Unit 1: Introduction

1.1 Field Trip The students of Env350: Coastal Ecology went on a field trip to Sundarban and was there from 17-19 November 2011. The tour was organized by Your Bangla Tour and we were in Katka Express, the cruiser, which took us around Sundarban.

We went inside the World Heritage Site of Sundarban East Sanctuary in Bagherhat. We studied the ecology and its distinctness from other ecological regions in Bangladesh. We visited two ranges: Chandpai and Sarankhola Range. For anyone entering Sundarban, one has to take permission from the Forest Department. After taking two forest guards with us from Chandpai Range Forest Department camp we began our journey to Sundarban.

We visited several locations inside the Sundarban: Harbaria Eco-Park, Chanpai Range Jamtola Beach, Katka, Sarankhola Range Kochikhali, Katka, Sarankhola Range Karamjal deer and crocodile rearing station

1.2 Objectives & Methodology We worked as groups and our group was called EcoExpress. There were 5 groups in total This field trip was mainly for us to understand the characteristics of a coastal ecology in Bangladesh and studying the ecology of Sundarban really helped us in that area.

The objectives that we had in mind for this field trip were: To discover the uniqueness of mangrove forests in Sundarban To see the functions of the Sundarban ecosystem To study the adaptive features of some species To understand the importance of saving the remaining mangrove ecosystem in Sundarban To analyze the conservation work being carried out in Sundarban
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The methodology used in order to achieve our objectives: Observational skills Communication with locals and FD staff Photography Secondary source: Internet, for information

Unit 2: Sundarban 2.1 Map

The map on the left shows the four ranges of Sundarban. We visited the Sundarban East i.e. Chandpai and Sarankhola Range. Both these two ranges form the Sundarban East Wildlife Sanctuary. Khulna range is in the Sundarban South Wildlife Sanctuary while the Burigoalini range is in the Sundarban West Wildlife Sanctuary.

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2.2 Background

Sarah Sanabam Sundarban is situated at the west of main outflow of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system. Total area of the entire Sundarban is about 1 million ha. and about 60% (595,000ha) is in Bangladesh and the rest 40% in India. The two countries are divided by the Raimangal River.

Sundarban is a Ramsar Site and in 1997, UNESCO declared the Sundarban in Bangladesh a World Heritage Site. The Protected Area portion of the Sundarban in Bangladesh is under three Sanctuaries and its total size is 139,700 ha. They were established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Act, 1974. Sundarban West Wildlife Sanctuary is 71,502ha, Sundarban East Wildlife Sanctuary is 31,226ha and Sundarban South Wildlife Sanctuary is 36,970ha. The entire Sundarban is Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1878. Even though Sundarban has lost half of its inland area over the last 200 years through human encroachment, over 10,000 km2 of continuous mangroves still remain.

The three sanctuaries are filled with complex networks of rivers, canals and creeks. Mud flats and small islands are visible at every turn. Because of the many waterways flowing through the Sundarban almost every part is accessible by boat. Two-third of Sundarban is land and the rest is water. (Sarah 0930156)

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Unit 3: Ecology

What makes Sundarban is its uniqueness and distinction from other mangrove ecosystem in the world. It has the highest number of biodiversity of any mangrove ecosystem, both flora and fauna. The mangroves play a vital role in the lives of people and the wildlife. The ecology is complex and has evolved for thousands of years. There are about 334 plants, 120 fishes, 35 reptiles, 270 birds and 42 mammals. There is a whole complex network of interactions and each is dependent on one another for survival. Bangladesh being a deltaic region also means the soil is rich and fertile and the intrusion of saline water means the living organisms have to be very well adapted to experience freshwater half a day and saline water for the remaining half. The high and low tides coming in make a big difference to the ecology.

Not only is Sundarban the home for Royal Bengal tigers, but it harbors one of the largest remaining global populations of highly endangered species. Sundarban is also of great ecological and economic importance because it provides valuable natural resources such as fish, shrimp, crab, wood, grass, honey and wax.

The forest also stabilizes the coastal belt and protects the low-lying country from tidal surges, cyclones and other natural calamities. Research has indicated that mangroves can absorb 30-40% of the total force of a cyclone and reduce the fore of powerful waves before they hit inland. Hence, it acts as a natural shield protecting Bangladesh. Moreover, they are also the source of earning for the people. They are nurseries for a wide range of species of fish, shrimps. Coastal communities rely on these supplies for livelihood.

The different parts of the ecology that make the coastal ecology of Sundarban so unique and necessary to preserve are explained in the next few pages.

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3.1 Soil and water by Shamim Soil- Since the Sundarban delta is formed by the super confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, the soils are fertile owing to continuous silt deposits. The soil of the region can be generally classified into five groups depending on the texture of the soil: clay soil heavy soil sandy loam sandy and silty soil. Sarah Sanabam

Soils of the Sundarban mangrove forest differ from other inland soils in that they are subjected to the effects of salinity and water logging, which naturally affect the vegetation. In places soils are semi-solid and poorly consolidated.

