Methods of Experimental Psychology 1

History of Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychologists work to understand the underlying causes of

behavior by studying humans and animals. Animals are studied within and outside laboratory settings for
a variety of reasons. A researcher may wish to learn more about a particular species, to study how
different species are interrelated, to investigate the evolutionary significance of certain behaviors, or to
learn more about human behavior.
Experimental psychology flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century with the
work of such figures as G. T. Fechner (1801-1887), whose Elements of Psychology (1860) is
considered the first study in the field, and Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), who established the first
psychological laboratory in 1879. Others, including Hermann Ebbinghaus and E.B. Titchener
(1867-1927), used laboratory methods to investigate such areas as sensation, memory, reaction
time, and rudimentary levels of learning. While controlled laboratory studies continue to make
major contributions to the field of psychology, experimental methods have also been used in
such diverse areas as child development, clinical diagnosis, and social problems. Thus, the
concept of experimentation can no longer be limited to the laboratory, and "experimental
psychology" is now defined by method and by the kinds of processes being investigated, rather
than its setting.
An experiment in any setting tests a hypothesis, a tentative explanation for an observed
phenomenon or a prediction about the outcome of a specific event based on theoretical
assumptions. All experiments consist of an independent variable, which is manipulated by the
researcher, and a dependent variable, whose outcome will be linked to the independent variable.
For example, in an experiment to test the sleep-inducing properties of the hormone melatonin,
the administration of the hormone would be the independent variable, and the resulting amount
of sleep would be the dependent variable.
In simplest terms, the effects of the independent variable are determined by comparing
two groups which are as similar to each other as possible with the exception that only one group
has been exposed to the independent variable being tested. That group is called the experimental
group; the other group, which provides a baseline for measurement, is called the control group.
Although ideally the experimental and control groups will be as similar as possible, in
practice, most psychological research is complicated by a variety of factors. For example, some
random variables-differences in both the subjects themselves and in the testing conditions-are
unavoidable and have the potential to disrupt the experiment. In addition, many experiments
include more than one group of subjects, and establishing a true control group is not possible.
One method of offsetting these problems is to randomly assign subjects to each group, thus
distributing the effect of uncontrollable variables as evenly as possible.

The subjects' attitudes toward the experimental situation are another

condition that may influence the results. This phenomenon is best demonstrated by what is
referred to as the placebo effect. Subjects in experiments that test medical and psychological
AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 2

treatments often show improvement solely because they believe the treatment has been
administered. Thus, the administration of a placebo (a supposed treatment that in fact contains no
active ingredient) to a control group can disclose to the experimenter whether improvement in
the subjects' conditions has been caused by the treatment itself or only by the subjects' belief that
their condition will improve. Interference may come from an additional variable, experimenter
bias, the unintentional effect of the experimenter's attitudes, behavior, or personal interests on the
results of an experiment. The experimenter may, for example, read instructions to two groups of
research subjects differently, or unintentionally allow one group slightly more or less time to
complete an experiment. A particularly powerful type of experimenter bias is the self-fulfilling
prophecy, whereas the researcher's expectations influence the results. In a well-known example,
when laboratory assistants working with two groups of randomly selected rats were told that one
group was brighter than the other, they treated the rats in such a way that the supposedly
"brighter" group learned to negotiate a maze faster than the other group. Subtle differences in the
assistants' handling of the "brighter" group had produced the results they were conditioned to
expect.

In experiments utilizing a placebo, experimenter bias may be prevented by a double-blind

design, in which not only the subjects but also the persons administering the experiment are
unaware of which the control group is and what results are expected. In general, experimenters
can minimize bias by making a vigilant attempt to recognize it when it appears, as well as
resisting the temptation to intentionally influence the outcome of any experiment. The results of
experiments are generally presented in a report or article that follows a standard format of
introduction, method, results, and conclusion.

Experimental research can also be conducted through quasi-experiments, studies

which lack the control of a true experiment because one or more of its requirements cannot be
met, such as the deliberate use of an independent variable or the random assignment of subjects
to different groups. Studies of the effects of drugs on pregnant women, for instance, are based on
data about women who have already been pregnant and either taken or not taken drugs. Thus, the
researcher has no control over the assignment of subjects or the choices with which they are
presented, but he or she can still measure differences between the two populations and obtain
significant findings. These findings gain validity when they are based on data obtained from
large numbers of subjects and when their results can be replicated a number of times. Such
studies provide a basis for investigations that would otherwise be impossible.

