Computer Organization

Unit 3

Unit 3

Central Processing Unit and Instructions

Structure: 3.1 Introduction Objectives 3.2 Instruction Characteristics 3.3 CPU with Single BUS 3.4 Types of Operands 3.5 Types of Operations 3.6 Addressing Modes 3.7 Instruction Formats 3.8 Summary 3.9 Terminal Questions 3.10 Answers

3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we studied about the basic arithmetic operations. We studied integer addition and subtraction, fixed and floating point numbers, Signed numbers, and the other concepts like Booths Algorithm, hardware implementation, division, restoring and non-restoring algorithms, floating point representations and IEEE standards. In this unit we will introduce the different types of instructions and their characteristics, different types of operation and different types of addressing modes. The operation of a CPU is determined by the instructions it executes. These instructions are referred to as machine instructions. The complete collection of instructions that are executed by a CPU is referred to as CPUs Instruction Set. The instructions are usually represented in binary and the program is usually written in assembly language. Objectives: After studying this unit, you should be able to: list the characteristics of instructions list the different types of operands. explain and explain different types of operations discuss different addressing modes. list and explain the different types of instruction formats

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3.2 Instruction Characteristics

Each instruction must contain the information required by the CPU for execution. Elements of a machine Instruction are: Operation Code: Specifies the operation to be performed. The operation is specified by a binary code, known as the operation code, or opcode. Source Operand Reference: The operation may involve one or more source operands; that is, operands that are the inputs for the operation. Result Operand Reference: The operation may produce a result. Next Instruction Reference: This tells the CPU where to fetch the next instruction after the execution of the current instruction is complete. The next instruction to be fetched is located in main memory or in case of virtual memory system it can be either in main memory or secondary memory. In most cases, the next instruction to be fetched immediately follows the current instruction. In those cases, there is no explicit reference to the next instruction. But when explicit reference is needed, then the main memory or virtual memory address must be supplied. The form in which the address is supplied is discussed in this section. Source and Result operands can be in one of the three areas: Main (or virtual) memory: The memory address must be supplied. CPU register: CPU contains one or more registers that may be referenced by machine instructions. If only one register exists, reference to it may be implicit. If more than one register exists, then each register is assigned a unique number, and the instruction must contain the number of the desired register. I/O device: The instruction must specify the I/O module or device for the operation Instruction Representation Each instruction is represented by a sequence of bits. The instruction is divided into fields, corresponding to the constituent elements of the instruction. This layout of the instruction is called Instruction Format. With most instruction sets, more than one format is used. It is difficult for a programmer and the reader to deal with binary representations of machine instructions. Hence usually the instructions are written in symbolic representations of machine code using English like language called
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Mnemonics Operation codes or Opcodes in short are represented using mnemonics. The format for this instruction is shown in figure 3.1. Opcode Operand Reference Operand Reference

Figure 3.1: A simple instruction format

In most modern CPU's, the first byte contains the opcode, sometimes including the register reference in some of the instructions. The operand references are in the following bytes (byte 2, 3, etc...). Table 3.1 lists some examples of few mnemonics
Table 3.1: Examples of mnemonics

Mnemonics ADD SUB MUL LOAD MOV A, B

Description add subtract Multiply Load data from memory Move contents of B register to A register, where A & B are user visible registers of CPU

Example 1: An instruction with a register and memory address operands. 8 bits Opcode 8 bits Operand Ref. register reference 16/32 bits Operand Reference memory address

Example 2: An instruction may span to the second byte. instruction can be as follows: 12 bits Opcode 4 bits Operand Ref. register reference
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For example consider an instruction, ADD R, Y; Add the contents of data location Y of the memory to the contents of register R. The operation is performed on the data present in location Y and not on its address i.e., Y itself. Previous to the execution of add instruction we give a list of specifications like X= 153, Y=154 and R=20. And the content of memory at location 153 is 10 and at 154 it is 20. After the execution of the given ADD R, Y the result will be in R and will be equal to {R=20+{[Y=154]=20 }=40. Instruction Types The instructions fall into one the following four categories: 1. Data processing: Arithmetic and logic instructions. 2. Data storage: Memory instructions. 3. Data movement: I/O instructions. 4. Control: Test and branch instructions. Number of Addresses What is the maximum number of addresses one might need in an instruction? Virtually all arithmetic and logic operations are either unary (one operand) or binary (two operands). The result of an operation must be stored, suggesting a third address. Finally, after the completion of an instruction, the next instruction must be fetched, and its address is needed. This line of reasoning suggests that an instruction could be required to contain 4 address references: two operands, one result, and the address of the next instruction. In practice, the address of the next instruction is handled by the Program Counter (PC); therefore most instructions have one, two or three operand addresses. Table 3.2 shows the Utilization of Instruction Addresses
Table 3.2: Utilization of Instruction Addresses (Non-branching Instructions)

