4 Generators

Summary
E.J. Daniels Argonne National Laboratory

Impact of HTSCs on Generators

33

34

Applied Superconductivity

Summary

Section

4 indicates

the following:

1.

Compared to a conventional 300-MW generator, a liquid-heliumcooled generator is projected to be more cost-effective (due to its higher efficiency); this would be the case even if the capital cost of the conventional generator were zero. The gain in efficiency due to reduction of refrigeration power requirements for a high-temperature superconductor is a modest 0.2%. However, the capital cost of the higher-temperature superconducting generator would be reduced significantly by the reduction in refrigeration system costs. If the refrigeration cost is proportional to refrigeration power, the cost of the $500,000 refrigeration system could be virtually eliminated. Unless the current density of wire, including both copper stabilizer and high-temperature superconductor, is on the order of lo4 A/cm2 (i.e., equivalent to that of the low-temperature conductor), the cost savings due to elimination of the helium refrigeration system will be offset by increased superconductor materials costs to achieve the 300-MW rated power. For example, at lo3 A/cm2, the higher-temperature superconductor machine would have a cost of $800,000 in excess of that of a machine based on the lower-temperature superconductors.

2.

3.

Therefore, the conclusions regarding economics are that superconducting machines are more cost-effective than conventional machines and higher-temperature more cost-effective than superconducting machines are lower-temperature superconducting machines at current densities of lo4 A/cm2. The analyses leading to these conclusions are summarized in Table 4.1, which presents five 300-MW generators: a conventional system, a helium-cooled system, and three nitrogen-cooled systems at different current densities. The costs and losses are those estimated by Kirtley. The value of losses is based on a 65% capacity factor, rather than the 80% used in the Kirtley analysis, and is presented on an annual basis. As shown, the total annual value of the conventional machine losses is $1.4 million. The total annual costs of the helium-cooled superconducting machine are more than $0.9 million less, including the annual capital costs at an 18.7% fixed charge rate. Even if the cost of the conventional machine were zero, the value of the annual losses of the conventional materials cost and losses of the helium-cooled machine would exceed the At a current density of 0.075 x lo4 A/cm2, superconducting machine by $0.75 million.

Generators

35

TABLE 4.1 Comparison of Conventional and Alternative Superconducting 300~MVA Generators

Nitrogen-Cooled Conventional System 298.23 98.6 a84= 4.17 1,411 165 HeliumCooled Systema 298.23 99.57 1,238 1.28 433 231 0 075 It 10 A/cm2 (Ml) 296.70 99.67 3,200 0.98 331 598

Systemsb

Parameter Rating (MU) Efficiency (I) Materials cost ($103) Losses (NW) Levelized val e of losses ($10 Y/yr) Annual capitalized materials cost ($103/y=)

043) 296.22 99.71 879 0.86 290 164

(M5) 298.23 99.72 739 0.84 283 138

1,576

664

929

454

421

aCurrent

density

= 0.80

x lo4 A/cm2. superconductors of a capital

bThe five hypothetical Sec. 4.4. Estimated

(Ml through M5) are fully cost multiplier

described a helium-

in

on the basis

of

1.4 for

superconducting

relative

a conventional

machine.

superconductors is somewhat lower than that for the helium-cooled generator. However, this gain is offset by increased At a current density of 0.75 x lo4 A/cm2, the reduction in materials materials costs. costs makes the higher-temperature superconducting system more cost-effective than the lower-temperature system. If the current densities of the two superconductors are the higher-temperature system will have a cost advantage of about equivalent, $25O,OOO/yr. Section 4 also points out that the advantage of superconductors with higher transition temperatures would also be enhanced by expected improvements in reliability and availability when operating at liquid nitrogen temperatures relative to liquid helium temperatures. Higher-temperature superconducting machines may be cost-effective compared with conventional machines at smaller capacities. This is apparently attributable to the consideration that the capital cost of higher-temperature superconducting machines is significantly lower than that of the machines based on Therefore, a smaller absolute difference in losses helium-cooled superconductors.

the annual value of losses for the higher-temperature

36

Applied Superconductivity

(associated with the use of smaller machines) would be adequate to justify the capital cost premium of a higher-temperature superconducting machine relative to a conventional generator. To date, have been built. almost completed Electric built a Hitachi built a United Kingdom, several small generators incorporating low-temperature superconductors The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), with DOE support, has construction of a IO-MW generator. In the early 199Os, General ZO-MW machine and, in Japan, Mitsubishi built a 30-MW machine and SO-MW machine. In addition, other work is underway in Japan, the Europe, and the USSR.

