Aluminium Welding ESAB

A W E L D I N G R E V I E W P U B L I S H E D B Y E S A B V O L. 5 4 N O.
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Focus Aluminium
A welding review published by ESAB AB, Sweden No. 2 2000

Articles in Svetsaren may be reproduced without permission but with an acknowledgement to ESAB. Publisher Bertil Pekkari Editor Lennart Lundberg Editorial committee Klas Weman, Lars-Gran Eriksson, Johnny Sundin, Johan Elvander, Sten Wallin, Bob Bitsky, Stan Ferree, Ben Altemhl, Manfred Funccius, Susan Fiore Address ESAB AB, Box 8004, SE-402 77 Gteborg, Sweden Internet address http://www.esab.com E-mail: [email protected] Printed in Sweden by Skandia-Tryckeriet, Gteborg
The fabrication of the Pacificat 1000 series high speed ferry at Vancouver Shipyards in Canada.
Contents Vol. 54 No. 2 2000 3

The advancement of aluminium within the welding fabrication industry and its many product design applications Applications of aluminium and the reasons for the advancements of aluminium within the welding fabrication industry.
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Stubends & Spatter Short news.
Friction Stir welding of AA 5083 and AA 6082 aluminium A report on microstructural observations of joints welded using Friction Stir Welding.
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ESABs partnership with Canadas west coast shipbuilding industry Pacificat 1000 series high speed ferry A project which has allowed ESAB and Vancouver Shipyards to make great strides for a future in aluminium welding.
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Equipment for aluminium welding Processes and equipment in aluminium welding.
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A century of aluminium a product for the future The first aluminium items appeared on the market around 1890 and today aluminium is the second most frequently used metal after steel.
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Adding NO to the Argon or Argon/Helium mixture does the trick Adding NO remarkably stabilises the arc and results in a more regular surface of the weld.
34
Tube bending and hydroforming The hydroforming of aluminium extrusions is regarded as the only method in many cases when producing structural automotive components.
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High quality aluminium weldinga key factor in future car body production Car body design and manufacturing engineers contribute to new ways to reduce fuel consumption.
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Troubleshooting in aluminium welding Some of the most common problems that are encountered when changing to aluminium welding.
2 Svetsaren nr 2 2000
The advancement of aluminium within the welding fabrication industry and its many product design applications
by Tony Anderson, Technical Services Manager, AlcoTec Wire Corporation, USA
This article will consider the many applications of aluminium within the welding fabrication industry, the reasons for the advancement of aluminium within these industries and the involvement of AlcoTec Wire Corporation in assisting industry to move forward with improved aluminium welding technology.
Figure 1. The Plymouth Prowler moving towards the aluminiumintensive vehicle.
Aluminium is the second most plentiful metallic element on earth and became an economic competitor in engineering applications as recently as the end of the 19th century. The appearance of three important industrial developments resulted in a demand for a material with characteristics consistent with those of aluminium and its alloys and this greatly benefited growth within the production of this new material. When the electrolytic reduction of alumina (Al2O3) dissolved in molten cryolite was independently developed by Charles Hall in Ohio and Paul Heroult in France in 1886, the first internal combustion engine-powered vehicles were appearing. One hundred years later, aluminium was to play a major role as an automotive material of increasing engineering value. Electrification would develop rapidly and require immense quantities of lightweight conductive material for the long-distance transmission
of electricity. The Wright brothers gave birth to an entirely new aircraft industry which grew in partnership with the aluminium industry. The first commercial applications of aluminium were novelty items such as mirror frames and serving trays. Cooking utensils were also a major product marketed at an early stage. In time, aluminium grew in its diversity of applications to such an extent that virtually every aspect of modern life was directly or indirectly affected by its use. Today, the unique characteristics of aluminium, light weight, high strength, high toughness, extreme temperature capability, versatility of extruding, excellent corrosion resistance and recycling capabilities, make it the obvious choice of material for engineers and designers for a variety of welding fabrication applications.
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Automotive industry
Shipbuilding
The fast ferry projects have advanced the use of aluminPerhaps the most dynamic advancement in aluminium ium in shipbuilding through the development of a new welding fabrication within the USA today is taking concept in marine transportation. With an eye on profplace within the automotive industry. Promoted primarits, shipping companies are looking at high-speed aluily through environmental issues such as increased fuel minium ferries as a means of fast, efficient, lowefficiency, corrosion resistance and recycling, more and maintenance transport.The term fast ferries applies to more components made of aluminium are appearing in hydrofoils, wave-piercing catamarans and both monothe average automobile. The recent development of hulled and multi-hulled vessels built to carry large paymajor structural components fabricated entirely from loads of passengers and cargo at high speeds. Typically, aluminium, such as engine cradles, front and rear susthese vessels are around 100-130 feet in length and travpension frames, driveshafts and wheels, is complementel at 30-35 knots (35-40 mph). Aluminium-intensive ing the more traditional non-structural components mega-ferries are such as heat exchangmassive vessels ers, radiators and air measuring approxiconditioning units. mately 260 feet in Most of these welded length and carrying structural compoup to 700 passengers nents are manufacand 150 cars. Quadtured using 6xxx serimarans are among ries base alloys, makthe newest marine ing use of the ability transportation innoof this material to vations. Measuring produce complex ex180 feet in length, truded shapes and newer versions are welded with the designed to carry GMAW (MIG) weld600 passengers. ing process. Another These fast ferissue other than fuel ries regularly travel efficiency which is asat 60 knots (69 sociated with the use Figure 2. Welding fabricated aluminium wheels. mph), but they of aluminium within could achieve speeds of up to 110 knots (126.5 mph). this industry is safety. The basic physical characteristics The shipbuilding industry has made use of the highof aluminium lend themselves to creating automobiles strength magnesium base alloys such as 5083 welded that not only perform better in a collision but can actuwith 5183 filler alloy in order to obtain the minimum ally help to prevent crashes altogether. The strength-totensile strength requirements as specified in the codes. weight ratio of aluminium allows engineers to construct Often argon/helium shielding gas mixes are used to relarger vehicle crumple zones for improved energy abduce porosity and obtain broader and deeper penetrasorption. Aluminium structures can be designed to abtion for these high-quality welds. The unique combinasorb the same energy as steel at only 55% of the weight. tion of light weight, high strength and corrosion resisThis weight-saving results in less kinetic energy needing tance characteristics offered by aluminium makes these to be absorbed in a collision. Aluminium-intensive vehigh-speed developing marine applications possible. hicles provide better handling and braking capability, thereby improving their crash-avoidance ability. A Recreation and sporting equipment vehicle made of conventional material weighing 3,300 The advancement of high-tech sporting equipment and lbs and travelling at 60 mph requires 213 feet to stop. the increased use of high-strength heat-treatable aluGiven the same drivetrain, an aluminium-intensive veminium alloys such as the 7xxx series has revolutionhicle of the same size would weigh 2,000 lbs and could ized this industry. Many of the latest designs have instop in 135 feet. Similar improvements are being seen in corporated these lightweight, high-performance aluacceleration abilities, when a little extra speed could minium materials. Bicycle frames, baseball bats, golf make the difference in avoiding a collision. Welding clubs, sleds and snowmobiles are some of the many procedures used within this industry vary, but will typiproducts within this industry which are currently decally, wherever possible, make use of robotics. The fabpendent on aluminium alloys. This industry, with its thin rication of thin-wall heat exchangers involves the use of wall joining and its complex heat treatment, has prothe 4047 filler alloy which contains 11.0 to 13.0% silicon moted the development and use of specialized filler aland provides exceptional fluidity which helps to reduce loys designed to respond to thermal treatment and the leakage rates and improve productivity. The thicker madevelopment of welding techniques and equipment terial structural applications within this industry are ofproduced to comply with their strength and cosmetic ten able to make use of filler alloy 5356 for its improved application. strength and impact properties.
Transportation and containers

For reasons similar to those in the automotive industry, transportation vehicles are including more aluminium. Heated rail cars with line heaters and steam lines make use of aluminium base alloy 5454, welded with filler alloy 5554 for their strength and high temperature characteristics. Cryogenic tanks are manufactured from base alloy 5083, welded with filler alloy 5183 for their high strength at low temperature characteristics. Truck bodies and panels are manufactured from 5052, 5086, 5083 and 6061 and are often welded with filler alloy 5356 for its strength characteristics.
Defence and aerospace

These industries use high-strength 5xxx series (Al-Mg) non-heat-treatable base alloys for some applications, but they also make use of some of the more specialized heat-treatable aluminium alloys with superior mechanical properties. Aluminium armour plating is used for its impact strength and strength-to-weight ratio. Alloy 5083 and 7039 base materials are welded with 5356 filler, while 2519 base is welded with 2319 filler material. Missiles are constructed of 2019, welded with 4145 and 2219 welded with 2319 filler. Perhaps the most exotic aluminium alloys, with exceptional strength over a wide range of operating temperatures, are used in the aerospace industry. These alloys include 2219, 2014, 2090, 2024 and 7075. These base materials are typically used in specialized high-performance applications and have their own welding characteristics and associated problems which require special consideration when joining.
ium welding fabrication industry by providing assistance with the development of welding procedures, the welding and testing of new materials, evaluations of welding equipment for aluminium, investigations of welding problems and failure analyses of welded components. AlcoTec has worked for many years to develop technical literature, welding guidelines and training material and has been constantly involved, through its membership of society technical committees, in the development of national codes and standards relating to the manufacture of aluminium welding wire and the design and fabrication of welded aluminium structures. AlcoTec has developed a unique reputation for providing a premium quality product complemented by the highest level of technical support. This combination has been designed to ensure that our customers receive the ultimate value-added package which provides them with the capability to produce the highest quality welded components at the lowest overall cost. The use of aluminium continues to grow within the welding fabrication industry in terms of both size and complexity and with it the need for aluminium filler alloys which will meet these needs, the advancement of welding equipment specifically designed for welding aluminium and the need for resources which can provide industry with technical support.
AlcoTec Wire Corporations involvement in the advancement of aluminium welding technology

AlcoTec has continually worked with industry to provide products and services to meet its specific needs. AlcoTec has developed aluminium weld wire manufacturing methods which produce products that exceed the standard manufacturing specifications. Some of these product characteristics are incorporated in the standard product, such as a diameter control of one-tenth the national standard requirement. Others are applied to customized products for specialized applications, such as proprietary chemistries to assist with desired weld characteristics. These advancements have been developed through working closely with industry in order to provide products which will meet our customers requirements. AlcoTec has provided technical training for industry through its School for Aluminium Welding Technology. Hundreds of students, consisting of welding engineers, welding inspectors, welding supervisors and welding operators, have attended specialized training in order to upgrade their personal skills and assist their organization to advance within the aluminium welding fabrication industry. AlcoTec has applied its aluminium engineering experience to many new projects throughout the alumin-
Figure 3. Aluminium used in high speed marine applications.
About the author

Tony Anderson is Technical Services Manager of AlcoTec Wire Corporation USA, Chairman of the American Aluminum Association Technical Committee for Welding, and member of the American Welding Society (AWS) Committee for D1.2 Structural Welding Code Aluminum
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Friction Stir welding of AA 5083 and AA 6082 aluminium