Number of Addresses 3 2 1 0

Symbolic Representation OP A, B, C OP A, B OP A OP

Interpretation A <- B OP C A <- A OP B AC <- AC OP Aaccumulator) T <- T OP (T-1) A, (AC is

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Example 3: Program to execute Y = (A B) / (C + D x E): Solution: A) With One-Address Instructions: (requires an accumulator AC)
Table 3.3: Solution to ex.3

LOAD D MUL E ADD C STOR Y LOAD A SUB B DIV Y STOR Y

AC <- D AC <- AC x E AC <- AC + C Y <- AC AC <- A AC <- AC B AC <- AC / Y Y <- AC

B) With Two-Address Instructions:

Table 3.4: Solution to ex.3

MOVE Y, A SUB Y, B MOVE T, D MUL T, E ADD T, C DIV Y, T

Y <- A Y <- Y B T <- D T <- T x E T <- T + C Y <- Y / T

C) With Three-Address Instructions:

Table 3.5: Solution to ex.3

SUB Y, A, D MUL T, D, E ADD T, T, C DIV Y, Y, T

Y <- A B T <- D x E T <- T + C Y <- Y / T

Instruction Set Design The design of an instruction set is very complex, since it affects many different aspects of the computer system. The instruction set defines many
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of the functions performed by CPU. The instruction set is a programmers means of implementation of the CPU. The fundamental design issues in designing an instruction set are: 5. Operation Repertoire: How many and which operations to provide, and how complex operations should be? 6. Data Types: The various types of data upon which operations are performed. 7. Instruction Format: Instruction length (in bits), number of addresses, sizes of various fields, and so on. 8. Registers: Number of CPU registers that can be referenced by instructions and their use. 9. Addressing: The mode or modes by which the address of an operand is specified. These issues are highly interrelated and must be considered together in designing an instruction set. Self Assessment Questions 1. _______________ specifies the operation to be performed. 2. The layout of the instruction is called ________________. 3. The address of the next instruction is handled by the ______________.

3.3 CPU with Single BUS

Figure 3.2 shows the connection of a CPU using single Bus. However this approach has a big drawback: little flexibility in choosing the instruction set; most operations have as an operand the content of the accumulator, and this is also the place where the result goes. By simple, we mean both hardware simplicity and software simplicity: because one operand is always in the accumulator, and the accumulator is also the destination, the instruction encoding is very simple: the instruction must only specify what is the operation to be performed and which is its second operand.

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Figure 3.2: CPU using a single internal data bus.

As the technology allowed to move to wider data paths (16, 32, 64 and even larger in the future), it has become also possible to specify more complex instruction formats: more explicit operands, more registers, larger offsets, etc.

3.4 Types of Operands

Each instruction in a program is divided into two parts: Opcode which specifies the operation to be done and the operands which specifies data to be operated on. So it is clear that the operand is the another name for data. Data Types The most important general categories of data are: Addresses Numbers Characters Logical data. Addresses Addresses are also a form of data.