In the early and mid-1970s, smaller machines were built: 5-MVA Westinghouse, 3-MVA MIT, 60-kVA MIT, and 45-kVA MIT. These machines were tested by using them as synchronous condensers -- i.e., they were spun with no input of shaft power; instead of generating electricity, they shifted the phase between current and voltage.

Generators

37

Impact of HTSCs on Generators

4.1

INTRODUCTION

This section discusses the possible impact on generators of superconductors capable of operating at temperatures achievable with liquid nitrogen coolant. Such conductors can be very useful in electric machinery if they can be fabricated into windings with appropriate cross sections carrying sufficiently high current densities in reasonable magnetic fields. Superconductors with transition temperatures may be exploited in at least three ways: 1. as high as that of boiling liquid

nitrogen

For the same type of thermal isolation systems used in prototype superconducting machines, higher operating temperatures will reduce the power required to provide refrigeration; Thermal expensive, Thermal between that isolation systems can be more reliable and efficient stability operating simplified, leading designs; and to less-

2.

3.

limits may be increased by increasing the margin temperature and transition temperature. modes of exploitation will be used in some combination.

It is likely

all three

of these

Cryogenic cooling exhibits a very strong economy of scale: although it takes a lot of work to refrigerate any space to liquid helium temperature, it does not take much more work to refrigerate a large space than a small space. For this reason, it has been generally accepted that superconducting technology is applicable only to the largest machines or to those with the most stringent power density requirements. Because the effort required for refrigeration to liquid nitrogen temperature is only on the order of l-2% of the effort required for refrigeration to liquid helium temperature, it is reasonable to expect that a much broader range of machines will be candidates for the application of superconductivity. The improvement in efficiency afforded by the reduction in cooling energy may be reduced if the superconductor is more limited in current density or magnetic flux density than its liquid-helium-temperature counterpart. A numerical study has been done to establish quantitatively, in one class of machines, the benefits of a number of postulated superconductors. The machine chosen is a turbogenerator rated at 300 MVA and 3,600 rpm.

38

Applied Superconductivity

4.2

SUPERCONDUCTORS

APPLIED TO GENRRATORS

Because superconductors carry current with no dissipation, their application to a large electric machine should increase its efficiency, but the need to cool the field However, even with superconductors that winding will tend to counter this advantage. must be cooled to liquid helium temperatures, turbine generators will be more efficient Estimates are that a superconducting than their normally conducting counterparts. machine rated at 300 MW would have a net efficiency, including refrigeration power, of 99.596, as opposed to 98.6% for a conventional machine. The reduction in refrigeration afforded by higher temperatures would improve efficiency still further, perhaps by another 0.2%. The usefulness of superconductors in electric machinery does not arise solely because of lossless conduction. It comes in part from their ability to carry very large current densities and from the high flux densities that can be produced. High current density allows a field winding in a generator, for instance, to produce both magnetization and reaction in a space containing no magnetic iron. This, in turn, allows the armature to be located in a low-permeance space (no iron), so that it can carry large reaction currents with little reactive voltage drop. Absence of iron has other useful attributes, such as an increase in the armature space factor and a reduction in core losses. An increase in useful flux density helps still further by shortening the armature path around each unit of flux, thus reducing the ratio of armature loss to power produced. The usefulness of superconductors in machines, therefore, depends on their having reasonably high useful current and flux density limits, as well as lossless conduction. These limits have an impact on the efficiency and on the first cost of the generator. It appears that a wire (made of copper cladding and superconductor) capable of carrying a current density of lo4 A/cm2 in a flux density of 2 T could be very useful. Two thirds of the wires cross-section might be copper, with the remaining third being superconductor. In this case, the current density in the superconducting material would be 3 x lo4 A/cm2, a value that could be comfortably achieved in superconducting material having a critical current density of 4.5 x IO4 A/cm. Hereafter, for ease of will be used to mean superconducting wire like that expression, superconductor described above, and current density will mean the ratio of the current to the crosssectional area of the wire. A major effect of the increase in operating temperature will be to make superconductors attractive for smaller machines, because the effort required to cool small spaces to liquid helium temperature is still substantial. Thus, for small machines the efficiency impact of cooling is larger than the gain in efficiency from the use of superconductors. Since cooling to liquid nitrogen temperatures takes only about 1% of the energy required to cool to liquid helium temperatures, it is reasonable to expect the boundary between the domain of superconducting machines and normally conducting machines will move downward with respect to size. There is some disagreement over just where that boundary is located for machines cooled by liquid helium, but it is certainly in the range of hundreds of megawatts. It is conceivable, therefore, that if liquid-nitrogen-temperature superconductors become practical, the boundary may be as small as one or only a few megawatts. This is small enough that all utility generators and many other applications would be within the domain of superconductivity.