by Helena Larsson and Leif Karlsson, ESAB AB, Gteborg and Lars-Erik Svensson, Volvo Teknisk Utveckling AB
Nowadays, aluminium alloys are used in many applications in which the combination of high strength and low weight is attractive. Shipbuilding is one area in which the low weight can be of significant value. In fact, the first aluminium boat was built in 1891 and the first welded aluminium ship in 1953 [1].
The two most frequently-used aluminium alloys for shipbuilding are AA 5083 (AlMg4.5Mn) for plates and AA 6082 (AlSi1Mg) for extrusions. The main alloying element in the 5000 series is magnesium. A magnesium content of around 5% provides good strength and high corrosion resistance in sea water. The 6000 series is mainly alloyed with magnesium and silicon, which results in a hardenable alloy. Al is also of interest in many other applications, such as the topside structures of offshore platforms, railway wagons and in the brewing industry. MIG welding is a flexible and productive method and is therefore widely used for welding aluminium alloys in shipbuilding. However, two disadvantages with MIG welding are the deformation of the base material and a decrease in the strength of the heat affected zone. Other fusion welding techniques like TIG and plasma welding are also widely used. However, these methods have the same weakness as MIG welding. An alternative to other fusion welding methods is the recently introduced Friction Stir Welding technique (FSW) The components that are going to be joined are placed on a backing plate and clamped using a powerful fixture. A rotating tool, consisting of a specially profiled pin with a shoulder, is forced down into the material until the shoulder meets the surface of the material (see Fig 1). The material is thereby frictionally heated to temperatures at which it is easily plasticised. As the tool is moved forwards, material is forced to flow from the leading face of the pin to the trailing one.
The technique was developed at TWI at the beginning of the 1990s [1] and processing technologies have been further developed by ESAB AB [2]. The first installation has been used successfully for more than one year for joining long plates and panels, up to 6m by 16m, mainly in AA 5083 and AA 6082 aluminium [2]. Although the practical application of the FSW technique has been successful, there is still a lack of design data and understanding of the failure mechanisms. Furthermore, as has been pointed out in a recent summary, much of the microstructural knowledge of friction stir welds is at an embryonic stage [3]. The aim of the present paper is to report on microstructural observations and provide information about the mechanical properties of joints welded using FSW.
2. Experimental set-up
2.1 Welding and materials Friction stir welds were produced in AA 5083 and AA 6082 aluminium using different combinations of plate thickness and welding speed, as shown in Table 1. Alloy AA 5083 is a non-heat-treatable Al-Mg alloy (4.6%Mg, 0.6%Mn, 0.3%Si) with good corrosion resistance, which is commonly used in seawater applications. AA 6082 aluminium is alloyed with Mg and Si (0.7%Mg, 0.5%Mn, 0.9%Si) and age hardens by the formation of Mg2Si precipitates.
Alloy Plate thickness (mm) Welding speed (cm/min)
AA 5083 15 4.6 10 6.6 10 9.2 6 9.2 6 13.2
AA 6082 10 26.4 10 37.4 5 53 5 75
Table 1. Plate thickness and welding speed for friction stir welds.
ratio R (=min stress/max stress) was 0.1 and the stress range was 90 to 150 Mpa. The fatigue samples were in the as-welded condition without machining the weld top and root faces.
Figure 1. Macrographs showing the appearance of a friction stir weld in 6 mm AA 5083, welded at 13.2 cm/min. The nugget zone ring pattern can be clearly seen in all three perpendicular sections. a) Cross-section b) Section parallel to the top surface just below the centre of the nugget region c) Longitudinal section to the left (in Fig. 1a) of the original joint face.
3 Results
3.1 Macrostructure of the weld zone The structure of FSW welds contains features that are not found in fusion welds. In a cross-section of a welded joint, the central part has a shape of a nugget (often asymmetrical), in contrast to the well-defined beads of a MIG weld. Larsson et al. [4] compared FSW welds with MIG welds and noted the presence of the annual rings (or onion ring structure, as defined by Threadgill [2]) in the FSW weld area which typically consists of concentric ovals. Immediately adjacent to the nugget is the plastically-deformed and heat-affected so-called thermomechanically-affected zone [2], which has only been affected by the heat flow. Macrographs in Figures 1 and 2 show one weld in AA 5083 and one in AA 6082 respectively, in three perpendicular sections. The cross-sections (Figs. 1a and 2a) show that the overall shape of the nugget is very variable, depending on the alloy used and the precise process conditions. However, one common feature is the central ring structure and the more well-defined nugget boundary on the side (to the right in Figs. 1a and 2a) where the tool travel and rotation direction coincide. Appendages to the nugget, extending to the edge of the tool shoulder on the upper surface, can also be seen on this side of the nugget. The complex shape of the nugget and the ring structure is also evident in sections parallel to the top surface (Figs. 1b and 2b) and in longitudinal sections parallel to the original joint face (Figs. 1c and 2c). However, it should be borne in mind that the appearance of the ring structure in these sections is dependent on the precise location of the section. 3.2 Microstructure of base material and weld zone
Figure 2. Sections of a friction stir weld in 5 mm AA 6082, welded at 75 cm/min. The macrographs show the nugget zone ring pattern in three perpendicular sections. a) Cross-section b) Section parallel to the top surface just below the centre of the nugget region c) Longitudinal section to the left (in Fig. 2a) of the original joint face.
2.2 Microstructural studies An in-depth microstructural investigation was carried out on the 5 mm AA 6082, welded at 75 cm/min, and on the 6 mm AA 5083, welded at 13.2 cm/min. Overviews of the microstructure were obtained using light optical microscopy (LOM), whereas scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used for the more detailed studies.
2.3 Hardness measurements and mechanical testing

A detailed hardness assessment was made of the two welds subjected to an in-depth microstructural study. The hardness (HV1) was measured horizontally and vertically through the centre of the nugget, on crosssections. Transverse tensile testing of the welds was also performed and the location of the fracture relative to the weld centre was examined. Detailed microhardness measurements (HV25g) were made to clarify whether there were any hardness differences between the ring pattern and locations between rings. The accuracy was estimated at two to three units for HV1 and four to six units for HV25g. Fatigue tests were conducted at room temperature and with a constant amplitude in tensile testing, according to ASTM E466. The frequency was 140 Hz. The load
The microstructure of the 6 mm AA 5083 material was homogeneous with grains elongated in the rolling direc-
Figure 3. SEM backscattered electron images of weld zone and base material in AA 6082. a) Base material b) Equiaxed grains in the nugget region c) Transition between the thermomechanically-affected zone (right) and the nugget zone. Note the similar grain size of the border ring and the interior of the nugget.
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Figure 4 (left) Horizontal hardness profile across friction stir weld in AA 6082. Figure 5 (right) Horizontal hardness profile across friction stir weld in AA 5083 measured 1.7 mm from the root face. The hardness profile was measured 2.5 mm from the root face and shows hardness minima in the thermomechanicallyaffected zone.
Alloy Plate thickness (mm) Welding speed (cm/min) Tensile strength (MPa)
AA 5083 15 4.6 318 10 6.6 344 10 9.2 331 6 9.2 312 6 13.2 303
AA 6082 10 26.4 226 10 37.4 236 5 53 254 5 75 254
Table 2. Transverse tensile properties of friction stir welds.
tion. Typical grain sizes were 30 m along the rolling direction and 20 m across. In AA 6082, the grain size was non-homogeneous (Fig. 3a), due to partial recrystallization. Recrystallized grains were about 10 m in size, whereas the size of non-recrystallized grains typically varied between 50 m and 150 m. The recrystallization of the nugget zone during friction stir welding effectively wiped out any trace of the previous grain structure. The nugget zone in both materials consisted of fine, equiaxed grains with a grain size of about 10 m (Fig. 3b). The transition between the nugget and the thermomechanically-affected zone was clearly visible in the AA 6082 alloy, as shown in Fig. 3c. This figure also illustrates that the ring contrast is not due to grain size differences. The contrast instead appears to be related to variations in grain orientation and possibly to the degree of relative disorientation between adjacent grains. 3.3 Hardness The hardness of unaffected base material was approximately 75 HV1 and was practically constant across the weld, both horizontally and vertically, in AA 5083 (Fig. 4). The horizontal hardness profile across the weld in AA 6082 (Fig. 5) had a significantly different appearance. Un-
affected base material is harder (about 110 HV1) and there is a decrease in hardness towards the weld, with a minimum of about 60-65 HV1 in the thermomechanicallyaffected zone.The hardness of the nugget zone itself is typically 70-75 HV1. A slight tendency towards decreasing hardness towards the top surface of the weld was noted at the centre of the weld. The location of isohardness curves, corresponding to 85 HV1, approximately corresponds to the width of the tool shoulder at the top side and becomes narrower towards the root side. Microhardness measurements (HV25g) across the nugget zone in AA 6082 did not show any systematic variations that could be correlated to the ring pattern (see also [5]). Nor did measurements in rings and between rings reveal any differences in hardness. 3.4 Tensile properties There is a considerable difference in the transverse strength of friction stir welds in the two alloys (Table 2). The transverse strength was between 303 and 344 MPa for AA 5083, while AA 6082 had a transverse strength in the range of 226 to 254 MPa. An interesting pattern was found when examining the location of the fracture. For welds in AA 5083, the fracture in most cases was close to the centre of the weld and the fracture surface was generally inclined
Figure 6 (left). Results of fatigue testing of FSW welds in base material AA 5083. All values are well above the design curve. Figure 7 (right). Fatigue properties of FSW weldments in AA 6082 base material. All experimental values are above the design curve.
about 45 degrees. The fracture surface was close to the centre of the weld on the root side, but the original joint line never appeared to be the initiation point. In AA 6082, the fracture was with few exceptions close to where the outer edge of the tool shoulder had touched the top side. The fracture surface was inclined, with the fracture surface closer to the weld centre at the root side but still displaced a few mm. 3.5 Fatigue properties In Figures 6 and 7, the fatigue properties of FSW weldments are presented and compared with design curves [8]. In most samples, the fracture was initiated in the base material, or in the centre of the weld. In only a few samples, the fractures started in the weld metal/base material transition region. All the tested samples showed very good fatigue behaviour. There are some indications that a lower welding speed results in higher resistance in the weld, although this has to be confirmed by further testing. Welds in base material AA 5083 showed better fatigue properties, compared with welds in AA 6082. The scatter was also larger for welds in AA 6082 than for welds in AA 5083.
served in aluminium welded using pulsed TIG. This ring pattern is due to varying grain size caused by a periodic change in cooling rate. However, no difference in grain size was noted between rings and areas between rings in friction stir welds (Fig.3c). Nor was any difference in particle distribution detected [6]. The absence of hardness differences between rings and areas between rings also supports the assumption that the ring structure is not associated with precipitation. A likely explanation is therefore that the movement of the rotating, profiled pin-tool through the material results in periodic variations in strain. This produce variations in grain orientation, or in the relative orientation of adjacent grains, resulting in differences in etching response. However, further investigations are needed to verify this hypothesis. 4.3 Mechanical properties Welded AA 5083 had a tensile strength close to that of material in annealed condition, whereas the weld strength of AA 6082 was between that typical of coldaged and heat-treated material. From measured strength levels it would therefore be expected that fracture would occur in the most annealed region in AA 5083 welds. This is in good agreement with the fracture usually taking place in the fully-annealed, equiaxed microstructure in the centre of the nugget zone. It was difficult to predict where to expect fracture in AA 6082 from strength comparisons. However, there was a clear correlation between fracture path and the measured line of lowest hardness.
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4.Discussion
4.1 Microstructure Special attention was paid to the annual rings seen in the nugget zone. A similar pattern has previously been ob-
4.4 Fatigue properties The fatigue resistance of a weld structure is largely controlled by the geometry and quality of the weldments. The fatigue stresses on the structure in a ship come from two main sources, externally applied loads from its progress through the water and initially generated loads from the machinery. Studies of fatigue resistance have generated a large amount of data which are summarised as design curves in the European Recommendations for Aluminium Alloy Structures Fatigue Design (ECCS) [8] and British Standard 8118 Structural Use of Aluminium [9]. The quality of workmanship can greatly affect the durability of structures and for many years the welding standards have specified quality levels for weldments. This investigation shows good fatigue properties for FSW samples with values above the design curves (Figures 6 and 7). The absence of any weld reinforcement, which results in minimal stress concentrations, is probably a major factor contributing to the good fatigue resistance. There are some differences between the fatigue properties of FSW welds in AA 5083 and AA 6082 base material. Welds in AA 5083 have a higher fatigue range, compared with welds in AA 6082 which showed a somewhat lower strength and large scatter.
[5] J. Karlsson, B. Karlsson, H. Larsson, L. Karlsson, and L.-E. Svensson: Proc. INALCO 98, 7th Int. Conf. On Joints in Aluminium, Cambridge, UK, 15-17 April 1998. [6] L. Karlsson, L.-E. Svensson and H. Larsson: Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on trends in welding research, Pine Mountains, GA, USA, 1-5 June 1998. [7] . Andersson, A. Norlin, and J. Backlund: Proc. International Engineering Conference Advanced Technologies & Processes Stuttgart, Germany, 30 Sept-2 Oct 1997. [8] European convention for structural steelwork. European Recommendations for Aluminium Alloy Structures Fatigue Design. ECCS 68, 1992. [9] British Standard BS8118, part 1 Structural Use of Aluminium.
5.Conclusions
The microstructure and hardness in rings inside the nugget zone of friction stir welds did not differ from that between rings. Most probably the nugget zone ring pattern is an effect of periodic differences in the crystallographic orientation of grains, or varying relative orientation in adjacent grains. The hardness only varied a little across the weld in AA 5083, whereas a marked minimum was seen in the thermomechanically-affected zone in AA 6082. Fracture in tensile specimens coincided with the line of lowest hardness for AA 6082 and was located in the nugget zone for AA 5083. The fracture path was not related to the ring pattern.
About the authors

Helena Larsson has since her graduation from Bergsskolan in Filipstad, Sweden, 1994, been working with materials research at the ESAB Metallographic Laboratory in Gteborg, Sweden. Helena is mainly working with questions concerning welding of aluminium and its alloys. Leif Karlsson, Ph.D, Senior Expert in welding of stainless steels at the ESAB Central Laboratories in Gteborg, Sweden. He joined ESAB in 1986 after graduating from Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg with a Masters degree in Engineering Physics in 1981 and finishing his Ph.D. in Materials Science in 1986. At ESAB he has been working with R&D on highly alloyed weld metal devoting much time to duplex stainless weld metals. He is currently holding a position as Manager Research Projects. Lars-Erik Svensson, Ph. D. has worked for more than 15 years with welding metallurgy, focusing primarily on unalloyed and low-alloyed steels. He has published one book and more than 25 papers on the microstructure and properties of welds. Since August 1999 he is working at Volvo Technologycal development Corporation.
6. References
[1] W.M. Thomas: Int. Patent Application No PCT/ GB92/02203, 10 June 1993. [2] K.-E. Knipstrm, and B. Pekkari: Svetsaren Vol. 52, No 1-2, 1997, pp 49-52. [3] P. Threadgill: TWI Bulletin, March/April, 1997, pp 30-33. [4] H. Larsson, L.-E. Svensson, and L. Karlsson: Proc. Welding and Joining Science and Technology, Madrid, Spain, ASM, 10-12 March 1997.
Equipment for aluminium welding

