GSM Basics Tutorial and Overview

GSM basics tutorial and overview [1]
- a tutorial, description, overview about the basics of GSM - Global System for Mobile communications with details of its radio interface, infrastructure technology, network and operation.
GSM tutorial includes: GSM basics tutorial and overview GSM history GSM network architecture GSM interfaces GSM radio access network GSM frames GSM frequency bands and allocations GSM power class, control & amplifiers GSM physical & logical channels GSM codecs / vocoders GSM handover or handoff
The GSM system is the most widely used cellular technology in use in the world today. It has been a particularly successful cellular phone technology for a variety of reasons including the ability to roam worldwide with the certainty of being able to be able to operate on GSM networks in exactly the same way - provided billing agreements are in place. The letters GSM originally stood for the words Groupe Speciale Mobile, but as it became clear this cellular technology was being used world wide the meaning of GSM was changed to Global System for Mobile Communications. Since this cellular technology was first deployed in 1991, the use of GSM has grown steadily, and it is now the most widely cell phone system in the world. GSM reached the 1 billion subscriber point in February 2004, and is now well over the 3 billion subscriber mark and still steadily increasing.
GSM system overview

The GSM system was designed as a second generation (2G) cellular phone technology. One of the basic aims was to provide a system that would enable greater capacity to be achieved than the previous first generation analogue systems. GSM achieved this by using a digital TDMA (time division multiple access approach). By adopting this technique more users could be accommodated within the available bandwidth. In addition to this, ciphering of the digitally encoded speech was adopted to retain privacy. Using the earlier analogue cellular technologies it
was possible for anyone with a scanner receiver to listen to calls and a number of famous personalities had been "eavesdropped" with embarrassing consequences.
GSM services
Speech or voice calls are obviously the primary function for the GSM cellular system. To achieve this the speech is digitally encoded and later decoded using a vocoder. A variety of vocoders are available for use, being aimed at different scenarios. In addition to the voice services, GSM cellular technology supports a variety of other data services. Although their performance is nowhere near the level of those provided by 3G, they are nevertheless still important and useful. A variety of data services are supported with user data rates up to 9.6 kbps. Services including Group 3 facsimile, videotext and teletex can be supported. One service that has grown enormously is the short message service. Developed as part of the GSM specification, it has also been incorporated into other cellular technologies. It can be thought of as being similar to the paging service but is far more comprehensive allowing bidirectional messaging, store and forward delivery, and it also allows alphanumeric messages of a reasonable length. This service has become particularly popular, initially with the young as it provided a simple, low fixed cost.
GSM basics
The GSM cellular technology had a number of design aims when the development started:

It should offer good subjective speech quality It should have a low phone or terminal cost Terminals should be able to be handheld The system should support international roaming It should offer good spectral efficiency The system should offer ISDN compatibility
The resulting GSM cellular technology that was developed provided for all of these. The overall system definition for GSM describes not only the air interface but also the network or infrastructure technology. By adopting this approach it is possible to define the operation of the whole network to enable international roaming as well as enabling network elements from different manufacturers to operate alongside each other, although this last feature is not completely true, especially with older items.
GSM cellular technology uses 200 kHz RF channels. These are time division multiplexed to enable up to eight users to access each carrier. In this way it is a TDMA / FDMA system. The base transceiver stations (BTS) are organised into small groups, controlled by a base station controller (BSC) which is typically co-located with one of the BTSs. The BSC with its associated BTSs is termed the base station subsystem (BSS). Further into the core network is the main switching area. This is known as the mobile switching centre (MSC). Associated with it is the location registers, namely the home location register (HLR) and the visitor location register (VLR) which track the location of mobiles and enable calls to be routed to them. Additionally there is the Authentication Centre (AuC), and the Equipment Identify Register (EIR) that are used in authenticating the mobile before it is allowed onto the network and for billing. The operation of these are explained in the following pages. Last but not least is the mobile itself. Often termed the ME or mobile equipment, this is the item that the end user sees. One important feature that was first implemented on GSM was the use of a Subscriber Identity Module. This card carried with it the users identity and other information to allow the user to upgrade a phone very easily, while retaining the same identity on the network. It was also used to store other information such as "phone book" and other items. This item alone has allowed people to change phones very easily, and this has fuelled the phone manufacturing industry and enabled new phones with additional features to be launched. This has allowed mobile operators to increase their average revenue per user (ARPU) by ensuring that users are able to access any new features that may be launched on the network requiring more sophisticated phones.
GSM system overview

The table below summarises the main points of the GSM system specification, showing some of the highlight features of technical interest. Specification Summary for GSM Cellular System Multiple access technology FDMA / TDMA Duplex technique FDD 890 - 915 MHz Uplink frequency band (basic 900 MHz band only) 933 -960 MHz Downlink frequency band (basic 900 MHz band only) Channel spacing 200 kHz Modulation GMSK Various - original was RPESpeech coding LTP/13
Speech channels per RF channel Channel data rate Frame duration
8 270.833 kbps 4.615 ms
GSM History [2]

- a description of the development or history of GSM, Global System for Mobile communications developed out of the original Groupe Special Mobile pan_european system.
GSM tutorial includes:

GSM basics tutorial and overview GSM history GSM network architecture GSM interfaces GSM radio access network GSM frames GSM frequency bands and allocations GSM power class, control & amplifiers GSM physical & logical channels GSM codecs / vocoders GSM handover or handoff
Today the GSM cell or mobile phone system is the most popular in the world. GSM handsets are widely available at good prices and the networks are robust and reliable. The GSM system is also feature-rich with applications such as SMS text messaging, international roaming, SIM cards and the like. It is also being enhanced with technologies including GPRS and EDGE. To achieve this level of success has taken many years and is the result of both technical development and international cooperation. The GSM history can be seen to be a story of cooperation across Europe, and one that nobody thought would lead to the success that GSM is today. The first cell phone systems that were developed were analogue systems. Typically they used frequency-modulated carriers for the voice channels and data was carried on a separate shared control channel. When compared to the systems employed today these systems were comparatively straightforward and as a result a vast number of systems appeared. Two of the major systems that were in existence were the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) that was used in the USA and many other countries and TACS (Total Access Communications System) that was used in the UK as well as many other countries around the world.
Another system that was employed, and was in fact the first system to be commercially deployed was the Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT). This was developed by a consortium of companies in Scandinavia and proved that international cooperation was possible. The success of these systems proved to be their downfall. The use of all the systems installed around the globe increased dramatically and the effects of the limited frequency allocations were soon noticed. To overcome these a number of actions were taken. A system known as E-TACS or Extended-TACS was introduced giving the TACS system further channels. In the USA another system known as Narrowband AMPS (NAMPS) was developed.
New approaches
Neither of these approaches proved to be the long-term solution as cellular technology needed to be more efficient. With the experience gained from the NMT system, showing that it was possible to develop a system across national boundaries, and with the political situation in Europe lending itself to international cooperation it was decided to develop a new Pan-European System. Furthermore it was realized that economies of scale would bring significant benefits. This was the beginnings of the GSM system. To achieve the basic definition of a new system a meeting was held in 1982 under the auspices of the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT). They formed a study group called the Groupe Special Mobile ( GSM ) to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system. Several basic criteria that the new cellular technology would have to meet were set down for the new GSM system to meet. These included: good subjective speech quality, low terminal and service cost, support for international roaming, ability to support handheld terminals, support for range of new services and facilities, spectral efficiency, and finally ISDN compatibility. With the levels of under-capacity being projected for the analogue systems, this gave a real sense of urgency to the GSM development. Although decisions about the exact nature of the cellular technology were not taken at an early stage, all parties involved had been working toward a digital system. This decision was finally made in February 1987. This gave a variety of advantages. Greater levels of spectral efficiency could be gained, and in addition to this the use of digital circuitry would allow for higher levels of integration in the circuitry. This in turn would result in cheaper handsets with more features. Nevertheless significant hurdles still needed to be overcome. For example, many of the methods for encoding the speech within a sufficiently narrow bandwidth needed to be developed, and this posed a significant risk to the project. Nevertheless the GSM system had been started.
GSM launch dates
Work continued and a launch date for the new GSM system of 1991 was set for an initial launch of a service using the new cellular technology with limited coverage and capability to be followed by a complete roll out of the service in major European cities by 1993 and linking of the areas by 1995. Meanwhile technical development was taking place. Initial trials had shown that time division multiple access techniques offered the best performance with the technology that would be available. This approach had the support of the major manufacturing companies which would ensure that with them on board sufficient equipment both in terms of handsets, base stations and the network infrastructure for GSM would be available. Further impetus was given to the GSM project when in 1989 the responsibility was passed to the newly formed European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Under the auspices of ETSI the specification took place. It provided functional and interface descriptions for each of the functional entities defined in the system. The aim was to provide sufficient guidance for manufacturers that equipment from different manufacturers would be interoperable, while not stopping innovation. The result of the specification work was a set of documents extending to more than 6000 pages. Nevertheless the resultant phone system provided a robust, feature-rich system. The first roaming agreement was signed between Telecom Finland and Vodafone in the UK. Thus the vision of a pan-European network was fast becoming a reality. However this took place before any networks went live. The aim to launch GSM by 1991 proved to be a target that was too tough to meet. Terminals started to become available in mid 1992 and the real launch took place in the latter part of that year. With such a new service many were sceptical as the analogue systems were still in widespread use. Nevertheless by the end of 1993 GSM had attracted over a million subscribers and there were 25 roaming agreements in place. The growth continued and the next million subscribers were soon attracted.
Global GSM usage