Generators

39

Another major effect of the increase in operating temperatures will be a major reduction in the complexity of the thermal isolation system. In machines using liquid helium, it is necessary to use vacuum insulation, intermediate-temperature thermalradiation barriers, and vapor cooling of both structural shaft elements and current leads. Vacuum insulation, in particular, adds substantially to the cost, complexity, and potential unreliability of a machine. With the lower cost of refrigeration to 77 K, it is likely that much of this complexity can be eliminated, including the need for vacuum in difficult places. Superconductors, when applied to synchronous machines, are used in the field winding. Two attributes of the field winding are of concern to us. First, it is a winding, with a complex shape; second, the absolute current that the field must carry must not be either too large or too small. Taken together, these attributes restrict the type of superconductor that might be used in generators. The superconductor must be capable of fabrication. The complex shape of the field winding would indicate flexible wires or tapes (wires are better), but it is possible that innovative developments in fabrication might make other forms useful. In addition, the field winding of a generator is subject to very large forces arising from the magnetic field produced by the field winding, by reaction forces from the armature winding, and from rotation. The conductor used must be capable of withstanding these forces or be compatible with a scheme that can provide sufficiently strong support. This means that the support structure must provide enough restraint for the superconductor, allow for proper cooling, and accommodate thermal contraction. For operational reasons, it is necessary to control the current in this winding. Fairly large and rapid variations in this current are required. Thus, the field current cannot be too large or too small. If the field current were too large, leads required to carry current from the slip rings or rotating exciter would impose too large a thermal load. If the current were too small, control voltages would become too high. Field currents in the range of 103-lo4 A seem reasonable; these current values imply a conductor size of 3-10 mm (in conductors with lo4 A/cm2).

4.3

OTHER

APPLICATIONS

For reasons discussed in Sec. 4.2, a substantial increase in transition temperature is likely to extend the range of machines for which superconductivity will be helpful to much smaller ratings. It is possible superconducting windings will be economically justified in machines with ratings as small as a few megawatts. Superconducting machines have high power density, and so they have been investigated for such applications as high-power ship drives (tens of megawatts) and air and space applications. Refrigeration has always been something of a problem for these applications, because the refrigerator is of substantial size, complexity, and cost. Clearly, the advent of SUperCQndUCtOrS that could be cooled by liquid nitrogen would virtually eliminate this difficulty for many such applications. Further, it is reasonable to expect that other applications, not now considered feasible, will become so. One could imagine superconducting electric locomotives, pump drives, etc.