By Klas Weman, ESAB Welding Equipment, Lax, Sweden
In many cases, the arc welding of aluminium can be performed using methods and equipment that are similar to those used for welding steel. However, the physical properties of aluminium differ from those of steel in many respects and the equipment has to be adapted to guarantee reliable, high-quality aluminium welding.
MIG welding
An inexperienced aluminium welder will probably encounter most problems with the wire feed system. Experience of steel welding tells us that proper maintenance and the correct choice of accessory parts and dimensions are important. This also applies to aluminium welding, but there are some other rules which also have to be followed. The wire feed system Some types of aluminium filler material are very soft and they easily produce problems and burn-backs. So it is important to use a wire feed system that is recommended for aluminium welding. For the softest pure aluminium, the thinnest wires or the longest hoses, a push-pull wire feed system is the best choice, see Figure 1. The extra friction that builds up when the gun hose is curved is reduced by a push-pull system.
Figure 2. Align the drive rolls correctly. Misaligned rolls or excessive pressure distort the wire and cause feedability problems.
The welding gun The contact tip is a critical factor. Use the correct inner diameter, normally 0.3-0.4 mm larger than the wire diameter, to avoid fastening and burn-backs. Replace the contact tip when it is worn out. If you notice that friction from material that builds up at the inner surface, the contact tip can be cleaned using a round section saw blade. The liner and the inlet and outlet guides close to the feed rolls have to be made of a low-friction plastic material. Protect the wire from dust using a dust cover and clean the liner periodically, each time the electrode is changed, for example. As aluminium welding is very sensitive to the quality of the shielding gas, it is important to check for leaks. Water or moisture may not contaminate the shielding gas. Even very small quantities result in weld metal porosity. The gas hose has to be made of a material that is specially chosen for this purpose. Power source A normal MIG/MAG power source can normally also be used for aluminium welding. However, an inverter for pulsed arc operation is recommended. Power source characteristics In Europe, a constant-voltage (slope: 2-3 V/100 A) DC power source is used for all types of MIG/MAG welding. Constant voltage produces the best arc length control. In the United States, a drooping characteristic
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Figure 1. Difference between a push and a push-pull wire feed system.
The feed rolls that often have a V groove for hard steel electrodes should be replaced by rolls with a U groove for aluminium in order to prevent the wire deforming. Check that the size matches the wire and ensure that there are no sharp edges that will cut shavings off the wire. Excessive feed roll pressure distorts the wire, thereby increasing friction and producing rapid wear of the liner and contact tips. It is also important to align the two rolls to avoid wire distortion.
11
(slope: 10-20 V/100 A) is often recommended for aluminium welding. The reason for this is that it minimises current variations and produces more uniform penetration. A somewhat modified technique when starting may be necessary because of the lower short-circuit current. Pulsed arc welding Pulsed arc MIG welding is a method in which pulses from the power source control the transfer of drops from the electrode, making the arc stable and free from spatter even at low current settings. Short arc welding, which is very common for thin sheet steel welding, is not recommended for aluminium welding. A spray arc can only be used for heavy metal welding in the horizontal position. Pulsed arc welding is a method which extends the range of the spray arc down to low currents. Advantages of pulsed arc welding The opportunity to extend the spray arc range down to the lower setting range. The process is controlled and stable. No spatter generation. The stable arc makes it possible to use a thicker wire diameter, which will improve the wire feed properties. Less smoke generation due to lower drop temperature. Power sources for pulsed arc welding Modern inverter type power sources are as fast as needed to generate the pulses and control the arc length. They also have a database containing all the necessary information, Synergic lines, about setting all the parameters. The welder simply needs to adjust the wire feed speed and the pulses are automatically adapted.
Figure 4. A square-wave power source is the best choice for the TIG welding of aluminium.
Some 700 units have been sold by different manufacturers. As many as 85% of them are used in the transportation industry, where the majority are used for welding motor cycles. AC MIG welding can be combined with pulsed arc welding and is mainly used for thin sheet metal. During the portion of the time when the electrode is negative the melting rate of the electrode increases. This also means that, for a given wire feed speed, a lower current is necessary to melt the wire. At 50% negative polarity, the current will be reduced by 40%. The benefit is lower heat input, suitable for thin plate and with improved gap-bridging performance. A higher welding speed can be achieved without burning through. The lower heat input results in less distortion. However, the problem that arises relates to stability, as a result of poor arc re-ignition at the zero crossings. This problem can, however, be solved using a square-wave power source where the zero crossing time is very short.
TIG welding
When it comes to TIG welding, the equipment also has to be adapted to some extent for aluminium welding. Aluminium is normally welded with an AC current. DC, with the electrode negative (EN), which is used for steel, does not produce any oxide removal and a positive electrode (EP) would generate too much heat in the electrode. AC is a compromise solution, but here,
AC MIG welding of aluminium

This is something we have heard very little about in Europe and the USA, but it is more common in Japan.
Figure 3. Principle of pulsed arc welding. Current pulses from the power source have such a high amplitude that they reach above the green line where drops can be detached from the electrode. Between pulses, there is a low background current. The mean current (blue line) and the heat input can be kept low. The pulse frequency is in the range of 50-300 Hz.
FSW compared with other processes Good, reproducible weld quality. No porosity or lack of fusion. Energy-efficient, low heat input. This results in low levels of deformation and little impact on material strength. Minimum surface preparation and no need for postweld treatment. No light emission, no smoke or toxic gases that are dangerous for the operator or other personnel are produced. No consumables are needed. FSW in production The ESAB SuperStirTM plant at Marine Aluminium in Norway (see Figure 6) has been designed primarily for the production of panels for ships and railway wagons, but it can also be used for other parts such as heavy profiles. The maximum panel dimensions are 16 x 6 metres. Aluminium alloys of almost every kind, from 1.6 mm up to 15 mm, can be welded in one run and the most common, 6082-T6 in 5 mm thickness, can be welded at a speed of 750-1,000 mm/min. This machine was the very first FSW and has been in use since 1996. The experience acquired at Marine Aluminium shows that the tool service life is 1,0002,000 metres of welds (depending on the material used). By April 2000, the plant had produced some 200,000 m without any kind of defect.
Figure 5. The principle of friction stir welding.
too, the development of modern square-wave power sources with a balance control for the percentage of positive/negative polarity has improved performance. For AC welding, the electrode should have a rounded shape not a sharp tip, as is the case for DCEN welding. Another solution that is sometime used for welding aluminium with DCEN is to use helium as the shielding gas. However, the higher arc voltage drop in helium may necessitate a power source with high open-circuit voltage.
Friction stir welding

One interesting development when it comes to friction welding is the method involving a rotating tool, socalled Friction Stir Welding (FSW). The two parts of the workpiece are clamped in a square butt weld onto a backing bar. Together with the shouldered tool, this clamping prevents the joint metal from flowing up or the plates being moved out of position. The tool has a profiled probe that is forced through the material. Frictional heat is generated between the tool and the material in the workpieces. The joint metal is softened without reaching melting point and allows the tool to traverse the weld line. The plasticised material is transferred from the leading edge of the tool probe to the trailing one. It leaves a solid-phase bond between the two pieces. The process can be regarded as a solid-phase keyhole welding technique, as a hole to accommodate the probe is generated and is then moved along the weld during the welding sequence.
About the author

Klas Weman, MSc, is involved with Training and Education at ESAB Welding Equipment AB in Lax, Sweden, and also at the Welding Technology Department at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden.
Figure 6. Plant for fhe friction stir welding of panels from extrusions at Marine Aluminium in Norway.
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Adding NO to the Argon or Argon/ Helium mixture does the trick

Johan Lindstrm, and Ola Runnerstam, AGA AB, Sweden
The effect of NO (nitrogen monoxide) as an additive in shielding gases has been used successfully for many years as a patented solution to reduce ozone levels in the welders breathing zone. New findings have concluded that the NO addition also has a very good effect on the welding properties in MIG and TIG welding of aluminium. Adding NO remarkably stabilises the arc, giving an improved control of the weld pool and results in a more regular surface of the weld together with a substantial increase of the penetration.
Figure 1. Probability of being exposed to ozone levels exceeding the TWA value (0.1 ppm) during welding with different metals and methods
Introduction
The use of aluminium has increased dramatically over the last couple of years and so has the welding of aluminium. Great effort is currently put into increasing the knowledge how to weld aluminium in a more productive and quality oriented environment. This also means that there is a continuous development of welding consumables, such as shielding gases.
Argon 4.8 Arc stability Control of the weld pool Fusion behaviour weld pool Low undercut Low amount of spatter Brightness of the weld Regularity of the surface of the weld Total (+) + + + + ++ ++ ++ 10
Ar+ 0.03%NO ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ 13
Ar/He (70/30) + + ++ + ++ + + 9
Ar/He(70/30) +0.03%NO ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ 14
Table 1. Welders subjective opinion comprising of an average of four different positions. ++ excellent, + good, 0 satisfactory, - poor, very poor.
Figure 2a: Shielding gas: argon + 30 % helium.
factor. The ozone formation when welding aluminium is higher than compared with welding other materials. Ozone is a colourless, highly toxic gas which affect the mucous membranes mainly in the respiratory passages. Symptoms of excessive ozone exposure include irritation or burning in the throat, coughing, chest pain and wheezing. The NO component in the MISON shielding gases have for many years successfully been used to reduce the ozone levels that the welder is subjected to during welding. This results in a better overall working environment and, consequently, less absence. Due to the significantly more stable arc that the NO in the shielding gas component provides, resulting in a more controlled weld pool, the welder can more readily weld in difficult positions. Less undercutting is another advantage experienced when using the NO containing shielding gas. Table 1 compares argon, argon+NO, argon/helium and argon/helium+NO from manual AC-TIG welding. The data is derived as an average of positional welding in four different positions.
Improves Arc Stability

The stability of the arc always decrease with an increasing amount of helium in the argon shielding gas. This is often considered a problem, especially in TIG welding. The addition of 0.03% NO stabilises the arc and makes positional welding easier. In some positions where helium-rich shielding gases are difficult to use due to the unstable arc, the NO containing gas can more readily be used. The stabilising effect can be recorded on an x/t recorder and printed confirming the more stable arc. (see Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b showing signals from the x/t recorder of current and voltage in TIG-AC welding).
Figure 2b: Shielding gas: argon + 30 % helium + 0.03% NO.
Increased Penetration
The increase in penetration when adding 0.03% NO, especially in AC-TIG welding, is dramatic. As can be seen in Fig. 3, only adding 0.03% of NO to argon increases the penetration with nearly 46% comparing to argon. Using an argon/helium, 70/30 mixture, increases the penetration as can bee expected due to the higher arc power and heat that helium provides. Adding NO to the same mixture increases the penetration even further coming up to nearly the double penetration compared to argon.
Figure 3. Differences in depth (penetration) of the weld compared to argon.
Reducing filler metal

The addition of NO results in a flatter weld bead. Figure 4 illustrates the difference (percentage) in height of the bead (excess weld bead), in this case for MIG welding, using argon, argon+0.03%NO, argon/helium and argon/helium+0.03%NO. Although the difference in percentages are relatively small, it is clear that the addition of 0.03% NO consequently results in less reinforcement of the welds as can be seen in Figure 4. In the case of argon/helium+0.03% NO the difference is over 15%, which can be considered significant. This also means a significant reduction in required filler material, resulting in a significant cost saving.
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Ozone Reduction
Many gas companies are today offering shielding gases for aluminium welding where additives are included in small amounts. Oxidising elements like O2 and N2 has been added in ppm levels to argon and argon/helium mixtures. AGA has, since the mid-seventies, marketed such a product range for all shielding gas applications under the registered trademark MISON. This group of shielding gases all has the additive NO as a common
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Figure 4. Difference in height (reinforcement) of the weld compared to argon (MIG welding)
How to reduce porosity

The occurrence of porosity represent a major problem to aluminium welding companies, many times giving a high rejection rate and therefore increasing cost. The porosity is caused by hydrogen trapped in the metal as it cools. The sources of hydrogen are many, such as moisture from the air, moist entrapped in the oxide layer of the metal as well as oil and grease on the metal surface. Proposed solutions to minimise porosity are manifold, welding with a helium-rich shielding gas is one measure that under some conditions minimises porosity. The extra heat that the helium results in causes the melt to cool slower, resulting in degassing of the melt pool. A major cause of porosity is moisture entering the weld though the welding torch. This moisture does not come from the shielding gas, which has a moisture content generally below 4 ppm. Often it is either a result of condensation within the gas hoses that transports the gas from the piping system or cylinder to the torch, or as a result of moisture pickup from the circulated water in the cooling system running in the same hose package. Measurements in production environments of up to 400 ppm, resulting in heavy porosity, have been made. The moisture levels are especially high in the mornings, when the welding starts because the system has been inoperative during the night. During the night condensation has occur. If the system is purged continuously during the night with 1 l/min the moisture levels in the morning are, in most cases below 20 ppm. The cost of purging with 1 l/min is minor relative to the cost savings that can be achieved. This also requires that the right material is used in the gas hoses. Materials like rubber and PVC adsorbs more moisture than for example PE. Different brands of torches act differently, some torches allows air to pass in resulting in a heavy black layer next to the weld, but also allows the atmospheres moisture to get in to the weld.
Conclusions
Adding NO to the argon or argon/helium mixture increases the quality and raises the productivity when welding aluminium. The most applicable and effective way of reducing porosity is to see to that proper hoses and torches are used and that the hoses are purged sufficiently. The advantages of using 0.03%NO in argon and argon/helium mixtures can be summarised A remarkably more stable arc Makes positional welding easier Deeper penetration Very regular welds Less excess weld bead Less ozone The experiences is that adding NO to the argon or argon/helium mixture results in increased quality and productivity which in turn increases customers competitive strength.
About the authors