Originally GSM had been planned as a European system. However the first indication that the success of GSM was spreading further a field occurred when the Australian network provider, Telstra signed the GSM Memorandum of Understanding.
Frequencies
Originally it had been intended that GSM would operate on frequencies in the 900 MHz cellular band. In September 1993, the British operator Mercury One-to-One launched a network. Termed DCS 1800 it operated at frequencies in a new 1800 MHz band. By adopting new frequencies new operators and further competition was introduced into the market apart from allowing
additional spectrum to be used and further increasing the overall capacity. This trend was followed in many countries, and soon the term DCS 1800 was dropped in favour of calling it GSM as it was purely the same cellular technology but operating on a different frequency band. In view of the higher frequency used the distances the signals travelled was slightly shorter but this was compensated for by additional base stations. In the USA as well a portion of spectrum at 1900 MHz was allocated for cellular usage in 1994. The licensing body, the FCC, did not legislate which technology should be used, and accordingly this enabled GSM to gain a foothold in the US market. This system was known as PCS 1900 (Personal Communication System).
GSM success
With GSM being used in many countries outside Europe this reflected the true nature of the name which had been changed from Groupe Special Mobile to Global System for Mobile communications. The number of subscribers grew rapidly and by the beginning of 2004 the total number of GSM subscribers reached 1 billion. Attaining this figure was celebrated at the Cannes 3GSM conference held that year. Figures continued to rise, reaching and then well exceeding the 3 billion mark. In this way the history of GSM has shown it to be a great success.
GSM Network Architecture

- a tutorial or overview of the basics of the GSM network architecture design and technology with details of the base-stations, controllers, MSC, AuC, HLR and VLR.
The GSM technical specifications define the different elements within the GSM network architecture. It defines the different elements and the ways in which they interact to enable the overall network operation to be maintained. The GSM network architecture is now well established and with the other later cellular systems now established and other new ones being deployed, the basic GSM network architecture has been updated to interface to the network elements required by these systems. Despite the developments of the newer systems, the basic GSM network architecture has been maintained, and the elements described below perform the same functions as they did when the original GSM system was launched in the early 1990s.
GSM network architecture elements

The GSM network architecture as defined in the GSM specifications can be grouped into four main areas:

Mobile station (MS) Base-station subsystem (BSS) Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
Simplified GSM Network Architecture
Mobile station
Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or mobile phones are the section of a GSM cellular network that the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time between charges has significantly increased. There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the main hardware and the SIM. The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including the display, case, battery, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and process the data receiver and to be transmitted. It also contains a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at manufacture and "cannot" be changed. It is accessed by the network during registration to check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen. The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity of the user to the network. It contains are variety of information including a number known as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the GSM network architecture that is fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists of two elements:
Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface with its associated protocols. Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface.
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
The GSM network subsystem contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the core network. It provides the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major elements within the core network include:
Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC): The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal switching node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality to enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks. Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR per network, although it may be distributed across various sub-centres to for operational reasons. Visitor Location Register (VLR): This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way access is made faster and more convenient. Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its problems. Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel. Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC): The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number, the "directory number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation does not require any linking to an MSC. SMS Gateway (SMS-G): The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM
standards. The two gateways handle messages directed in different directions. The SMSGMSC (Short Message Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for short messages being sent to an ME. The SMS-IWMSC (Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile Switching Centre) is used for short messages originated with a mobile on that network. The SMS-GMSC role is similar to that of the GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed access point to the Short Message Service Centre.
Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the system.
GSM Network Interfaces [4]

- a summary or tutorial of the different interfaces used to provide communication between various elements in a GSM cell phone network
The network structure is defined within the GSM standards. Additionally each interface between the different elements of the GSM network is also defined. This facilitates the information interchanges can take place. It also enables to a large degree that network elements from different manufacturers can be used. However as many of these interfaces were not fully defined until after many networks had been deployed, the level of standardisation may not be quite as high as many people might like.
1. Um interface The "air" or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges between a mobile (ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC). For signalling, a modified version of the ISDN LAPD, known as LAPDm is used. 2. Abis interface This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been totally standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio frequency allocation in the BTS. 3. A interface The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and the MSC. The interface carries information to enable the channels, timeslots and the like to be allocated to the mobile equipments being serviced by the BSSs. The messaging required within the network to enable handover etc to be undertaken is carried over the interface. 4. B interface The B interface exists between the MSC and the VLR . It uses a protocol known as the MAP/B protocol. As most VLRs are collocated with an MSC, this makes the interface purely an "internal" interface. The interface is used whenever the MSC needs access to data regarding a MS located in its area. 5. C interface The C interface is located between the HLR and a GMSC or a SMS-G. When a call originates from outside the network, i.e. from the PSTN or another mobile network it ahs to pass through the gateway so that routing information required to complete the call may be gained. The protocol used for communication is MAP/C, the letter "C" indicating that the protocol is used for the "C" interface. In addition to this, the MSC may optionally forward billing information to the HLR after the call is completed and cleared down. 6. D interface The D interface is situated between the VLR and HLR. It uses the MAP/D protocol to exchange the data related to the location of the ME and to the management of the subscriber. 7. E interface The E interface provides communication between two MSCs. The E interface exchanges data related to handover between the anchor and relay MSCs using the MAP/E protocol. 8. F interface The F interface is used between an MSC and EIR. It uses the MAP/F protocol. The communications along this interface are used to confirm the status of the IMEI of the ME gaining access to the network. 9. G interface The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs and uses the MAP/G protocol to transfer subscriber information, during e.g. a location update procedure. 10. H interface The H interface exists between the MSC the SMS-G. It transfers short messages and uses the MAP/H protocol. 11. I interface The I interface can be found between the MSC and the ME. Messages exchanged over the I interface are relayed transparently through the BSS. Although the interfaces for the GSM cellular system may not be as rigorouly defined as many might like, they do at least provide a large element of the definition required, enabling the functionality of GSM network entities to be defined sufficiently.
GSM Radio Air Interface, GSM Slot and Burst [5]

- tutorial, overview of the GSM air interface or GSM signal with details of carrier, slot structure and transmission burst and duplex scheme and power class.
One of the key elements of the development of the GSM, Global System for Mobile Communications was the development of the GSM air interface. There were many requirements that were placed on the system, and many of these had a direct impact on the air interface. Elements including the modulation, GSM slot structure, burst structure and the like were all devised to provide the optimum performance. During the development of the GSM standard very careful attention was paid to aspects including the modulation format, the way in which the system is time division multiplexed, all had a considerable impact on the performance of the system as a whole. For example, the modulation format for the GSM air interface had a direct impact on battery life and the time division format adopted enabled the cellphone handset costs to be considerably reduced as detailed later.
GSM signal and GMSK modulation characteristics

The core of any radio based system is the format of the radio signal itself. The carrier is modulated using a form of phase sift keying known as Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). GMSK was used for the GSM system for a variety of reasons:
It is resilient to noise when compared to many other forms of modulation. Radiation outside the accepted bandwidth is lower than other forms of phase shift keying. It has a constant power level which allows higher efficiency RF power amplifiers to be used in the handset, thereby reducing current consumption and conserving battery life.
Note on GMSK:
GMSK, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a form of phase modulation that is used in a number of portable radio and wireless applications. It has advantages in terms of spectral efficiency as well as having an almost constant amplitude which allows for the use of more efficient transmitter power amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical issue for battery power equipment. Click on the link for a GMSK tutorial
The nominal bandwidth for the GSM signal using GMSK is 200 kHz, i.e. the channel bandwidth and spacing is 200 kHz. As GMSK modulation has been used, the unwanted or spurious emissions outside the nominal bandwidth are sufficiently low to enable adjacent channels to be used from the same base station. Typically each base station will be allocated a number of carriers to enable it to achieve the required capacity. The data transported by the carrier serves up to eight different users under the basic system by splitting the carrier into eight time slots. The basic carrier is able to support a data throughput of approximately 270 kbps, but as some of this supports the management overhead, the data rate allotted to each time slot is only 24.8 kbps. In addition to this error correction is required to overcome the problems of interference, fading and general data errors that may occur. This means that the available data rate for transporting the digitally encoded speech is 13 kbps for the basic vocoders.
GSM slot structure and multiple access scheme

GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques. The FDMA element involves the division by frequency of the (maximum) 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies spaced 200 kHz apart as already described. The carriers are then divided in time, using a TDMA scheme. This enables the different users of the single radio frequency channel to be allocated different times slots. They are then able to use the same RF channel without mutual interference. The slot is then the time that is allocated to the particular user, and the GSM burst is the transmission that is made in this time.
Each GSM slot, and hence each GSM burst lasts for 0.577 mS (15/26 mS). Eight of these burst periods are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame. There are different types of frame that are transmitted to carry different data, and also the frames are organised into what are termed multiframes and superframes to provide overall synchronisation.
GSM slot structure

These GSM slot is the smallest individual time period that is available to each mobile. It has a defined format because a variety of different types of data are required to be transmitted. Although there are shortened transmission bursts, the slots is normally used for transmitting 148 bits of information. This data can be used for carrying voice data, control and synchronisation data.
GSM slots showing offset between transmit and receive It can be seen from the GSM slot structure that the timing of the slots in the uplink and the downlink are not simultaneous, and there is a time offset between the transmit and receive. This offset in the GSM slot timing is deliberate and it means that a mobile that which is allocated the same slot in both directions does not transmit and receive at the same time. This considerably reduces the need for expensive filters to isolate the transmitter from the receiver. It also provides a space saving.
GSM burst
The GSM burst, or transmission can fulfil a variety of functions. Some GSM bursts are used for carrying data while others are used for control information. As a result of this a number of different types of GSM burst are defined.