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Numbers All machine language include numeric data types. Three types of numerical data commonly used in computers are: i. Integer or fixed point ii. Floating point (real numbers) iii. Decimal (Remember BCD; an instruction set may be able to process BCD numbers.) i) Integer data type For unsigned integers: It is a straight forward, simple binary representation. In an N-bit word the N-bits holds the magnitude of the numbers. For example 00000000 = 0 00000001 = 1 00101001 = 41 10000000 = 128 11111111 = 255 For signed integers: It involves treating the Most Significant Bit (MSB) in a word as a sign bit. That is if the MSB is 1 the number is considered as negative else positive. In an N-bit word, the (N-1) bit holds the magnitude of the numbers. For example 00000000 = 0 00000001 = 1 00010010 = 18 10010010 = -18 11111111 = -127
E ii) Floating point numbers: These numbers are represented as S * B

Where Sign: plus or minus S is significant B is base for binary it is 2 E is exponent

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The figure 3.3 shows the Format of floating point number. 0 Sign bit 1 8 9 Significant 31

Biased Exponent

Figure 3.3: Format of floating point number

iii) Decimal: Usual decimal system. Characters: International Reference Alphabet (IRA) is referred to as ASCII in the USA. Each character in this code is represented by a unique 7-bit pattern, thus 128 different characters can be represented. Some of the patterns represent control characters. ASCII encoded characters are usually stored and transferred as 8-bits per character. The eight bit may be set to 1 or 0 for even parity. EBCDIC character set is used in IBM 370 machines. It is an 8-bit code. Logical Data With logical data, memory can be used most efficiently for this storage. Logical values are also called as Boolean values which are 1 = true, 0 = false. Self Assessment Questions 4. Most operations have content of the ______________ as an operand. 5. International Reference Alphabet (IRA) is referred to as _____________ in the USA.

3.5 Types of Operations

A set of general types of operations are as follows: Data transfer It is the most fundamental type of machine instruction. The data transfer must specify 1) The location of the source and destination. Each location can be memory, register or top of stack. 2) The length of the data to be transferred. 3) The mode of addressing for each operand.

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If both the operands are CPU registers, then the CPU simply causes data to be transferred from one register to another. This operation is internal to the CPU. If one or both operands are in memory, then the CPU must perform some or all of the following actions: 1. Calculate the memory address, based on the address mode. 2. If the address refers to virtual memory, translate from virtual to actual memory address. 3. Determine whether addressed item is in cache. 4. If not issue command to memory module. For example: Move, Store, Load (Fetch), Exchange, Clear (Reset), Set, Push, Pop Arithmetic Most machines provide basic arithmetic functions like Add, Subtract, Multiply, and Divide. They are invariably provided for signed integer numbers. Often they are also provided for floating point and packed decimal numbers. Also some operations include only a single operand like Absolute, that takes only absolute value of the operand, Negate that takes the complement of the operands, Increment that increments the value of operand by 1, Decrement that decrements the value of operand by 1. Logical Machines also provide a variety of operations for manipulating individual bits of a word often referred to as bit twiddling. They are based on Boolean operations like AND, OR, NOT, XOR, Test, Compare, Shift, Rotate, Set control variables. Conversion These instructions are the ones that change the format or operate on the format of the data. Examples are Translate, Convert. I/O, System control There is a variety of approaches like isolated programmed I/O, memory mapped I/O, DMA and so on. Examples: Output (Write), Start I/O, Test I/O. Transfer of Control The instruction specifies the operation. In the normal course of events the next instruction to be performed is the one that immediately follows the current instruction in memory. But when the transfer of control type
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instruction occurs they specify the location of the next instruction that is to be executed. For example: Jump (Branch), Jump Conditional, Jump to Subroutine, Return, Execute, Skip, Skip Conditional, Halt, Wait (Hold), And No Operation. System Control These instructions are reserved for the use of Operating System. These instructions can only be executed while the processor is in a privileged state, or is executing a program in a special privileged area of memory.

3.6 Addressing Modes

In general, a program operates on data that reside in the computers memory. These data can be organized in a variety of ways. If we want to keep track of students names, we can write them in a list. If we want to associate information with each name, for example to record telephone numbers or marks in various courses, we may organize this information in the form of a table. Programmers use organizations called data structures to represent the data used in computations. These include lists, linked lists, arrays, queues, and so on. Programs are normally written in a high-level language, which enables the programmer to use constants, local and global variables, pointers, and arrays. When translating a high-level language program into assembly language, the compiler must be able to implement these constructs using the facilities provided in the instruction set of the computer in which the program will be run. The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an instruction are referred to as addressing modes. There are the following addressing modes: i) Immediate Addressing ii) Direct Addressing iii) Indirect Addressing iv) Register Addressing v) Register Indirect Addressing vi) Displacement Addressing vii) Stack Addressing