Johan Lindstrm, M. Sc, (Materials eng.) joined AGA AB in 1995 after graduating from The Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. He started as a development engineer for welding gases and now holds a position as Corporate Marketing Manager Cutting Processes and Retail, business area Manufacturing Industry. Ola Runnerstam, MSc, has for more than 10 years worked with R&D within the welding department of AGA AB. Today he is working as product manager for shielding gases in the Swedish subsidiairy, AGA Gas AB.
High quality aluminium welding a key factor in future car body production
by Lars-Ola Larsson, and Niclas Palmquist, Volvo Cars, Advanced Manufacturing Eng. and Johnny K Larsson, Volvo Cars, Advanced Body Engineering
The automotive industry is constantly looking for new ways to reduce fuel consumption. This is not only an individual concern for the car customer but also an environmental question on a more global level. When it comes to meeting these environmental requirements, the contribution from body design and manufacturing engineers lies in the field of weight savings.
Due to its low specific weight and good recyclability, aluminium stands out as a natural materials candidate and it is therefore self-evident that an increased amount of aluminium is expected to be seen in future car bodies. To be well prepared for the introduction of new legislative demands, introduced in order to avoid the subversion of our planet, the Volvo Car Corporation has for many years been conducting broad-based research programmes on aluminium car body structures. To obtain the optimum performance from a structure of this kind, it generally has to be manufactured in a manner that differs from the current steel uni-body solutions. In this context, the use of advanced joining techniques plays an important role and a great deal of interest has therefore recently focused on aluminium joining techniques. The results of some of these laboratory and semiproduction trials are presented in this article. Three main subjects are reviewed. They are: Pulsed MIG welding of structural parts Aluminium tailored blanking Laser stitch welding of an all-aluminium bonnet At the end of the article, the authors attempt to analyse the future use and development trends for the joining and assembly of automotive aluminium structures.
number of basic tests have to be conducted. From a welding point of view, these tests focus on the influence of: Filler wires and shielding gases Surface conditions and the type of lubricants on the base material Welding positions and gap sizes Node joint design enabling robust robotic welding of sheet thickness combinations in the joint set-up Optimal weld length and sequences Equipment; robot, wire feeding systems and welding power source The design strategy of the Volvo Car Corporation is to avoid castings, which means that there are basically three typical joint designs profile to profile (1), sheet to profile (2) and sheet to sheet (3) combinations, see the following presentation. Due to the relatively high energy input, MIG welding is mainly restricted to the profile to profile combination and is only be used in the two other cases mentioned here if it is not possible to use laser welding, riveting or resistance spot welding. The basic equipment and weld set-up in the following 2D and 3D structures has been: KUKA Functional Package with (Quadro Drive) push-pull system Pure argon shielding gas supply AlSi12 filler wire with a diameter of 1.2 mm
Pulsed MIG welding of structural parts

In order to meet the demand for future lightweight designs, such as aluminium space frame structures, a great deal of effort has been put into the area of pulsed MIG welding. This is a flexible joining method which can be used with single-sided access. In car production, MIG/MAG welding has normally been restricted to component parts and tack welding in body shops. When both new materials and new joining techniques are introduced in car body shops, a large
2 1 Figure1. Typical joint design configurations.
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Structural 2D welding
A large number of simplified generic frames have been welded and thoroughly examined and tested. In the frame, extruded aluminium profiles of AA6060-T6 alloy with a thickness of 2.0 and 3.0 mm have been used. All the welding has been performed robotically and turning units have been used to evaluate different welding positions, welding sequences and clamping principles (see the simulations in the following figure)
Structural 3D welding
A concept study was originally started in order to evaluate the production of aluminium space frames in the existing S/V70 and S80 body shops. This involves the robotised welding (production like) of the aluminium car body structure in the existing Volvo pallet systems. The space frame structure and the pallet system are divided into floor, sides and roof frames/pallets which are positioned, fixed and joined at a separate station called MPF, Multi-Pallet Framing. See Figure 5 taken from the pilot building in a manual MPF station.
Figure 2. Simulation results from welding access control in different welding positions.
The majority of the joints were fillet joints but some butt joints were also tested. See some typical crosssections in Figure 3. Note the pores in the welds and the overfill of the butt joint. Pore formation can be kept to a minimum if the parts are washed and pickled just before welding. On the other hand, too complicated a pretreatment process is costly.
Figure 5. Rear view of the concept car in the manual MPF station.
Figure 3. Typical cross-sections of a horizontal fillet weld and a flat butt joint.
In order to achieve robust welding quality, butt joints should be avoided, mainly because of their sensitivity to gaps. The synchronous welding of frames with two robots has also been tested. The recording of measurements over a large number of distortion sensors, positioned over the generic frame, has shown that the overall distortion can be reduced by more than 50% when using symmetrical welding. In addition, even less distortion was achieved when optimal clamping and welding sequences were tested. See principal test set-up in the Figure 4.
This study involved many technical disciplines, such as geometry assurance, surface preparation for joining, joining technology, manufacturing engineering and suitable surface treatment for the paint shop. From a joining perspective, evaluations were carried out in order to study the influence of: Existing clamping and tolerance situation with hydroformed parts Different welding sequences and welding positions Different joint geometry designs A 3D joint of the A-pillar in a side palette is shown in Figure 6. It is important to have good joint preparation with very low cutting tolerances in order to keep gap sizes to a minimum.
Figure 6. Detailed study of a 3D MIG joint and the corresponding result after welding.
In parallel to the concept building, comprehensive work has been carried out in the field of equipment development and quality assurance. Different robotic functional packages and in-process monitoring systems have been evaluated and these activities are still in progress. Many activities are also on-going in the field of NDT (Non Destructive Testing).
Laser welding of tailored blanks in aluminium

Figure 4. Principal test set-up for symmetrical welding of generic frames.
Over the years, the tailored blanking of steel sheets has become more and more popular and today this method
is widely used within the automotive industry all over the world. In the case of certain applications, the benefits of reduced material weight and total costs outweigh the increased cost of the joining process and the forming tools, which justifies this investment. The next step is to use the knowledge acquired from tailored blanking in steel and adapt it to aluminium. Relatively simple welding equipment can be used for tailored blanking operations as welding is performed in two-dimensional form. In most cases, the welding is done with a gantry system for handling the mirror in combination with a high-power CO2 laser of 5-8 kW, but, in the case of aluminium tailored blanking, Nd:YAG laser welding is an alternative due to the higher absorption of the Nd:YAG laser light. Less power can then be used to reach the same weld speeds and less heat is put into the material. Experience has shown that both Nd:YAG- and CO2 lasers can be used for aluminium tailored blanking [1].
Figure 7. 4 kW laser source and set-up with linear fixture for clamping.
When welding aluminium, a power density of at least 1 MW/cm2 on the workpiece is required, otherwise the laser beam will reflect on the surface of the material. For a stable welding process, and to perform keyhole welding, at least 2 MW/cm2 is required, due to the high reflection and heat transfer of aluminium. Previously, aluminium has only been weldable when using focal lengths of about 100 mm, projecting a very small spot on the material to maintain the required power density. The increased beam quality and output power of today's Nd:YAG lasers make it possible to weld aluminium with up to twice the focal length, 200 mm. Advantages include the reduced contamination of the sensitive lenses on the welding equipment, reduced sensitivity to fluctuation in height, allowing cheaper guidance systems, and increased access. A comparison
between weld speeds for different focal lengths can be seen in Figure 8. Too short a focal length results in a great deal of spatter and an oxidised root side. Defocusing the focal point does not stabilise the welding process. Due to the aggressive welding process and the short distance, the protection glass of the optics contaminates quickly As different from steel, aluminium normally displays a decrease in strength after welding. Previous investigations have shown that the tensile strength of 5000-series (Al-Mg) aluminium alloys can also be obtained in the weld, but at a reduced elongation [3]. For heat-treatable alloys, like the 6000-series (Al-Mg-Si), the weld zone normally shows a decrease in tensile strength to 70-90% or less than that of the base material [4]. The condition of the material prior to welding has also been shown to be critical for the strength obtained after welding [5]. Material in the soft condition, normally 5000-series, does not display any difference in Rp and Rm before and after welding, while 6000-material in the tempered condition T4 shows a decrease in Rm to 6585% of the base material, while Rp is unaffected, and material in T6 condition shows a decrease to 65-85% in both Rm and Rp. In the case of tailored blanking, material from both the 5000- and 6000-series alloys is of interest, depending on the final application. The differences between the two alloy types are the content of the alloying elements magnesium and silicon. For the materials normally used within the automotive industry, the magnesium content of the Al-Mg alloys is generally in the range of 1.8-3.0%, while in the Al-Mg-Si alloys the content of the elements is 0.4-0.6% for magnesium and 0.91.2% for silicon. The mixture of magnesium and silicon in 6000-series alloys has been shown to be sensitive to cracks in the weld zone. The laser welding of tailored blanks is normally performed in a butt weld configuration with sheets of different thickness or material quality. The welding orientation of the materials used in the blank can vary. Welding is either performed on the flush surface, orienting the step of the different thickness downwards, or on the step side. Choosing one or the other influences the weld quality and the achieved weld speed [2].
Weld Speed [m/min]
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
150 mm 200 mm
Figure 9. Welding position step side versus flush side.
3,0
3,5
Figure 8. Weld speed as a function of focal length and material thickness. Material AA-5052, welded from stepside [2].
Depending on the thickness combination, the difference in weld speed between the flush side and the step side increases as the difference in thickness increases, see the following figure. On the other hand, the top and root bead appearances are much smoother when welding on the step side, see the following figure.
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Aluminium alloy AA-5052 (AlMg2.5) AA-5754 AA-6016 (AlMg0.4Si1.2) (Ac120) Ecodal 608 (AlMg0.8Si0.9) AA-6111
Condition O O T4 T4 T4
Rp [Mpa] 110 105 124
Rm [MPa] 190 205 235
Thickness 1.03.0 mm 1.03.0 mm 0.82.5 mm 0.82.0 mm 0.82.5 mm
Table 1. Data for typical aluminium materials for the automotive industry.
Alloy AA-5052 AA-5754 AA-6016 AA-6111 Ecodal 608
Si < 0.25 < 0.40 1.01.5 0.71.1 0.71.0
Fe < 0.40 < 0.40 0.50 < 0.40 < 0.50
Cu < 0.10 < 0.10 0.20 0.50.9 < 0.25
Mn < 0.10 < 0.50 0.20 0.150.45 < 0.40
Mg 2.22.8 2.63.6 0.250.60 0.51.0 0.600.95
Cr < 0.05 < 0.30 0.10 < 0.10 < 0.30
Ti < 0.05 < 0.15 0.15 < 0.10 < 0.30
Zn < 0.10 0.20 < 0.15 < 0.50
Table 2. Chemical composition for the alloys from Table 1.
Figure 10. Cross-sections of welds welded from the step side and flush side.
When welding thicker to thinner materials from the step side, the seam appearance is normally improved if the laser beam is positioned with an offset towards the thicker material. The thicker material needs more heat to melt and can also serve as extra material to smooth the weld. Depending on the thickness, an offset of 0.1 to 0.2 mm should be used.
10 9 8 Stepside Flushside
Weld Speed [m/min]
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1.5/1.0 AA-5052/AA-5052 2.0/1.0 AA-5052/AA-5052 2.5/1.0 AA-5052/AA-5052 3.0/1.0 AA-5052/AA-5052 2.0/1.0 Ecodal/Ecodal
Generally speaking, welds welded with filler material display a smoother transition between the two materials, reducing the sensitivity to fatigue failure. Another advantage of using filler wire is the smaller sensitivity to gaps. Typically, up to 0.5 mm can be bridged when using filler compared with a maximum 0.3 mm gap without filler. When welding in the flush orientation, the addition of filler wire will also reduce the risk of undercut in the weld surface. When applying filler material, additional heat is required to melt the extra material, which results in a reduction in weld speed. To achieve full penetration welding, the speed normally has to be reduced by 10-20% compared with welding without filler, see Diagram 2. Depending on the alloying content of the filler wire, it is either used to increase strength or to avoid hot cracking in the weld zone during solidification. It also stabilises the plasma and reduces the risk of explosions and holes in the weld. Wires like AlMg5 increase the strength of the weld but produce more of a frying weld process than welding with an AlSi5 wire. However, the AlSi5 wire does not increase the strength of the joint but reduces the risk of cracks when welding in 6000series material.
Diagram 1. Weld speed as a function of seam orientation.

15 14 13 12 11 7 10 Wire Speed AlSi5 Wire Speed AlMg5 9 8 Weld Speed, without filler Weld Speed with AlSi5 Weld Speed with AlMg5 10
Weld Speed
8 5 7 6 5 3 4 3 2 1 1 0 1.0 /1.0 AA-5052/AA-5052 1.0 /1.0 AA-6016/AA-6016 1.0 /1.0 Ecodal/Ecodal 1.0 /1.0 AA-5052/Ecodal 0 2 4
Wire Speed
Diagram 2. Wire and welding speed for different material combinations and filler wire materials.
Simple bending tests on 6000-alloys welded with filler wire have shown failures in the base material and not in the weld, as is the case without filler. Tested combinations of different materials with filler wire have shown an increase in static strength and especially in samples welded with AlMg5 wire, in some cases as high as or higher than the base material . To test the formability of a blank, spheres can be formed. The resulting force during forming and the displacement before a crack in the blank determines the formability. The cracking behaviour of the blank also defines the forming properties of the joint, see the following figure.
terials, but a slight decrease can be seen, together with a more oxidised root, when welding in thicker material. The depth of focus for this kind of optics is approximately 4 mm. For laser welding in aluminium., helium is the most frequently used shielding gas, but welding can also be performed without shielding. The drawback of not using any shielding gas is a more intense weld process with an increased amount of spatter. The advantage is an increased weld speed of up to 40% depending on the material thickness.
Laser stitch welding of an all-aluminium bonnet

The production laser welding test on the Volvo 960 aluminium bonnet was a continuation of a joint venture between Volvo, BMW, Porsche and Mercedes Benz. It was initially designed to develop new types of fixation equipment for single-sided Nd:YAG laser processing. Taking account of the fact that the Nd:YAG laser has a more favourable wavelength than the CO2 laser when it comes to welding aluminium, the project management decided to run a limited production test on a suitable aluminium component. One necessary condition for this production test was to have an opportunity to integrate the test equipment in the production line and to have possible back-up from standard RSW (Resistance Spot Welding) equipment. The production layout of the bonnet for the 960 luxury model created both these opportunities. The production test was carried out as standard sub-assembly production with the opportunity stop production for evaluations and adjustments of welding parameters [6]. The laser welded application consisted of the inner bonnet itself and five additional reinforcements for hinges/gas struts, locks and safety latch, which are normally joined together using resistance spot welding. The material specification for the different parts can be found in Table 3 and the complete inner bonnet is illustrated in Figure 13.
Figure 11. Cracking behaviour of welded aluminium blanks.
Beamsplitting, or twinspot, is a way to split the laser beam into two points, close to one another, at the workpiece. The spots can either be diverted in the longitudinal direction of the laser beam, or transversely in the horizontal plane, see the following figure. When diverted transversely in the same horizontal plane, the points can be oriented in any direction to the weld direction and with the opportunity to balance the energy distribution between the two points for example, allowing different energy to be focused on different material thicknesses. Experience has shown that transverse beam splitting reduces the weld speed to approximately half the speed with normal optics.
Part Figure 12. The principle of the two twinspot techniques, in the same horizontal plane (left) and in the same vertical plane (right).
Alloy
Thickness Pickled Number (mm) Yes Yes No Yes 1 2 2 1
Bonnet, inner AlMg2Mn0.3 1.0 Hinge/gas strut reinforcement AlMg2.5 2.0 Lock reinforcement Safety latch reinforcement AlMg2.5 AlMg2.5 1.5 1.5
When the beam is diverted in the longitudinal direction, the energy is evenly distributed between the two spots and with a distance of about 3.5 mm between them. In this case, the distance can also be changed by changing the focal length. Splitting the beam in this direction does not have any effect on the weld speed compared with normal optics when welding in thin ma-
Table 3. Parts specification for the 960 bonnet, inner section.

