of the lights is far less strict and that the lenses and mirrors are only cleansed when the lights are replaced. Replacement of the lights should take place once every three years. It may be necessary to carry out corrective maintenance when two cascading failing lights are observed. When such failure is observed close to the three year replacement interval, planners should opt for advancing the replacement. Corrective maintenance is needed for failing street lights at crucial locations, like intersections, refuge islands and traffic furniture conveying important information to road users. Furthermore oil coating of all moving parts is necessary once in the 3 years. The thickness of the mast wall can be measured and plotted against time. Depending on the progression rate and the minimum acceptable thickness it is possible to predict the end of life of the
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mast. Most metal masts have a conservation of a sink layer. It is also possible to measure the thickness of the sink layer. If the sink coating has still a thickness of 50 micrometer of more, damages can be mitigated. When the remaining thickness is less, it is no longer possible to enhance resistance against corrosion or erosion. An alternative threshold value is 5% of the total surface. Non-sink coatings are usually visually inspected. When the total damage per mast is smaller than 5%, the coating can be patched. When the damages are larger, the coating is usually replaced. Masts have to be replaced when they are Deformed and distract road users Contain scuffmarks that are deeper than 10% of the wall thickness Masts that permanently skew beyond 2% of their height need corrective maintenance. When the mast during wind forces 5 or less skew 5% or more of their length, they may need replacement. Cracks in welds require immediate attention of a certified welder. Typically, a street light maintenance unit will inspect and carry out small repairs to the streetlights every two months.
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10 PAVEMENTS
Without maintenance even asphalt concrete roads will loose their original service level in as little as 10-12 years; with gravel roads it is normally in the order of 6-8 years and for earth surfaced roads as little as 3-5 years. Unlike bridges, sewer pipes and many other assets, road pavements, irrespective their condition, always provide some form of access. The service level of the pavement deteriorates from the one obtained directly after construction to eventually a road that only allow slow access to pedestrians, circlers, four wheel drives, busses and lorries. These roads may have to be closed for motorised traffic during parts of the year. Some countries cannot afford the highest service level and accept that certain minor roads are closed for motorised traffic during the rainy season. The designs of these roads are already based on this service level. One example of such an approach is the green roads approach that is adopted in both Nepal and Bhutan. Irrespective of the adopted service level, road agencies should safeguard the right of way for future expansion. Important quality requirements that determine the service level are: Reliability of access Comfort and speed Road safety Vehicle operating costs Environmental costs
Reliability of access
Jerry Lebo and Dieter Schelling (Design and Appraisal of Rural Transport Infrastructure, World Bank Technical Paper No. 496) differentiate four levels of access from the perspective of service: No (motorised) access: Partial access: motorised access with interruptions during substantial periods of the year (the rainy season) Basic access: defined as reliable all-season access for the prevailing means of transport with limited periods of inaccessibility Full access: uninterrupted all-year, high quality access Infrastructure note RT-2 of the World Bank presents the relationship between the roughness (IRI) of the road and the maximum speed of different types of vehicles. It also presents a correlation between road descriptions and Roughness range (IRI). Transport Infrastructure Notes are available on-line at: http://www.worldbank.org/html/fdp/transport/publicat/pub_main.ht m The table below presents the values of VROUGH for a series of roughness levels as estimated by the HDM-4 model based on the Australia study (McLean, 1991)1
Speed and comfort of the road
Rodrigo S. Archando-Callao; Unpaved roads, Roughness estimation by Subjective Evaluation, Transport note RT 2 World Bank
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Cars 106 80 64 53 46 40 35 32
Objective of pavement maintenance
Busses 105 78 63 52 45 39 35 31
Maximum speeds (km/hr) Light Medium trucks heavy trucks 105 94 78 71 63 57 52 47 45 40 39 35 35 31 31 28
Articulated trucks 84 63 50 42 36 31 28 25
Roughness (IRI) 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Failures
The objective of road maintenance and thus that of pavement maintenance is the continuation of providing road access with acceptable service levels. This means that the service levels determine if the road is still in an acceptable condition. The failures of the road surfaces can be subdivided in conditions that affect the functionality, and those that affect the structural capacity. Functional failures relate to the operational requirements of the users of the roads, such as comfort, safety and road user operation costs and thus depend on the service levels The structural failures relate to the technical live of the road in total and pavement in particular. Functional and structural conditions of a pavement are closely related; however they are not thoroughly interdependent. Structural deterioration may decrease pavements functional condition, e.g. increasing roughness and noise, and affecting at the same time the risk of the vehicle and its occupants. However, some types of structural deterioration can occur and progress to an advanced state without being perceived by the users (cracking, for example). It is possible, also, that functional conditions of the pavement could be reduced (such as loss of skid resistance) without significant structural changes. Typical functional damages are: Roughness Rutting Skid and slip resistance Hydroplaning The kind of structural damages depend mainly on the material composition of the pavement. Typical pavements are made of gravel, asphalt concrete and concrete. However all these materials have one damage in common: Potholes. Potholes are not only a sign of structural damages but eventually will effectively reduce the width of the pavement and thus reduce the potential traffic flow of the road. The so-called threshold values or fatal limits of the road attributes
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like roughness, rutting and skid resistance vary with the service levels. In general these values depend on the design speed of the road. When the design speed is high, road users have to be protected against accidents due to defaults in the road pavement and it is therefore important to set higher norms with regard to the road attributes.
10.1 EARTH AND GRAVEL ROADS