Introspection
The process of introspection involves observation of one's own mental processes, thinking and
emotional states. Some argue that introspection is a reliable guide to self-knowledge. This is
problematic, however, because introspection is itself a thinking of process - can one engage in
AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 3

introspection for the process of introspection itself? This will result in an endless spiral of infinite
introspection, not to mention an infinite number of simultaneous mental events, meaning that at
some process introspection must stop and unreflective thinking start.

The practice of introspection

A few “guidelines” to practice introspection can be extrapolated from the theoretical (and, in few
cases, experimental) literature:
1. Insights obtained from introspection, can guide experimental design directly (Gallagher,
2003). That is, distinctions known to us by way of introspection can form questions for
experimental science to answer.
2. Subjects should be trained to “observe experiences” without prejudice. That is,
experimental subjects may have conceptions about the nature of different kinds of
conscious experience prior to an experiment, and subjects should therefore meet
experimental situations in a “non-theoretical manner”. (Varela, 1996).
3. The character of mental states should not be predetermined by the experimental scientist
investigating them. Therefore, the scientist should therefore discuss the methodology for
subjective reporting prior to the actual experiment (Ramsøy & Overgaard, 2004).
4. Post hoc interviews should be carried out for retrospective examination of the subjects’
experiences during the experiment to gather information too rich or complicated to
investigate during the actual experiment (Jack & Roepstorff, 2002). Such interviews can
inspire a re-grouping of data.
The actual application of these methods, or others deriving from introspective or
phenomenological approaches may inform and assist cognitive scientists to acquire much more
exact data about what their subjects actually experience. In different areas of clinical work, better
methods to obtain subjective reports may also be of help. Petitmengin, Navarro & Le Van Quyen
(2007) have for instance applied a “neuro-phenomenological” approach to discover and prevent
epileptic seizures.
Maier String Experiment
The first evidence of this is from the Maier String experiment, performed in 1931. This
experiment asked participants to tie together two strings which were hanging from the ceiling at
such a distance that one string couldn't be reached while holding the other. There were three
possible solutions to the problem using the props in the room: some weights, a chair, and another
piece of string. Each time the participant solved the problem, he was asked to do it again a
different way and the solutions were valued from easy to hard. Hardest was the solution of
adding weights to the strings and setting them in motion like pendulums, so by standing in the
middle one could eventually grab both strings. Maier found that most people (ie, the control
group) were unable to come up with this solution on their own, but if the experimenter set one
string swinging by bumping into it, the participant would often find the solution immediately.
When asked how they figured it out, the participants replied with things like "It just came to me,"
and "Using the weights seemed like a good idea," -- they uniformly didn't recognize that the
experimenter's movement had triggered their intuition.

Moon-ocean experiment

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 4

Nisbett & Wilson's 1977 moon-ocean experiment showed the same lack of understanding of
one's own reasoning. It was ostensibly a test of medium-term memory where participants were
asked to memorize a list of word pairs. In the experimental group, the list contained the pair
moon-ocean, whereas the control group's list did not. After the results were taken -- and nearly
all of the experimental group could recall the ocean-moon pair -- both groups were asked to
name whatever kind of laundry detergent came to mind. Overwhelmingly, the experimental
group named Tide, while the control group had a more even distribution. When asked why they
thought of Tide, the experimental group mentioned its packaging, its name-brand recognizability,
an ad they saw on TV last night, etc. As in Maier's experiment, they didn't (with two or three
exceptions) mention the experiment as a cause of their action.

Another experiment by Nisbett & Wilson asked participants -- passersby in a mall who
volunteered -- to select the best stocking from four identical stockings attached to a board. The
subjects chose the rightmost one much more than the others (a four to one ratio), an expected
result known as the position effect. As usual, when the participants were asked to explain their
motivation, they came up with all kinds of reasons that weren't the position, and were in fact
hostile to the suggestion that position had anything to do with their choice.