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Figure 13. Laser welding of the Volvo 960 Series aluminium bonnet.
An Nd:YAG laser cell was built in the Volvo Olofstrm plant [Figure 14], introducing a 2kW Rofin Sinar Nd:YAG laser together with a six-axis KUKA articulated-arm robot with a load-carrying capacity of 125 kg. The size of the robot was chosen so that it would be able to carry both the welding head with integrated beam delivery fibre optics and the so-called Picker unit. This is a two-axis, NC-controlled, movable table, controlled by the robot control unit and acting as the seventh and eight axis of the robot [Figure 15]. The robot positions the Picker unit at the starting point of the welding path, after which the Picker moves the welding head during the welding operation, while the robot is fixed. Using the two Picker feet, controlled pressure is applied to the sheets in order to control the gap between the sheets that are being welded together [7].
The cell had the shape of a completely closed safety cabin, inside which the welding took place. The cooling unit and the control cabinets for the robot and the laser, as well as the shielding gas battery, were outside the cabin. Loading and unloading was done manually from outside the cell through an opening that was closed with a sliding door during the welding operation. The parts were placed on a tilting fixture, which was in a vertical position during loading and unloading and in a horizontal position during welding. The reinforcements were welded to the inner structure of the bonnet with 32 18-mm long weld stitches using the Laser Picker technique. The average power was 1.8 kW when the laser was operated at a frequency of 50 Hz. The initial welding speed was 0.9 m/min, which could be increased during the cycle, due to the heat conductivity of the material, up to 1.5 m/min. A sensitive mixture of helium and argon as the shielding gas proved necessary to obtain satisfactory weld quality. The ideal mixture ratio proved to be 90% helium to 10% argon. The shielding gas was supplied through a separate hose at 11 l/min to the gas nozzle situated close to the laser focal point. To prevent aluminium spatter from the welding process sticking to the covering glass which protects the focusing lens, a cross-jet device had to be developed [Figure 16]. This unit is placed under the cover glass and creates an air stream (air pressure 1.2 bar) which, on the inside, crosses the opening of the laser nozzle. The avoidance of contamination of the covering glass is essential to maintain stable welding conditions and thereby the required weld quality. However, due to the short focal distance of 120 mm, spatter and dust from the welded material still stuck the outside of the watercooled laser nozzle and inside the cross-jet outlet. For this reason, a small rotating brush had to be included for the auto-cleaning of the nozzle after each work cycle. The total cycle time in the cell was 3 minutes 20 seconds, of which approximately two minutes were real welding time.
Figure 14. Flexible Nd:YAG laser welding cell at the Volvo Olofstrm pressing plant.
Figure 16. Cross-jet nozzle for the protection of laser optics.
Figure 15. Concept of the Laser Picker welding head.
In order to guarantee the quality of the welded parts before delivery, some bonnets were checked by destructive testing at a frequency of one per 50 bon-
nets Using a hammer, chisel and tongs, the joint was stressed until it broke. The weld was regarded as OK if the fracture occurred in one of the sheets and not in the weld itself. During the production period, a comparison was made with conventionally spot-welded bonnets. The results of 87 comparisons were as follows: 42 laser-welded bonnets were regarded as better then ordinary spot-welded ones 42 laser-welded hoods were regarded as equal to ordinary spot welded ones three laser-welded hoods were regarded as worse than ordinary spot welded ones In order to perform a more accurate follow-up of joint quality, laboratory tests were carried out as an integrated part of the production test. For each bonnet, randomly selected for this quality check, a cut was made perpendicular to the welding direction for every one of the 32 weld stitches. These cross-sections were then analysed in a microscope and the occurrence of cracks and pores was determined, as well as the penetration width and depth. It was noted that a certain number of pores occurred. This was mainly dues to disturbances in the welding process and was not seen as a vital problem as no pores could be found in half the bonnets examined. In some of the bonnets,cracks inside the welds were discovered. It is our experience that this can be avoided by improving the mating of the surfaces that are going to be welded together. Because, even if the gap between the sheets is closed by the pressure of the Picker feet during welding, there are increased tensile stresses on the weld during cooling. However, the cracks that were observed did not have any serious effect on the strength of the joint. The average penetration width was 1.40 mm, ranging from 1.00 mm to 1.70 mm. One reason for this variation is the continuous decrease in output power due to wear to the arc lamps and the action taken to counteract this, such as decreasing the welding speed, adjusting the focal length and replacing the lamp. Another reason for penetration width variations is the cross-jet problem described earlier, resulting in unsteady output power because of dust and spatter contaminating the cover glass. Figure 17 below shows the penetration width variations. Point 1 shows the width just before a planned decrease in speed because of arc lamp wear. Point 2 shows the width immediately after replacing all the arc lamps with new ones. The extreme value for point 3 is explained by the mistake of welding without helium shielding gas. The average penetration depth into the reinforcements, including all 32 weld stitches on all the bonnets measured, is 0.73 mm, ranging from 0.42 m to 1.19 mm. The reasons for the depth variations are similar to those for the width variations earlier described.
Figure 17. Penetration width variation.
This test was limited to a six-month period during which 100-120 bonnets were produced in each working shift. A total of 10,000 bonnets were produced during this time. If an availability calculation is performed, based upon the number of parts mentioned above and a cycle time including 98% productive time (lowfrequency activities are then regarded as planned maintenance outside ordinary working time), the technical availability is estimated at 95.7% and the technical efficiency at 99.6% [ ]. The number of stops during the production test were 37, representing a total stoppage time of ,1445 minutes. The most frequent stops were due to fibre monitoring alarms (eight times) and exploded laser lamps (five times). The longest stops occurred when a broken fibre or hose had to be replaced. It is difficult to compare the laser-welded solution with the traditional spot-welded one, as the first one was a test installation that was not fully optimized. On the other hand, what can be compared are the figures relating to non-productive activities per part. These account for 12 seconds for the laser welding, whereas the corresponding time for tip dressing and cleaning in the RSW case, for example, is 15 seconds. This means that the relationship between the productive cycle time and the total cycle time in the fully automated production spot welding station is 88%. The yearly running cost for this installation is calculated in Table 4. It is based on a one-shift operation during the daytime and indicates a capacity of 27,000 produced parts a year.
Total cost (SEK) Shielding gas Electric power Spare parts Manpower, production Manpower, maintenance Stoppage cost TOTAL 38,600 7,500 87,250 175,000 7,000 8,400 323,750 Cost per part Cost per year (SEK) (SEK) 3,86 0,75 8,73 17,50 0,70 0,84 32,38 104.220 20,250 235,710 472,500 18,900 22,680 874,260
Table 4. Summary of running costs.

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The running costs for the laser-welded inner bonnet ended up at SEK 32.38, but once again it must be stressed that, as this was not an optimized installation, the cost is hardly relevant, as more than half of it is accounted for by manpower costs in connection with the manual loading and unloading operations.
References
[1] Carlsson, T., Palmquist, N., Laser Welding of Aluminium Tailored Welded Blanks, from Laboratory Trials to Test on Real Application, Proceedings 7th NOLAMP Conference, August 1999. [2] Carlsson, T., Palmquist, N., Nd:YAG Laser Welding of Aluminium Blanks, Utilised Technical Aspects on Weldability and Formability, Proceedings 7th NOLAMP Conference, August 1999. [3] Nagel, M, Fischer, R, Lwen, Straube, O., "Production and application of aluminum tailored blanks", Proceedings IBEC97, 1997. [4] Pohl, T., Schultz, M., "Laser beam welding of aluminium alloys for light weight structures using CO2- and Nd:YAG-laser systems", Proceedings LANE97, 1997. [5] ASM Handbook Volume 6, Welding, Brazing and Soldering, 1993. [6] Larsson, J.K.: Laser Welding - A Suitable Tool to Help Realizing Light Weight Car Body Structures, Proceedings 6th International Congress of the European Automobile Engineers Cooperation, Cernobbio, Italy, July 1997. [7] Larsson, J.K.: High Power Nd:YAG Laser Welding A Promising Manufacturing Technique for Future Light Weight Car Bodies, Proceedings 17:e Nordiske Svejsemde, Copenhagen, Denmark, May 1997. [8] Larsson, J.K.: The Use of Nd:YAG Lasers in Future Automotive Applications, Proceedings LANE97, Erlangen, Germany, September 1997.
Summary and future outlook

In previous body engineering, virtually only one material was used, namely mild steel. Due to customer requests for improved properties in areas such as safety, reliability, driving performance, NVH (noise, vibrations,harshness) and so on,, new materials have successively been introduced into the car body to meet these demands. In the future, we can expect a further demand for increased fuel efficiency, as the resources for natural, fossil-based fuels are limited. Moreover, the pollution and contamination of the environment, originating from the emissions from combustion engines, have a destructive effect on society. Different steps can be taken to improve fuel efficiency and reduce toxic emissions, but, if we look at the BIW alone, its contribution comes from the field of weight saving. The largest weight savings can be achieved if materials selection, body concept and joining methods are developed in an integrated process. Aluminium is a natural candidate due to its low specific weight and good recyclability and it is therefore selfevident that an increase in the amount of aluminium can be expected in future car bodies. Different aluminium alloys which are appearing in different shapes, such as sheets, extrusions, castings and hydro-formed parts, will have to be joined together. To maintain the excellent car body properties that our customers expect, it is crucial that the joining methods that are chosen meet the automotive industrys rigorous demands in areas like process speed, availability (up-time) and quality turnout. The examples presented in this article are just a couple of the activities that have recently been run at Volvo in the field of aluminium joining. In the newly established Volvo Joining Centre, a comprehensive test plan has been outlined to further increase the knowledge of aluminium joining among design and production engineers and production personnel. When it comes to other activities scheduled for this year with the aim of improving skills and expertise, the following research areas can be mentioned: Resistance spot welding utilizing adaptive weld parameter control Plasma and hybrid welding techniques Evaluation of mechanical joining techniques such as punch riveting Adhesive bonding systems, including optimum surface pre-treatment and testing of long-term behaviour under environmental and mechanical loading.
About the authors

Lars-Ola Larsson, M.Sc. Tech. Lic. Mechanical Engineering, has been working for Volvo since 1995. He has worked as a welding engineer at the Product Development Department and was involved in starting up and tuning production of large platform cars (current products S80/V70) at the Volvo Torslanda Plant. Since 1998, he has focused on advanced engineering in the field of joining light-weight materials. In June 2000 he was appointed as manager of the VCC Joining Centre. Niclas Palmquist, M.Sc. Mechanical Engineering, has been working for Volvo since 1994. After spending four years in Research and Department at the Volvo Technical Centre, he joined the Volvo Car Corporation in 1998, since when he has been working as a research engineer in the fields of laser welding and mechanical joining. Since 1998, he has focused on advanced manufacturing engineering in the field of joining light-weight materials for car bodies. Johnny K Larsson graduated from the Technical University of Lund, Sweden in 1975. After spending eight years as an engineer in the heavy truck industry, he joined the Volvo Car Corporation in 1986. Acting as a senior car body engineer, he is responsible for the coordination of R&D activities in the Body Engineering Department, covering areas such as materials technology, joining methods, structural analysis and simulations.
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Stubends Spatter
ESAB expands line of metal-cored stainless wires