The decay of unpaved roads is dominated by the reaction of the surfacing material and the roadbed on the combined action of traffic and environment. The surface is typically 100 to 300 mm thick and is both the wearing and the base course. The surface is usually a little porous, although in some cases the permeability may be very low. The deterioration of the surface depends not only on the traffic but also on its material properties, rainfall and drainage characteristics. The bearing capacity of the road depends also largely on the moisture penetration, that on its turn depend heavily on surface water runoff and side drainage. The two most common failures of unpaved surfaces are deformations of the road and erosions.
Shear strength
Planning regravelling
When the surfacing layer has inadequate shear strength under the operative drainage conditions to sustain the stresses applied by traffic loads, shear failure and deformation occur. The road surface will be soft and slushy under wet conditions so that, while it may be possible for a few light vehicles to pass, the road will become impassable after a relatively small number of vehicle passages.2 Regravelling is necessary when 20 % of the road pavement has a gravel thickness of 5 cm or less. The value of the average annual gravel thickness loss is usually constant over time and does correlate linear with Average Daily Traffic, terrain type (hilly, rolling, or flat) and mean monthly rainfall. It is possible to monitor the gravel thickness decay and through extrapolation techniques determine when regravelling is necessary. Alternatively one may use the following formulas to estimate the year of regravelling. Rainfall (m/month) 0.02 0.1 0.2 Material loss (mm/year) = c (0.08 ADT + 12.5) = c (0.09 ADT + 12.5) = c (0.1 ADT + 12.5) C for flat terrain 1 1 1 C for rolling terrain 1.07 1.13 1.19 C for hilly terrain 1.25 1.33 1.43
Rutting
Where ADT= Average Daily traffic The rutting process cannot be predicted with any use-based model. Condition-based method can be used. Because rutting is not the most dominant failure on earth and gravel roads, maintenance is usually carried out when the failure has occurred.
Prof.dr.ir. A.A.A. Molenaar: Structural Design of Pavements, Part 2 Design of Earth and Gravel Roads
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Corrugations, depressions and potholes
When water accumulates on the surface, vehicle tires stir up the water causing fine material to pass into suspension and being pushed and pulled out of location. Eventually potholes may occur. The World Bank provides guidelines for subjective evaluation of the road surface. It relates the observed condition to the roughness of the road (expressed in IRI) which in its turn relate to maximum speeds. The table below provides a series of descriptors for selected levels on the roughness scale. The categories used to describe surface shape in this table are: Depressions: Dish-shaped hollows in wheel paths with surfacing in-place Corrugations: Regularly spaced transverse depression usually across the full lane width and with wavelength in the range of 0.7 to 3 m. Potholes: Holes in the surface caused by disintegration and loss of material, with dimensions of more than 250 mm diameter and 50 mm depth. The pothole size is indicated by the maximum deviation under a 3m straightedge, e.g., 6-20mm/3m, similar to a construction tolerance. The frequency is given by: 1. Occasional: 1 to 3 per 50m in either wheel path 2. Moderate: 3 to 5 per 50 m in either wheel path 3. Frequent: more than 5 per 50 m in either wheel path Ride: the comfortable ride is relative to a medium-size sedan car with regular independent shock-absorber suspension. Traffic speed: This indicates common travelling speeds on dry, straight roads without traffic congestion, with due consideration of care for vehicle and comfort of the occupants3
Rodrigo S. Archando-Callao; Unpaved roads, Roughness estimation by Subjective Evaluation, Transport note RT 2 World Bank
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Roughness range (IRI) 1.5 to 2.5
Road description Recently bladed surface of fine gravel or soil surface with excellent longitudinal and transverse profile (usually found only in short lengths). Ride comfortable up to 80 100 km/hr, aware of gentle undulations or swaying. Negligible depressions (e.g. < 5 mm/3m) and no potholes. Ride comfortable up to 70-80 km/hr, but aware of sharp movements and some wheel bounce. Frequent shallow-moderate depressions or shallow potholes (eg. 6-30 mm/3m with frequency 5-10 per 50 meter). Moderate corrugation (e.g. 6-20/0.7-1.5 m) Ride comfortable at 40 to 70 km/hr. Frequent moderate transverse depressions (e.g. 20-40mm/3-5m at frequency 10-20 per 50 m) or occasional deep depressions or potholes (e.g. 40-80mm/3m with frequency less than 5 per 50 m). Strong corrugations (e.g.>20 mm/0.7-1.5m). Ride comfortable at 30-40 km/hr. Frequent deep transverse depressions and/or potholes (e.g. 40-80 mm/1.5m at frequency 5-10 per 50m); or occasional very deep depressions (e.g. 80mm/1-5m with frequency less than 5 per 50m) with other shallow depressions. Not possible to avoid all the depressions except the worst. Ride comfortable at 20-30 km/hr. Speeds higher that 40-50km/hr would cause extreme discomfort, and possible damage to the car. On a good general profile: frequent deep depressions and/or potholes (e.g. 4080 mm/1.5m at frequency 10-15 per 50m) and occasional very deep depressions (e.g.>80 mm/0.6-2m). On a poor general profile: frequent moderate defects and depressions (e.g. poor earth surface).
3.5 to 4.5
7.5 to 9.0
11.5 to 13.0
16 to 17.5
20 to 22
The progression of the IRI values can be estimated with models presented in HDM 3 and 4. Transport No. RT-1 of the World Bank describes these models in more detail. However it is more practical to monitor the progression of roughness and to use extrapolation techniques to estimate when roughness values exceed threshold values.
Repair
The most important requirement of most gravel and earth roads is the passability. In these situations the required speed of a sedan car
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does not have to be higher than 40 km/hr. Grading/blading is often not the most cost-effective measure. Spot improvements in combination with pothole filling and rut correction are usually more cost-effective. SMDP in collaboration with the Department of Roads in Nepal developed a set of simple guidelines with regard to maintenance planning of rural roads and highways. These guidelines are very useful for budgeting purposes. Table: Annual maintenance requirements in Nepal Traffic Volume Earth Road Gravel Road 20 VPD Small rut filling once Small rut filling once per year per year Spot Regravelling 8% Spot Regravelling of surface per year 2% of surface per Routine maintenance year Routine maintenance 40 VPD 60 VPD Small rut filling once per year Spot Regravelling 10% of surface per year Routine maintenance Small rut filling once per year Spot regravelling 12% of surface per year Routine maintenance Small rut filling once per year Spot Regravelling 4% of surface per year Routine maintenance Small rut filling once per year Spot regravelling 6% of surface per year Routine maintenance Small rut filling once per year Spot regravelling 10% of surface per year Routine maintenance
100 VPD
Small rut filling once per year Spot regravelling 16% of surface per year Routine maintenance
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Periodic Maintenance rural roads Nepal: Traffic Volume Earth Road Gravel Road 20 VPD Not applicable Hilly terrain 5 years Flat terrain 6 years 40 VPD Not applicable Hilly terrain 5 years Flat terrain 6 years 60 VPD Not applicable Hilly terrain 5 years Flat terrain 6 years 100 VPD Not applicable Hilly terrain 5 years Flat terrain 6 years
regravelling every regravelling every regravelling every regravelling every regravelling every regravelling every regravelling every regravelling every
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10.2 ASPHALT CONCRETE
Besides the earlier mentioned functional damages, the following structural damages may be encountered on asphalt concrete roads: Ravelling Cracking Shoulder deterioration Edge breaks Basically there are three different forms of cracks: Longitudinal: parallel to the centre line Transverse: across the cross-section Mesh cracks. The loss of skid and slip resistance may the result of stripping (fretting), bleeding and glazing.
Bleeding and fatting up
Asphalt concrete roads can become slippery because of bleeding and fatting up processes. Bleeding is the process where bitumen is forced to road surface due to traffic pressure. Fatting up results in a loss of binder on the surface. Usually aggregates become visible. OECD, PIARC and many other road safety research institutes have found a strong correlation between poor skid resistance and accident occurrence. Micro texture appears to be the most important texture 19
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Rutting
Wide ruts indicate that more layers are affected
parameter, but macro texture can also have major influence. Unfortunately it is not possible to develop either a use-based or a condition-based model for this problem. The best indication is the traffic behaviour and number of accidents. Because of difficulties to predict such failures and its high risks with regard to traffic accidents many road agencies solve these problems with funds from the road safety budget. Rutting is defined as the permanent or unrecoverable trafficassociated deformation within pavement layers which, if channelled into wheel paths, accumulates over time (Paterson, 1987). Basically there are two types of rutting processes. The first process occurs in the whole pavement. The second process only occurs in the top layer. The latter is usually the case when the levelling and binder course are very stiff and usually thick. Narrow and heaving ruts are an indication that the rutting process only took place in the upper layers. Wide ruts are usually an indication that more layers are affected.
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Heaving and narrow ruts indicate that ruts only affect the Surface layer. Deformations in Long Life Pavements typically occur in the surface layer and binder course.
Cracks
Together with rutting, cracks are main indications for structural problems of the road pavement. However not all cracks are indications of fatigue. Wide longitudinal cracks can pose treads to cyclists, as their wheel can get trapped in the crack. But experts are divided if cracks affect the service level of the pavement of other road users. Crack may result in potholes, raveling and increase the roughness of the road but this is certainly not always the case. There are plenty cracked roads, even with block patterns that do affect the road users at all. A single longitudinal wheelpath cracks, wider than 1.5 mm indicates the onset of structural failure in a thick (>200mm approx) pavement or cracks in bituminous surface one with a cement bound base. These cracks deterioration is likely to progress into block and mesh cracks, which indicates the end of the structural life. Narrow cracks, less than 0.5 mm, are often not related to structural failure. Wider or medium sized cracks which are not located in the wheelpath are often indications of joints between layers. Short transverse cracks are probably caused at the surface and are not indications of fatigue failures. In general these cracks progress slowly. Discontinuity in lower layers may cause long transverse cracks. Long transverse cracks are also indications of joints of cement bound layers. The space between transverse cracks may reduce due to aging and traffic load. Such developments indicate structural problems in the lower layers of the pavement or cement bound base.
10.2.1 Long-term maintenance planning

Long-term maintenance plans cover the period beyond five years up to the foreseen end of the life of the road/pavement. Long-term
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Use-based pavement maintenance
maintenance plans are important while analysing life cycle costs of the road network to determine the needed average annual budget. Various research results show that it is impossible to forecast actual maintenance demands solely with use-based models. With exception of perhaps rafeling of porous asphalt concrete, maintenance of asphalt pavements will be initiated either failure or condition-based. However for budgeting purposes, planners need use-based models that allow them to forecast long-term maintenance demands. Below you find a description of annual and periodic maintenance of rural asphalt roads in Nepal. Annual maintenance (Routine/Recurrent activities) Traffic Volume Blacktop Road 20 VPD Patching 0.5% surface Routine maintenance 40 VPD Patching 0.5% surface Routine maintenance 60 VPD Patching 0.5% surface Routine maintenance 100 VPD Patching 0.5% surface Routine maintenance Periodic Maintenance: Traffic Vollume 20 VPD 40 VPD 60 VPD 100 VPD
per year per year per year per year
Blacktop Road Resurfacing; Hilly terrain every 5 years Flat terrain every 6 years Resurfacing; Hilly terrain every 5 years Flat terrain every 6 years Resurfacing; Hilly terrain every 5 years Flat terrain every 6 years Resurfacing; Hilly terrain every 5 years Flat terrain every 6 years
Routine maintenance of AC-pavements
In the Netherlands annual pavement maintenance or routine maintenance consists of Crack sealing Slurry seals Surface treatments Localised mill and replace Budgets for routine pavement maintenance are large, in particular on urban and provincial roads. These budgets are justified by the fact that when annual maintenance repairs take care of all smaller and medium sized damages like rafeling, (mesh) cracking and rutting, these damages will not progress. It is not uncommon that roads have had minor repairs covering 60% of the surface prior periodic maintenance.
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Periodic maintenance either consists of one of the following activities: 1. Overlays 50 mm 2. Surface treatment 3. Mill and replace 40 mm 4. Modified or Rubberised AC Overlay 70 mm 5. Double Surface Treatment The first four treatments are considered rehabilitation techniques and the last treatment considered a periodic repair. A reconstruction involves at least a complete removal of the pavement. Reconstructions only occur when the existing pavement was completely under designed. The Dutch determine their periodic maintenance intervals on basis of the following criteria Sub-base Soil condition Road classification on basis of equivalent standard axle loads
Subbase/Base
For long-term maintenance demand forecasting, the following three asphalt pavement construction are available: 1. Subbase/base course of sand 2. Subbase/base course of dry-bound macadam 3. Subbase/base course of wet-mix macadam The model distinguishes the following three soil conditions: 1. Sand 2. Clay 3. Peat The model differentiate between the following three divisions: Number of equivalent standard axle loads (ESAL) 6 7 10 <X< 10 10 <X<10 X<10
5 5 6
Subgrade Conditions
Road classification
Road classification RC 1 RC 2 RC 3
Percentage of heavy motorised transport with axle loads higher than 100 kN 12.5 10 5
Maximum expected axle load (kN) 180 160 160
Source: VBW Asfalt: Kosten van Wegverhardingen, 1989
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Maintenance cycles for 2x1 lane roads
Subbase/ base All types
Soil type Sand
Road class. RC 1 RC 2 RC 3 RC 1 RC 2 RC 3 RC 1 RC 2 RC 3
Routine maintenance budget/invest ment cost ratio 0.0833 0.0934 0.14 0.055 0.05 0.12 0.045 0.039 0.082
Year of periodic maintenance 17 (Double surface treat.) 17 (Double surface treat.) 13(Double surface treat.)
Year of rehab. 1 15 16 27 15 13 10 12 11 10
Type rehabilitation Overlay 60 mm Overlay 50 mm Mill and replace Overlay 60 mm Overlay 50 mm Mill and replace Overlay 60 mm Overlay 50 mm Mill and replace
Life rehabil itation 15 15 17 15 13 15 12 11 13
All types
Clay
Drybound macad am
Peat
Source: VBW Asfalt: Kosten van Wegverhardingen, 1989
2 x 2 roads
Rehabilitation cycles often involve overlays. The need for rehabilitation may differ from lane to lane. This is in particular the case in countries where heavy traffic drives on the outer lane. Traffic composition and volume may also differ on the different directions. This means that the need for rehabilitation may vary on different lanes. As it is not possible to use overlays on separate lanes, one may have to develop special long-term maintenance plans for 2x2 and roads with more lanes. These long-term plans often involve a mill and replace treatment on the lanes with heavy traffic during the first rehabilitation cycle. The other lanes are not treated or only receive a surface treatment during the first rehabilitation cycle. The second rehabilitation cycle may involve the whole pavement width or only specific lanes. When the whole pavement width is treated an overlay is the common repair. When only specific lanes are repaired; a mill and replace treatment is common. In this case the third rehabilitation cycle would involve an overlay of the whole pavement. These rehabilitation cycles often have durations somewhere between 10 to 15 years. They even may contain spot repairs.
10.2.2 Short and medium term maintenance planning