Nisbett & Wilson's work precipitated two rules about introspection which are held to be fact by
the psychological community. In their words:

1. People often cannot report accurately on the effects of particular stimuli on higher order,
inference-based responses. The accuracy of subjective reports is so poor as to suggest that
any introspective access that may exist is not sufficient to produce generally correct or
reliable reports.

2. When reporting on the effects of stimuli, people may not interrogate a memory of the
cognitive processes that operated on the stimuli; instead, they may base their reports on
implicit a priori theories about the causal connection between stimulus and response.

Observation

Observation means studying and gathering information on an activity: of what

happens, what your object of study does or how it behaves. Observation is visual: you use your
own eyes, perhaps assisted with a camera or other recording instrument. Descriptive observation
means that you do not wish to modify the activity in any way; you just want to register it such as
it would take place without your presence.
An activity can interest a researcher because all professions and all industrial production are
essentially chains of activities. Besides, the product itself can be a process of activities, such as a
computer program, course of education, drama or other presentation on stage or on TV. Also
when the product is a static object with no action of its own, its use is an activity that you
perhaps will want to study in its empirical setting.

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 5

There are many activities that can be difficult or expensive to study especially in their original
setting "in the field", and before starting an empirical project it can be advisable to spend a
minute in considering whether the information that you need could be reachable without direct
empirical operations. Such methods might include:
• Finding the information in already existing texts and literature,
• Interrogating people that know about the activity,
• Indirect or "unobtrusive" study where you will not observe the activity itself but events or
traces that the activity brings about, such as erosion or consumption of energy.
Observation can be done in three individual angles.

1. Motor Behavior.
2. Cognitive Behavior.
3. Social behavior.

Motor Behavior
Understanding the processes involved in learning and performing motor skills will
enable you to:
• Design and deliver appropriate curriculum materials
• Conduct more effective practice and rehabilitation experiences used in a wide
variety of motor skills

Example for Motor Behavior Experiment

Asymmetry of Motor Behavior of the Goldfish in a Narrow Channel

They studied swimming of goldfish fries about 3 cm long in a narrow

channel by calculating the numbers of spontaneous turns on different sides. The ratio of fishes
preferring to turn to the right vs to the left was 1.5: 1.0, respectively; two-thirds of the fishes
demonstrated an ambilateral behavior. Experiments with compulsory 10-min-long rotation of the
fishes (clockwise around the longitudinal body axis for fishes preferring right-side turns and
anticlockwise for fishes preferring left-side turns) showed that the behavioral asymmetry
smoothed somewhat after such a procedure, and a greater number of the fishes became
ambilateral in their preference to turn to one side or another. After a one- or two-day-long test,
the initial asymmetry of motor behavior completely recovered. Compulsory rotation of similar
fishes in the opposite direction exerted no influence on the asymmetry in the choice of the
AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 6

turning direction. Adaptation-induced training of the fishes (using fatiguing long-lasting

vestibular stimulation) resulted in some smoothing of motor asymmetry but did not change its
general pattern. Thus, our findings allow us to believe that a noticeable proportion of the goldfish
individuals (similarly to other animals and humans) is characterized by an innate asymmetry of
the motor function with a clear preference for either right- or left-side turnings. These relations
can be smoothed under experimental influences but are recovered later on, i.e., they are stable
and are not fundamentally transformed. We assume that the asymmetry of motor behavior of
fishes in a narrow channel can be an adequate pre-requisite for further examination of the
asymmetry of the brain and motor centers controlling changes in locomotion (body turnings)

Cognitive Behavior

Cognitive Behavior is systems that deal with cognitions, interpretations, beliefs and responses, with the
aim of influencing problematic emotions and behaviors. CBT can be seen as a general term for many
different therapies that share some common elements and theoretical underpinnings.

Social behavior

Social behavior is behavior directed towards society, or taking place between, members of the
same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not
social. While many social behaviors are communication (provoke a response, or change in
behavior, without acting directly on the receiver) communication between members of different
species is not social behavior.