40

Applied Superconductivity

4.4

CASE STUDY:

JOO-MVA TURBOGENERATORS

In order to quantify the potential impact of liquid nitrogen temperature The case used was that of superconductors, a first-cut design study was made. 300-MVA, two-pole generators. This size was chosen because (1) it seems likely to be a common size for generators in the near future, (2) a starting point design already and (3) a comparison between conventional and liquid-helium-temperature exists, superconducting machines is available. In this study, six machines were designed. One of these, the base case machine, is assumed to be built using a liquid-helium-temperature superconductor. This machine is actually a modification of one designed b Westinghouse Corp. as part of an Electric P Four different liquid-nitrogen-temperature Power Research Institute (EPRI) program. superconductors were suggested in the call for this paper (see Table 4.2). These all have limited flux density capabilities, so a fifth, hypothetical conductor (M5) was added; this superconductor is assumed to have the same current and flux limitations as the liquidhelium-temperature superconductors. Table 4.3 lists the study results. Briefly, while it is possible to design a generator using the lower-current materials, such a machine does not appear to be economically feasible. On the other hand, the higher-rated superconductor results in an economically attractive design. The reduction in refrigeration capital cost and losses are large enough to reduce the importance of the cost of the superconducting material. Table 4.4 presents a more detailed listing of the pertinent design details, and Table 4.5 presents a complete listing of the spreadsheet that produced these results. Direct comparison with a conventional generator is difficult, because the dissimilarities in construction make our estimates of capital cost crude. However, evaluating losses at 5C/kWh, we note that the base case superconducting generator prevails over the conventional machine on the basis of losses. A 300-MVA conventional generator has an efficiency of about 98.6%. The base case superconducting generator has an efficiency of about 99.5%. The difference between these two efficiencies TABLE 4.2 Assumed Superconductors for translates to about 2.7 MW at full load. 300-MVA Generatorsa Now, a loss of 5C/kWh is, at 80% capacity factor, worth about $351/kW-yr, and that, at a 12% discount rate over 20 yr, is worth about $2,657/kW. Thus, the losses alone Cost Current Den ity give the superconducting generator a total Material (104 A/J) ($/kg) cost advantage of roughly $7 million. It is more difficult to estimate how much more expensive the superconducting machine might be, but the difference is not likely to be great. For reference, the refrigeration equipment for the liquid-helium-temperature machine will cost in the vicinity of $0.5 million. Ml M2 M3 M4 220 440 220 440 0.1 0.1 1 1

?4sss flux

density density

= 6,000 kg/m3, limir = 2 T.

and

Generators

41

TABLE 4.3 Comparative Costs of 100~MVA Generators ($103)a

Component Refrigerator cap. Superconductor Armature copper Back iron Rotor steel Losses Capital cOstC Total aComponent costs
greater or less

Ml (506jb 1,852 29 27 560 (854) 1,962 367

M2 (506) 3,973 29 27 560 (854) 4,083 1,687

M3 (503) (51) 16 13 166 (1,131) (359) (1,354)

M4

MS (499)

(503) 166 16 13 166 (1,131) (141) (1,219)

0 0 0

(1,236; (499) (1,547)

for other systems than an unspecified

increments

base value.
(i.e., cost is this much

bParentheses lower than The capital refrigeration generator.

indicate negative values the base-case value). cost is the sum of system; they are the not

costs of materials the manufactured

and the cost of the

4.5 DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS AND IlUPEDIMENTS Turbogenerators with superconducting field windings have already been substantially developed, and any development using higher-temperature materials will benefit from this earlier work. Generators built with liquid-nitrogen-temperature superconductors will not differ in many respects from the types of machines already built (e.g., with respect to armature windings). The major differences will be that the liquidnitrogen-temperature machines will require less-elaborate thermal isolation systems. It is possible that so-called liquid-nitrogen-temperature superconductors may at temperatures lower than 77 K. The reason for this is that substantially higher margins for current density and magnetic flux density might be reached by cooling to a lower temperature. In essence, the advent of higher-temperature superconductors adds a degree of freedom to the design. It will be necessary to investigate the behavior This investigation, in turn, will require an of designs over this degree of freedom. understanding of many characteristics of the superconducting material at different temperatures.
be operated

42

Applied

Superconductivity

TABLE 4.4 Summary of 100~MVA Generator Des&m

Base

Parameter

Case

Ml

I42

M3

n4

MS

Machine dimensions (m) Field inner radius Field outer radius Rotor outer radius Armature inner radius Armature outer radius Core inner radius Core outer radius Active length Curre t den ity of field (10' A/cmqja Maximum flux density (T) Efficiency (I)