Short term maintenance plans cover the investment plans for next two fiscal years. Because of budgeting procedures this plan may have to be prepared one, two or even more years in advance. Medium long-term maintenance plans covers the period in between the short and long-term maintenance plans, respectively 2 and 5 years. As indicated earlier, most repairs will have to be activated failure- or condition based. Condition-based maintenance will be used when it is possible to assess residual lives of the assets on basis of inspections or test results.
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Forecasting rehabilitation and reconstruction
The fatigue of the asphalt layer is the main criteria for initiating projects that strengthen the intrinsic stiffness and strength of the pavement. This is usually done with an overlay possibly in combination with a partly replacement of the pavement (mill). Fatigue cracking starts usually at the underside of the pavement or cement bound base layer and progresses upwards to the surface. These cracks reduce the bearing height of the asphalt pavement. As a result the deformation due to traffic loads increases. Reconstructions only occur when the existing pavement was completely under designed. For example when the original designation of the road has changed from a neighbourhood access road to an arterial. These under designed pavements usually have untreated base courses. In these situations, deflection tests may require extreme thick overlays with a life shorter than five years. In such situations it is probably more cost-effective to apply a reconstruction. It is possible to make assessments about the residual life of the pavement through deflection tests and information about the soil, height and material characteristics of sub-base, base and pavement and cumulative axle loads. Estimates of residual life have been found to be within a range of 2 years when the pavement structure is approaching conditions that require repairs. Fatigue failures are often accompanied with damages like rutting and cracking. When such damages are near their fatal limits, the residual life estimate on basis of the deflection tests is probably correct or even too optimistic. When the road surface is not yet close to the fatal limits for either rutting or cracking, the residual life estimate is likely to be too pessimistic.
Reconstruction
Core samples
Core samples or trial holes provide information about the current thickness of each of the bound layers and location of cracks below the surface. It is also used to collect and analyse binder samples and for all sorts of tests to establish values about the intrinsic strength. The indirect tensile test is a common laboratory test used for determining the indirect tensile stiffness modulus (ITSM) of bituminous materials. Core samples should be taken on the edge of the wheel path at 10 meter intervals and where ever problems are visible. The created holes also allow obtaining information about CBR values of the base and subbase. Usually in-situ techniques are applied to obtain these values. Deflectograph and Benkelman Beams are equipment items for assessment of deflections of the pavement due to an applied load. It is supposed to reveal the extent of the pavement response to loading. Measurements should take place in each wheel track. The deflectograph is criticised because the speed of the test vehicle does not recreate that of vehicle moving at normal speed. Empirical researches which help interpret deflection results are of little help for roads on which little research has been done notwithstanding the fact that this method may not be used on rigid pavements. The Fall Weight Deflectometer offers a suitable alternative to the
Equipment
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deflectograph where these circumstances pose a problem. Accompanying computer software allows for analysis of the stress and strain distributions within the pavement and estimates of strengths of the pavement layers and subgrade. It is possible to download free software at http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/biz/mats/pavement/fwd.htm While selecting the equipment and related software, engineers should keep in mind that not all software is suitable for their particular soil conditions. Certain programs assume minimum CBR values for the subgrade which may not be realistic.
Total Thickness of Bituminous Material (TTBM)
Pavements which have been subjected to various maintenance treatments throughout their life may contain layers of deteriorated or non-standard materials sandwiched between intact bituminous layers. It is therefore necessary to set rules about determining the Total Thickness of Bituminous Material (TTBM). The different technologies and respective computer programs may adopt different definitions concerning TTBM. Engineers should be clear about these definitions. As general rule of thumb, engineers may start with the following assumption: Bituminous surfacing layers (i.e. those within the top 100mm of the existing pavement) are included in TTBM regardless of their condition. Bituminous layers which are known to be severely deteriorated and whose upper surface is at greater than a 100mm depth are not included in TTBM. Any intact bituminous material (or deteriorated surfacing material) that is separated from other intact bituminous materials by either a severely deteriorated bituminous layer or any granular layer (either of which must be greater than 25mm thick and have their upper surface at greater than a 100mm depth) is not to be included in TTBM. The need for periodic maintenance (read rehabilitation) depends on the conventional theory of pavement deterioration, manifested by fatigue at the underside of the pavement or structural deformation, and assumes that deflection increases with time and traffic as the pavement deteriorates from traffic induced stresses. However, thick well-constructed fully flexible pavements on strong base and subbase courses do not deteriorate in this way and can have very long lives in structural terms. The maintenance demand is generated because of surface decay, affecting the service levels of the pavement. The dark-grey area in the graph presented-below show when fatigue (deflection information) in relation to TTBM is no longer the dominant factor for initiating periodic maintenance. This means that it is not necessary to strengthen the pavement structure of Long Life Pavements.
Need for smaller periodic maintenance
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The LLP area indicates that the road has a so-called long-life pavement, which means that structural failures do not occur and that pavement failures are only related to its service levels. The threshold value of the TTBM depends partly on the asphalt concrete characteristics and partly on the axle loads. TRL report 639 presents threshold values for different materials: DBM 125; 420 mm DBM 100; 390 mm DBM 50; 350 mm HDM; 320 mm HDM35; 310 mm When the road pavement fits in the ULLP area the pavement can be upgraded to a long-life pavement. When the road condition falls in the white area, engineers have to make assessments about the residual value of the pavement. The deflection tests give indications about the conditions of whole pavement or in the case of FWD of single layers. To find out if the damages where caused by traffic or others a comparison has to be made with deflection values of relatively untrafficked road sections. While analysing the software results, engineers should be aware of the following pitfalls: During long periods of hot weather, the moisture content in the subgrade may reduce and as a result of that show lower deflections, indicating an unrealistic higher strength. Settlement processes of backfills due to open trenches, e.g. sewer pipe installations, will be indicated by high deflections, even when the surface is still in good condition. Where relatively high deflections are associated with a pavement whose surface condition is good, the cause may be a deterioration in subgrade strength brought about by a recent increase in the moisture content. The increase may be the result of thawing at the end of a prolonged period of cold weather during which frost has penetrated deep into the pavement, and possibly also the subgrade.
Pitfalls in analysis
Detecting problems in the subbase and subgrade
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Composite pavements
Deflections on composite pavements with at least one cement bound layer are usually below 15 mm 10-2. To find cracks two consecutive deflection surveys need to be carried out. In addition it is necessary to carry out visual inspections to find cracks in the surface. When the asphalt pavement is oxidised, it may be bridging and deflection values are lower than expected. Analysis of core samples will answer if the pavement has oxidised or not.
10.2.2.1 Surface damages