Example for Antisocial Behavior Experiment

Brain behind Brain Age Performed Anti-Video Game Study

Dr. Kawashima conducted an experiment 5 years ago on if video games cause anti-social
behavior.
He has uncovered information about an anti-video game study performed by Brain Age
mastermind in 2001.
An article originally published in an April 2001 issue of The Observer detailed research that Dr.
Kawashima had done suggesting that playing video games stunts development in certain parts of
the brain that allows people to control anti-social behavior. Dr. Kawashima tested his theory by
comparing data of brain activity of children while playing video games and while taking the
Kraepelin test, a thirty minute cycle of simple math problems similiar to one of the games in
Brain Age.

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 7

His research revealed that, during the Kraepelin test, the children used both the left and right
hemispheres of the frontal lobe (the brain’s center for learning, memory, emotion and impulse
control),while playing video games only excercised the parts of their brains used for vision and
tracking movement.

Dr. Kawashima later reported his findings at an education conference in the UK. Then, in an
interview with The Observer, he made the following statement: "There is a problem we will have
with a new generation of children -- who play computer games -- that we have never seen before.
The implications are very serious for an increasingly violent society and these students will be
doing more and more bad things if they are playing games and not doing other things like
reading aloud or learning arithmetic."

He also stated his thoughts on the importance of this issue on society, saying, “…ask them to
play outside with other children and interact and to communicate with others as much as
possible. This is how they will develop, retain their creativity and become good people

When asked for a comment, Nintendo stated that the study is five years old and never established
that game playing is harmful.

Interview

An interview is a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the interviewee)
where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee.
"Interview" word is derived from french word "entirevior" it means "glimpse" to each other.

Three types interview are

• Structured Interview.
• Unstructured Interview.
• Semi Structured interview.

Structured Interview

A structured interview (also known as a standardised interview or a researcher-administered

survey) is a quantitative research method commonly employed in survey research. The aim of
this approach is to ensure that each interviewee is presented with exactly the same questions in
AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 8

the same order. This ensures that answers can be reliably aggregated and that comparisons can be
made with confidence between sample subgroups or between different survey periods.

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured Interviews are a method of interviews where questions can be changed or adapted
to meet the respondent's intelligence, understanding or belief. Unlike a structured interview they
do not offer a limited, pre-set range of answers for a respondent to choose, but instead advocate
listening to how each individual person responds to the question.

Semi Structured interview

A semi-structured interview is a method of research used in the social sciences. While a

structured interview has formalized, limited set questions, a semi-structured interview is flexible,
allowing new questions to be brought up during the interview as a result of what the interviewee
says. The interviewer in a semi-structured interview generally has a framework of themes to be
explored.

Example for Interview Experimental Design

In the Interview Experiment, 144 participants were placed in a mock job interview. Half of the
participants were randomly assigned to the role of interviewer for a fictional company.
Interviewers were rewarded for hiring participants who work for "Good Company." Additionally,
interviewers were rewarded for refusing to hire participants who work for "Bad Company." In
contrast, the half of the subjects selected as interviewees were randomly assigned to have either
"Good Company" or "Bad Company" as their existing employer. Interviewees were provided
with a variety of motivators to try to get hired. One group of 24 were assigned to a Control
motivator who used to work for Good Company and are rewarded for getting the job. The rest
were assigned to have bad company as their previous employer, and then given one of two
motivators to get hired: Charity Gains and Charity Loses. Both groups were told "You will need
to convince the interviewer that you are from Good Company in order to get this job." Those
assigned to the Charity Gains motivator were told that if they get the job then they will be
rewarded and a reward will go to a charity of their choice. Conversely, those in the Charity Loses
motivator were told that if they do not get the job a charity of their choice will be rewarded and if
they get the job they will be rewarded instead.