Normal burst uplink and downlink Synchronisation burst downlink Frequency correction burst downlink Random Access (Shortened Burst) uplink
GSM normal burst

This GSM burst is used for the standard communications between the basestation and the mobile, and typically transfers the digitised voice data. The structure of the normal GSM burst is exactly defined and follows a common format. It contains data that provides a number of different functions: 1. 3 tail bits: These tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up its power 2. 57 data bits: This block of data is used to carry information, and most often contains the digitised voice data although on occasions it may be replaced with signalling information in the form of the Fast Associated Control CHannel (FACCH). The type of data is indicated by the flag that follows the data field 3. 1 bit flag: This bit within the GSM burst indicates the type of data in the previous field. 4. 26 bits training sequence: This training sequence is used as a timing reference and for equalisation. There is a total of eight different bit sequences that may be used, each 26 bits long. The same sequence is used in each GSM slot, but nearby base stations using the same radio frequency channels will use different ones, and this enables the mobile to differentiate between the various cells using the same frequency. 5. 1 bit flag Again this flag indicates the type of data in the data field. 6. 57 data bits Again, this block of data within the GSM burst is used for carrying data. 7. 3 tail bits These final bits within the GSM burst are used to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. They are often called final tail bits, or just tail bits. 8. 8.25 bits guard time At the end of the GSM burst there is a guard period. This is introduced to prevent transmitted bursts from different mobiles overlapping. As a result of their differing distances from the base station.
GSM Normal Burst
GSM synchronisation burst

The purpose of this form of GSM burst is to provide synchronisation for the mobiles on the network. 1. 3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up its power 2. 39 bits of information: 3. 64 bits of a Long Training Sequence: 4. 39 bits Information: 5. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. 6. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.
GSM Synchronisation Burst
GSM frequency correction burst

With the information in the burst all set to zeros, the burst essentially consists of a constant frequency carrier with no phase alteration. 1. 3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up its power. 2. 142 bits all set to zero: 3. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. 4. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.
GSM Frequency Correction Burst
GSM random access burst
This form of GSM burst used when accessing the network and it is shortened in terms of the data carried, having a much longer guard period. This GSM burst structure is used to ensure that it fits in the time slot regardless of any severe timing problems that may exist. Once the mobile has accessed the network and timing has been aligned, then there is no requirement for the long guard period. 1. 7 tail bits: The increased number of tail bits is included to provide additional margin when accessing the network. 2. 41 training bits: 3. 36 data bits: 4. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. 5. 69.25 bits guard time: The additional guard time, filling the remaining time of the GSM burst provides for large timing differences.
GSM Random Access Burst
GSM discontinuous transmission (DTx)

A further power saving and interference reducing facility is the discontinuous transmission (DTx) capability that is incorporated within the specification. It is particularly useful because there are long pauses in speech, for example when the person using the mobile is listening, and during these periods there is no need to transmit a signal. In fact it is found that a person speaks for less than 40% of the time during normal telephone conversations. The most important element of DTx is the Voice Activity Detector. It must correctly distinguish between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not trivial. If a voice signal is misinterpreted as noise, the transmitter is turned off an effect known as clipping results and this is particularly annoying to the person listening to the speech. However if noise is misinterpreted as a voice signal too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased. It is also necessary for the system to add background or comfort noise when the transmitter is turned off because complete silence can be very disconcerting for the listener. Accordingly this is added as appropriate. The noise is controlled by the SID (silence indication descriptor).
GSM Frame Structure

- tutorial, overview of the basics of GSM frame structure including the multiframe, superframe and hyperframe.
The GSM system has a defined GSM frame structure to enable the orderly passage of information. The GSM frame structure establishes schedules for the predetermined use of timeslots. By establishing these schedules by the use of a frame structure, both the mobile and the base station are able to communicate not only the voice data, but also signalling information without the various types of data becoming intermixed and both ends of the transmission knowing exactly what types of information are being transmitted. The GSM frame structure provides the basis for the various physical channels used within GSM, and accordingly it is at the heart of the overall system.
Basic GSM frame structure

The basic element in the GSM frame structure is the frame itself. This comprises the eight slots, each used for different users within the TDMA system. As mentioned in another page of the tutorial, the slots for transmission and reception for a given mobile are offset in time so that the mobile does not transmit and receive at the same time.
GSM frame consisting of eight slots The basic GSM frame defines the structure upon which all the timing and structure of the GSM messaging and signalling is based. The fundamental unit of time is called a burst period and it lasts for approximately 0.577 ms (15/26 ms). Eight of these burst periods are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame. In simplified terms the base station transmits two types of channel, namely traffic and control. Accordingly the channel structure is organised into two different types of frame, one for the traffic on the main traffic carrier frequency, and the other for the control on the beacon frequency.
GSM multiframe
The GSM frames are grouped together to form multiframes and in this way it is possible to establish a time schedule for their operation and the network can be synchronised. There are several GSM multiframe structures:
Traffic multiframe: The Traffic Channel frames are organised into multiframes consisting of 26 bursts and taking 120 ms. In a traffic multiframe, 24 bursts are used for traffic. These are numbered 0 to 11 and 13 to 24. One of the remaining bursts is then used to accommodate the SACCH, the remaining frame remaining free. The actual position used alternates between position 12 and 25. Control multiframe: the Control Channel multiframe that comprises 51 bursts and occupies 235.4 ms. This always occurs on the beacon frequency in time slot zero and it may also occur within slots 2, 4 and 6 of the beacon frequency as well. This multiframe is
subdivided into logical channels which are time-scheduled. These logical channels and functions include the following: o Frequency correction burst o Synchronisation burst o Broadcast channel (BCH) o Paging and Access Grant Channel (PACCH) o Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
GSM Superframe
Multiframes are then constructed into superframes taking 6.12 seconds. These consist of 51 traffic multiframes or 26 control multiframes. As the traffic multiframes are 26 bursts long and the control multiframes are 51 bursts long, the different number of traffic and control multiframes within the superframe, brings them back into line again taking exactly the same interval.
GSM Hyperframe
Above this 2048 superframes (i.e. 2 to the power 11) are grouped to form one hyperframe which repeats every 3 hours 28 minutes 53.76 seconds. It is the largest time interval within the GSM frame structure. Within the GSM hyperframe there is a counter and every time slot has a unique sequential number comprising the frame number and time slot number. This is used to maintain synchronisation of the different scheduled operations with the GSM frame structure. These include functions such as:
Frequency hopping: Frequency hopping is a feature that is optional within the GSM system. It can help reduce interference and fading issues, but for it to work, the transmitter and receiver must be synchronised so they hop to the same frequencies at the same time. Encryption: The encryption process is synchronised over the GSM hyperframe period where a counter is used and the encryption process will repeat with each hyperframe. However, it is unlikely that the cellphone conversation will be over 3 hours and accordingly it is unlikely that security will be compromised as a result.
GSM Frame Structure Summary
GSM Frequencies and Frequency Bands [7]

- a tabular summary of the frequencies and frequency bands allocations and spectrum used by the GSM cellular telecommunications system.

Although it is possible for the GSM cellular system to work on a variety of frequencies, the GSM standard defines GSM frequency bands and frequencies for the different spectrum allocations that are in use around the globe. For most applications the GSM frequency allocations fall into three or four bands, and therefore it is possible for phones to be used for global roaming. While the majority of GSM activity falls into just a few bands, for some specialist applications, or in countries where spectrum allocation requirements mean that the standard bands cannot be used, different allocations may be required. Accordingly for most global roaming dual band, triband or quad-band phones will operate in most countries, although in some instances phones using other frequencies may be required.
GSM band allocations

There is a total of fourteen different recognised GSM frequency bands. These are defined in 3GPP TS 45.005.
Band Uplink (MHz) Downlink (MHz) Comments
380 380.2 - 389.8 390.2 - 399.8 410 410.2 - 419.8 420.2 - 429.8 450 450.4 - 457.6 460.4 - 467.6 480 478.8 - 486.0 488.8 - 496.0 710 698.0 - 716.0 728.0 - 746.0 750 747.0 - 762.0 777.0 - 792.0 810 806.0 - 821.0 851.0 - 866.0 850 824.0 - 849.0 869.0 - 894.0 900 890.0 - 915.0 935.0 - 960.0 P-GSM, i.e. Primary or standard GSM allocation
900 880.0 - 915.0 925.0 - 960.0 E-GSM, i.e. Extended GSM allocation 900 876.0 - 915 921.0 - 960.0 R-GSM, i.e. Railway GSM allocation
Band
Uplink (MHz)
Downlink (MHz)
Comments
900 870.4 - 876.0 915.4 - 921.0 T-GSM 1800 1710.0 1785.0 1850.0 1910.0 1805.0 1880.0 1930.0 1990.0
1900
GSM frequency band usage

The usage of the different frequency bands varies around the globe although there is a large degree of standardisation. The GSM frequencies available depend upon the regulatory requirements for the particular country and the ITU (International Telecommunications Union) region in which the country is located. As a rough guide Europe tends to use the GSM 900 and 1800 bands as standard. These bands are also generally used in the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Oceania. For North America the USA uses both 850 and 1900 MHz bands, the actual band used is determined by the regulatory authorities and is dependent upon the area. For Canada the 1900 MHz band is the primary one used, particularly for urban areas with 850 MHz used as a backup in rural areas. For Central and South America, the GSM 850 and 1900 MHz frequency bands are the most widely used although there are some areas where other frequencies are used.
GSM multiband phones

In order that cell phone users are able to take advantage of the roaming facilities offered by GSM, it is necessary that the cellphones are able to cover the bands of the countries which are visited. Today most phones support operation on multiple bands and are known as multi-band phones. Typically most standard phones are dual-band phones. For Europe, Middle east, Asia and Oceania these would operate on GSM 900 and 1800 bands and for North America, etc dual band phones would operate on GSM 850 and 1900 frequency bands.
To provide better roaming coverage, tri-band and quad-band phones are also available. European triband phones typically cover the GSM 900, 1800 and 1900 bands giving good coverage in Europe as well as moderate coverage in North America. Similarly North America tri-band phones use the 900, 1800 and 1900 GSM frequencies. Quad band phones are also available covering the 850, 900, 1800 and 1900 MHz GSM frequency bands, i.e. the four major bands and thereby allowing global use.
GSM Power Control and Power Class [8]

- tutorial, overview of the GSM power control, GSM power levels, power class and power amplifier design.