Longitudinal Deformations
Corrective maintenance
Aquaplaning
Rutting
Longitudinal deformations can be measured using so-called profilers. The little book of profiling, M.W. Sayers and S. M. Karamihas presents a good overview on profilers. The most common used profiler is the International Roughness Index (IRI). Many road agencies apply threshold values for roads with flexible or rigid pavements of 3.25 to 3.75 IRI. It may be difficult to predict the progression of roughness, therefore most planners will carry out corrective maintenance within 2 years after significant damages have been observed. It is assumed for budgeting purposes that the roughness areas expand 5% per year and the depth with 0.17 IRI/year. Roughness problems in flexible pavements in urban areas frequently occur on storage lanes in front of traffic lights. Most of the deformation takes place 60 to 80 mm below the surface. Therefore it is necessary to strengthen the intrinsic stiffness of the layers at this depth. The best construction method is to apply open hydrocarbon concrete (0/22) as the binder course and to apply broken stones as aggregate in the levelling course. Cracks due to fatigue often result in roughness problems. If this is the case, the overlay should be placed in two equally size layers. The minimum of each layer is 75 mm. Alternatively the existing rough pavement section may be removed (mill) prior the overlay procedure. The mill is usually between 30 to 60 mm deep, but may be deeper on sections of urban roads before traffic lights. Note that this procedure needs additional structural analysis. Deformations, rutting, inadequate drainage capacity or low camber slopes may cause aquaplaning; a serious problem for motorised traffic. Camber slopes may be reduced due to settlements in the subgrade. Corrective measures should be taken when aquaplaning is observed or when camber formation is inadequate. Usually a threshold value of 1% is used. Maintenance for rutting can be initiated condition based. The ruts can be measured with deformation gauge. In that case the measurements are made on regular intervals, which usually vary between 25 and 200 meters. The deformation gauge is standardised and 2 meters long. Besides these manual methods the data can also be collected with electronic-based automated equipment. The warning levels and intervention levels of course relate on the one hand on the function of the road link and on the other hand the proposed repairs. On motorways with a design speed of 120 km/hr, the maximum allowable intervention level could be set like an
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average of 18 mm over a 100 m and 23 mm over a 50-meter length. Often rut development tends to accelerate during the first ten/twelve years after which the development seems to be linear. It is suggested to use a norm value of annual increase of 1.5 mm, when the deterioration process is progressive. On urban roads, where the design speed is approximately 50 km/hr, threshold values may be increased. In the Netherlands, the threshold value for urban road is 30 mm over a length of 15 meter within an area of 100 meters. It is possible to get a rough estimate of the end of life due to rutting with the following equation: S/Sn=[t/T]
1.48
Where S, average rut depth Sn, norm for rut depth t, age of pavement since construction or last periodic maintenance T, Residual life at this moment
Cracking
Condition based model
Cracking usually has two phases, crack initiation and crack progression. Crack progression is said to occur when 0.5 per cent of the surface is cracked and seems to depend highly on pavement age, traffic volume, cumulative axle loads and pavement stiffness. Cracks can easily be monitored, plotted and its behaviour can be described with a slightly modified Weibull function being: Fw(n)= C {1-exp [n/)]} Fw() = probability that an element has cracked = time parameter at indicating when F equals 0.63 Although the Weibull function is written as a function of the number of load repetitions, n, it can also be written as a function of time, t. In that case n is replaced by t. For practical purposes it is proposed to use C = 0.94 for pavements with an asphalt thickness less or equal than 80 mm, while it is recommended to use C= 0.79 for all other cases. seems to be dependent on the thickness of the asphalt layer, h (mm), following log = -0.341 + 0.295 log h
Inspection rules
An example
The percentage of cracking deals with the amount of wheel track cracking. The standard length of each section to be inspected is 100 m. The left and right wheel tracks are treated separately, which means that in fact a 200 m long wheel track section is considered. The total length of the area in either wheel tracks that show longitudinal or mesh/block cracking is then determined, and this value is divided by 200. Assume a pavement where the right hand wheel track of a lane shows cracking over a length of 10 m and the left hand wheel track shows cracking over the length of 20 m. Then the percentage of 29
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Transverse cracks
cracked area is {(10+20/200} 100% = 15%. The thickness of the asphalt layer is 200 mm, so the correction factor C= 0.79 and = 2.18. If the inspection was done 8 years after the pavement was constructed, then = 16.37 years. If it is assumed that maintenance will be applied the amount of cracking equals 25%, then it can be calculated that this amount of damage will occur at t= 10.57 years.4 Reduction of space between transverse cracks over the years is an indication of structural problems. Fall Weight Deflection tests can help identifying cracks and joints which are located below the surface (see sketch below to identify cracks). Fall weight deflection tests place sensors on the road surface on varies distances from the load. These sensors allow for the identification and analysis of different layers and thus allows for the identification of cracks and joints.
The table below presents the usual recommended deflection sensor positions.
AAA Molenaar: Performance Models, Maintenance management of infrastructure. 1999, TU Delft
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Rutting and cracking, in particular mesh-cracking are both the result of repetitive axle loads. And it is not uncommon to observe mesh cracks in or near ruts. The Transport and Road Research Laboratory relates the wheel track rutting with rainfall, traffic, cracking patterns in the roads, kind of base course and repairs. The table below is a summary of the table presented in their Overseas road note 1 Maintenance management for district engineers 5
This document is downloadable from www.transport-links.org
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Base course
Level of rutting < 10 mm
Extend of rutting % -
Climate
Type of cracks Wheel track cracking Non-wheel track cracking Wheel track cracking Non-wheel track cracking Any cracking Rut cracks Others cracks Any cracking
Surface dressing on Granular base
10-15 mm >15 mm
>10 <10 >10 -
Rainfall>150 0 mm/year or Traffic >1000 vpd Rainfall< 1500 mm/yr and Traffic <1000 vpd All All
Extend of cracks (% of section length) <5 >5 <10 >10 <10 >10 <20 >20 <5 5-10 >10 <10 10-20 >20 -
Actions
Seal cracks Surface dress Seal cracks Surface dress Seal cracks Surface dress Seal cracks Surface dress Treat cracks and further investigation Patch Further investigation Seal cracks Surface dress Further investigation Seal cracks Surface dress Further investigation Patch Patch or treat cracks Treat cracks
Asphalt concrete on granular base
< 10 mm
>10 mm
<5 %
Rainfall>150 0 mm/year or Traffic >1000 vpd Rainfall< 1500 mm/yr and Traffic <1000 vpd All All All
Any cracking
Rut cracks Other cracks Any cracks
>5 %
Source: TRL: ORN 1; Maintenance management for district engineers
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Base course
Level of rutting < 5 mm
Extend of rutting % -
Climate
Type of cracks Any cracking
Asphalt concrete or surface dressing on stabilised road base
5-10 mm >10 mm
>10 <5
Rainfall> 1500 mm/year or Traffic >1000 vpd Rainfall< 1500 mm/yr or Traffic <1000 vpd All All
Extend of cracks (% of section length) <10 >10
Actions
Seal cracks Surface dress
Any cracking
<20 >20
Seal cracks Surface dress or seal cracks Treat cracks and further investigation Patch Patch or treat cracks Further investigation
Any cracking Rut cracks Others cracks Any cracks
>5
All
Source: TRL: ORN 1; Maintenance management for district engineers
Ravelling
Ravelling is the loss of aggregate from the surface layer. It indicates lack of bond between the aggregate and the bituminous binder. It should be noted that it is not easy to make a good rating of the amount and severity of ravelling. It is a defect that is difficult to inspect. Some models for surface treatments, dense asphalt wearing courses and porous asphalt wearing courses have been developed. Care should be taken in using these models since data was only collected during a four-year period. The general form of the model is: Ln{R*(100-N)/[(100-R)*N]}=a*(t-T) Where R= area exhibiting ravelling as percentage of the total area N= area expressed as a percentage of the total area at which maintenance is considered needed t= age of surface at which R was determined T= age of surface at which N will be reached A= parameter describing rate of damage development The parameter A depends on the amount of traffic. For dense asphalt concrete surface layers: A=1.25*10-5 * INT For porous asphalt concrete surface layers; A=3.08*10-5 * INT
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For surface treatments: A=5.71*10-3 * INT 5.15*10-2 * INTtruck + 1.43*10-5 * CUMTRUCK 1.57*10-5 * CUMINT Where INT= traffic intensity (vehicles per day) INTTRUCK= truck intensity (trucks per day) CUMTRUCK= cumulative amount of trucks CUMINT= cumulative amount of traffic 6 It is possible to assume that ravelling of porous asphalt concrete motorways will take serious forms when it is between 9 and 12 years of age. The use-based models for the other road surfaces are less reliable and most road engineers will work with condition based models.
Potholes
According to HDM III potholing occurs typically 2 to 6 years after wide cracking and 3 to 6 years after ravelling of thin surface treatments. The exact initiation period depends on the quality of the base, the thickness of the bituminous layer and the annual number of axles of all vehicles classes in the analysis year. HDM III also indicates that potholing cannot take place before the area of wide cracking exceeds 20 percent or the area of ravelling exceeds 30 percent. HDM-III defined a period (IPT) between the initiation of either wide cracking or ravelling and the occurrence of the first pothole. This period was a function of traffic and thickness of asphalt layers and is given by: IPT = max(2 + 0.04 HS - 0.5 YAX, 2) cemented IPT = max(6 - YAX, 2) cemented Where IPT HS YAX if base is (7.1) if base (7.2) not is
is the time to initiation of potholing in years is the total thickness of bituminous surfacing is annual vehicle axles in millions per lane per year
Small potholes pose little risks to road users or the road authority. But the maintenance department should be concerned about the progression of the diameter and depth of the potholes. It is easy to identify locations of new potholes and it is easy to predict its growth with aid of the following formula: According to the HDM model, rainfall is only influencing the progression of the potholes and do not influence their initiation,
6
AAA. Molenaar: Maintenance Management of Infrastructure, TU Delft, 1999
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which is considered to be caused by traffic, pavement strength and asphalt surfacing thickness. The annual progression enlargement is estimated with the following formula: APOTPd = min{APOTa [KBASE YAX (MMP + 0.1)], 10} Where APOTPd area APOTa YAX lane MMP KBASE HS is enlargement of potholes in per cent is area of potholes at start of year is annual number of axles in millions per is is max(2 is is is mean annual rainfall in m/month - 0.02 HS, 0.3) for granular base 0.6 for cement-treated base 0.3 for bituminous base thickness of asphalt surfacing in mm
If the potholes were patched, than the enlargement will always be zero. The Indian Pavement Performance Study, (CRRI, 1993), developed models for pothole initiation and progression for three surface types (premix carpet (PMC), semi dense carpet (SDC) and asphalt concrete).The CRRI models above yield initiation periods in the range 0.2 - 1.0 years, considerably shorter than the HDM-III model predictions. Note that these rules do not apply on porous asphalt concrete pavements with accelerating/braking motor vehicles. In which case potholing develops a lot faster after occurrence of ravelling. Patching of potholes is often a recurrent activity, which is usually failure-based initiated. A team will inspect the road surface and repair all potholes, when they appear to be present. The interval period influences the progression of the area of potholes. HDM 4 uses a model that estimates that if potholes are effectively patched within 2 weeks after initiation, only 2 % of the maximum annual increase in pothole area will appear during the course of the year. The table below present the relationship between the interval of pothole patching and the influence on the maximum annual pothole area increase.
Patching of potholes
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Interval of pothole patching 2 weeks 1 month 2 month 3 month 4 month 6 month 12 month
Influence on max. Pothole area increase (%) 2 6 12 20 28 43 100
Patching of potholes has a negative effect on the roughness of the road. HDM3 assumes that there is a residual roughness of 10% of the roughness caused by the potholes.
Edge damages
When the shoulder is not providing enough support to the pavement, because it is lower than the pavement, edge damages are likely to develop over a period of time. Edge damages can therefore easily and cheaply be prevented by improving the quality of the shoulder, by reducing the edge step, improving the stability and stiffness of the shoulder and widening the shoulder. This problem is less common on road with (elevated) side walks. The following model was proposed to be included in HDM 4 to estimate the annual loss of edge material. VEB = Keb a0 PSH AADT2 ESTEP Sa1 (a2 + MMP) PSH = max min ( a 3 a4 CW,1) , 0 where VEB PSH AADT ESTEP MMP S Keb a0 to a4
is the annual loss of edge material in m3/km is the proportion of time using shoulder is the annual average daily traffic is the elevation difference from pavement to shoulder in mm is the mean rainfall in m/month is the average traffic speed in km/h is the edge break progression factor (default = 1) are calibration parameters
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Default Parameters for the HDM-4 Edge Break Model