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Notation: A = Contents of an address field in the instruction. R = Contents of an address field in the instruction that refers to a register. EA = Effective (actual) Address of the location containing the referenced operand. (X) = Contents of location X.
Table 3.6: Basic Addressing Modes Mode Immediate Direct Indirect Register Register Indirect Displacement Stack Algorithm Operand = A EA = A EA = (A) EA = R EA = (R) EA = A + (R) EA = top of stack Principal Advantage No memory reference Simple Large address space No memory reference Large address space Flexibility No memory reference Principal Disadvantage Limited operand magnitude Limited address space Multiple memory references Limited address space Extra memory reference Complexity Limited capability

Direct Addressing Mode Figure 3.4 illustrates the Direct Addressing Mode EA = A. Address field contains address of operand. Effective address (EA) = address field (A).e.g. ADD A Add contents of cell A to accumulator. Look in memory at address A for operand. Single memory reference to access data. No additional calculations to work out effective address. Limited address space

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Figure 3.4: Direct Addressing Mode

The operand is in a memory location; the address of this location is given explicitly in the instruction. (In some assembly languages, this mode is called Direct.) The instruction Move LOC, R2 uses these two modes. Processor registers are used as temporary storage locations where the data in a register are accessed using the Register mode. The Absolute mode can represent global variables in a program. A declaration such as Integer A, B; in a highlevel language program will cause the compiler to allocate a memory location to each of the variables A and B. Whenever they are referenced later in the program, the compiler can generate assembly language instructions that use the Absolute mode to access these variables. Next, let us consider the representation of constants. Address and data constants can be represented in assembly language using the immediate mode. Immediate Addressing Mode The operand is actually present n the instruction. (Refer figure 3.5). Operand = A. Can be used to define and use constants, or set initial values. Operand is part of instruction Operand = address field e.g. ADD 5 Add 5 to contents of accumulator 5 is operand No memory reference to fetch data Fast Limited range
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Figure 3.5: Immediate

For example, the instruction Move 200immediate, R0 places the value 200 in register R0. Clearly, the immediate mode is only used to specify the value of a source operand. Using a subscript to denote the immediate mode is not appropriate in assembly languages. A common convention is to use the sharp sign (#) in front of the value to indicate that this value is to be used as an immediate operand. Hence, we write the instruction above in the form Move # 200, R0. Constant values are used frequently in high-level language programs. For example, the statement A = B + 6 contains the constant 6. Assuming that A and B have been declared earlier as variables and may be accessed using the Absolute mode; this statement may be compiled as follows: Move B, R1 Add #6, R1 Move R1, A Constants are also used in assembly language to increment a counter, test for some bit pattern, and so on. Indirect Addressing Mode Memory cell pointed to by address field contains the address of (pointer to) the operand (refer figure 3.6). EA = (A) Look in A, find address (A) and look there for operand e.g. ADD (A) Add contents of cell pointed to by contents of A to accumulator Large address space 2n where n = word length May be nested, multilevel, cascaded e.g. EA = (((A))) Draw the diagram yourself Multiple memory accesses to find operand
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Hence slower

Figure 3.6: Indirect Addressing Mode

Indirect mode The effective address of the operand is the contents of a register or memory location whose address appears in the instruction. We denote indirection by placing the name of the register or the memory address given in the instruction in parentheses as illustrated in figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Indirect mode

To execute the Add instruction in figure 3.7a the processor uses the value B, which is in register R1, as the effective address of the operand. It requests a read operation from the memory to read the contents of location B. The value read is the desired operand, which the processor adds to the contents of register R0. Indirect addressing through a memory location is also possible as shown in figure 3.7b.
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In this case, the processor first reads the contents of memory location A, then requests a second read operation using the value B as an address to obtain the operand. The register or memory location that contains the address of an operand is called a pointer. Indirection and the use of pointers are important and powerful concepts in programming. Consider the analogy of a treasure hunt: In the instructions for the hunt you may be told to go to a house at a given address. Instead of finding the treasure there, you find a note that gives you another address where you will find the treasure. By changing the note, the location of the treasure can be changed, but the instructions for the hunt remain the same. Changing the note is equivalent to changing the contents of a pointer in a computer program. For adding a list of numbers, indirect addressing can be used to access successive numbers in the list, resulting in the program shown in figure 3.8. Register R2 is used as a pointer to the numbers in the list, and the operands are accessed indirectly through R2. The initialization section of the program loads the counter value n from memory location N into R1 and uses the immediate addressing mode to place the address value NUM1, which is the address of the first number in the list, into R2. Then it clears R0 to 0.