0.197 0.279 0.379 0.429 0.694 0.795

1.262 1.90 0.80

0.260 0.460 0.535 0.560 0.710 0.735 1.003 5.20 0.075

0.260 0.460 0.535 0.560 0.710 0.735 1.003 5.20 0.075

0.320 0.345 0.445 0.495 0.670 0.720 1.005 5.00 0.75

0.320 0.345 0.445 0.495 0.670 0.720 1.005 5.00 0.75

0.197 0.279 0.379 0.429 0.694 0.795 1.262 1.90 0.80

5.96 99.57

1.56 99.67

1.56 99.67

1.90 99.71

1.90

5.96

99.71

99.72

'Current density in the copper windings on the armature is 1.2 x lo6 A/m2 in all cases.

Logical the following: 1.

steps in developing

electric

machinery with the new materials

include

Development of forms of the material that can be fabricated into field windings. These could be wires, tapes, or green forms that can be sintered into place. Full characterization of the behavior of the material, including:

2.

Magnetic flux density vs. current density frontier, as a function of temperature; Dissipation resulting from time-varying magnetic fields; and Determination of sensitivities of other material properties on stress.

3.

Temperature optimization (determination of the best design temperature). Cooling will be easier at higher temperatures, but lower temperatures will provide batter material performance.

TABLE 4.5 Details of lOO-MVA Superconducting

Generators:

Zeroth-Order

Design

Variable/Parameter Performance Rating (MW) Sync. reactance (X) Efficiency t%) Maximum field CT) Input Variables Machine dimensions Field inner radius (m) Field thickness (m) Rotation gap (m) Armature thickness (m) Active length (m) Rotational speed (rad/s) Pole pairs Rotor shell thickness (m) Arm to shield space (m) TT length (m) Field angle Arm angle Power factor Field space factor Arm space factor Material parameters

Symbol

Cold

Ml

H2

H3

H4

M5

MU xd eta Bmar

298.23 53 99.57 5.96

296.70 69 99.67 1.56

296.70 69 99.67 1.56

296.22 47 99.71 1.95

296.22 47 99.71 1.95

298.23 53 99.72 5.96

Rfi ff Ta L m P gas :kt th; pf lamf lame

0.197 0.082 0.150 0.265 1.900 377 1 0.1 0.101 2.269 0.2 1.047 0.900 0.5 0.15

0.260 0.200 0.100 0.150 5.200 377 1 0.075 0.025 0.2 2.269 1.047 0.900 0.6 0.15

0.260 0.200 0.100 0.150 5.200 377 1 0.075 0.025 0.2 2.269 1.047 0.900

0.320 0.025 0.100 0.175 4.600 377 1 0.1 0.050 0.2 2.269 1.047 0.900 0.6 0.15

0.320 0.025 0.100 0.175 4.600 377 1 0.1 0.050 0.2 2.269 1.047 0.900 0.6 0.15

0.197 0.082 0.150 0.265 1.900 377 1 0.1 0.101 0.2 2.269 1.047 0.900 0.5 0.15

Field current density (i06 Aim2) Arm current density (10 A/m )

ifa

80.0 1.20

7.50 1.20

7.50 1.20

75.0 1.20

75.0 1.20

80.0 1.20

TABLE

4.5 (Contd)

% D B _7 g v,

Variable/Parameter

Symbol

Cold

Ml

M2

M3

t44

MS

Sat. flux density (T) TT conductance W;; TT strength (10 Pa Field density (kg m ) Arm density (kg/m ) Steel density (kg/m32 Arm conductivity (10 S) Free space permeability (10m6 Derived dimensions