Parameter a0 a1 a2 a3 a4 Base Type Granular Cemented AM ST AM ST 50 75 25 50 -1 -1 -1 -1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.65 0.425 0.425 0.425 0.425
Source: Various road research and development institutes have used earlier described damage progressions and developed simplified conditionbased models. Every model is a simplification of the reality and engineers should treat them as guidelines and not as standards. Furthermore national road research and development institutes should continuously evaluate and improve the models, through a process of trials and errors. Below you find a description of the latest maintenance models in the Netherlands, developed by CROW. 7 Their models classify damages on basis of their size and severity, see the below table, and allow engineers to make assessments of the residual life on basis of the damage classification and residual structural life. They distinguish different fatal limits on basis of the importance of the road. It is safe to assume that the differences between fatal limits are associated with the design speed. High speed road have design speeds of 80 km/hr or more. A typical low design speed road has a design speed between 30 and 50 km/hr. Note that Long-Life Pavements are assumed to have a residual structural life of 20 years and more (x>20 years). Severity Low Medium LS1 MS1 LS2 MS2 LS3 MS3
Damage type Small Medium Size Large
High HS1 HS2 HS3
CROW: Evaluatie Wegbeheer; Aanpassingen Wegbeheersystematiek
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Rafeling Dense Asphalt concrete
The below-presented tables below present respectively the damage classifications and residual lives of pavements for damage rafeling. Action should be taken before high design speed roads reach situation MS2 and before the situation on low design speed roads develops into MS3.
Severity 5%x<20% OK LS1 LS2 LS3 20%x<50% MS1 MS2 MS3 X 50% HS1 HS2 HS3
Rafeling dense asphalt concrete X < 5% 5%x<30% 30%x<50% Size X 50%
Residual life (years) of high design speed roads with observed damage pattern concerning rafeling Duration till Observed damages rehabilitation OK LS 1 LS 2 LS 3 MS 1 MS 2 Years X 3 x> 5 x> 5 2-5 1-4 1-3 1-2 4 x> 5 x> 5 2-6 1-5 1-3 1-2 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-6 2-5 1-3 1-2 6 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-6 1-3 1-2 7 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-6 1-3 1-2 8 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-6 2-3 1-2 9 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-3 1-2 10 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-3 1-2 11 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-3 1-2 12 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-3 1-2 13 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-4 1-2 14 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-4 1-2 15 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-4 1-2 16 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-4 1-2 17 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-4 1-2 18 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-6 2-4 1-2 19 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-4 1-2 X 20 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-4 1-2
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Residual life of Duration to rehabilitation Years X 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 X 20

Rutting
low design speed roads with observed damage pattern rafeling: Observed damages OK LS 1 LS 2 LS 3 MS 1 MS 2 x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 3-6 3-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-4 1-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4
MS 3 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2
The following tables present similar information for the damage rutting. Threshold value for high design speed roads is before reaching MS2 The fatal limit of a low design speed road is before reaching HS1
Severity 10 mm x<20mm OK LS1 LS2 LS3
Rutting Size per m/100m X< 5 m 5m x< 15 m 15m x< 35m X 35 m
20mm x< 30 mm MS1 MS2 MS3
X 30 mm HS1 HS2 HS3
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Residual life (years) of high design speed roads with observed damage pattern rutting Duration till Observed damages rehabilitation OK LS 1 LS 2 LS 3 MS 1 MS 2 Years
X 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 X 20 x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4-5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 3-4 4-5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-3 1-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 3-5 3-5 3-5 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2
Residual life of low design speed roads with observed damage pattern rutting Duration to Observed damages rehabilitation OK LS 1 LS 2 LS 3 MS 1 MS 2 MS 3 HS1 Years
X 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 X 20 x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-5 2-6 3-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-4 2-5 3-6 3-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2
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Roughness
Damages with a low severity and up to 15 damages with medium severity are acceptable. Again it is extremely difficult to predict the progression of roughness. This means that repairs can only be initiated when damages occur.
Severity 5 mm x< 15 mm OK LS1 LS2 LS3 15 mm x< 30 mm MS1 MS2 MS3 X 30 mm HS1 HS2 HS3
Roughness X< 3 Size No. / 3 x< 8 100m 8 x< 15 X 15 pieces

Cracks
The following tables present respectively the damage classification and estimates of residue lives of roads encountering fatigue cracks. Action should be taken prior the condition deteriorates into MS3 for high design speed roads and HS2 on low design speed roads. Crack sealing is a typical routine maintenance activity. As a general rule of the thumb, all cracks wider than 5 mm are to be sealed. Routing cracks before applying a seal has been found to be beneficial.
Severity Longitudinal cracks in or near ruts Cracks with branches Cracks width 5 to 10 mm Longitudinal cracks with height differences larger than 10 mm MS1 MS2 MS3
Cracks X< 5 m 5m x< 25 m 25m x< 50m X 50 m
Longitudinal cracks Ok LS1 LS2 LS3
Mesh or block cracks and cracks with width > 10 mm HS1 HS2 HS3
Size m/100m
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Residual life of Duration to rehabilitation Years X 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 X 20 Residual life of Duration to rehabilitation Years X 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 X 20
Edge damages
high design speed roads with observed damage pattern cracking Observed damages OK LS 1 LS 2 LS 3 MS 1 MS 2 MS 3 x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2-4 3-5 4-6 4-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-3 2-3 2-4 2-5 3-5 3-6 4-6 4-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-2 1-2 1-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 3-5 3-5 3-6 3-6 4-6 4-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2
low design speed roads with observed damage pattern cracking Observed damages OK LS 1 LS 2 LS 3 MS 1 MS 2 MS 3 HS1 HS2 x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> x> 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3-6 4-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-4 3-5 4-6 4-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 2-3 2-4 3-5 3-6 4-6 4-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-2 1-3 2-3 2-4 2-5 3-5 3-5 3-6 4-6 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 x> 5 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 3-5 3-5 3-6 3-6 4-6 4-6 4-6 4-6 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-3 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 3-5 3-5 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2
Edge damages are not considered important damages and its repairs are usually corrective in nature. Shoulder repairs are usually preventing edge damages. Therefore it is not necessary to estimate residual lives on basis of the condition of the pavement. However corrective
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maintenance is needed when the road condition deteriorates into MS3 on high design speed roads HS2 on low design speed roads
Severity Only minor damages e.g. Longitudinal cracks Ok LS1 LS2 LS3
Edge damage X <5 m 5m x< 25 m 25m x< 50m Size X 50 m

Initiating Routine Maintenance
Cracks with branches Cracks width 5 to 10 mm Longitudinal cracks with height differences larger than 10 mm MS1 MS2 MS3
Broken edge HS1 HS2 HS3
Like larger maintenance works, routine maintenance works are also initiated on basis of actual damage progression. The table below presents intervention levels for routine maintenance repairs.
Severity classification M and H M and H Any H H Intervention level 3% per 100 m 5meter per 100 meter road length 3% 3% per 100 m 1% per 100 m Repair Local surface treatment Fill Local surface treatment Fill Fill
Damage Raveling Cracks Mesh or block cracks Roughness Ruts
10.2.3 Impacts of Repairs