ESAB has recently introduced four new austenitic, stainless-steel, metalcored wires Arcaloy MC 316L, Arcaloy MC 308L, Arcaloy MC 309L and Arcaloy MC 307. Arcaloy Metal Cored (MC) wires are small-diameter, stainless-steel, metal-cored electrodes designed primarily for the welding of thin-gauge materials. These wires offer the typical metal-cored wire welding characteristics (i.e. higher deposition rate and shallower penetration profile as compared with a solid wire), which makes them ideally suited for producing small butt, fillet and lap welds on gauge material at increased travel speeds. The slag-free welds and low spatter levels make the Arcaloy MC wires an excellent choice for automatic or robotic welding applications. The pushing technique can also be used further to minimize the penetration, as well as the oxide film (slag islanding) which is deposited on the surface of the weld. Some typical applications include catalytic converters, manifolds, silencers, exhaust systems and cladding applications. These wires are available in diameters of 1.0, 1.2 and 1.6 mm, as well as larger diameters for submerged arc welding. For spray transfer, an argonrich shielding gas containing 12% oxygen or carbon dioxide is recommended. For the best overall results and to limit surface oxides and optimize bead shape, a mix containing 99% argon and 1% CO2 should be used. Proprietary argon-based shielding gases containing small amounts of hydrogen and CO2 also produce excellent results (e.g. argon with 1% H2 and 23% CO2). Pulse welding can also be used further to minimize the burn-through problems generally associated with the welding of thin-gauge materials. The addition of these austenitic, metal-cored wires rounds off ESABs existing line of ferritic metal-cored wires, specifically Arcaloy 409Ti, Arcaloy 409Cb, Arcaloy 439 and Arcaloy 18CrCb.
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Coated electrodes for welding aluminium ESAB OK 96.10, 96.20, 96.40 and 96.50 in VacPac I
Because of their hygroscopic tendency, our high-quality coated electrodes for welding aluminium are packed in VacPac I, a plastic container enclosed in a vacuumsealed outer film. This type of container ensures that the product is as fresh as it was when it left the factory and it can remain in your stock unopened for a long time. These electrodes are supplied in 1/4 packs and there are six of these packs to a box. The electrodes come in the following sizes: 2.5 mm, 3.2 mm and 4.00 mm. Other repair and maintenance electrodes will be available in VacPac IIand packaging will commence once the summer vacation in Perstorp is behind us. Our key ESAB OK 96.10 ESAB OK 96.20 ESAB OK 96.40 ESAB OK 96.50
products in this range will be accessible in VacPac II in 1/2 and 1/4 packs. The more sophisticated types will also be available in this packaging format. Classification for the different types are: AWS A5.3 E1100
DIN 1732 EL-Al99.5 DIN 1732 EL-AlMn1 DIN 1732 EL-AlSi5 DIN 1732 EL-AlSi12
Environmental Management Systems

our environmental impact. Local certifiable EMS are now being implemented at production units, starting with our plants in Europe and India. The first unit to obtain ISO 14001 certification was our equipment plant in Calcutta in India. Our consumables plant in Perstorp in Sweden had its EMS ready in 1999 and certfication is planned for June 2000. The EMS is a very powerful tool for achieving continuous environmental improvements and it is also frequently requested by customers.
In 1997, ESAB implemented an Environmental Management System at group level to increase the focus on
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Spool for Aluminium wire 40 kg

ESAB has increased its range of Aluminium products by adding a new large sized spool type containing 40kg of wire on each spool. The spool has an outer diameter of 400mm and the width is 200mm, the spool is of a wire basket type. The advantage compared with normal spools is that it contains almost six times the amount of wire. This gives less spool changes, less stoppage in the production process, increased productivity. The new spool is available in 1.2 and 1.6mm for the filler alloys OK Autrod 18.04, 18.15 and 18.16.
AlcoTec Wire Corporation school for aluminium welding technology theory and practice
AlcoTec Wire Corporation located in Traverse City, Michigan, in the USA is recognized as both the world leader when it comes to the manufacture of aluminium welding wire and the ESAB Aluminium Centre of Excellence. AlcoTecs staff of metallurgical, welding and quality engineers present a one-week training course that combines their many years of aluminium manufacturing experience with a knowledge of the industry, equipment, specifications and quality requirements. The course, which has been developed over many years, is designed to incorporate both the theory and a practical hands-on approach to the welding of aluminium alloys. The classroom instruction includes an understanding of the various aluminium alloys and their tempers, metallurgical characteristics, chemical compositions, weldability and crack sensitivity. Additional topics covered in this section are filler alloy selection, metal preparation, welding procedures, workmanship, weld discontinuities, welding inspection, quality control, welding processes and equipment, plus designing for aluminium welding. The laboratory part of the programme provides an opportunity to weld aluminium with both GTAW (TIG) and GMAW (MIG) and to perform equipment evaluations and a variety of inspection and testing functions, bend testing, macro etching, tensile testing, fillet weld fracture tests, dye penetrant testing and radiographic evaluations of welded samples. This training programme has proven to be extremely successful in providing instruction in this expanding and specialized field of aluminium welding technology for both AlcoTecs customers and ESABs sales and technical personnel worldwide. For further information about this programme and its availability, please contact Tony Anderson, Technical Services Manager. Phone: (231) 941-4111 ext. 3237. Fax: (231) 941-9154. Email [email protected] or www.alcotec.com
Flash butt welders

Since 1998, ESAB Welding Equipment has a joint venture agreement with Geismar of France for the development and delivery of flash butt welding machines for rail and frogs. Geismar is specialised in the joining of rails and frogs and has a worldwide reputation for its knowhow and products in this field. ESAB and Geismar received the first order in 1998 from JRWest in Osaka, Japan and the welding equipment, which now is in full production, was delivered in November last year. Two new contracts for delivery this year have been obtained from the Bulgarian State Railways and from the Latvian State Railways.
Reduce set-up time, eliminate guesswork
ESAB Vision Controller with Data Generator automates process parameter programming to enhance repeatability, eliminate the need for special programs and allow customization. The Data Generator is a 32 bit Windows application that runs on the Vision PC in the background. Available on new machines or may be retrofit to your existing ESAB or competitive waterjet system. ESABs Vision PC CNC controller for waterjet cutting combines remarkable ease of operation with powerful software tools like real-time tool path display and kerf-on-the-fly with kerf-override to offer the most technologically advanced control in the industry. This Windows-based controller features menu-driven operation, color LCD display, 8-position joystick, hand wheel, hard drive, 3.5 floppy drive, and speed potentiometer for easy operator use. Station and process control are integrated in a single ergonomic operators panel. A 333 mHz processor and advanced features such as multi-level return, zoom while running, and program continue after power failure further add to the power of this control. ESABs exclusive Process Parameter Programming features the unique Data Generator Program that automatically optimizes cutting speed and cornering based on material type, thickness and desired cut
quality. These settings are saved as a file that can be recalled at will, greatly reducing set-up time on repeat runs. Kerf, speed, dynamic axial pierce times, corner deceleration and corner acceleration are all set automatically. Contact ESAB today for more information on how the Vision PC can revolutionize your cutting applications.
ESABs abrasive cutting nozzle with diamond orifice technology provides maximum cutting speeds with reduced operating costs and extremely simple maintenance. A cutting head with standard Z-axis slide, programmable Z-axis or Z-axis with height control can easily be combined with a Vision PC retrofit
Rugged gantry design and AC brushless digital motors on ESABs HydroCut provide precise motion control and positioning accuracy.
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ESABs partnership with Canadas west coast shipbuilding industry Pacificat 1000 series high speed ferry
by Willem Swint, Vancouver Shipyards Co Ltd, British Columbia, Canada.
The Pacificat 1000 Series aluminium catamaran High Speed Ferry Project has allowed the Canadian west coast of North America to enter into a new era of aluminium shipbuilding.
This project was conceived by the Provincial Government of British Columbia with the construction of the ferry modules starting in June 1996. The first of three vessels was launched from a floating dry dock (Seaspan Careen) at the Catamaran Ferry Internationals north Vancouver waterfront facility during the summer of 1998. The third high speed ferry was launched in April 2000, with delivery scheduled for August 2000. The unique way in which this ferry (122 metres in overall length) was fabricated in a controlled environment and then launched has prepared Vancouver Shipyards Co. Ltd. for future challenges involving aluminium fabrications of any size. The project has been managed since 1996 by CFI (Catamaran Ferries International), a wholly-owned subsidiary of B.C. Ferry Corporation (Crown Corporation of the B.C. Government). INCAT Designs of Sydney, Australia, and Robert Allan Ltd. of Vancouver were chosen to design the Pacificat.
Collaboration with Finnyards of Finland

Finnyards of Finland was used in collaboration for the technological transfer of aluminium shipbuilding methods, while using T.A.F.E. of Hobart Australias educational information for tradespersons. The vessel was fabricated in five different west coast locations, including Vancouver Shipyards, Allied Shipbuilders, Point Hope Shipyards, Ramsey Marine Works and Alberni Engineering. The modules were then transported by various means to the CFI facility in
north Vancouver, B.C., for assembly by some of the above-mentioned consortium groups, as well as a sixth company, A & F Aluminum Catamarans Ltd. The first of the three Pacificat 1000 equipped with four MTU diesel engines and Swedish-made Kamewa waterjets has been put through exhaustive sea trials, achieving a 37-knot service speed. The Pacificats interior design is the work of Figura Arkitekter, a Swedish company that has designed the interiors of several European fast ferries. The hull portion of the vessel was fabricated using Pechiney Rhenalu 5383-H321 plate (thickness ranging from 6-25 mm), while the extrusion materials are 6082T6 and 6061-T6 alloys. The 5083 alloy is utilised in other areas throughout the vessel, with thickness of as little as 2.5 mm. The lower vehicle deck panels were prefabricated in Sweden using SAPA 6082 extrusion profiles. Inspections of the Pacificats have been conducted by one of the worlds leading classification societies for high speed vessels, DET NORSKE VERITAS, which has stated that these vessels meet all its requirements.
More than 300 full-time welders

With more than 300 full-time DNV certified welders working on the Pacificat project, the majority employed by Vancouver Shipyards, the company has demonstrated that it is able to meet world standards when it comes to the quality of welding aluminium. As the project continues, Vancouver Shipyards X-ray acceptance rate
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meets or exceeds the world standard. The overall project has involved the taking of as many as 8,500 X-rays, creating a very high quality assurance level within the project. During the spring of 1996, Vancouver Shipyards Co. Ltd. (a member of the Washington Marine Group) carried out an extensive evaluation of aluminium welding equipment, manufactured throughout North America and Australia. Welding procedures were developed using four main manufacturers equipment. During the procedure development stage, ESABs products came to the forefront with consistent results when it came to complying with ISO 10042/CSA welding procedure requirements. ESAB sent representatives from Sweden and eastern Canada to assist in demonstrating the versatility and diversified use of their equipment. ESAB utilised its Joint Quality Policy experience and expertise, which then enabled it to capture the contract to work together with this shipbuilding consortium. The primary equipment used on this project (169 units) is the ESAB SVI 450 CV/CC power source with the MIG 4HD ultra pulse wire feeder using a push/pull gun in the pulsed GMAW mode. This ESAB synergic control pulse program has greater operator appeal and is easier to use to train inexperienced personnel on aluminium (steep learning curve). Vancouver Shipyards developed the welding procedures with this combination of welding equipment which meets the requirements set by the European Standard EN288-4, ISO 10042 and the Canadian Standards CSA W47.2. These welding procedures and welder tests were scrutinised by DNV and CWB surveyors to exceed one anothers requirements.
Another piece of equipment from ESABs vast range is the Railtrac 1000 system (Flexi Weaver) which Vancouver Shipyards has been able to utilise on the main hull butts and seams. This lightweight mechanised unit has improved welding efficiency, while making it far easier for the welder to produce a quality X-ray product, thereby generating considerable savings in consumable and labour costs. The Pacificat project has allowed ESAB and Vancouver Shipyards to make great strides for a future in aluminium welding, with further interest being shown in the ESAB friction stir welding of aluminium.
Revitalisation of the shipbuilding industry

The Pacificat project has been the subject of a great deal of scepticism locally, as the project was set-up by the British Columbia Government to address the need to revitalise the shipbuilding industry within the province. Nonetheless, it must be realised that the future of aluminium shipbuilding on the west coast of Canada means that all partnerships must create a competitive edge to allow them to compete in the worldwide market in this new millennium.
Increased use of mechanisation

Improved building strategies during the construction of high speed ferries 002 and 003 allowed Vancouver Shipyards Co. Ltd. gradually to integrate the increased use of mechanisation throughout the fabrication of the HSF project. They have found that fillet welds welded continuously using mechanised methods increase productivity and permit the control of dimensional integrity, meeting tolerances as stringent as 1.5mm. The use of the ESAB-A2 tractor and CV/CC 652 power source has greatly increased quality and quantity when welding flat groove welds throughout the project. Vancouver Shipyards utilisation of the ESAB SABRE 3000 plasma-cutting table, using a down-draft ventilation system, has enabled a high productivity level to be reached. Moreover, minimal exhaust emissions have been obtained, thereby improving the working environment. An interesting situation has also come about during the project with regard to consumables. The filler alloy that has been used throughout this project has been Alcotecs 5183 (AlMg 4.5Mn) (1.2 and 1.6mm). The use of this product in conjunction with a helium/argon mixed shielding gas has enabled further gains in the direction of consistent quality welds.
Pacificat characteristics Built Construction material Length Draft Beam overall Maximum clearance Main car deck Gallery deck Upper car deck Engines Propulsion Horsepower Fuel tanks Potable water Service speed Maximum speed Light ship displacement Vehicle capacity Passenger capacity
1998 (HSF 001) CFI Aluminium 122.5 m 3.9 m 25.8 m 4.15 m 2.3 m 4 x MTU 20V-1163 diesel 4 x KaMeWa 112 waterjets 33,500 bhp 2 x 35,000 litres 7,000 litres 37 knots 44 knots 1,281 metric tonnes 250 1,000
About the author