The power levels and power control of GSM mobiles is of great importance because of the effect of power on the battery life. Also to group mobiles into groups, GSM power class designations have been allocated to indicate the power capability of various mobiles. In addition to this the power of the GSM mobiles is closely controlled so that the battery of the mobile is conserved, and also the levels of interference are reduced and performance of the basestation is not compromised by high power local mobiles.
GSM power levels

The base station controls the power output of the mobile, keeping the GSM power level sufficient to maintain a good signal to noise ratio, while not too high to reduce interference, overloading, and also to preserve the battery life.
A table of GSM power levels is defined, and the base station controls the power of the mobile by sending a GSM "power level" number. The mobile then adjusts its power accordingly. In virtually all cases the increment between the different power level numbers is 2dB. The accuracies required for GSM power control are relatively stringent. At the maximum power levels they are typically required to be controlled to within +/- 2 dB, whereas this relaxes to +/- 5 dB at the lower levels. The power level numbers vary according to the GSM band in use. Figures for the three main bands in use are given below:
Power level number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Power output level dBm 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11
Power level number 17 18 19
Power output level dBm 9 7 5 GSM power level table for GSM 900
Power level number Power output level dBm 29 30 31 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8
Power level number Power output level dBm 12 13 14 15 6 4 2 0 GSM power level table for GSM 1800
Power level number 30 31 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Power output level dBm 33 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8
Power level number 12 13 14 15
Power output level dBm 6 4 2 0 GSM power level table for GSM 1900
GSM Power class

Not all mobiles have the same maximum power output level. In order that the base station knows the maximum power level number that it can send to the mobile, it is necessary for the base station to know the maximum power it can transmit. This is achieved by allocating a GSM power class number to a mobile. This GSM power class number indicates to the base station the maximum power it can transmit and hence the maximum power level number the base station can instruct it to use. Again the GSM power classes vary according to the band in use.
GSM Power Class Number
GSM 900
GSM 1800
GSM 1900
Power level number 1
Maximum power output
Power level number PL0
Maximum power output 30 dBm / 1W 24 dBm/ 250 mW 36 dBm / 4W
Power level number PL0
Maximum power output 30 dBm / 1W 24 dBm / 250 mW 33 dBm / 2W
PL2
39dBm / 8W PL3
PL3
PL3
37dBm / 5W PL29
PL30
GSM Power Class Number 4 5 PL4 PL5
GSM 900
GSM 1800
GSM 1900
33dBm / 2W 29 dBm / 800 mW
GSM power amplifier design considerations

One of the main considerations for the RF power amplifier design in any mobile phone is its efficiency. The RF power amplifier is one of the major current consumption areas. Accordingly, to ensure long battery life it should be as efficient as possible. It is also worth remembering that as mobiles may only transmit for one eighth of the time, i.e. for their allocated slot which is one of eight, the average power is an eighth of the maximum.
GSM logical and physical channels [9]

- a tutorial, description, overview of GSM channels including transport and logical channels, SACCH, SDCCH, FACCH, etc.

GSM uses a variety of channels in which the data is carried. In GSM, these channels are separated into physical channels and logical channels. The Physical channels are determined by the timeslot, whereas the logical channels are determined by the information carried within the physical channel. It can be further summarised by saying that several recurring timeslots on a carrier constitute a physical channel. These are then used by different logical channels to transfer information. These channels may either be used for user data (payload) or signalling to enable the system to operate correctly.
Common and dedicated channels

The channels may also be divided into common and dedicated channels. The forward common channels are used for paging to inform a mobile of an incoming call, responding to channel requests, and broadcasting bulletin board information. The return common channel is a random access channel used by the mobile to request channel resources before timing information is conveyed by the BSS. The dedicated channels are of two main types: those used for signalling, and those used for traffic. The signalling channels are used for maintenance of the call and for enabling call set up, providing facilities such as handover when the call is in progress, and finally terminating the call. The traffic channels handle the actual payload. The following logical channels are defined in GSM: TCHf - Full rate traffic channel. TCH h - Half rate traffic channel. BCCH - Broadcast Network information, e.g. for describing the current control channel structure. The BCCH is a point-to-multipoint channel (BSS-to-MS). SCH - Synchronisation of the MSs. FCHMS - frequency correction. AGCH - Acknowledge channel requests from MS and allocate a SDCCH. PCHMS - terminating call announcement. RACHMS - access requests, response to call announcement, location update, etc. FACCHt - For time critical signalling over the TCH (e.g. for handover signalling). Traffic burst is stolen for a full signalling burst. SACCHt - TCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring.
SDCCH - For signalling exchanges, e.g. during call setup, registration / location updates. FACCHs - FACCH for the SDCCH. The SDCCH burst is stolen for a full signalling burst. Function not clear in the present version of GSM (could be used for e.g. handover of an eightrate channel, i.e. using a "SDCCH-like" channel for other purposes than signalling). SACCHs - SDCCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring.
GSM Audio Codec / Vocoder [10]

- an overview, description or tutorial detailing the basics of GSM audio codecs or vocoders including LPC-RPE, EFR, Full Rate, Half Rate, AMR codec and AMRWB codec as well as CELP, ACELP, VSELP, speech codec technologies.
Audio codecs or vocoders are universally used within the GSM system. They reduce the bit rate of speech that has been converted from its analogue for into a digital format to enable it to be carried within the available bandwidth for the channel. Without the use of a speech codec, the digitised speech would occupy a much wider bandwidth then would be available. Accordingly GSM codecs are a particularly important element in the overall system. A variety of different forms of audio codec or vocoder are available for general use, and the GSM system supports a number of specific audio codecs. These include the RPE-LPC, half rate, and AMR codecs. The performance of each voice codec is different and they may be used under different conditions, although the AMR codec is now the most widely used. Also the newer AMR wideband (AMR-WB) codec is being introduced into many areas, including GSM Voice codec technology has advanced by considerable degrees in recent years as a result of the increasing processing power available. This has meant that the voice codecs used in the GSM system have large improvements since the first GSM phones were introduced.
Vocoder / codec basics

Vocoders or speech codecs are used within many areas of voice communications. Obviously the focus here is on GSM audio codecs or vocoders, but the same principles apply to any form of codec. If speech were digitised in a linear fashion it would require a high data rate that would occupy a very wide bandwidth. As bandwidth is normally limited in any communications system, it is necessary to compress the data to send it through the available channel. Once through the channel it can then be expanded to regenerate the audio in a fashion that is as close to the original as possible. To meet the requirements of the codec system, the speech must be captured at a high enough sample rate and resolution to allow clear reproduction of the original sound. It must then be compressed in such a way as to maintain the fidelity of the audio over a limited bit rate, errorprone wireless transmission channel. Audio codecs or vocoders can use a variety of techniques, but many modern audio codecs use a technique known as linear prediction. In many ways this can be likened to a mathematical modelling of the human vocal tract. To achieve this the spectral envelope of the signal is estimated using a filter technique. Even where signals with many non-harmonically related signals are used it is possible for voice codecs to give very large levels of compression. A variety of different codec methodologies are used for GSM codecs:
CELP: The CELP or Code Excited Linear Prediction codec is a vocoder algorithm that was originally proposed in 1985 and gave a significant improvement over other voice codecs of the day. The basic principle of the CELP codec has been developed and used as the basis of other voice codecs including ACELP, RCELP, VSELP, etc. As such the CELP codec methodology is now the most widely used speech coding algorithm. Accordingly CELP is now used as a generic term for a particular class of vocoders or speech codecs and not a particular codec. The main principle behind the CELP codec is that is uses a principle known as "Analysis by Synthesis". In this process, the encoding is performed by perceptually optimising the decoded signal in a closed loop system. One way in which this could be achieved is to compare a variety of generated bit streams and choose the one that produces the best sounding signal. ACELP codec: The ACELP or Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction codec. The ACELP codec or vocoder algorithm is a development of the CELP model. However the ACELP codec codebooks have a specific algebraic structure as indicated by the name. VSELP codec: The VSELP or Vector Sum Excitation Linear Prediction codec. One of the major drawbacks of the VSELP codec is its limited ability to code non-speech sounds. This means that it performs poorly in the presence of noise. As a result this voice
codec is not now as widely used, other newer speech codecs being preferred and offering far superior performance.
GSM audio codecs / vocoders

A variety of GSM audio codecs / vocoders are supported. These have been introduced at different times, and have different levels of performance.. Although some of the early audio codecs are not as widely used these days, they are still described here as they form part of the GSM system.
Codec name Full rate EFR Half rate AMR AMR-WB
Bit rate (kbps) 13 12.2 5.6 12.2 - 4.75 23.85 - 6.60
Compression technology RTE-LPC ACELP VSELP ACELP ACELP
GSM Full Rate / RPE-LPC codec

The RPE-LPC or Regular Pulse Excited - Linear Predictive Coder. This form of voice codec was the first speech codec used with GSM and it chosen after tests were undertaken to compare it with other codec schemes of the day. The speech codec is based upon the regular pulse excitation LPC with long term prediction. The basic scheme is related to two previous speech codecs, namely: RELP, Residual Excited Linear Prediction and to the MPE-LPC, Multi Pulse Excited LPC. The advantages of RELP are the relatively low complexity resulting from the use of baseband coding, but its performance is limited by the tonal noise produced by the system. The MPE-LPC is more complex but provides a better level of performance. The RPE-LPC codec provided a compromise between the two, balancing performance and complexity for the technology of the time. Despite the work that was undertaken to provide the optimum performance, as technology developed further, the RPE-LPC codec was viewed as offering a poor level of voice quality. As other full rate audio codecs became available, these were incorporated into the system.
GSM EFR - Enhanced Full Rate codec
Later another vocoder called the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) vocoder was added in response to the poor quality perceived by the users of the original RPE-LPC codec. This new codec gave much better sound quality and was adopted by GSM. Using the ACELP compression technology it gave a significant improvement in quality over the original LPC-RPE encoder. It became possible as the processing power that was available increased in mobile phones as a result of higher levels of processing power combined with their lower current consumption.
GSM Half Rate codec