The objective of the repair is to increase the life of the assets. The effectiveness of the repair depends on various criteria, e.g.: Damage Original design of the pavement structure Material subgrade Number of equivalent standard axle loading With aid of information obtained from deflection tests, core samples and traffic volumes, engineers can calculate the life of structural repairs, like overlays. It is equally possible to estimate the thickness of the overlay on basis of design life. Whereby: ho = Thickness overlay (mm) he1= equivalent pavement thickness before overlay he2= equivalent thickness after overlay Ea= modulus of elasticity of overlay Eo= modulus of elasticity of subgrade
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The equivalent pavement thickness should not be mistaken for the actual pavement thickness. It is merely an indication for the residue intrinsic strength. The values of the equivalent pavement thickness can be estimated with the following formula. Whereby: hen= equivalent pavement thickness after number of equivalent standard axle loadings heq= equivalent pavement thickness when number of equivalent standard axle loadings =0 n= total equivalent standard axle loadings N= total equivalent standard axle loading at the end of life = 4.3 Repairs with the scale of rehabilitation may also be applied to mitigate surface damages. Appendix A presents a table to estimate the life of such rehabilitations. Most engineers will apply a simplified table for smaller repairs (repairs that do not improve the structural life of the pavement): Rut filling Cold asphalt concrete 3/5+ 3/5+ 2/4+ 3/5+ 3/5+ Mini Surface treatment 5/7+ 5/7+ 5/7+ 5/7+ 5/7+ Planer milling and fill 3/5+ 3/5+ 2/4+ 3/5+ 3/5+
Rafeling Ruts Fatigue related cracks Skid resistance Roughness
Note that 3/5+ means an increase of life expectancy between 3 to 5 years
A properly maintained road lasts forever. However when maintenance budgets are structurally insufficient, the following may happen: When the road agency does not have enough funds to rehabilitate the pavement, the pavement will loose its service level. Its life will end due to fatigue or significant surface damages. This typically happens when the pavement is 10 to 20 years old. When the road agency does not have enough funds for routine maintenance, the need for rehabilitation will move forward. Without routine maintenance, rehabilitation of the asphalt pavement may have to take place as soon as 8 to 12 years after construction. When repairs are delayed but will eventually be carried out, repairs will be more expensive than originally foreseen. After all the damage will progress not only at the surface, but below the surface. This means that stronger repairs are necessary. The next table presents the progression of repair costs due to delays in the Netherlands.
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Damages Mesh Cracks Ruts Roughness Rafeling Other damages 1 1.10 1.01 1.05 1.02 1.06
Impacts of 2 3 1.22 1.38 1.02 1.04 1.11 1.19 1.04 1.07 1.13 1.22
delay of repairs (extra costs) 4 5 6 7 1.56 1.76 2.00 2.00 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.10 1.28 1.38 1.50 1.50 1.11 1.16 1.22 1.30 1.33 1.46 1.61 1.65
x>7 2.00 1.10 1.50 1.30 1.70
10.3 CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

Jointed plain concrete pavements
Concrete pavements are classified, according to surface type, in: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements, without load transfer dowel bars (JPCP n/d): these are concrete slabs without any reinforcement. The slabs are usually not longer than 3 to 6 metres to allow for temperature changes. Joint Spacing 3 - 6 m
Slab
Base
JPCP w/d
Aggregate Interlock
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements with load transfer dowel bars (JPCP w/d): This structure is very similar the JPCP n/d with exception that dowel bars are added in the transverse joints to transfer the loads.
Joint Spacing 3 - 6 m
Dowels
Jointed reinforced concrete pavements
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRCP): The slabs of these pavements may be as long as 10 or even 20 meters. It is possible to create these long slabs, because of the reinforcement placed in the slabs. The load transfer between the slabs is achieved with dowel bars.
10 - 20 m
Slab Base
Welded Wire Fabric (0,1 - 0,2 %)
Dowels
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements
d) Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP): This kind of pavement does not require joints because the reinforcement is continued of the full length.
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Cracks separation
Slab Base
Reinforcement Steel 0,6 - 0,8 % Area
The most dominant deterioration defects on concrete roads are: Cracks. Joint Deterioration. Surface Defects. Other distresses. Below you find some descriptions and drawings of typical failures of concrete pavements. Linear cracks divide the slab into 2 3 pieces and are caused by repeated traffic loads, curling, or sub grade heaving. Low severity cracking doesnt t warrant any repair but sealing, partial or full depth patching or slab replacement may be needed when the distress becomes more severe.
Distress width Distress width
Transverse cracks
D Longitudinal Joint C L
C Transv. Joint
D Transv. Joint
Traffic
Slab Shoulder
Longitudinal cracks
A
Distress width
Distress width
D Longitudinal Joint C L
Transv. Joint
A C B D
Transv. Joint
Traffic
Slab Shoulder
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Corner breaks
Corner Break Pavements with this distress have a corner of the slab broken in a triangular piece. No repair is required for low severity corner breaks, but crack sealing or full-depth patching may be performed for slabs in worse condition.
Longitudinal Joint Transv. Joint Transv. Joint Mid-half Slab
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C L
Slab Shoulder
Traffic
D-cracks
Durability cracks are a pattern of cracks running parallel and close to a joint or linear crack. They appear as a series of fine, hairline cracks usually cracking across the slab corners. This type of crack can eventually lead to disintegration of the entire slab.
Slab 1
Transv. Joint
Slab 2
Transv. Joint
Slab 3
Tight pattern, no missing material
Slab 4
Well developed, with material loss
3 m2 Low
12 m2 High
10 m2 Moderated
Well defined, without materiall loss
Traffic
Shoulder
Joint seal damage is any condition that enables incompressible material to accumulate in the joints or allows water infiltration.
Joint deterioration
A
Joint Transv. Joint Low Sev.: 1,8 m Transv. Joint
Distress width
< 0,6 m
C
Crack
D
Joint Transv. Joint
Low Sev.: 2m
D
Moder. Sev.: 2,5 m
High Sev.: 1,5 m
Traffic
Shoulder
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Faulting is the vertical movement of abutting slabs at joints or cracks.

Faulting of transverse joints and cracks
A B
Longitudinal Joint Transv. Joint Transv. Joint
C L
Slab Shoulder
Traffic
Buckling/Shattering Buckling or shattering usually occurs in hot weather, at a transverse crack. The loss of crack sealant allows rocks and other debris to get lodged in the crack, and the crack is then not wide enough to permit slab expansion. During warm temperatures and concrete expansion, the only way for the slabs to move is upward, and a blow-out occurs.
A B
Junta Longitudinal Junta Transv. Junta Transv.
C L
Losa Berma
Trnsito
Lane/Shoulder drop off distress is the difference in elevation between pavement edge and shoulder caused by settlement of the traffic lane or shoulder.
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Lane A
Drop-Off
Shoulder Longitudinal Joint C L
Transv. Joint A
Traffic
Slab Shoulder
B
Other distresses
Polished aggregate occurs when the pavement surface becomes smooth to the touch, resulting in low skid resistance. Shrinkage cracks are hairline cracks usually a few feet long and not extending across slab. They generally occur early in a pavement s life, and do not lead to severe distress. No repair is recommended. Spalling is the breaking or chipping of the slab at a corner or joint. It is also the disintegration of the slab edges. These cracks do not extend vertically through the slab. This distress should be repaired, as loss of the seal at the concrete joints will lead to water and incompressible materials penetrating the pavement. That can lead to more severe damages. Depending on severity, a partial or full depth patch is required. Pumping is the ejection of water or silt from the slab foundation through pavement joints or cracks. When pumping occurs, cracks should be sealed or repaired, and edge drains may be installed to remove water from the pavement sub grade. A punch out is a localized area of the slab that has broken into pieces. No repair is needed for low severity punch-outs, but more severely damaged pavements may require sealing, full-depth patching or total slab replacement. Potholes: A patch is an area where the original pavement has been removed and replaced by similar or different material. Only there are considered permanent patches.
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Longitudinal Joint
C L
Traffic
Shoulder
1 A single punchout 2 Y crack with spalling and/or faulting 3 3 punchouts
Punch outs Lane to Shoulder Separation: Due to the movement of the shoulder the width of joint between lane and shoulder increases.
Lane - Shoulder Separation
Lane Shoulder
Longitudinal Joint Transv. Joint Transv. Joint
C L
Traffic
Slab Shoulder
B
Lane to Shoulder Separation Deterioration of Constructive Transverse Joints: A series of very nearby (or interconnected) transverse cracks located close to a constructive joint.
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< 0,6 m
Longitudinal Joint Transv. Joint Constructive Transversal Joint
C L
Traffic
Slab Shoulder
Deterioration of constructive transverse joints Surface Defects: Map Cracking: This distress appears as a network of fine, shallow or hairline cracks that extend only through the upper surface of the concrete. Map cracking may lead to surface scaling, which is the progressive disintegration and loss of the wearing surface. Pop outs appear as a small piece of pavement that breaks loose from the surface. They generally occur early in the pavement life and do not result in severe distress.
10.3.1 Long-Term Maintenance Planning