The pH ranges widely from 5.3 to 8.0. Although the Sundarban soil is in general medium textured, sandy loam, silt loam or clay loam, the grain size distribution is highly variable. Silt loam is dominant textural class. Sodium and calcium contents of the soil vary from 5.7 to 29.8 meq/100g dry soil and are generally low in Sarah Sanabam the eastern region and higher towards the west. The available potassium content of the soil is low, 0.3-1.3 meq/100g dry soil. Organic matter content varies between 4% and 10% in dry soil. The salinity of the soil is determined by the amount of rainfall occurred and fresh water received from the upper catchments area and the salinity of the tidal water channels from the south. Soil salinity increases from east (slight to moderate) to west (highly saline), but the salinity is not uniform from north to south throughout the forest. Salinity of surface soils is high during dry season but is reduced to tolerable limits because of dilution by the leaching effects of rainwater.
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Water-The Sundarban in Bangladesh is dissected by seven main north-south-flowing rivers, from the Rainagal, a branch of the Harinbhanga to the Baleswar, a mouth of the Meghna. These waterways, apart from the Baleswar River on the eastern edge of the East Sanctuary, now carry little fresh water as they are mostly cut off from the Ganges, the freshwater outflow of which over 400 years has shifted progressively eastwards from the Bhagirathi-Hooghly

channels. This shift is due to tectonic subsidence of the Sarah Sanabam Bengal Basin during the 10th-12th centuries, and the

continuing gradual eastward tilting of the underlying crust. The average salinity of water and soils therefore decreases markedly from west to east. The area has three main hydrological zones: brackish, moderately saline and saline, which influence the types of vegetation which dominate each.

Oligohaline zone (Brackish): with salinity level less than 6,250 micromhos, and the dominant species is Sundari (Heritiera fomes) the most valuable timber in the forest accounting for over 60 percent of the total volume of commercial timber. Mesohaline zone (Moderately Saline): with salinity level between 6,250 and 12,500 micromhos, and the dominant species is Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha). Polyhaline zone (Saline): with salinity level exceeding 12,500 micromhos, and the dominant species is Goran (Ceriops decandra).

As a consequence of salinity penetration in the Sundarban, majority of the Mesohaline areas will be transformed into Polyhaline areas, while Oligohaline areas would be reduced to only a small pocket along the lower- Baleswar River in the eastern part of the forest.

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3.2 Aquatic Ecosystem by Shamim The Sundarban aquatic ecosystem is a mixture of various types of Marine ecosystems namely: 1. Inter tidal 2. Estuarine 3. Salt Marshes This classification is based on zones depending on salinity and depth of water. The main aquatic animal species of the Sundarban includes: 1. Smooth coated Otter 2. Ganges River Dolphin 3. Indo-Pacific Hump Back Dolphin 4. Irrawady Dolphin 5. Finless porpoise

Among fishes, 400 species of fish are available in the Sundarban, along with 20 Shrimps, 8 Lobsters and 7 Crab species. But only 120 Species of fish are caught by commercial fishermen. Some of the fishermen we found in Jamtola Tourist Spot told us that the common fish they catch are faisha and coral fish. Mud skippers are also found in large numbers. Several animal species like Narrow headed soft shelled Turtles and Gharial have reportedly become locally extinct. The Sundarban also supports some 53 Reptile species and 8 Amphibian species. Reptilian species include King Cobra, Spectacled Cobra and also Estuarine Crocodiles. There are three species of monitor lizards in Sundarban: Indian Monitor, Yellow Monitor and Asian water monitor. The water monitor is a great swimmer and depends o n the aquatic ecosystem for survival. There are six sea snakes. Most of these aquatic animals have adapted to the salty nature of the water. There are four species of marine turtles like the Olive Ridley, Green turtle, Loggerhead and Hawksbill turtle. All of them are endangered. They are losing their breeding grounds. River terrapin is also in Sundarban but they encounter humans very often. Crustaceans account for by far the largest proportion of animal biomass, with an estimated 40 million kilograms of fiddler crabs and 100 million kilograms of mud crabs. Thats why during our field trip we saw huge number of crabs. They are thriving in the mud banks when it is ebb tide.

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Because of the salinity of the water vegetation under the water is not possible. The regular siltation hardly allows light inside for plants to grow. We did not see any water plants except for water hyacinth that have been brought down from upstream freshwater rivers. The eventually die as they cannot tolerate saline water. Mangroves can be considered aquatic when they are partially submerged in water during high tide. They are able to tolerate because of the adaptive features they have like pneumatophores. The mangrove ecology is very unique in that sense. There are several species that are a part of the land as well as the aquatic ecology.

Golda chingri Sarah Sanabam

Bou bhola fish Sarah Sanabam

Faisha fish Sarah Sanabam

Mud skipper Sarah Sanabam

Crocodiles at Karamjal Crocodile Rearing Station Sarah Sanabam Mud Crab Sarah Sanabam

3.3 Trees and Shrubs by Mohima We were able to observe and identify different types of trees and shrubs through trekking and sight seeing in Sundarban. An estimated total of 334 plants species are present in the deltaic portion of Bangladesh. The mangroves of Sundarban are quite unique if compared to non-deltaic coastal mangrove forest. The reason for the differences in the mangroves is the large freshwater influence in the northeastern part and the elevated level of the ground surface. Mangroves are woody plants that grow in tropical and sub-tropical regions along lagoons, estuaries, rivers and streams where the water is saline. The mangrove plants species have adaptive features; they are usually evergreen and have thick leathery leaves to minimize transpiration.