The GSM standard allows the splitting of a single full rate voice channel into two sub-channels that can maintain separate calls. By doing this, network operators can double the number of voice calls that can be handled by the network with very little additional investment. To enable this facility to be used a half rate codec must be used. The half rate codec was introduced in the early years of GSM but gave a much inferior voice quality when compared to other speech codecs. However it gave advantages when demand was high and network capacity was at a premium. The GSM Half Rate codec uses a VSELP codec algorithm. It codes the data around 20 ms frames each carrying 112 bits to give a data rate of 5.6 kbps. This includes a 100 bps data rate for a mode indicator which details whether the system believes the frames contain voice data or not. This allows the speech codec to operate in a manner that provides the optimum quality. The Half Rate codec system was introduced in the 1990s, but in view of the perceived poor quality, it was not widely used.
GSM AMR Codec

The AMR, Adaptive Multi-rate codec is now the most widely used GSM codec. The AMR codec was adopted by 3GPP in October 1988 and it is used for both GSM and circuit switched UMTS / WCDMA voice calls. The AMR codec provides a variety of options for one of eight different bit rates as described in the table below. The bit rates are based on frames that are 20 millisceonds long and contain 160 samples. The AMR codec uses a variety of different techniques to provide the data compression. The ACELP codec is used as the basis of the overall speech codec, but other techniques are used in addition to this. Discontinuous transmission is employed so that when there is no speech activity the transmission is cut. Additionally Voice Activity Detection (VAD) is used to indicate when there is only background noise and no speech. Additionally to provide the feedback for the user that the connection is still present, a Comfort Noise Generator (CNG) is used to provide
some background noise, even when no speech data is being transmitted. This is added locally at the receiver. The use of the AMR codec also requires that optimized link adaptation is used so that the optimum data rate is selected to meet the requirements of the current radio channel conditions including its signal to noise ratio and capacity. This is achieved by reducing the source coding and increasing the channel coding. Although there is a reduction in voice clarity, the network connection is more robust and the link is maintained without dropout. Improvement levels of between 4 and 6 dB may be experienced. However network operators are able to prioritise each station for either quality or capacity. The AMR codec has a total of eight rates: eight are available at full rate (FR), while six are available at half rate (HR). This gives a total of fourteen different modes.
Mode AMR 12.2 AMR 10.2 AMR 7.95 AMR 7.40 AMR 6.70 AMR 5.90 AMR 5.15 AMR 4.75
Bit rate (kbps) 12.2 10.2 7.95 7.40 6.70 5.90 5.15 4.75
Full Rate (FR) / Half rate (HR) FR FR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR AMR codec data rates
AMR-WB codec
Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband, AMR-WB codec, also known under its ITU designation of G.722.2, is based on the earlier popular Adaptive Multi-Rate, AMR codec. AMR-WB also uses an ACELP basis for its operation, but it has been further developed and AMR-WB provides improved speech quality as a result of the wider speech bandwidth that it encodes. AMR-WB has a bandwidth extending from 50 - 7000 Hz which is significantly wider than the 300 - 3400 Hz bandwidths used by standard telephones. However this comes at the cost of additional processing, but with advances in IC technology in recent years, this is perfectly acceptable. The AMR-WB codec contains a number of functional areas: it primarily includes a set of fixed rate speech and channel codec modes. It also includes other codec functions including: a Voice Activity Detector (VAD); Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) functionality for GSM; and Source Controlled Rate (SCR) functionality for UMTS applications. Further functionality includes in-band signaling for codec mode transmission, and link adaptation for control of the mode selection.
The AMR-WB codec has a 16 kHz sampling rate and the coding is performed in blocks of 20 ms. There are two frequency bands that are used: 50-6400 Hz and 6400-7000 Hz. These are coded separately to reduce the codec complexity. This split also serves to focus the bit allocation into the subjectively most important frequency range. The lower frequency band uses an ACELP codec algorithm, although a number of additional features have been included to improve the subjective quality of the audio. Linear prediction analysis is performed once per 20 ms frame. Also, fixed and adaptive excitation codebooks are searched every 5 ms for optimal codec parameter values. The higher frequency band adds some of the naturalness and personality features to the voice. The audio is reconstructed using the parameters from the lower band as well as using random excitation. As the level of power in this band is less than that of the lower band, the gain is adjusted relative to the lower band, but based on voicing information. The signal content of the higher band is reconstructed by using an linear predictive filter which generates information from the lower band filter.
Bit rate (kbps) 6.60
Notes This is the lowest rate for AMR-WB. It is used for circuit switched connections for GSM and UMTS and is intended to be used only temporarily during severe radio channel conditions or during network congestion. This gives improved quality over the 6.6 kbps rate, but again, its use is only recommended for use in periods of congestion or when during severe radio channel conditions. This is the main bit rate used for circuit switched GSM and UMTS, offering superior performance to the original AMR codec. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Not suggested for full rate GSM channels. Not suggested for full rate GSM channels, and provides speech quality similar to that of G.722 at 64 kbps.
8.85 12.65 14.25 15.85 18.25 19.85 23.05 23.85
Not all phones equipped with AMR-WB will be able to access all the data rates - the different functions on the phone may not require all to be active for example. As a result, it is necessary to
inform the network about which rates are available and thereby simplify the negotiation between the handset and the network. To achieve this there are three difference AMR-WB configurations that are available:

Configuration A: 6.6, 8.85, and 12.65 kbit/s Configuration B: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 15.85 kbit/s Configuration C: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 23.85 kbit/s
It can be seen that only the 23.85, 15.85, 12.65, 8.85 and 6.60 kbit/s modes are used. Based on listening tests, it was considered that these five modes were sufficient for a high quality speech telephony service. The other data rates were retained and can be used for other purposes including multimedia messaging, streaming audio, etc.
GSM handover or handoff [11]

- tutorial or overview of the essentials of GSM handover or handoff from one cell to another and detailing types of handover and methodologies used.
GSM tutorial includes: GSM basics tutorial and overview GSM history GSM network architecture GSM interfaces GSM radio access network GSM frames GSM frequency bands and allocations GSM power class, control & amplifiers GSM physical & logical channels
GSM codecs / vocoders GSM handover or handoff One of the key elements of a mobile phone or cellular telecommunications system, is that the system is split into many small cells to provide good frequency re-use and coverage. However as the mobile moves out of one cell to another it must be possible to retain the connection. The process by which this occurs is known as handover or handoff. The term handover is more widely used within Europe, whereas handoff tends to be use more in North America. Either way, handover and handoff are the same process.
Requirements for GSM handover

The process of handover or handoff within any cellular system is of great importance. It is a critical process and if performed incorrectly handover can result in the loss of the call. Dropped calls are particularly annoying to users and if the number of dropped calls rises, customer dissatisfaction increases and they are likely to change to another network. Accordingly GSM handover was an area to which particular attention was paid when developing the standard.
Types of GSM handover

Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can be performed for GSM only systems:
Intra-BTS handover: This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change the frequency or slot being used by a mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In this form of GSM handover, the mobile remains attached to the same base station transceiver, but changes the channel or slot. Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover: This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff occurs when the mobile moves out of the coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same BSC. In this instance the BSC is able to perform the handover and it assigns a new channel and slot to the mobile, before releasing the old BTS from communicating with the mobile. Inter-BSC handover: When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by one BSC, a more involved form of handover has to be performed, handing over not only from one BTS to another but one BSC to another. For this the handover is controlled by the MSC. Inter-MSC handover: This form of handover occurs when changing between networks. The two MSCs involved negotiate to control the handover.
GSM handover process

Although there are several forms of GSM handover as detailed above, as far as the mobile is concerned, they are effectively seen as very similar. There are a number of stages involved in undertaking a GSM handover from one cell or base station to another. In GSM which uses TDMA techniques the transmitter only transmits for one slot in eight, and similarly the receiver only receives for one slot in eight. As a result the RF section of the mobile could be idle for 6 slots out of the total eight. This is not the case because during the slots in which it is not communicating with the BTS, it scans the other radio channels looking for beacon frequencies that may be stronger or more suitable. In addition to this, when the mobile communicates with a particular BTS, one of the responses it makes is to send out a list of the radio channels of the beacon frequencies of neighbouring BTSs via the Broadcast Channel (BCCH). The mobile scans these and reports back the quality of the link to the BTS. In this way the mobile assists in the handover decision and as a result this form of GSM handover is known as Mobile Assisted Hand Over (MAHO). The network knows the quality of the link between the mobile and the BTS as well as the strength of local BTSs as reported back by the mobile. It also knows the availability of channels in the nearby cells. As a result it has all the information it needs to be able to make a decision about whether it needs to hand the mobile over from one BTS to another. If the network decides that it is necessary for the mobile to hand over, it assigns a new channel and time slot to the mobile. It informs the BTS and the mobile of the change. The mobile then retunes during the period it is not transmitting or receiving, i.e. in an idle period. A key element of the GSM handover is timing and synchronisation. There are a number of possible scenarios that may occur dependent upon the level of synchronisation.
Old and new BTSs synchronised: In this case the mobile is given details of the new physical channel in the neighbouring cell and handed directly over. The mobile may optionally transmit four access bursts. These are shorter than the standard bursts and thereby any effects of poor synchronisation do not cause overlap with other bursts. However in this instance where synchronisation is already good, these bursts are only used to provide a fine adjustment. Time offset between synchronised old and new BTS: In some instances there may be a time offset between the old and new BTS. In this case, the time offset is provided so that the mobile can make the adjustment. The GSM handover then takes place as a standard synchronised handover. Non-synchronised handover: When a non-synchronised cell handover takes place, the mobile transmits 64 access bursts on the new channel. This enables the base station to determine and adjust the timing for the mobile so that it can suitably access the new BTS. This enables the mobile to re-establish the connection through the new BTS with the correct timing.
Inter-system handover
With the evolution of standards and the migration of GSM to other 2G technologies including to 3G UMTS / WCDMA as well as HSPA and then LTE, there is the need to handover from one technology to another. Often the 2G GSM coverage will be better then the others and GSM is often used as the fallback. When handovers of this nature are required, it is considerably more complicated than a straightforward only GSM handover because they require two technically very different systems to handle the handover. These handovers may be called intersystem handovers or inter-RAT handovers as the handover occurs between different radio access technologies. The most common form of intersystem handover is between GSM and UMTS / WCDMA. Here there are two different types:
UMTS / WCDMA to GSM handover: There are two further divisions of this category of handover: o Blind handover: This form of handover occurs when the base station hands off the mobile by passing it the details of the new cell to the mobile without linking to it and setting the timing, etc of the mobile for the new cell. In this mode, the network selects what it believes to be the optimum GSM based station. The mobile first locates the broadcast channel of the new cell, gains timing synchronisation and then carries out non-synchronised intercell handover. o Compressed mode handover: using this form of handover the mobile uses the gaps I transmission that occur to analyse the reception of local GSM base stations using the neighbour list to select suitable candidate base stations. Having selected a suitable base station the handover takes place, again without any time synchronisation having occurred. Handover from GSM to UMTS / WCDMA: This form of handover is supported within GSM and a "neighbour list" was established to enable this occur easily. As the GSM / 2G network is normally more extensive than the 3G network, this type of handover does not normally occur when the mobile leaves a coverage area and must quickly find a new base station to maintain contact. The handover from GSM to UMTS occurs to provide an improvement in performance and can normally take place only when the conditions are right. The neighbour list will inform the mobile when this may happen.
GPRS technology tutorial