Like asphalt concrete pavements, maintenance of concrete pavements is also divided in small annual (routine) and large (periodic) maintenance. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements, without load transfer dowel bars (JPCP n/d) usually requires periodic maintenance every 30 years. Periodic maintenance intervals on the other types of concrete pavements are usually around 35 years. However it is not uncommon that road agencies increase these intervals with another ten years, and accept an increase in their total maintenance budgets. The following table presents an overview of cost increases because of delayed periodic maintenance on concrete roads: Delay (Years) 3 5 10 Maintenance type Routine Routine & Periodic Routine Routine & Periodic Routine Routine & Periodic JPCP n/d 111 102 135 107 155 111 Other concrete pavements 114 102 145 107 170 111
Typical periodic maintenance activities involve overlays with asphalt concrete, overlays with concrete and complete reconstruction. Routine maintenance activities includes activities like joint and cracks seals,
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replacement of slabs, improving skid resistance through milling profile, edge repairs and shoulder placements. The following table present lifeexpectancies of these repairs: Repair Joint and crack seals Replacement of slabs Diamond grinding Milling to reduce roughness Edge repairs and shoulder placements AC-Overlay (150-120 mm) Concrete overlay (200-250 mm) Reconstruction Life expectancy (years) 4-6 10 20 5-10 5-10 20 30 30
Slabs Replacement
HDM 4 has given a description of these repairs. Volume six, Modelling Road Deterioration and Works Effects is downloadable from http://www.htc.co.nz/. The following section is a summary of part C of this document. Slabs Replacement (SR) consists basically in the replacement of all the existing slab, done generally when the slab had already lost its capacity of operating, (when the slab is quite cracked, for example). It is assumed that base and sub grade are yet in conditions to sustain traffic charges. It is applied only in pavements JPCP, with or without dowels. Partial Depth Repair (PDR) is used to repair the superficial deterioration, which not interests more than a third of the slab thickness. Usually, it is employed to repair transverse joints in JPCP pavements; however, it can be used in any part of the slab where have been presented surface distresses. Full Depth Repair (FDR) is used to repair cracks and joints deterioration in JRCP pavements, and consists in the removal and replacement of at least a portion of the existing slab. The deterioration of joints includes breaks and spalling of the slab edges either transversely or lengthwise. This activity is also used to repair defects in pavements type CRCP. Diamond Grinding (DG) is used to restore and improve ride quality of the pavement, providing a more uniform surface. This is carried out through the removal of faultings, curlings and deformations of the slab. Also, it is used to correct an improper transverse slope and an excessive polishing of the surface. Grinding, furthermore, increases the superficial friction through the creation of a rough cord capable of draining superficial water and reducing the aqua-planning potential. Usually, it is used to correct faulting in pavements JPCP and JRCP. Load Transfer Restoration (LTR) is used to increase the efficiency in load transfer with JPCP pavements, through the placement of load transfer dowelbars in transverse joints. This restoration increases the load transfer in the transverse joint. Shoulders Placement (SP) is the placement of tied concrete shoulders in an existing concrete pavement. It produces an effect similar to the restoration of load transfer, in the sense that it reduces critical stresses in the slab
Partial Depth Repair
Full Depth Repair
Diamond Grinding
Load Transfer Restoration
Shoulders Placement
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edge, and reduces corner deflections. It is accomplished in pavements JPCP, JRCP and CRCP.
Longitudinal Drainage Placement
Longitudinal Drainage Placement (LDP) is the placement of longitudinal drains in the pavement contributes to water evacuation infiltrated in pavement structure. Due to the fact that most of the surface distresses can be attributed to the water presence, its removal reduces the opportunities of distress appearance, thus increasing pavements life. Joints and Cracks Seal (JCS) is used to minimise water and uncompressible material infiltration within the joints. Minimisation of water quantity, inside and under pavement structure, reduces softening potential of sub grade, pumping, and drag of the fine of the base or shoulder. To overlay or to reinforce a concrete pavement fulfils mainly two functions. First, it provides an increase in thickness to the upper layer, increasing the structural capacity of the pavement; second, it provides a new road surface, free of defects. Existing condition of the pavement has a great influence on the design of overlays. Mainly, there exist two types of concrete overlays applicable to an existing pavement, these are: bonded and unbonded concrete overlay. In bonded overlays, there are taken special considerations to assure that the new concrete layer bonds to the existing concrete. Typically, thickness less than 100 mm increases the structural capacity of the existing slab, through the creation of a greater section thickness. This type of overlays is generally necessary in places where the traffic has increased too much over the levels waited in the original design. They can be also used to improve the skid resistance of an existing pavement, or to improve low ride quality due to surface distresses or polishing due to traffic. Bonded overlays are only effective when the existing pavement is yet in a good condition. These bonded overlays must not be put on severely deteriorated pavements, unless these pavements had been previously repaired, or on pavements that have presented distresses due to problems of materials. Surface cleanliness is necessary to assure that both layers are bonded in adequate form. In unbonded overlays construction, it must be assured that the new layer is not adhered to the existing pavement. This involves the placement of an intermediate layer, and then the construction of the overlay. Typically these overlays had a thickness greater than 100 mm. Due to the fact that both layers operate independently, the overlay behaves as a new pavement on a rigid base. The separation layer acts as an insulation device, which prevents that the distresses of the inferior cap will be reflected through the overlay. This type of overlay is more appropriate when the existing pavement is severely deteriorated. Since both caps act independently, these overlays require very few previous repairs in the existing layer, compared with other alternatives. Only areas where could have been presented instability, lost of support, and local weaknesses, are necessary to repair. More than this, due to this individual operation of layers, the unbonded overlays are ideal candidates for treatment of pavements that had presented problems of cracking type "D" and "alkali-silica" reaction.
Joints and Cracks Seal
Overlays of Concrete
Bonded Overlays
Unbonded Overlays
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An adequate selection of the material of the intermediate layer is critical for a good evolution of the overlay. That layer must cover the whole surface and, furthermore, must be capable of isolating the overlay of the deterioration and movements from the existing pavement. If both layers would begin to interact between them, deterioration of the inferior layer will be reflected through the overlay, causing its premature failure.
Reconstruction
Reconstruction involves the removal of the existing pavement and its replacement by a new pavement structure. It is a viable when the pavements problems cannot be solved with an overlay. Since reconstruction consists of the removal of the structure of the existing pavement, it offers the opportunity to correct sub grade or base deficiencies, to adjust the geometry, to add drainage devices, etc. These options are not viable when the pavement is only restored or overlaid. This means that the first maintenance cycle is usually somewhere in between 30 to 45 years, depending the accuracy of the timing of the intervention and concrete type. The succeeding maintenance cycle is usually either 20 or 30 years. Repairs of cracks and edges would not be necessary during the first ten years of the pavement life. After the age of ten years about half percent of the surface would require repairs. However crack filling is usually initiated as a recurrent activity than all cracks wider than 3 mm and any other areas with extensive fine cracking should be repaired before the rainy season. Budgeting joint repairs during the first ten years of the pavement life should be limited to one percent annual repair of the total joint length. The other ninety percent will be replaced in the following ten years (11-20 years of age). It is recommendable to budget annual replacement or repair of 10 percent of the total length during that period. Although it is very unlikely that slab replacements will take place during the first 30 years after construction, is recommendable to budget for such repairs. A rough figure of annual replacement of 0.03% is usually used. Corner break repairs are budgeted with the same rules of the thumb as the slap repairs.
Cracks and edges.
Joint repairs
Slab replacements
Corner break repairs
10.3.2 Middle-Long Term Maintenance Planning

Middle-long term maintenance planning of concrete roads mainly relates to the traffic related road conditions, like roughness and skid resistance. The same fatal limits apply to all types of paved roads, irrespective its material. With regard to the structural damages, most road agencies limit themselves to carrying out small maintenance when needed and prepare rehabilitation project every 30 or 35 years. This rehabilitation projects is a redesign of the pavements on basis of observed damages and traffic loads.
Condition based maintenance for structural damages can only be used for three kinds of failures: 1. Transverse joint faulting (average length/km) 2. Spalling of transverse joints (average length/km) 3. Cracks of slabs (%/km) With exception of cracks of the slabs, it is not possible to set any intervention levels. Slabs have to be replaced when 35% of it is cracked. SHRP-H-349 describes methodologies of condition based maintenance for
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joint seal repairs. The document can be downloaded from http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/shrp/SHRP-H-349.pdf