Interview conditions

Control (Good Charity Gains (Bad Charity Loses (Bad

Company) Company) Company)
No Sensors n=12 pairs n=12 pairs n=12 pairs
AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 9

Control (Good Charity Gains (Bad Charity Loses (Bad

Company) Company) Company)
Sensors n=12 pairs n=12 pairs n=12 pairs

As with all experiments in this thesis, in the Sensors conditions one of the two subjects was
wired using 3-lead electrocardiogram sensors and the HandWave skin conductance sensor.
Additionally, mouse pressure and coordinates were collected. In this experiment (and in the
Poker exeriment) a face-tracking camera was also used to collect video of the participant's facial
expressions. Participants with sensors in this condition also encountered an extra screen that
explained how the sensors would be attached. These subjects were paired with a second
interviewee subject who received information from these sensors using the MixedEmotions
system described in the apparatus section. In addition, an instant messaging client was used by
the subjects to communicate questions and answers during the interview. Thus, in the Sensors
condition, affective information was communicated asymmetrically, from the interviewee to the
interviewer.

The No Sensors conditions performed the same task and experienced the same questionnaire
instruments as the Sensors conditions. The difference was the absence of sensors and information
related to attaching sensors. So, subjects in the No Sensors condition were asked to take part in a
job interview mediated solely by an instant messaging client.

In all conditions, subjects acting as interviewers were told: "You are about to act as a recruiter for
a job using an Internet application.Your goal is to hire candidates who used to work for Good
Company and not hire candidates who used to work for Bad Company, a disreputable
company.The interviewee is a former employee of either Good Company or Bad Company. In
either case, however, the interviewee has been told to try to convince you s/he is from Good
Company in order to get the job. If you choose to hire someone who used to work for Good
Company, you will be paid a total of $10, including $5 for your participation.If you choose not to
hire someone who used to work for Bad Company, you will also be paid a total of $10, including
$5 for your participation. Otherwise, you will receive $5 for your participation." In short,
interviewers were rewarded for hiring candidate’s employees from "Good Company" and were
punished for hiring deceptive candidates from "Bad Company."

Interviewees, on the other hand, were given one of three motivators: Control, Charity Gains, or
Charity Loses. The following paragraphs provide details about exactly what these motivators
entailed.

In the Control motivator subjects who acted as interviewees were told that they used to work for
"Good Company" and told that they would receive a reward for being hired. They were paired
with interviewers who were told that the participant may be from either "Good Company" or
"Bad Company" and that they would be rewarded for hiring good company employees and
penalized for hiring bad company employees.

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 10

In the Charity Gains motivator, when a participant was hired a charity of their choice also
benefited. Participants were informed: "You are about to interview for a job using an Internet
application. Your goal is to get the job. Your previous employer was Bad Company. The
interviewer, however, has been told only to hire interviewees from Good Company. You will
need to convince the interviewer that you are from Good Company in order to get this job. If you
get the job, you will receive $5 in addition to the $5 you will receive for participating in this
experiment. In addition, [the charity of the participant's choice] will receive $5 if you get the
job."

In the Charity Loses motivator, when participants were hired, money was taken from a
contribution to a charity of their choice. Participants were told: "You are about to interview for a
job using an Internet application. Your goal is to get the job. Your previous employer was Bad
Company. The interviewer, however, has been told only to hire interviewees from Good
Company. You will need to convince the interviewer that you are from Good Company in order
to get this job. If you get the job, you will receive $5 in addition to the $5 you will receive for
participating in this experiment. [The charity of the participant's choice] will not receive any
money if you get the job. If you do not get the job, you will not receive any money other than the
$5 you will receive for participating in this experiment. However, [the charity of the participant's
choice] will receive $5 if you do not get the job."

After Results Interview Experiment Discussion

In the data analysis for this experiment some interesting phenomena are present. In the data for
the Control motivator there were several significant results in which interviewers reported more
negative views than interviewees. However, in the Charity Gains motivator there were instead
several trends in which interviewees reported negative views instead of interviewers.