- a multipage summary or tutorial describing GPRS technology, the General Packet Radio Service, the GSM upgrade technology used to provide data capability.
GPRS tutorial includes: GPRS technology tutorial GPRS network architecture GPRS mobiles and multislot classes GPRS radio air interface GPRS error coding GPRS channels GPRS operation
GSM was the most successful second generation cellular technology, but the need for higher data rates spawned new developments to enable data to be transferred at much higher rates. The first system to make an impact on the market was GPRS. The letters GPRS stand for General Packet Radio System, GPRS technology enabled much higher data rates to be conveyed over a cellular network when compared to GSM that was voice centric. GPRS became the first stepping-stone on the path between the second-generation GSM cellular technology and the 3G W-CDMA / UMTS system. With GPRS technology offering data services with data rates up to a maximum of 172 kbps, facilities such as web browsing and other services requiring data transfer became possible. Although some data could be transferred using GSM, the rate was too slow for real data applications.
GPRS benefits
GPRS technology brings a number of benefits for users and network operators alike. It was widely deployed to provide a realistic data capability via cellular telecommunications technology. GPRS technology offered some significant benefits:
Speed: One of the headline benefits of GPRS technology is that it offers a much higher data rate than was possible with GSM. Rates
up to 172 kbps are possible, although the maximum data rates realistically achievable under most conditions will be in the range 15 - 40 kbps. Packet switched operation: Unlike GSM which was used circuit switched techniques, GPRS technology uses packet switching in line with the Internet. This makes far more efficient use of the available capacity, and it allows greater commonality with Internet techniques. Always on connectivity: A further advantage of GPRS is that it offers an "Always On" capability. When using circuit switched techniques, charges are based on the time a circuit is used, i.e. how long the call is. For packet switched technology charges are for the amount of data carried as this is what uses the services provider's capacity. Accordingly, always on connectivity is possible. More applications: The packet switched technology including the always on connectivity combined with the higher data rates opens up many more possibilities for new applications. One of the chief growth areas that arose from GPRS was the Blackberry form of mobile or PDA. This provided for remote email applications along with web browsing, etc. Capex and opex: The Capital expenditure (capex) and operational expenditure (opex) are two major concerns for operators. As GPRS was an upgrade to existing GSM networks (often implemented as a software upgrade achieved remotely), the capital expenditure for introducing GPRS technology was not as high as deploying a complete new network. Additionally opex was not greatly affected as the basic basestation infrastructure remained basically the same. It was mainly new core network elements that were required.
The GSM and GPRS elements of the system operate separately. The GSM technology still carries the voice calls, while GPRS technology is sued for the data. As a result voice and data can be sent and received simultaneously.
GPRS and packet switching

The key element of GPRS technology is that it uses packet switched data rather than circuit switched data, and this technique makes much more efficient use of the available capacity. This is because most data transfer occurs in what is often termed a "bursty" fashion. The transfer occurs in short peaks, followed by breaks when there is little or no activity. Using a traditional approach a circuit is switched permanently to a particular user. This is known as a circuit switched mode. In view of the bursty nature of data transfer it means that there are periods when it will not be carrying data. To improve the situation the overall capacity can be shared between several users. To achieve this, the data is split into packets and tags inserted into the packet to provide the destination address. Packets from several sources can then be transmitted over the link. As it is unlikely that the data burst for different users will occur all at the same time, by sharing the overall resource in this fashion, the channel, or combined channels can be used far more efficiently. This approach
is known as packet switching, and it is at the core of many cellular data systems, and in this case GPRS.
GPRS network
GPRS and GSM are able to operate alongside one another on the same network, and using the same base stations. However upgrades are needed. The network upgrades reflect many of those needed for 3G, and in this way the investment in converting a network for GPRS prepares the core infrastructure for later evolution to a 3G W-CDMA / UMTS. The upgraded network, as described in later pages of this tutorial, has both the elements used for GSM as well as new entities that are used for the GPRS packet data service. The upgrades that were required for GPRS also formed the basis of the network required for the 3G deployments (UMTS Rel 99). In this way the investment required for GPRS would not be a one off investment used only on GPRS, it also formed the basis of the network for further developments. In this way GPRS became a stepping stone used for the migration from 2G to 3G.
GPRS mobiles
Not only does the network need to be upgraded for GPRS, but new GPRS mobiles were also required. It is not possible to upgrade an existing GSM mobile for use as a GPRS mobile, although GSM mobiles can be used for GSM speech on a network that also carries GPRS. To utilise GPRS new modes are required to enable it to transmit the data in the required format. With the incorporation of packet data into the network, this allowed far greater levels of functionality to be accessed by mobiles. As a result a new bread of started to appear. These PDAs were able to provide email and Internet browsing, and they were widely used especially by businesses as they allowed their key people to remain in touch with the office at all times.
Key GPRS parameters

The key parameters for the GPRS, General Packet Radio System, are tabulated below: Parameter Channel Bandwidth Modulation type Data handling Specification 200 kHz GMSK Packet data
Parameter Max data rate
Specification 172 kbps
GPRS technology offered a significant improvement in the data transfer capacity over existing cellular systems. It enabled many of the first email and web browsing phones such as PDAs, Blackberrys, etc to be launched. Accordingly GPRS technology heralded the beginning of a new era in cellular communications where the mobile phone capabilities allowed significantly more than voice calls and simple texts. GPRS enabled real data applications to be used and the new phones to become mobile computers on the move allowing businessmen to be always in touch with the office and domestic users to be able to use many more data applications.
GPRS network architecture

- a summary, overview or tutorial about the basics of the enhancements required for the GPRS network architecture including the GGSN and SGSN.
With GPRS providing a move from circuit switched technology to packet switched technology, it was necessary to upgrade the network architecture to accommodate this. To accommodate this the GPRS network architecture added new elements including the GGSN and SGSN to the existing GSM network to be able to accommodate this. However it was still necessary for the GPRS network elements and those from the existing GSM elements to work along side one another. Accordingly the introduction of GPRS technology saw the addition of some new entities within the over network architecture.
GPRS network architecture upgrades

With GPRS providing additional connectivity in terms of packet data, there are naturally a number of upgrades needed to the network architecture required. A number of new elements are
needed for the network, but these can operate alongside the existing elements meaning that the GPRS capability is an upgrade to the network and not a completely new network structure. The main new network architecture entities that are needed are:

SGSN: GPRS Support Node - this forms a gateway to the services within the network. GGSN: Gateway GPRS Support Node which forms the gateway to the outside world. PCU: Packet Control Unit which differentiates whether data is to be routed to the packet switched or circuit switched networks.
A simplified view of the GPRS network architecture can be seen in the diagram below. From this it can be seen that it is very similar to the more basic GSM network architecture, but with additional elements.
GPRS network architecture
SGSN
The SGSN or Serving GPRS Support Node element of the GPRS network provides a number of takes focussed on the IP elements of the overall system. It provides a variety of services to the mobiles:

Packet routing and transfer Mobility management Attach/detach Logical link management Authentication Charging data
There is a location register within the SGSN and this stores location information (e.g., current cell, current VLR). It also stores the user profiles (e.g., IMSI, packet addresses used) for all the GPRS users registered with the particular SGSN.
GGSN
The GGSN, Gateway GPRS Support Node is one of the most important entities within the GPRS network architecture. The GGSN organises the interworking between the GPRS network and external packet switched networks to which the mobiles may be connected. These may include both Internet and X.25 networks. The GGSN can be considered to be a combination of a gateway, router and firewall as it hides the internal network to the outside. In operation, when the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active, then forwarding the data. In the opposite direction, packet data from the mobile is routed to the right destination network by the GGSN.
PCU
The PCU or Packet Control Unit is a hardware router that is added to the BSC. It differentiates data destined for the standard GSM network (circuit switched data) and data destined for the GPRS network (Packet Switched Data). The PCU itself may be a separate physical entity, or more often these days it is incorporated into the base station controller, BSC, thereby saving additional hardware costs.
GPRS network upgrading
One of the key elements for any network operator is the cost of capital expenditure (capex) to buy and establish a network. Capex costs are normally very high for a new network, and operators endeavour to avoid this and use any existing networks they may have to make the optimum use of any capital. In addition to the capex, there are the operational costs, (opex). These costs are for general maintenance and other operational costs that may be incurred. Increasing efficiency and reliability will reduce the opex costs. Any upgrade such as that from GSM to GPRS will require new investment and operators are keen to keep this to the minimum. The upgrades for the GPRS network are not as large as starting from scratch and rolling out a new network. The GPRS network adds to the existing GSM network. The main new entities required within the network are the SGSN and GGSN, and these are required as the starting point. The base station subsystems require some updates. The main one is the addition of the PCU described above. Some modifications may be required to the BTS, but often only a software upgrade is required, and this may often be achieved remotely. In this way costs are kept to a minimum. The GPRS network architecture can be viewed as an evolution of the GSM network carrying both circuit switched and packet data. The GPRS network architecture was also used as the basis for the 3G UMTS network. In this way network operators could evolve their networks through GPRS and possibly EDGE to the full 3G networks without having to replace and install more new equipment than was absolutely necessary.
GPRS mobile and multislot classes