b sat gtt Sgtt rhof rho, rho, N/A2) sig, 0

1.4 1,790 200 0,400 8,400 7,800 67.0 1.26

1.4 1,607 200 6,000 a ,400 7,800 67.0 1.26

1.4 1,607 200 6,000 8,400 7,800 67.0 1.26

1.4 1,607 200 6,000 8,400 7,800 67.0 1.26

1.4 1,607 200 6,000 8,400 7,800 67.0 1.26

1.4 1,790

?J
2 0 L? P

a ,400 a ,400
7,800 67.0 1.26

200

4 a _. 2

P F angle (rad) Shield radius (m) Field outer radius (m) Armature inner radius (m) Armature outer radius (m) Self length (m) Field length (m) Heuristic rules

psi
rS if: al R a0 1,

1f
trqf fvc etac eta,

0.451 0.795 0.279 0.429 0.694 2.649 2.376

0.451 0.735 0.460 0.560 0.710 6.047 5.92

0.451 0.735 0.460 0.560 0.710 6.047 5.92

0.451 0.670 0.345 0.445 0.620 5.310 5.265

0.451 0.670 0.345 0.445 0.620 5.310 5.265

0.451 0.795 0.279 0.429 0.694 2.649 2.376

Torque factor Vapor cooling factor Carnot efficiency efficien y Refrig. Windage loss (10 6 W) Field concentration Miscellaneous Armature coefficients ratio

P W
cfc

10 0.25 0.0135 0.1 0.1 1.15

10 0.25 0.345 0.4 0.1 1.15

10 0.25 0.345 0.4 0.1 1.15

10 0.25 0.345 0.4 0.1 1.15

10 0.25 0.345 0.4 0.1 1.15

10 0.25 0.345 0.4 0.1 1.15

0.618

0.789

0.789

0.718

0.718

0.618

TABLE

4.5

(Contd)

Variable/Parameter

Symbol

Cold

Ml

H2

M3

H4

H5

Field ratio Field coefficient Arm coefficient Y coefficient Self coefficient Mot coefficient Flux coefficient Permeance coefficient

E kf ka ky k1 2 AP

0.706 0.799 0.955 0.648 0.263 0.192 0.321 1.07 1.06

0.565 0.799 0.955 0.819 0.120 0.123 0.542 1.14 1.06

0.565 0.799 0.955 0.819 0.120 0.123 0.542 1.14 1.06

0.928 0.799 0.955 0.202 0.181 0.154 0.090 1.00 1.06

0.928 0.799 0.955 0.202 0.181 0.154 0.090 1.00 1.06

0.706 0.799 0.955 0.648 0.263 0.192 0.321 1.07 1.06

Machine

rating xa 1. Power (T) b=f 0.398 0.752 298 5.19 0.475 0.685 297 1.36 0.475 0.685 297 1.36 0.365 0.779 296 1.69 0.365 0.779 296 1.69 0.398 0.752 298 5.19

Internal reactance Voltage ragi Rating (10 W) Fundamental field Thermal calculations

Maximum torque (1 6 Nom) TT thickne s (10 -8 m) 9 TT area (m ) Low-temp. heat leak (W) Back iron field (T) Back iron thickness (m) Mass calculations Shield outer radius Arm ass (kg) Field mass (kg) (m)

t=q, ttt ;E br th

7.91 80.9 0.284 634.4 0.822 0.467

7.87 29.6 0.171 343.7 0.511 0.268

1.87 29.6 0.171 343.7 0.511 0.268

1.86 52.5 0.228 457.5 0.640 0.306

1.86 52.5 0.228 457.5 0.640 0.306

7.91 80.9 0.284 634.4 0.822 0.467

rSOl.lt massa assf

1.262 3,120 1,224

1.003 4,560 9,641

1.003 4,560 9,641

0.976 3,917 990

0.976 3,917 990

1.262 3,120 1,224

a ;:

2 z

TABLE

4.5 (Contd)

b D

Variable/Parameter

Symbol

Cold

Ml

M2

M3

M4

MS

B r:
E v,

Shield mass (kg) Torque tube mass Rotor shell mass Losses (103 W)

(kg) (kg)

mass masst massr

62,321 3,070 3,831

69,114 4,217 30,696

69,114 4,217 30,696

65,578 5,032 10,192

65,518 5,032 10,192

62,327 3,070 3,831

ii s R z-. r 2.