Small maintenance
Small maintenance works are initiated when the following damages are observed: Cracks longer than 5 meters long Damages to joints longer than 3% of the respective joint Unequal settlement near joints over a length longer than 3% of the joint.
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APPENDIX A: LIFE EXPECTANCY OF REHABILITATION
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Damage
Road type overlay 50 mm Sub grade 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Sand 15 16 17 17 15 9+ 11+ 14+ 15+ 16+ 12/15+ 13/16+ 15/20+ 15/20+ 25 Clay 15 16 17 17 15 8+ 10+ 13+ 14+ 15+ 12/15+ 9/13+ 11/17+ 11/17+ 20 Peat 15 16 17 17 15 7+ 9+ 12+ 13+ 14+ 12/15+ 7/11+ 10/13+ 10/13+ 17 S 7 8 10 10 n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e Surface treatment C 7 8 10 10 n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e P 7 8 10 10 n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e n/e
Repair Slurry seal & surface treatment S C P 7 8 10 10 6+ 6+ 7+ 8+ 8+ 12 13 12 13 15 7 8 10 10 5+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 7+ 10 9 10 11 13 7 8 10 10 4+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 6+ 9 8 9 10 12 Slurry seal & overlay (70 mm) S 15 16 17 17 15 13+ 13+ 14+ 16+ 16+ 15 16 20 20 20 C 15 16 17 17 15 12+ 12+ 13+ 15+ 15+ 15 13 17 17 18 P 15 16 17 17 15 11+ 11+ 12+ 13+ 14+ 12 11 13 13 15 Mill & Fill 40 mm Sand 15 16 17 17 15 6+ 6+ 7+ 8+ 9+ 12/15+ 13/16+ 15/20+ 15/20+ Clay 15 16 17 17 15 5+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 8+ 12/15+ 9/13+ 11/17+ 11/17+ Peat 15 16 17 20 15 4+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 12/15+ 7/11+ 10/13+ 10/13+ -
Rafeling
Fatigue cracks
Rutting/ roughness
Source: VBW ASFALT: Kosten van Wegverharding Note: 25 means a new life value of 25 years; 15/20+ means additional life of 15 to 20 years on top of remaining residue life
Road type 1 2 3 4 5
Number equivalent standard axle loads (100 kN) 10 10 10

7 6 5 4
Maximum axle load (kN) 180 160 160 160
Percentage of trucks with higher axle loads than the standard of 100 kN 12.5 10 10 5
5 x 10 Bicycle lanes
Source: VBW ASFALT: Kosten van Wegverharding
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APPENDIX B: THAW-FROST DAMAGES

All road maintenance departments are concerned about the damages because of freezing of the groundwater and capillary water under the pavement construction. In theory the materials between the maximum level of the capillary water and the underside of the pavement should not be affected by the penetration of frost (frost free layer). The strength of the (sub)base weakens, because the thaw water closer to the surface can not penetrate into the soil. Standard solutions which are both practised in Western Europe and China limits the percentage of fine materials (D<0.063 mm). Many agencies classify materials as being frost susceptible if 10 percent or more passes a No. 200 sieve or 3 percent or more passes a No. 635 sieve. The frost free layer in the Netherlands is 80 centimetres. The below presented table lists the frost-susceptibility ratings of soils. Those materials with the F3 and F4 classifications are extremely frost-susceptible, especially if the ground water table is less than 180 cm below the top of the subgrade. Silty soils are particularly susceptible and their CBR value may be less than 1 during thawing periods. The thaw period and resulting degraded soil strength may last from one to four weeks.
If the soil is dry it cannot "freeze" in the accepted sense although its temperature may be well below -20. In addition low permeability of
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the soil weakens penetration of rain water into the subgrade may weaken the whole road construction, even in tropical climates. The best solution is to control penetration of rain water and ground water levels inside the sub base. The latter can be achieved by constructing drainage pipes and camber formations of the subgrade with levels varying between 5 and 10%. A five percent camber slope is acceptable when high compaction values can be achieved; otherwise it is recommendable to work with higher values up to 10% (no compaction of subgrade).
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APPENDIX C: ANALYSING DEFLECTION TESTS

Deflections are usually measured in the outside of the wheel path of all the lanes. The interval of the deflection depends on the length of the link. Usually the length of the link is divided by a fixed number, e.g. 21. In practice intervals tend vary from 0.02 to 0.032 km. Per section, the engineer has to calculate the mean and 80-th percentile deflection values. However it should be kept in mind that it is probably cheaper to repair localised failures. This means that engineers have to divide the road length on different sections on basis of the deflection values. It is necessary to identify a new road section, when deflection values are significant different (more than 0.254 mm). This activity is usually done per lane and per driving direction, because traffic volume and composition can differ considerably. The easiest way to identify different sections is to plot the values of the deflection tests per lane on a graph. A new section should also be identified when the pavement thickness changes with more than 30 mm Different base materials are applied Axle loading is significant different
The 80-th percentile deflection value results in thicker overlay than mean values. It is possible to calculate the 80-th percentile deflection value with the following formula:
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The 80-th percentile value is compared with a tolerable deflection at the surface (TDS). The TDS value depends on the composition of the base material and the equivalent standard axle load. Whereby most methods will differentiate between untreated (aggregate) base and a treated base (e.g. a Portland cement concrete base). When the treated base is thin (x< 100 mm) or when still high deflections are observed, the base may not perform as it is intended and it is better to assume that the base is not treated. When the average 80-th percentile value is less than the TDS, the corrective repair can be limited to a seal coat. When the D80 is larger than the TDS, a corrective measure is required that restores the structural capacity and thus the deflection at the surface. The required percent reduction in deflection (PRD) can be calculated with the following equation: This percentage is multiplied with a material equivalence to obtain a value for the overlay thickness that reduces the deflections to a tolerable level. The required overlay thickness is based on the amount of aggregates in the asphalt concrete in the overlay material. One of the requirements to the design of the overlay is to avoid reflective cracking. Therefore it is suggested to apply the following rules:
Untreated bases
Treated bases
The thickness of the overlay should have the minimum thickness of the existing pavement thickness (after milling) up to a maximum of 100 mm. The minimum overlay thickness on top of an pavement on a treated base is about 100 mm. If the base is an extremely thick Portland cement concrete like an overlaid PCC freeway that was not cracked, the minimum thickness is 135 mm. These recommendations are for a design life of ten years. Experience suggests that the thickness should be decreased to 75% for a five year design life and increase to 125% for a twenty year design life.
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More information
Caltrans has published its Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Manual, which provides a lot of information about deflection tests and rehabilitation options. This document can be downloaded at the following website: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/pubs/RehabManualJune2001.pdf#search='asphalt%20pavement%20manual Caltrans estimates the TDS values on basis of an equivalent standard axle load of 80 kN. It uses the following formula to calculate the Tolerated Deflection at the Surface: Whereby:
A:
Pavement thickness/depth (m) 0 0.015 0.03 0.045 0.06 0.075 0.09 0.105 0.120 0.135 0.150 or more Treated base
A-value 2.804 2.771 2.739 2.708 2.677 2.646 2.615 2.584 2.554 2.524 2.494 2.418
Caltrans uses a gravel material equivalence to estimate the thickness of the overlay, because it is the gravel that provides the intrinsic strength and stiffness to the overlay. A gravel equivalence (GE) is estimated on basis of the needed deflection reduction. This GE-value has to be divided by a gravel factor (Gf), which expresses the relative strength of various materials when compared to gravel. The GE value can be estimated with the following formulas: Required deflection reduction (%) y<10 % 10 y < 20% 20 y < 30% 30 y < 40% 40 y < 50% y50% Asphalt concrete overlay X (m) X= 0.3 y/333.333 X =0.3 (y-6.25)/125 X=0.3 (y-11.53846)/76.92308 X=0.3(y-16.667)55.556 X=0.3(y-20.46512)/46.51163 X=0.3(y-20.46512)/46.51163 Asphalt concrete over cushion course X (m) X= 0.3 y/333.333 X =0.3 (y-6.25)/125 X=0.3 (y-11.53846)/76.92308 X=0.3(y-17.36843)/52.63158 X=0.3(y-26.12904)/32.25807 X=0.3(y-28.2353)/29.4117
63
INDEVELOPMENT:
The following table presents commonly used Gf values for rehabilitation. Note these values are different for new pavements: Material Asphalt concrete Hot recycled asphalt concrete Cold recycled asphalt concrete Asphalt concrete below analytical depth Aggregate base Aggregate subbase Native soil Gf-value 1.9 1.9 1.5 1.4 1.1 1.0 0
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What are the main elements that typically make up a road?

What are the main elements that typically make up a road?

What are the different types of road maintenance activities?

What are the different types of road maintenance activities?

ROAD MAINTENANCE PLANNING

INDEVELOPMENT: John van Rijn

Road Maintenance Planning

ROAD MAINTENANCE PLANNING

Road Maintenance Planning

Road Maintenance Planning

Organisation of road maintenance

Road Maintenance Planning

Periodic maintenance & Reconstruction

Road Maintenance Planning

Road Maintenance Planning

STORM WATER DRAINS

Season Before rains

During the rains

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Road Maintenance Planning

10 years 30 Years 30 Years

Widespread surface deterioration

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Road Maintenance Planning

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Speed and comfort of the road

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Maximum speeds (km/hr) Light Medium trucks heavy trucks 105 94 78 71 63 57 52 47 45 40 39 35 35 31 31 28

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10.1 EARTH AND GRAVEL ROADS

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Corrugations, depressions and potholes

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Roughness range (IRI) 1.5 to 2.5

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10.2 ASPHALT CONCRETE

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Wide ruts indicate that more layers are affected

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10.2.1 Long-term maintenance planning

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Use-based pavement maintenance

per year per year per year per year

Routine maintenance of AC-pavements

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Maximum expected axle load (kN) 180 160 160

Source: VBW Asfalt: Kosten van Wegverhardingen, 1989

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Maintenance cycles for 2x1 lane roads

Subbase/ base All types

Soil type Sand

Life rehabil itation 15 15 17 15 13 15 12 11 13

Source: VBW Asfalt: Kosten van Wegverhardingen, 1989

10.2.2 Short and medium term maintenance planning

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Forecasting rehabilitation and reconstruction

Road Maintenance Planning