- a summary or tutorial describing the basics of mobile or phone technology and the GPRS classes, multislot classes including class 12, class 32, etc.
GPRS mobiles are able to support data transmission as well as voice. GPRS mobiles are available with a variety of levels of operation. These are often defined by defining them as a particular GPRS class. These GPRS classes indicate the level of service they are able to provide.
In many respects many GPRS mobile phones may not look different to ordinary GSM phones, but they are able to offer a level of data service that cannot be provided by a standard GSM phone. Some GPRS phones may even offer a keyboard for emails, etc.
GPRS performance categories

Not all GPRS mobiles are designed to offer the same levels of service. As a result they are split into three basic categories according to their capabilities in terms of the ability to connect to GSM and GPRS facilities: 1. Class A: - This class describes mobile phones that can be connected to both GPRS and GSM services at the same time.
2. Class B: - These mobiles can be attached to both GPRS and GSM services but they can be used on only one service at a time. A Class B mobile can make or receive a voice call, or send and or receive a SMS message during a GPRS connection. During voice calls or texting the GPRS service is suspended but it is re-established when the voice call or SMS session is complete.
3. Class C: - This classification covers phones that can be attached to either GPRS or GSM services but user needs to switch manually between the two different types.
GPRS multislot classes

GPRS mobiles are also categorized by the data rates they can support. Within GSM there are eight time slots that can be used to provide TDMA, allowing multiple mobiles onto a single RF signal carrier. Within GPRS it is possible to use more than one slot to enable much higher data rates to be achieved when these are available. The different speed classes of the mobiles are dependent upon the number of slots that can be used in either direction. There are a total of 29 speed classes. Class one mobiles are able to send and receive in one slot in either direction, i.e. uplink and downlink, and class 29 mobiles are able to send and receive in all eight slots. The classes within these two limits are able to support sending and receiving in different combinations of uplink and downlink slots. GPRS class Slots used Max upload speed kbps Max download speed kbps
2 4 6 8 10 12
3 4 4 5 5 5
8 - 12 16 - 24 8 - 12 24 - 36 24 - 36 24 - 36 8 - 12 / 32 - 40 16 - 24 32 - 48 32 - 48 32 - 48 Common GPRS classes
GPRS mobile phones are available with a very wide range of different performance levels. These are defined by the different GPRS categories and GPRS classes. In particular the GPRS class will be seen mentioned in the literature and this defines the maximum data rates that can be achieved under ideal conditions.
GPRS Radio Air Interface, GPRS Slot and Burst

- a summary or tutorial describing the basics of the GPRS radio or air interface describing the modulation, GPRS slot and burst structures.
GPRS tutorial includes:

GPRS technology tutorial GPRS network architecture GPRS mobiles and multislot classes GPRS radio air interface GPRS error coding
GPRS channels GPRS operation
In order to be able to carry the packet data and to increase the data rates that can be carried by the GPRS technology, it has been necessary to make some upgrades to the GPRS radio interface. In particular the GPRS slot or GPRS burst have been upgraded to accommodate the new scheme. Despite the upgrades it was necessary to ensure that GPRS would operate alongside the existing GSM system, and this would require modifications to the air interface to accommodate both schemes.
GPRS modulation scheme

GPRS builds on the basic GSM structure. It uses the same signal format having 200 kHz channel bandwidths. It also has the same modulation scheme and using GMSK modulation. Retaining the same modulation scheme means that the level of upgrade required to be able to support GPRS in addition to GSM is minimised.
Note on GMSK:
GMSK, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a form of phase modulation that is used in a number of portable radio and wireless applications. It has advantages in terms of spectral efficiency as well as having an almost constant amplitude which allows for the use of more efficient transmitter power amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical issue for battery power equipment. Click on the link for a GMSK tutorial
GMSK modulation was chosen for GSM originally because it offered a number of advantages including good spectral efficiency, resilience to interference, low levels of interference outside the wanted bandwidth, and the ability to use a non-linear RF power amplifier. This last point is of great importance because the use of a non-linear power amplifier brings greater levels of efficiency and this results in longer battery life - an important factor for mobile phones.
GPRS frame and slot structure
Again the GRPS air interface employs the same basic structure as that adopted for GSM. The overall slot structure for this channel is the same as that used within GSM, having the same power profile, and timing advance attributes to overcome the different signal travel times to the base station dependent upon the distance the mobile is from the base station. This enables the burst to fit in seamlessly with the existing GSM structure.
GSM slots showing offset between transmit and receive
GPRS burst structure

Each GPRS burst of information is 0.577 mS in length and is the same as that used in GSM. The GPRS burst carries two blocks of 57 bits of information in line with a GSM burst, giving a total of 114 bits per burst. It therefore requires four GPRS bursts to carry each 20 mS block of data, i.e. 456 bits of encoded data. Slots can be assigned dynamically by the BSC to GPRS dependent upon the demand, the remaining ones being used for GSM traffic.
GPRS burst structure
The BSC assigns PDCHs to particular time slots, and there will be times when the PDCH is inactive, allowing the mobile to check for other base stations and monitor their signal strengths to enable the network to judge when handover is required. The GPRS slot may also be used by
the base station to judge the time delay using a logical channel known as the Packet Timing Advance Control Channel (PTCCT). The GPRS radio interface is very similar to that used by GSM, enabling the two systems to operate together on the same carrier, bursts of GSM and GPRS occupying the same frame. In this way it is possible for a single base station to support both systems. As a result of the GPRS burst and GPRS slot fitting being compatible with operation on a GSM signal does place restrictions regarding what can be done, but it enables the systems to operate together which is one of the essential requirements.
GPRS Error Coding Schemes

- a summary or tutorial describing the basics of the GPRS error coding schemes used.
In order to accommodate the packet data within GPRS it has been necessary to develop the coding schemes. Additionally the layers based on the OSI system has become more important than it was for some of the previous systems and descriptions what are contained within these layers are found below.
GPRS coding
GPRS offers a number of coding schemes with different levels of error detection and correction. These are used dependent upon the radio frequency signal conditions and the requirements for the data being sent. These are given labels CS-1 to CS-4: 1. CS-1: - This applies the highest level of error detection and correction. It is used in scenarios when interference levels are high or signal levels are low. By applying high levels of detection and correction, this prevents the data having to be re-sent too often. Although it is acceptable for many types of data to be delayed, for others there is a more critical time element. This level of detection and coding results in a half code rate, i.e. for
every 12 bits that enter the coder, 24 bits result. It results in a throughput of 9.05 kbps actual throughput data rate.
2. CS-2: - This error detection and coding scheme is for better channels. It effectively uses a 2/3 encoder and results in a real data throughput of 13.4 kbps which includes the RLC/MAC header etc.
3. CS-3: - This effectively uses a 3/4 coder and results in a data throughput of 15.6 kbps.
4. CS-4: - This scheme is used when the signal is high and interference levels are low. No correction is applied to the signal allowing for a maximum throughput of 21.4 kbps. If all eight slots were used then this would enable a data throughput of 171.2 kbps to be achieved. Coding scheme CS-1 CS-2 CS-3 Date rate per slot 9.05 13.4 15.6 (kbps) Max data rate with 8 slots 72.4 107.2 124.8 (kbps) GPRS coding vs data rate summary CS-4 21.4 171.2
In addition to the error detection and coding schemes, GPRS also employs interleaving techniques to ensure the effects of interference and spurious noise are reduced to a minimum. It allows the error correction techniques to be more effective as interleaving helps reduce the total corruption if a section of data is lost. As blocks of 20 ms data are carried over four bursts, with a total of 456 bits of information, a total of either 181, 268, 312, or 428 bits of payload data are carried dependent upon the error detection and coding scheme chosen, i.e. from CS-1 to CS-4, respectively.
Layers
Software plays a very large part in the current cellular communications systems. To enable it to be sectioned into areas that can be addressed separately, the concept of layers has been developed. It is used in GSM and other cellular systems but as they become more data-centric, the idea takes a greater prominence. Often these are referred to as layers, 1, 2, and 3.
Layer 1 concerns the physical link between the mobile and the base station. This is often subdivided into two sub-layers, namely the Physical RF layer that includes the modulation and demodulation, and the Physical link layer that manages the responses and controls required for the operation of the RF link. These include elements such as error correction, interleaving and the correct assembly of the data, power control, and the like. Above this are the Radio Link Control (RLC) and the Medium Access Control (MAC) layers. These organise the logical links between the mobile and the base station. They control the radio link access and they organise the logical channels that route the data to and from the mobile. There is also the Logical Link Layer (LLC) that formats the data frames and is used to link the elements of the core network to the mobile.
GPRS channels
- a summary or tutorial describing GPRS channels including the GPRS physical and logical channels.
Like other cellular systems, GPRS uses a variety of physical and logical channels to carry the data payload as well as the signalling required to control the calls.
GPRS physical channel