2
Refrig. input power Armature loss Core loss Total losses Core loss density Financial parameters

P,
pda

PC

hot
pcd

470 505 218 1,290 0.0035

2.49 627 242 972 0.0035

2.49 627 242 972 0.0035

3.32 535 230 868 0.0035

3.32 535 230 868 0.0035

4.60 505 218 828 0.0035

Interest rate Tax rate Lifetime (yr) Operating hours per year Power price ($/kWh) Caoitalized Dower ($/kW) Ta; kicker Costs of materials

f t

hrs

0.12 0.36 life 7,012 0.05 2,657 0.62

0.12 0.36 20 7,012 0.05 2,657 0.62

0.12 0.36 20 7,012 0.05 2,657 0.62

0.12 0.36 20 7,012 0.05 2,657 0.62

0.12 0.36 20 7,012 0.05 2,657 0.62

0.12 0.36 20 7,012 0.05 2,657 0.62

fp
dPr tax

($/kg)
220 20 4 20 220 20 4 20 440 20 4 20 220 20 4 20 440 20 4 20 220 20 4 20

Superconductor Armature copper Back iron Rotor structural

TABLE 4.5 (Contd)

Variable/Parameter Cost details ($103)

Symbol

Cold

Ml

H2

H3

H4

MS

Refrigerator cap Superconductor Armature copper Back iron Rotor steel Losses Capital cost Modified Total for tax base

kref Ks,p K ;;: rs cost ;Pwr Kmod

519 269 249 138 62

13 2,121 690 276 91

13 4,242 698 276 91

16 218 304 262 78

16 436 78
262 304 2,305 1,097 683 2,988

1,238 3,436
771 4,201

3,200 2,582
1,992 4,514

5,321 2,582
3,312 5,894

2,305 a79
541 2,052

20 269 62 249 138 2,200 739 460 2,660

for Delta cob case ($10 5 )a

Refrigerator cap Superconductor Armature copper Back iron Rotor steel Losses Capital cost Total Parentheses indicate negative values (i.e.,
cost

(506) 1,852 29 21 560 (854) 1,962 361 is this

(506) 3,913 29 27 560 (854) 4,083 1,681

(503) (51) 16 13 166 (1,131) (359) (1,354)

(503) 166 16 13 166 (1,131) (141) (1,219) value).

(499) 0 0 0 (1,236; (499) (1,541) c, 2 2 f

much lower

than the base-case

48

Applied Superconductivity

4.

Design and fabrication of a prototype. Because of prior experience with liquid-helium-temperature machines, this prototype could be fairly large. Conceivably, a prototype machine could be made as a modification to an existing experiment.

The major impediment to adoption of this technology is the current shrunken market for large electric machinery in this country. Because there have been virtually no orders for new power plants, the result of a sharp reduction in load growth rates, manufacturers of turbine generators have been retrenching. If and when demand growth catches up with installed capacity, the turbogenerator market wilI improve.

4.6

CONCLUSIONS of higher-temperature advantages over (liquid-nitrogenliquid-helium-cooled

A cursory look at the possible advantages cooled) superconductors indicates substantial superconductors:
l

Higher temperatures would result in a sharp reduction in the cost of equipment to refrigerate the field winding and a hundred-fold reduction in the power required to keep the field winding cool. Operation at liquid nitrogen substantially the thermal isolation increase thermal stability margins capacity of the materials. temperatures would simplify scheme of the rotor and would because of the increased heat

These advantages may result and the power level at which smaller. These conclusions
l

in superconducting generators becoming more superconducting machines begin to be practical

attractive becoming

are contingent

on the following

requirements:

The new class of superconductors can be made so as to be capable of fabrication into complex shapes, such as field windings. The new superconducting wire (including superconductor stabilizer) can be made with reasonably high current density (lo4 A/cm2) in reasonably high magnetic fields (at least 2 T). The new superconductors such as unusual sensitivity do not turn out to have to strain or alternating and limits

any other traps, magnetic fields.

4.7 1.

REFERENCE Westinghouse Electric Corp., Superconducting Generation Design, Electric Research Institute Report EPRI-EL-577 (Research Project 429-l) (Nov. 1977). Power