Figure 3.8: Resultant of accessing successive numbers

The instruction, Add (R2), R0 fetches the operand at location NUM1 and adds it to R0. The second Add instruction adds 4 to the contents of the pointer R2, so that it will contain the address value NUM2 when the above instruction is executed in the second pass through the loop. Consider the Clanguage statement A=&B; where B is a pointer variable. This statement may be compiled into Move B, R1 Move (R1), A.
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Using indirect addressing through memory, the same action can be achieved with Move (B), A. Despite its apparent simplicity, indirect addressing through memory has proven to be of limited usefulness as an addressing mode, and it is seldom found in modern computers. Indirect addressing through registers is used extensively. The program in Figure shows the flexibility it provides. Also, when absolute addressing is not available, indirect addressing through registers makes it possible to access global variables by first loading the operands address in a register. Register Addressing Mode Operand is held in register named in address field (Refer figure 3.9) EA = R Limited number of registers Very small address field needed Shorter instructions Faster instruction fetch No memory access Very fast execution Very limited address space Multiple registers helps performance Requires good assembly programming or compiler writing

Figure 3.9

Register Indirect Addressing Mode o Register indirect addressing(refer figure 3.10) o EA = (R)
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o o o

Operand is in memory cell pointed to by contents of register R Large address space (2n) Fewer memory access than indirect addressing

Figure 3.10: Register Indirect Addressing Mode

Figure 3.11: Stack Addressing

Indexing and pointers The next addressing mode we discuss provides a different kind of flexibility for accessing operands. It is useful in dealing with lists and arrays. Index mode The effective address of the operand is generated by adding a constant value to the contents of a register. The register used may be either a special register provided for this purpose, or, more commonly, it may be any one of a set of general-purpose registers in the processor. In either case, it is referred to as an index register. We indicate the Index mode symbolically as X(Ri ) where X denotes the constant value contained in the instruction and Ri is the name of the register involved. The effective

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address of the operand is given by EA = X + [Ri ]. The contents of the index register are not changed in the process of generating the effective address. In an assembly language program, the constant X may be given either as an explicit number or as a symbolic name representing a numerical value. When the instruction is translated into machine code, the constant X is given as a part of the instruction and is usually represented by fewer bits than the word length of the computer. Since X is a signed integer, it must be signextended to the register length before being added to the contents of the register. Figure 3.12 illustrates two ways of using the Index mode. In figure 3.12a, the index register, R1, contains the address of a memory location, and the value X defines an offset (also called a displacement) from this address to the location where the operand is found. An alternative use is illustrated in figure 3.12b. Here, the constant X corresponds to a memory address, and the contents of the index register define the offset to the operand. In either case, the effective address is the sum of two values; one is given explicitly in the instruction, and the other is stored in a register.

Figure 3.12: Ways of using the Index mode

Displacement Addressing Mode EA = A + (R)

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Address field hold two values A = base value R = register that holds displacement or vice versa

Relative Addressing Mode o A version of displacement addressing o R = Program counter, PC o EA = A + (PC) o i.e. get operand from A cells from current location pointed to by PC Base-Register Addressing o A holds displacement o R holds pointer to base address o R may be explicit or implicit o e.g. segment registers in 80x86 Indexing A = base R = displacement EA = A + R Good for accessing arrays EA = A + R R++ Stack Addressing o Operand is (implicitly) on top of stack(refer figure 3.11) o e.g. ADD Pop top two items from stack and add Other additional addressing modes The two modes described next are useful for accessing data items in successive locations in the memory. Autoincrement mode The effective address of the operand is the contents of a register specified in the instruction. After accessing the operand, the contents of this register are automatically incremented to point to the next item in a list. We denote the Autoincrement mode by putting the specified register in parentheses, to show that the contents of the register are used as the effective address, followed by a plus sign to indicate that

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these contents are to be incremented after the operand is accessed. Thus, the Autoincrement mode is written as (Ri )+. Self Assessment Questions: 6. Machines also provide a variety of operations for manipulating individual bits of a word often referred to as ________________. 7. _____________ instructions are reserved for the use of Operating System. 8. The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an instruction are referred to as _____________________. 9. In ______________ the effective address of the operand is generated by adding a constant value to the contents of a register.