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 11

Clinical
Clinical Methods includes the scientific study and application of psychology for
the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or
dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its
practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists also
engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and
administration. In many countries it is a regulated mental health profession.
The field is often considered to have begun in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological
clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20th century,
clinical psychology was focused on psychological assessment, with little attention given to
treatment. This changed after the 1940s when World War II resulted in the need for a large
increase in the number of trained clinicians. Since that time, two main educational models have
developed—the Ph.D. (focusing on research) and the Psy.D. (focusing on practice). Clinical
psychologists are now considered experts in providing psychotherapy, and generally train within
four primary theoretical orientations Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Cognitive Behavioral, and
Systems or Family therapy.
Clinical psychology may be confused with psychiatry, which generally has similar goals (e.g. the
alleviation of mental distress), but is unique in that psychiatrists are physicians with medical
degrees. As such, they tend to focus on medication-based solutions, although some also provide
psychotherapeutic services as well. In practice, clinical psychologists often work in
multidisciplinary teams with other professionals such as psychiatrists, occupational therapists,
and social workers to bring a multimodal approach to complex patient problems.
Example for Clinical Observation Report
Name of Clinical Student: Terri Wilcoxson . Teacher Observed: Kelly Ambruster. Date of
Observation: September 17, 1998. School Site: Gallipolis High School. Times of Observation:
1:00 - 1:50 p.m. Class Observed: AP Physics. Duration of Observation: 50 minutes
Basis of Observation: INTASC Core Standard #1 -- The teacher understands the central
concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and can create
learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.
Overview of Lesson: Ms. Ambruster began the class period by taking roll quickly and
efficiently. She then asked students if they had any questions about the readings from last night.
Following clarification of a few words used in the text, she moved on to ask a number of
questions about electrostatics to see what students knew about it from both their reading and
experiences. She then moved on to a series of desktop demonstrations. Ms. Ambruster rubbed an
AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 12

amber rod with a rabbit skin, and showed how he could charge pith balls; she then did this again
with a piece of rayon (?) and a glass rod. Ms. Ambruster was able to show by bringing the
charged rods into near contact with the pith balls that there were two types of charges, some
combinations of which repelled one another, other combinations of which attracted one another.
She also showed that the amount of charge could be quantified by using an electroscope. As Ms.
Ambruster performed these demonstrations, she maintained a constant flow of questions to the
students, eliciting their comments and suggestions. She asked the students to predict what would
happen in one situation or another. Ms. Ambruster showed (quite to my amazement!) that
different things can be used to produce static charges. She created a charge generating device (I
don't know what it was called) made from aluminum foil, a piece of insulation, and a pie tin that
really made the sparks fly. Near the end of the class she showed an electrostatic motor that turned
when a student touching a running Van de Graff generator pointed at the motor. I still haven't
figured this one out and none of the students in the class were able to do so either. Ms. Ambruster
left the solution to the question to the students as a project.Students remained actively engaged
throughout this lesson. Students were constantly asked questions relating to the various
demonstrations that she presented.
Class Management: Ms. Ambruster had little trouble establishing and maintaining an excellent
learning environment in her classroom. I believe that this was because she showed serious intent,
expressed high expectations for her students, made the subject matter interesting and relevant,
moved quickly from point to point, and kept the students actively engaged in the lesson. This left
little free time for students to get into or cause trouble.
OBSERVATIONS AND REFLECTIONS
Knowledge
The teacher understands major concepts, assumptions, debates, processes of inquiry, and ways of
knowing that are central to the discipline(s) s/he teaches.
None of the students ever contradicted Ms. Ambruster's explanations or questioned her logic. She
seems to know what she is talking about. From what I know of electrostatics she was right on the
money all the time. She was able to carry on an excellent discussion helping the students see not
only that there were two types of charge, but how that is known.
The teacher understands how students' conceptual frameworks and their misconceptions for an
area of knowledge can influence their learning.
Ms. Ambruster attempted to elicit student preconceptions when she started her questioning at the
beginning of the class. She stated a number of things such as, "Is it true that like with force, there
is only one type?" It appears as though she is using a constructivist approach in her teaching.
Lots of good inquiry.
The teacher can relate his/her disciplinary knowledge to other subject areas.
At the very beginning Ms. Ambruster asked the students where they might encounter
electrostatic examples. Students pointed out dragging feet on the carpet and getting a shock, but
Ms. Ambruster added a few other examples students hadn't thought about. She related what
happens to computers when they get "shocked."
Dispositions
The teacher realizes that subject matter knowledge is not a fixed body of facts but is complex
and ever-evolving. S/he seeks to keep abreast of new ideas and understandings in the field.
AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 13

It is hard to say anything about this given my limited observations.