Willem (Bill) Swint is the welding foreman for Vancouver Shipyards Co Ltd (a member of the Washington Marine Group) of north Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Bill has been with Vancouver Shipyards for 29 years and is a certified CWB Level II welding inspector (since 1988) W47.1/ABS. Bill is also a certified AWS welding inspector QC 1-96 and a certified CWB welding supervisor CSA W47.1/W47.2 (approximately 25 years).
A century of aluminium a product of the future

by Anders Norlin, Sapa, Sweden
Aluminium is a young metal with an outstanding history as far as the technical metals are concerned. The first aluminium items made their appearance on the market in or around 1890 and this heralded the start of a unique market trend which has made aluminium the second most frequently used metal after steel.
In 1998, the consumption of aluminium totalled 28.7 million tonnes. Consumption focuses on the countries with a high level of development and the dominant markets are therefore Asia, North America and Western Europe, Fig. 1. Expressed in terms of consumption per capita, Japan, the USA, Sweden and the Netherlands are the leaders.
Asia 32% North America 30%
The general improvement in the standard of living in many countries, developments within Chinas construction industry, the global automotive industry and the packaging industry are examples of areas that are driving the use of this metal internationally. New applications and the lack of natural replacement materials also indicate that the consumption trends will remain at the same high level.
Time passes its properties are unchanged

Eastern and Central Europe 4% Latin America 4% Western Europe 27% Africa 1% South Sea Islands 2%
Figure 1. Aluminium consumption in 1998 in different parts of the world. Source: Alunet.
Electronics 8%
Equipment 8%
Construction 18%
Transport 26%
Miscellaneous 13%
Packaging 27%
Aluminium is probably best known for its low weight, but the metal has a large number of other valuable properties which have helped, either individually or in combination, to give it its wide range of applications. One clear area of development is the work that is being done to optimise the properties of different alloys for specific applications. More in-depth material knowhow, improved production processes and new methods for forming and joining, for example, are creating the conditions for a continuing increase in the use of aluminium in the future. Some examples of sectors in which the continued development of material properties and effective machining techniques will play an important part in increasing the applications of this material now follow.
Figure 2. Aluminium consumption for different applications (western world). Source: Mozal.
Transport
Modern, fast transport systems are generally synonymous with lightweight structures, frequently made of aluminium. Weight savings result in reduced fuel consumption, higher speeds, higher payloads and a reduced environmental impact, but an effective structural system also imposes heavy demands when it comes to the strength of the material and its formability, ease of joining, surface treatment, energy absorption in the event of impact, corrosion resistance and so on.
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The distribution of applications differs between countries, but in overall terms the transport, construction and packaging industries are the most important markets for aluminium products. The remainder is used in applications within the electrical and engineering industries, office equipment, home furnishings, lighting, chemicals and the pharmaceutical industries, as shown in Figure 2.
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Heat exchangers
The high conductive capacity of aluminium when it comes to electricity and heat is being used on an increasing scale for the effective transfer of electrical power and for cooling power electronics. Developments are moving towards more effective, smaller and lighter cooling systems with thinner metals, higher cooling flanges and complicated profile tools. Higher working temperatures and greater surface pressure between components and coolers make improved heat resistance and creep strength essential. It must also be possible to apply surface treatment in the form of nickelplating and silver-plating, for example, to certain structures, in order to prevent oxidation and ensure electrical and thermal contact.
A weld joint produced using FSW generally has higher strength than the corresponding fusion weld and the low residual stress means that the finished part is virtually free from deformation. In addition, the joint is far less prone to welding defects, even though the requirements for the pre-treatment of the welding surfaces in connection with FSW are far less rigorous than those for fusion. When it comes to fatigue characteristics, FSW also comes off well in comparisons with other joining methods. The method is extremely eco friendly. Weld flash, fumes and ozone formation are totally eliminated, together with the need for special safety equipment. The weld joint has an even, smooth surface with a characteristic appearance and in most cases it requires no finishing, Fig 4.
Forming and joining

From a physical point of view, many of the desirable properties clash with one another and in many cases development work must aim to find the optimal compromises. As a result, material development is hardly likely to solve all the designers problems, but, by working in parallel with the development of techniques for processing the material, the applications for aluminium can be steadily extended. As has already been mentioned, joining and forming are two very topical areas of technology in which new or developed technology will produce important future development potential for aluminium structures and where Friction Stir Welding and hydroforming in particular are extremely interesting methods.
Figure 4. An FSW joint is characterised by an even, smooth surface with a characteristic pattern.
In just a short time, FSW has developed into a straightforward, reliable welding method. Once the welding parameters and joint design have been selected, the process is very stable. It is therefore ideal for automation, Fig 5. In combination with the virtually unlimited potential for joint design which can be obtained with extruded aluminium profiles, FSW has revolutionised the opportunity for new design solutions using aluminium.
Figure 3. The principle of the Friction Stir Welding operation.
FSW joining method of the future

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a new friction welding method which in just a short time has revolutionised the opportunity for joining aluminium rationally and with superior quality. This process makes it possible to join aluminium in a solid state in other words, without the material melting. The joint surfaces are forced together under the influence of heat and powerful deformation and form a homogeneous joint. During conventional friction welding, the heat that is needed for the process is created by the workpieces moving in relation to one another. In FSW, the workpieces are fixed in place and the frictional heat is produced by a rotating tool which is moved along the joint, Fig 3.
Figure 5. Fully automated line for FSW of components for the automotive industry at Sapa Manufaktur in Finspng.
Long and wide

The method makes it possible to join two or more profiles in an rational manner and produce one profile that is wider and thinner than any single profile that can be produced by extrusion. This means that wide, long panels for roofs or the sides of trains, the decks of boats and so on can be made both thinner and lighter.
Figure 6. Equipment for FSW of profiles in lengths of up to 14.5 metres and panel widths of 3 m. Sapa Profil in Finspng.
Sapas FSW equipment for long-length welding is able to weld panels which are as much as 14.5 metres long and three metres wide. This unique unit is equipped with three separate welding heads for optimal production economy, Fig. 6.
Short and complicated

It is not just long, linear joints that are suitable for FSW. In many cases, the method has shown itself to be superior to conventional fusion welding when producing small components with rigorous strength and leak proof requirements, in addition to which the low residual voltage enables stringent smoothness requirements to be met. Very successful examples of such products are liquid- or gas-filled coolers for the electrical and electronic industries in which the combination of advanced design and FSW has presented new opportunities for producing effective components. In 1995, Sapa was the first company in the world to introduce production on an industrial scale using Friction Stir Welding (FSW) as a joining method. Since then, these operations have increased at an almost explosive rate and Sapa is currently doing its utmost to meet the increasing demand. At the present time, the company has three FSW systems in operation.
Hydroforming is used to change the cross-sectional shape along a profile. A virgin or bent hollow profile is put into a tool, which has a shape corresponding to that of a product. High internal pressure is created by water inside the profile that deforms and the surface of the profile will be pressed against the tool. The maximum internal pressure required to hydroform the component varies normally between 1300 and 2000 bar. The required pressure depends on the tube material, tube wall thickness and tool radii. Large forces are needed to keep the tool closed and hydroforming therefore requires a large mechanical or hydraulic press. This technique makes it possible to create largescale variations in cross-sections, thereby reducing the number of parts and joints in a complicated component. The product volume should be around 20,000 per item to make the method profitable. There is hardly any doubt that hydroforming will result in new and exciting applications for aluminium in the automotive industry, for example, and Sapa is therefore naturally investing substantial resources in a number of forming projects in order to continue these developments. Hydroforming is dealt with in more detail in the article by Nader Asnafi, Sapa Technology.
Forming
Forming, or plastic processing, means that a workpiece is exposed to forces that cause a plastic, permanent deformation. Bending is a very common forming process. There are different bending methods such as rotary draw, roll, compression and ram bending. In combination with hydroforming, bending offers new opportunities for creating the desired shapes and functions in extruded hollow profiles.
About the author

Anders Norlin graduated as a mechanical engineer in 1964. He joined Grnges R&D department in 1965 where he has worked mostly as a project leader within the area of product development. Since 1994 he has been leader for the friction stir welding projects at Sapa.
Svetsaren nr 2 2000
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Tube bending and hydroforming

by Nader Asnafi, Sapa Technology, Sweden
For the production of low-weight, high-energy absorbent and cost-effective structural automotive components, the hydroforming of aluminium extrusions is now regarded as the only method in many cases. The hydroforming of aluminium extrusions has also demonstrated significant potential in other applications.
The principle of tube hydroforming is shown in Fig. 1. The hydroforming operation is either force-controlled (the axial forces are varied with the internal pressure) or stroke-controlled (the strokes are varied with the internal pressure), see Fig. 1. See also refs. [1 and 2].
Tube hydroforming offers both technical and economic benefits compared with conventional fabrication. The Ford Mondeo engine cradle can be mentioned as a good example. Studies conducted at Ford (on the above-mentioned engine cradle) have shown that (ref. [3]) the number of pieces was reduced from six to one the number of process stages was decreased from 32 to three the component weight was reduced from 12 kg to 8 kg and the cost per component was reduced from 20 to 10 as tube hydroforming was selected instead of conventional fabrication. Sapa has been working on tube bending and hydroforming for many years. In one of the ongoing projects, Sapa and its partners AP&T and Swepart Verktyg AB
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
are prototyping a number of bent and hydroformed components for the automotive industry, Fig. 2. The starting tube was a straight aluminium extrusion with a circular cross-section, as the component shown in Fig. 2 was produced. This straight tube was first bent and then placed in the hydroforming tool. Fig. 3 shows a section of the bent tube and the hydroforming tool (both when the tool is open and as it is closed). After placing the bent tube in the tool (Fig. 3), the tube was hydroformed. The hydroforming was conducted in the following fashion: I. a preforming internal pressure of 30-35 bar was built up II. the tool was closed and the press force increased to 1,800 metric tonnes and III. the internal pressure was increased to 950 bar The whole process was modelled by finite-element simulation. The simulation results were used to identify the critical zones (the zones in which the risk of fracture was high) where tool adjustments could be regarded as necessary. Fig. 4 shows the effective plastic strains after tube bending and hydroforming predicted by finiteelement simulation. Sapa regards the bending and hydroforming of aluminium extrusions as significant forming methods which offer great potential and intends to continue using these methods in future commercial projects.
References
1. N. Asnafi: Analytical Modelling of Tube Hydroforming, Thin-Walled Structures 34 (1999) 295-330. 2. N. Asnafi & A. Skogsgrdh: Theoretical and experimental analysis of stroke-controlled tube hydroforming, Materials Science and Engineering A279 (2000) 95-110. 3. D. Eldred, R. F. Malkin & T. Barringer: Vari-Form a hydroforming technique for manufacturing complex tubular components, Technische Mitteilungen Krupp, 1/1994 (English edition April 1994), pp. 45-50.
About the author

Dr. Nader Asnafi was graduated from Lule University of Technology (LUTH) in 1984. He has been working at Esselte Dymo, LUTH, Swedish Institute for Metals Research and Industrial Development Centre in Olofstrm. Since April 1999, Dr. Asnafi is Technology Area Manager at Sapa Technology. He is currently involved in hydroforming projects at Sapa.
Svetsaren nr 2 2000
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Troubleshooting in aluminium welding