3.7 Instruction Formats

Instruction Format is defined as the layout of bits in an instruction in terms of its constituent parts. An Instruction Format must include opcode implicitly or explicitly and one or more operand(s). For, most instruction sets have usually more than one instruction format. Instruction Length Most important design issue is the length of an instruction. It is affected by and affects Memory size, Memory organization, Bus structure, CPU complexity, CPU speed. There is a trade off between powerful instruction repertoire and saving space. Apart from this tradeoff there are other considerations. Either the instruction length should be equal to the memory transfer length or one should be a multiple of the other. A related consideration is the memory transfer rate. Allocation of Bits The factors that determine the use of addressing bits are: Number of addressing modes: Some times addressing mode is implicit in the instruction or may be certain opcodes call for indexing. In other cases the addressing mode must be explicit and one or more bits are needed. Number of operands: Typically todays machines provide two operands. Each operand may require its own mode indicator or the use of indicator is limited to one of the address fields.

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Register versus memory: A machine must have registers so that the data can be brought into the CPU for processing. One operand address is implicit. The more the registers are used to specify the operands less the number of bits needed. Number of register sets: Almost all machines have a set of general purpose registers, with typically 8 or 16 registers in it. These registers can be used to store data or addresses for displacement addressing etc. Address range: For addresses that refer to the memory locations, the range of addresses is related to the number of address bits. Because of this limitation direct addressing is rarely used. Address granularity: It is concerned with addresses that refer to the memory other than registers. In a system with 16 or 32 bit words, an address can refer to a word or a byte at the designers choice. Byte addressing is convenient for character manipulation but requires fixed size memory, and hence more address bits.

Variable-Length Instruction The designer might provide a variety of instruction formats of different lengths. Addressing can be more flexible, with various combinations of registers and memory references plus addressing modes. The price that needs to be paid is an increase in the complexity of the CPU. 1. Due to varying number of operands, 2. Due to varying lengths of opcode in some CPUs. Self Assessment Questions: 10. Most instruction sets have usually more than one instruction format. (State True or False?) 11. A machine needs not to have registers to bring the data into the CPU for processing. (State True or False?) 12. _______________is concerned with addresses that refer to the memory other than registers.

3.8 Summary
In this unit we learnt the representation of instructions and discussed Arithmetic and logic instructions, Memory instructions, I/O instructions, and Test and branch instructions. We have also seen different types of addressing modes like direct, indirect, immediate and register, including the
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important concepts of pointers and indexed addressing. Here we studied the different data types like Addresses, Numbers, Characters, and Logical data. Numbers can be integers or decimal (floating point).

3.9 Terminal Questions

1. Define the following: a. Op-code. b. Machine instruction. 2. Discuss the different categories of instructions. 3. Write a note on different data types with examples for each. 4. What do you mean by addressing modes? List the different types of addressing modes. 5. Explain the indirect and register addressing modes. 6. Write a note on Instruction formats.

3.10 Answers
Self Assessment Questions 1. Opcode 2. Instruction Format 3. Program Counter (PC) 4. Accumulator 5. ASCII 6. bit twiddling 7. System control 8. addressing modes 9. Index mode 10. True 11. False 12. Address granularity Terminal Questions: 1. Operation Code specifies the operation to be performed. Refer Section 3.2 for details. 2. The different categories of instructions are: Data processing, Data storage, Data movement and Control. Refer Section 3.2 for more details. 3. The most important general categories of data are: Numbers, Characters etc., Refer to section 3.4.
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4. The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an instruction are referred to as addressing modes. Refer to section 3.6 for details. 5. In indirect mode the effective address of the operand is the contents of a register or memory location whose address appears in the instruction. Refer to section 3.6. 6. Instruction format is defined as the layout of bits in an instruction in terms of its constituent parts. Refer to section 3.7.

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