The teacher appreciates multiple perspectives and conveys to learners how knowledge is
developed from the vantage point of the knower.
This is something that "Miss A." did quite well. She asked for nearly every one's input, and asked
the students to hypothesize about what might happen in certain situations. It was like she was
doing real science experiments using guidance provided from student input.
The teacher has enthusiasm for the discipline(s) s/he teaches and sees connections to everyday
life.
Miss A. really appears to enjoy her teaching, and her students as well. She took only one or two
opportunities to explain how electrostatics affects one's life. She might have provided more and
better examples.
The teacher is committed to continuous learning and engages in professional discourse about
subject matter knowledge and children's learning of the discipline.
Hard to say given my limited observations. A good follow-up interview would be helpful in this
area, but this clinical experience did not provide the opportunity to do so.
Performances
The teacher effectively uses multiple representations and explanations of disciplinary concepts
that capture key ideas and link them to students' prior understandings.
This really wasn't done. Miss A. might have spent a little more time drawing the analogy
between magnetic polarity and electrostatic charge.
The teacher can represent and use differing viewpoints, theories, "ways of knowing" and
methods of inquiry in his/her teaching of subject matter concepts.
The teaching I observed was linear. Ms. Ambruster pretty much established the point that she
wanted to make, and then moved on. There was little "verification" of the in-class
demonstrations. She might have used a variety of experiments to make the same point a second
way so that kids who missed it the first time might have gotten it the second time around.
The teacher can evaluate teaching resources and curriculum materials for their
comprehensiveness, accuracy, and usefulness for representing particular ideas and concepts.
I can't say anything about this. Ms. Ambruster didn't teach out of the book like so many other
teachers I've seen. I really liked that, and the students looked as though they did too.
The teacher engages students in generating knowledge and testing hypotheses according to the
methods of inquiry and standards of evidence used in the discipline.
Miss A. did a great job with this. She used inquiry in her teaching practice. She told the students
next to nothing; they had to figure it out using examples and experiments.
The teacher develops and uses curricula that encourage students to see, question, and interpret
ideas from diverse perspectives.
From what I could tell, Miss A. has pretty much developed her own curriculum. She doesn't
slavishly adhere to the textbook like so many other teachers do. Ms. Ambruster appears to be
quite comfortable with inquiry in students are forced to see, question, and interpret things. She

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 14

attempts to engage all students, and doesn't seem to teach just to the brightest students in the
class.
The teacher can create interdisciplinary learning experiences that allow students to integrate
knowledge, skills, and methods of inquiry from several subject areas.
ANAYLSIS

Post-Class Assessment: Describe how well you feel the teacher modeled this Standard or
Principle. Cite evidence from your observations to support your conclusion.

The indicators really seemed to help me understand the meaning of INTASC Core Standard #1.
They also helped me to see that Ms. Ambruster does really well in this area of teaching expertise.
Her use of inquiry practice in teaching the observed lesson showed that she does know her stuff,
and is confident in that knowledge. She's not afraid to "go with the flow" as students suggest all
sorts of experiments. When students appeared to be stumped, she would change her avenue of
questioning. She also made every effort to engage all of her students, from the best and the
brightest all the way to those who seemed disinterested. Her great teaching style didn't leave
many disinterested students. I do think that she might be a better teacher in this area if only she
would provide her students -- or better yet, ask her students -- to provide examples of where this
information is meaningful or practical in their lives. It was sort of hard to assess the
"dispositions," because some of these need to be addressed in some sort of post-class discussion
with Miss A.

Application of Principle: Explain in your own words how this principle will be incorporated
into your own teaching.

It is clear to me that I will really have to know my stuff when it comes to teaching. Not only is
being able to do the problems important, I must also have a good conceptual understanding of
physics. Not only will I need to know about physics, but I'll also have to understand its nature as
well. A further understanding that I'll require will be how to teach physics in context, explaining
its role in technology.

Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often
designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire
was invented by Sir Francis Galton.
Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not
require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have
standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers
may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be
able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a
survey by questionnaire may not be practical.
AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 15

As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question
construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls.
Example for Questionnaire Experiment
Task 1a: Background Information
Please complete the following Demographic information.