by Tony Anderson, Technical Services ManagerAlcoTec Wire Corporation, USA
There is no question that the use of aluminium is increasing within the welding fabrication industry. Manufacturers often adopt this material either through innovation, or as a result of pressure applied by their end users. The unique characteristics of aluminiumlight weight, excellent corrosion resistance, high strength, high toughness, extreme temperature capability, versatility of extruding and recycling capabilitiesmake it one of the current favoured choices of material for many engineers and designers for a variety of welding fabrication applications.
Because of the increased use of aluminium as a manufacturing material, the conversion from steel to aluminium within the welding fabrication industry is becoming increasingly common. The successful conversion from steel to aluminium welding is largely dependent on an understanding of the fundamental differences between these two materials. I have selected some of the most common problems that are encountered when changing to aluminium welding, such as feedability, porosity, cracking and filler alloy selection.
Feedability
This is the ability consistently to feed the spooled welding wire when MIG welding without interruption during the welding process. Feedability is probably the most common problem when changing to the MIG welding of aluminium. Feedability is a far more significant issue for aluminium than it is for steel. This is primarily due to the difference between the mechanical properties of the material. Steel welding wire is comparatively rigged and can withstand far more mechanical abuse. Aluminium is softer, more susceptible to deformation or shaving during the feeding operation and consequently requires far more attention when selecting and setting up a feed system for MIG welding. Feedability problems often express themselves in the form of irregular wire feed or as burn-backs (the fusion of the welding wire to the inside of the contact tip). In order to prevent excessive feedability problems of this kind, it is important to understand the entire feed
system and its effect on aluminium welding wire. If we start with the spool end of the feed system, we must first consider the brake settings. Brake setting tension needs to be reduced to a minimum. Only sufficient brake pressure to prevent the spool from free-wheeling when welding stops is required. Inlet and outlet guides, as well as liners, which are typically made of metallic material for steel welding, must be made of a non-metallic material such as teflon or nylon to prevent the abrasion and shaving of the aluminium wire. Drive rolls should have a proper U-type contour with edges that are chamfered not sharp and they should also be smooth, aligned and have the correct drive roll pressure, as excessive drive roll pressure can distort the aluminium wire and increase friction drag through the liner and contact tip. Contact tip I.D. and quality are of great importance. If the I.D. is too large and there is too much clearance between the wire and the contact tip, arcing can occur. Continuous arcing inside the contact tip can cause a build-up of particles on the inside surface of the tip which increases drag and produces burn-backs. The deburring and polishing of new contact tips and repolishing or changing contact tips when unsteady feed is noted can improve overall performance. Aluminium welding wire is used in both push and pull feeder systems; however, limitations are recognized depending on the application and feed distance. Pushpull feeder systems for aluminium were developed to help overcome feed problems and they are typically used in more critical/specialized operations such as robotic and automated applications
dures, well-maintained equipment, high-quality shielding gas and a welding wire which is free from contamination all become very important variables if low porosity levels are desirable. Porosity is typically detected by the radiographic testing of completed welds. However, there are other methods that can be used without radiography equipment to evaluate porosity levels on test plates. The nick brake test for fillet welds can be extremely useful on test plates when evaluating a new cleaning method and during preliminary procedure development.
Cracking
One problem that is frequently encountered when welding aluminium is solidification cracking or hot cracking. This form of cracking in aluminium is typically caused by a combination of metallurgical weakness in the weld metal as it solidifies and transverse stress applied across the weld. The metallurgical weakness is often a result of the wrong filler alloy/base alloy mixture, referred to as the critical chemistry range, and the transverse stress from shrinkage during the solidification of the weld. These cracks are called hot cracks because they occur at temperatures close to the solidification temperature. In order to reduce the possibility of hot cracking, we need to understand two issues; the reduction of transverse stresses across the weld and the avoidance of critical chemistry ranges in the weld. The reduction or redistribution of stresses on the weld during solidification can be achieved by the reduction of restraint which may be a result of excessive fixturing and/or also through the use of filler alloys which have lower melting and solidification points than the base alloy and/or smaller freezing temperature ranges. The method for ensuring the avoidance of the critical chemistry range is based on an understanding of the relative crack sensitivity curves as seen in Fig 2. This chart shows the crack sensitivity curves for the most common weld metal chemistries developed during the welding of the base alloy materials. Silicon in an aluminium filler alloy/base alloy mixture (Al-Si) of between 0.5 and 2.0% produces a weld metal composition which is crack sensitive. A weld with
Figure 1.
Porosity
Porosity is a result of hydrogen gas becoming trapped within solidifying aluminium during welding and leaving voids in the completed weld. Hydrogen is highly soluble in molten aluminium, as seen in Fig 1, and for this reason the potential for excessive amounts of porosity during the arc welding of aluminium is considerable. Hydrogen can be unintentionally introduced during the welding operation through contaminants within the welding area, such as hydrocarbons and/or moisture. Hydrocarbons may be found on plate or welding wire that has been contaminated with substances such as lubricants, grease, oil, or paint. It is important to understand the methods available for the effective removal of hydrocarbons and to incorporate the appropriate methods into the welding procedure. Moisture (H2O) which contains hydrogen may be introduced into the welding area through water leakages within the welding equipment cooling system, insufficiently pure shielding gas, condensation on plate or wire from high humidity and changes in temperature (crossing a dew point) and/or hydrated aluminium oxide. Aluminium has a protective oxide layer and this coating is relatively thin and naturally forms on aluminium immediately. Correctly stored aluminium with an uncontaminated thin oxide layer can be easily welded with the inert-gas (MIG and TIG) welding processes which break down and remove the oxide during welding. Potential problems with porosity arise when the aluminium oxide has been exposed to moisture. The aluminium oxide layer is porous and can absorb moisture, grow in thickness and become a major problem when attempting to produce welds that need to be relatively free from porosity. When designing welding procedures intended to produce low levels of porosity, it is important to incorporate degreasing and oxide removal. This is typically achieved through a combination of chemical cleaning and/or the use of solvents to remove hydrocarbons, followed by stainless steel wire brushing to remove aluminium oxide. The correct cleaning of the aluminium parts prior to welding, the use of proven proce-
Figure 2.
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this chemistry usually cracks during solidification. Care must be exercised if welding a 1xxx series (pure aluminium) base alloy with a 4xxx series (aluminiumsilicon) filler alloy, in order to prevent a weld metal chemistry mixture within this crack-sensitive range. As can be seen from the chart, copper in aluminium alloys (Al-Cu) exhibits a wide range of crack sensitivity. Magnesium in aluminium from 0.5 to 3.0% produces a weld metal composition which is crack sensitive and should be avoided. Another issue relating to the aluminium-magnesium base alloys which is not directly related to the crack sensitivity chart but is a very important factor must be addressed. As a rule, the AlMg base alloys with less than a 2.8% Mg content can be welded with either the AlSi (4xxx series) or the AlMg (5xxx series) filler alloys, depending on weld performance requirements. The AlMg base alloys with more than about 2.8% Mg cannot normally be successfully welded with the AlSi (4xxx series) filler alloys. This is due to a eutectic problem associated with excessive amounts of magnesium silicide Mg2Si developing in the weld structure, thereby reducing ductility and increasing crack sensitivity. Perhaps the most common problem associated with hot cracking and the critical chemistry issue is associated with the aluminium, magnesium, silicon alloys (AlMg2Si) or 6xxx series base alloys, as they are known. As purchased, the 6xxx series base alloys, 6061, for example, contain around 1.0% magnesium silicide Mg2Si and, as the chart shows, this is the worst condition, producing maximum crack sensitivity. These base alloys typically crack if they are not welded with sufficient filler alloy additions in order to change their chemistry and reduce their hot-cracking sensitivity. The 6xxx series alloys can be welded with 4xxx series (AlSi) or 5xxx series (AlMg) filler alloys, depending on weld performance requirements. The main consideration is adequately to dilute the percentage of Mg2Si in the base material with sufficient filler alloy to reduce weld metal crack sensitivity. Care must also be taken when welding the 6xxx series base alloy with the 5xxx (AlMg) filler alloys to ensure sufficient additions of filler alloy to prevent the AlMg crack sensitivity chemistry range. These types of chemistry cracking problems are usually addressed through weld joint design to ensure maximum filler alloy dilution through increased bevel angles and joint spacing. Another type of cracking in aluminium is crater cracking or termination cracking. This type of cracking is experienced at the end of the weld and is best reduced by using weld stopping techniques. One method is to remove the crater from the functional area of the weld by using run-off plates which are mechanically removed after welding. Other generally more practical methods are to reduce the size of the weld pool just before the arc is extinguished, so that there is no longer enough shrinkage stress to form a crack. Some modern welding machines have been developed for aluminium welding and have a built-in crater fill function which is designed to terminate the weld in
a gradual manner, thereby preventing a crater from forming at weld termination and thereby eliminating the crater cracking problem.
Filler alloy selection

When welding steel, the selection of a filler alloy is often based on the tensile strength of the base alloy alone. The selection of a filler alloy for aluminium is not normally that simple and is usually not simply based on the tensile strength of the completed weld. With aluminium, there are a number of other variables that need to be considered during the filler alloy selection process. An understanding of these other variables and their effect on the completed weldment is of vital importance. When choosing the optimum filler alloy, both the base alloy type and the desired performance of the weldment must be areas of prime consideration. What is the weld subjected to and what is it expected to do? The most reliable method of choosing an aluminium filler alloy for evaluation is to use the AlcoTec filler alloy selection chart. The filler alloy selection chart is based on the application variables of the completed weld and rates each variable independently. Some understanding of how the recommendations for filler alloy evaluation within the chart were developed and the possible results of selecting the incorrect filler alloy may prove useful. The variables which need to be considered during filler alloy selection are as follows. Ease of welding (relative freedom from weld cracking) this is based on the filler alloy/base alloy combination, its relative crack sensitivity and the critical chemistry ranges as discussed in the last section. This rating is based on the probability of producing a cracksensitive filler alloy/base alloy combination. Strength of the weld this rating is based on the ability of the filler alloy to meet or exceed the strength of the as-welded joint. In most cases involving aluminium, the heat affected zone (HAZ) of a groove weld dictates the strength of the joint and many filler alloys can often satisfy this strength requirement. Unlike groove welds, the joint strength of fillet welds is based on shear strength which can be significantly affected by filler alloy selection. Fillet weld strength is largely dependent on the composition of the filler alloy used to weld the joint. The 4xxx series filler alloys generally have lower ductility and provide less shear strength in fillet-welded joints. The 5xxx series fillers typically have more ductility and can provide close to twice the shear strength of a 4xxx series filler alloy in some circumstances. Weld ductility ductility is a property that describes the ability of a material to flow plastically before fracturing. Fracture characteristics are described in terms of the ability to undergo elastic stretching and plastic deformation in the presence of stress raisers (weld discontinuities). Increased ductility ratings for a filler alloy indicate a greater ability to deform plastically and to redistribute loads, thereby reducing the crack
propagation sensitivity. Ductility may be a consideration if forming is to be performed after welding or if the weld is going to be subjected to impact loading. Service temperature when considering service at temperatures above 150 F, we must consider the use of filler alloys which can operate at these temperatures without any undesirable effects on the welded joint. Aluminium/magnesium alloys with more than 3% Mg which are exposed to elevated temperatures can produce a segregation of magnesium at the grain boundaries of the material. This is an undesirable condition which can result in the premature failure of a welded component. Consequently, alloys with less than 3% Mg have been developed for high-temperature applications. Corrosion resistance most unprotected aluminium base alloy/filler alloy combinations are quite satisfactory for general exposure to the atmosphere. In cases in which a dissimilar aluminium alloy combination of base and filler is used, and electrolyte is present, it is possible to set up a galvanic action between the dissimilar compositions. Corrosion resistance can be a complex subject when it comes to service in specialized highly-corrosive environments and may necessitate consultation with engineers from within this specialist field. Colour match after anodizing the colour of an aluminium alloy when anodized depends on its composition. Silicon in aluminium causes a darkening of the alloy when chemically treated during the anodizing process. If 5% silicon alloy 4043 filler is used to weld 6061, and the welded assembly is anodized, the weld becomes black and is very apparent. A similar weld in 6061 with 5356 filler does not discolour during anodizing, so a good colour match is obtained.
Post-weld heat treatment typically, the common heat-treatable base alloys, such as 6061-T6, typically lose a substantial proportion of their mechanical strength after welding. In order to return the base material to its original strength, it may be an option to perform post-weld heat treatment. If post-weld heat treatment is the option, it may be necessary to evaluate the filler alloy that is used with regard to its ability to respond to the heat treatment. Filler alloy 4643, for example, was developed for welding the 6xxx series base alloys and developing high mechanical properties in the post-weld, heat-treated condition. Other filler alloys which are designed to respond to thermal post-weld treatment, particularly for use with the heat-treatable casting alloy, have been developed. The important thing to remember here is that the common filler alloys may not respond or may even respond adversely to postweld thermal treatments.
Conclusion
I have attempted to provide information in this article which I hope will assist with an understanding of the differences and concerns when welding aluminium compared with other materials. The ability successfully to weld aluminium is not so much difficult as it is different. In my view, an understanding of the differences is the first step towards producing successful welding procedures for this somewhat unique material, the use of which is continuing to advance within the welding fabrication industry.
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What are some of the applications of aluminium discussed in the document?

What are some of the applications of aluminium discussed in the document?

What are some of the reasons mentioned for the advancement of aluminium within the welding fabrication industry?

What are some of the reasons mentioned for the advancement of aluminium within the welding fabrication industry?

A W E L D I N G R E V I E W P U B L I S H E D B Y E S A B V O L. 5 4 N O.

A welding review published by ESAB AB, Sweden No. 2 2000

Contents Vol. 54 No. 2 2000 3

Stubends & Spatter Short news.

Equipment for aluminium welding Processes and equipment in aluminium welding.

Figure 1. The Plymouth Prowler moving towards the aluminiumintensive vehicle.

Transportation and containers

Defence and aerospace

AlcoTec Wire Corporations involvement in the advancement of aluminium welding technology

Figure 3. Aluminium used in high speed marine applications.

About the author

Friction Stir welding of AA 5083 and AA 6082 aluminium

Alloy Plate thickness (mm) Welding speed (cm/min)

AA 5083 15 4.6 10 6.6 10 9.2 6 9.2 6 13.2

AA 6082 10 26.4 10 37.4 5 53 5 75

2.3 Hardness measurements and mechanical testing

AA 6082 10 26.4 226 10 37.4 236 5 53 254 5 75 254

Table 2. Transverse tensile properties of friction stir welds.

About the authors

Equipment for aluminium welding

Figure 1. Difference between a push and a push-pull wire feed system.

AC MIG welding of aluminium

Figure 5. The principle of friction stir welding.

Friction stir welding

About the author

Adding NO to the Argon or Argon/ Helium mixture does the trick

Figure 2a: Shielding gas: argon + 30 % helium.

Improves Arc Stability

Figure 2b: Shielding gas: argon + 30 % helium + 0.03% NO.

Reducing filler metal

How to reduce porosity

About the authors

Pulsed MIG welding of structural parts

2 1 Figure1. Typical joint design configurations.

Laser welding of tailored blanks in aluminium

Weld Speed [m/min]

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5

Figure 9. Welding position step side versus flush side.

Rp [Mpa] 110 105 124

Rm [MPa] 190 205 235

Thickness 1.03.0 mm 1.03.0 mm 0.82.5 mm 0.82.0 mm 0.82.5 mm

Alloy AA-5052 AA-5754 AA-6016 AA-6111 Ecodal 608

Si < 0.25 < 0.40 1.01.5 0.71.1 0.71.0

Fe < 0.40 < 0.40 0.50 < 0.40 < 0.50

Cu < 0.10 < 0.10 0.20 0.50.9 < 0.25

Mn < 0.10 < 0.50 0.20 0.150.45 < 0.40

Mg 2.22.8 2.63.6 0.250.60 0.51.0 0.600.95

Cr < 0.05 < 0.30 0.10 < 0.10 < 0.30

Ti < 0.05 < 0.15 0.15 < 0.10 < 0.30

Zn < 0.10 0.20 < 0.15 < 0.50

Table 2. Chemical composition for the alloys from Table 1.

Weld Speed [m/min]

Diagram 1. Weld speed as a function of seam orientation.

Laser stitch welding of an all-aluminium bonnet

Figure 11. Cracking behaviour of welded aluminium blanks.

Thickness Pickled Number (mm) Yes Yes No Yes 1 2 2 1