GPRS builds on the basic GSM structure. GPRS uses the same modulation and frame structure that is employed by GSM, and in this way it is an evolution of the GSM standard. Slots can be assigned dynamically by the BSC to GPRS calls dependent upon the demand, the remaining ones being used for GSM traffic. There is a new data channel that is used for GPRS and it is called the Packet Data Channel (PDCH). The overall slot structure for this channel is the same as that used within GSM, having the same power profile, and timing advance attributes to overcome the different signal travel
times to the base station dependent upon the distance the mobile is from the base station. This enables the burst to fit in seamlessly with the existing GSM structure. Each burst of information for GPRS is 0.577 mS in length and is the same as that used in GSM. It also carries two blocks of 57 bits of information, giving a total of 114 bits per burst. It therefore requires four bursts to carry each 20 mS block of data, i.e. 456 bits of encoded data. The BSC assigns PDCHs to particular time slots, and there will be times when the PDCH is inactive, allowing the mobile to check for other base stations and monitor their signal strengths to enable the network to judge when handover is required. The GPRS slot may also be used by the base station to judge the time delay using a logical channel known as the Packet Timing Advance Control Channel (PTCCT).
GPRS channel allocation

Although GPRS uses only one physical channel (PDCH) for the sending of data, it employs several logical channels that are mapped into this to enable the GPRS data and facilities to be managed. As the data in GPRS is handled as packet data, rather than circuit switched data the way in which this is organised is very different to that on a standard GSM link. Packets of data are assigned a space within the system according to the current needs, and routed accordingly. The MAC layer is central to this and there are three MAC modes that are used to control the transmissions. These are named fixed allocation, dynamic allocation, and extended dynamic allocation. The fixed allocation mode is required when a mobile requires a data to be sent at a consistent data rate. To achieve this, a set of PDCHs are allocated for a given amount of time. When this mode is used there is no requirement to monitor for availability, and the mobile can send and receive data freely. This mode is used for applications such as video conferencing. When using the dynamic allocation mode, the network allocates time slots as they are required. A mobile is allowed to transmit in the uplink when it sees an identifier flag known as the Uplink Status Flag (USF) that matches its own. The mobile then transmits its data in the allocated slot. This is required because up to eight mobiles can have potential access to a slot, but obviously only one can transmit at any given time. A further form of allocation known as extended dynamic allocation is also available. Use of this mode allows much higher data rates to be achieved because it enables mobiles to transmit in more than one slot. When the USF indicates that a mobile can use this mode, it can transmit in the number allowed, thereby increasing the rate at which it can send data.
Logical channels
There is a variety of channels used within GPRS, and they can be set into groups dependent upon whether they are for common or dedicated use. Naturally the system does use the GSM control and broadcast channels for initial set up, but all the GPRS actions are carried out within the GPRS logical channels carried within the PDCH. Broadcast channels:
Packet Broadcast Central Channel (PBCCH): This is a downlink only channel that is used to broadcast information to mobiles and informs them of incoming calls etc. It is very similar in operation to the BCCH used for GSM. In fact the BCCH is still required in the initial to provide a time slot number for the PBCCH. In operation the PBCCH broadcasts general information such as power control parameters, access methods and operational modes, network parameters, etc, required to set up calls.
Common control channels:
Packet Paging Channel (PPCH): This is a downlink only channel and is used to alert the mobile to an incoming call and to alert it to be ready to receive data. It is used for control signalling prior to the call set up. Once the call is in progress a dedicated channel referred to as the PACCH takes over. Packet Access Grant Channel (PAGCH): This is also a downlink channel and it sends information telling the mobile which traffic channel has been assigned to it. It occurs after the PPCH has informed the mobile that there is an incoming call. Packet Notification Channel (PNCH): This is another downlink only channel that is used to alert mobiles that there is broadcast traffic intended for a large number of mobiles. It is typically used in what is termed point-to-point multicasting. Packet Random Access Channel (PRACH): This is an uplink channel that enables the mobile to initiate a burst of data in the uplink. There are two types of PRACH burst, one is an 8 bit standard burst, and a second one using an 11 bit burst has added data to allow for priority setting. Both types of burst allow for timing advance setting.
Dedicated control channels:
Packet Associated Control Channel (PACCH): : This channel is present in both uplink and downlink directions and it is used for control signalling while a call is in progress. It takes over from the PPCH once the call is set up and it carries information such as channel assignments, power control messages and acknowledgements of received data. Packet Timing Advance Common Control Channel (PTCCH): This channel, which is present in both the uplink and downlink directions is used to adjust the timing advance. This is required to ensure that messages arrive at the correct time at the base station regardless of the distance of the mobile from the base station. As timing is critical in a TDMA system and signals take a small but finite time to travel this aspect is very important if long guard bands are not to be left.
Dedicated traffic channel:
Packet Data Traffic Channel (PDTCH): This channel is used to send the traffic and it is present in both the uplink and downlink directions. Up to eight PDTCHs can be allocated to a mobile to provide high speed data.
GPRS operation
- An introduction, overview or tutorial of the basics of the operation of the GPRS cellular system.
GPRS tutorial includes:

GPRS technology tutorial GPRS network architecture GPRS mobiles and multislot classes GPRS radio air interface GPRS error coding GPRS channels GPRS operation
When looking at the way in which GPRS operates, it can be seen that there are three basic modes in which it operates. These are: initialisation / idle, standby, and ready.
Initialisation / idle
When the mobile is turned on it must register with the network and update the location register. This is very similar to that performed with a GSM mobile, but it is referred to as a location update. It first locates a suitable cell and transmits a radio burst on the RACH using a shortened burst because it does not know what timing advance is required. The data contained within this burst temporarily identifies the mobile, and indicates that the reason for the update is to perform a location update. When the mobile performs its location update the network also performs an authentication to ensure that it is allowed to access the network. As for GSM it accesses the HLR and VLR as necessary for the location update and the AuC for authentication. It is at registration that the network detects that the mobile has a GPRS capability. The SGSN also maintains a record of the location of the mobile so that data can be sent there is required.
Standby
The mobile then enters a standby mode, periodically updating its position as required. It monitors the MNC of the base station to ensure that it has not changed base stations and also looks for stronger base station control channels. The mobile will also monitor the PPCH in case of an incoming alert indicating that data is ready to be sent. As for GSM, most base stations set up a schedule for paging alerts based on the last figures of the mobile number. In this way it does not have to monitor all the available alert slots and can instead only monitor a reduced number where it knows alerts can be sent for it. In this way the receiver can be turned off for longer and battery life can be extended.
Ready
In the ready mode the mobile is attached to the system and a virtual connection is made with the SGSN and GGSN. By making this connection the network knows where to route the packets when they are sent and received. In addition to this the mobile is likely to use the PTCCH to ensure that its timing is correctly set so that it is ready for a data transfer should one be needed. With the mobile attached to the network, it is prepared for a call or data transfer. To transmit data the mobile attempts a Packet Channel Request using the PRACH uplink channel. As this may be busy the mobile monitors the PCCCH which contains a status bit indicating the status of the base station receiver, whether it is busy or idle and capable of receiving data. When the mobile sees this status bit indicates the receiver is idle, it sends its packet channel request message. If accepted the base station will respond by sending an assignment message on the PAGCH on the downlink. This will indicate which channel the mobile is to use for its packet data transfer as well as other details required for the data transfer.
This only sets up the packet data transfers for the uplink. If data needs to be transferred in the downlink direction then a separate assignment is performed for the downlink channel. When data is transferred this is controlled by the action of the MAC layer. In most instances it will operate in an acknowledge mode whereby the base station acknowledges each block of data. The acknowledgement may be contained within the data packets being sent in the downlink, or the base station may send data packets down purely to acknowledge the data. When disconnecting the mobile will send a packet temporary block flow message, and this is acknowledged. Once this has taken place the USF assigned to the mobile becomes redundant and can be assigned to another mobile wanting access. With this the mobile effectively becomes disconnected and although still attached to the network no more data transfer takes place unless it is re-initiated. Separate messages are needed to detach the mobile from the network.

GSM Basics Tutorial and Overview

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GSM basics tutorial and overview [1]

GSM system overview

GSM system overview

Speech channels per RF channel Channel data rate Frame duration

8 270.833 kbps 4.615 ms

GSM History [2]

GSM tutorial includes:

GSM launch dates

Global GSM usage

GSM Network Architecture

GSM network architecture elements

Simplified GSM Network Architecture

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

GSM Network Interfaces [4]

GSM Radio Air Interface, GSM Slot and Burst [5]

GSM signal and GMSK modulation characteristics

GSM slot structure and multiple access scheme

GSM slot structure

GSM normal burst

GSM Normal Burst

GSM synchronisation burst

GSM Synchronisation Burst

GSM frequency correction burst

GSM Frequency Correction Burst

GSM random access burst

GSM Random Access Burst

GSM discontinuous transmission (DTx)

GSM Frame Structure

Basic GSM frame structure

GSM Frame Structure Summary

GSM Frequencies and Frequency Bands [7]

GSM tutorial includes:

GSM band allocations

GSM frequency band usage

GSM multiband phones

GSM Power Control and Power Class [8]

GSM tutorial includes:

GSM power levels

Power level number 17 18 19

Power level number Power output level dBm 29 30 31 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8

Power level number 30 31 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Power output level dBm 33 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8

Power level number 12 13 14 15

GSM Power class

Power level number 1

Maximum power output

Power level number PL0

Maximum power output 30 dBm / 1W 24 dBm/ 250 mW 36 dBm / 4W

Power level number PL0

Maximum power output 30 dBm / 1W 24 dBm / 250 mW 33 dBm / 2W

GSM Power Class Number 4 5 PL4 PL5

33dBm / 2W 29 dBm / 800 mW

GSM power amplifier design considerations

GSM logical and physical channels [9]

GSM tutorial includes:

Common and dedicated channels

GSM Audio Codec / Vocoder [10]

Vocoder / codec basics