1. Name (Optional):

2. Age (years):

3. Gender:
Male

Female

4. Nationality:

5. Place of Birth:

6. Place where you grew up:

7. Course of Study:

8. Level of Study:
Undergraduate

Postgraduate

9. Number of Years in University/Higher Education:

10. University currently attended (if not Edinburgh):

11. Job and location if graduated:

Task 1b: Questionnaire

Please answer ALL of the following questions, clicking the answer which you feel best
describes you.
Answer the questions honestly and do not spend too much time thinking about them.

1. Does your mood often go up and down?

YES NO

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 16

2. Do you take much notice of what people think?

YES NO

3. Are you a talkative person?

YES NO
If you will do something, do you always keep your promise no matter how
4.
inconvenient it might be?
YES NO

5. Do you ever feel `just miserable' for no reason?

YES NO

6. Would being in debt worry you?

YES NO

7. Are you rather lively?

YES NO
Were you ever greedy by helping yourself to more than your share of
8.
anything?
YES NO

9. Are you an irritable person?

YES NO

10. Would you take drugs which may have strange or dangerous effects?
YES NO

11. Do you enjoy meeting new people?

YES NO
Have you ever blamed someone for doing something you knew was really
12.
your fault?
YES NO

13. Are your feelings easily hurt?

YES NO

14. Do you prefer to go your own way rather than act by the rules?
YES NO

15. Can you usually let yourself go and enjoy yourself at a lively party?
YES NO

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 17

16. Are all your habits good and desirable ones?

YES NO

17. Do you often feel `fed up'?

YES NO

18. Do good manners and cleanliness matter much to you?

YES NO

19. Do you usually take initiative in making new friends?

YES NO
Have you ever taken anything (even a pin or a button) that belonged to
20.
someone else?
YES NO

21. Would you call yourself a nervous person?

YES NO

22. Do you think marriage is old-fashioned and should be done away with?
YES NO

23. Can you easily get some life into a rather dull party?
YES NO

24. Have you ever broken or lost something belonging to someone else?
YES NO

25. Are you a worrier?

YES NO

26. Do you enjoy co-operating with others?

YES NO

27. Do you tend to keep in the background on social occasions?

YES NO

28. Does it worry you if you know there are mistakes in your work?
YES NO

29. Have you ever said anything bad or nasty about anyone?
YES NO

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 18

30. Would you call yourself tense or `highly-strung'?

YES NO
Do you think people spend too much time safeguarding their future with
31.
savings and insurances?
YES NO

32. Do you like mixing with people?

YES NO

33. As a child were you ever cheeky to your parents?

YES NO

34. Do you worry too long after an embarrassing experience?

YES NO

35. Do you try not to be rude to people?

YES NO

36. Do you like plenty of bustle and excitement around you?

YES NO

37. Have you ever cheated at a game?

YES NO

38. Do you suffer from `nerves'?

YES NO

39. Would you like other people to be afraid of you?

YES NO

40. Have you ever taken advantage of someone?

YES NO

41. Are you mostly quiet when you are with other people?
YES NO

42. Do you often feel lonely?

YES NO

43. Is it better to follow society's rules than go your own way?

YES NO

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 19

44. Do other people think of you as being very lively?

YES NO

45. Do you always practice what you preach?

YES NO

46. Are you often troubled about feelings of guilt?

YES NO

47. Do you sometimes put off until tomorrow what you ought to do today?
YES NO

48. Can you get a party going?

YES NO

Message Writing Tasks

If during either of the following writing tasks, you worried about writing anything too
personal, simply substitute names of people and places as appropriate.
Task 2a
Imagine you haven't seen a good friend for quite some time, and in order to keep them up to date
with your news you decide to write them an e-mail.
In the message you should write about what has happened to you, or what you have done in
the past week, trying to remember and write down as much as possible, as quickly as possible.
Your message should be written in normal English prose (that is, standard sentences, although
don't worry if your grammar is not perfect).
Once you have started writing a sentence, you should complete it and not go back to alter or edit
it. Also, don't worry too much about spelling, and don't bother addressing it to anyone or signing
it. Just write down the main body of the text.
You should spend 10 minutes on this task.

AKMAL RAHMAN.B
Methods of Experimental Psychology 20

AKMAL RAHMAN.B