Sundri Tree Mohima Kader

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The dominant tree species include sundri, gewa, goran, and keora. Sundari is more dominant on higher grounds, where the soil water is relatively fresh; and it is also a very commercially useful source of timber. The other mangrove species in the forest are garjan, kankra, and baen. Other trees and shrubs that we were able to identify at different locations include tiger fern, shashmoti, grasses (shon and jhao), hargoza, shingra golpata, nypa palm, and passur.

Sundarban is classified as a moist tropical forest, made up of a mixture of beach forest and tidal forest. There are four types of tidal forest communities: low mangrove forests, tree mangrove forests, saltwater forests, and freshwater swamp forests. All four types of tidal forest are found in Sundarban. Sundarban West is in the saltwater zone, which supports dense patches of hantal palm on drier ground, riverbanks and levees. Dhundul and passur grow sporadically throughout the area. In Sundarban East sundri predominates, while it also covers most of the Sundarban with gewa. Sundarban South has the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels, and Exoecaria, Heritiera, and Xylocarpus can be found there.

The golpata grows on levee banks. Beach forest occurs on coastal islands of low xerophytic sand dunes due to the lime from disintegrating shells and salt. The sand dunes are partially covered with spear grass. There are many climbers, creepers, and algal and fungal species on the forest floor. Oryza coarctata, Nypa fruticans and Imperata cylindrical are prevalent on mud flats. Keora is found on newly accreted mud banks while creating a habitat for the wildlife.

These plants have interesting adaptive features to survive in the unstable conditions. Rhizophora spp. has stilt roots, for example. We identified the following adaptive features during our trip: 1. Root Buttress When there is low tide than these roots are exposed to the air. The muddy banks have soil composition that lack oxygen and so different plants need to adapt this condition. They provide anchor to the trees.
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Sarah Sanabam

2. Pneumatophores These are erect roots that form the extension of the root system. Oxygen can be obtained when they are exposed during ebb tide. Pneumatophores of sundri tree grow more slowly than the pencil-like ones of baen tree and can They also help in anchoring the plant. Sarah Sanabam

3. Viviparous germination The seeds germinate before detaching from the parent plant. This characteristic is for the Rhizophora spp. Sarah Sanabam

However, the ecology of the forest has slowly been altering due to degradation of the mangrove forest. The degradation is caused by natural calamities, such as the monsoon cyclones Sidr and Aila. The occurrences of the cyclones have increased due to climate change and global warming. Also, the increase in sea levels is a threat to the degradation of mangroves. Building of the Farakka Barrage has altered the course of water for irrigation, which means that there is more salinity in the water that Mohima Kader
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affects the plant species. Furthermore, due to lack of freshwater inflow and abnormal changes in the tides, the sediments are not deposited into the sea. Pneumatophores, which are erect roots that form from the extension of the root system, and obtain oxygen when exposed in ebb tides, growth is reduced and regeneration is halted as the sediments that are stuck.

Besides the natural causes, degradation also results from anthropogenic causes. The rapidly growing population in Sundarban has lead to exploitation of the natural resources. Some of the activities that have caused further degradation are excessive golpata harvesting, logging of trees, and clearing large areas for commercial purposes. Therefore, in order to prevent further mangrove degradation, human intervention and overexploitation of natural resources by the local communities have to be monitored and controlled.

Dhundul Tree Mohima Kader

Golpata Mohima Kader

Hantal Sarah Sanabam

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3.4 Coastal Communities by Mohima The local community consists of about 3 million people who live in small villages surrounding Sundarban. It is estimated that of the 3 million people, the area provides a livelihood at certain seasons of the year for an estimated 300,000 people. 35,330 people work in the forest: 4,580 are bawalis who collects timber and firewood; 1,350 are mawalis who collect honey and beeswax; 4,500 harvest other natural resources and hunt mostly deer; and the remaining 24,900 are fishermen and shrimp farmers. Another 4,500 people are employed by contractors in the commercial logging of sundari and other timbers. Gewa is used for pulp and paper production in newsprint paper mills, and timbers like sundari for matches, furniture, etc.

The local people are very much dependent on the forests and waterways for charcoal, timber for boats and furniture, poles for house-posts and rafters, nypa palm and golpata leaves for roofing, grass for matting, shells and reptile skins for commercial use, reeds for fencing, and deer, fish, crabs and shrimps for food. The season for collecting honey and beeswax is limited to two and a half months commencing from 1 st April. This may have been the reason we did not encounter any mawalis during our visit. Thousands of people enter the forest with permits from the Forest Department, for various commercial purposes especially in search of bee nests, which are collected and then crushed to extract honey and wax.

At

Kochikhali

Tiger

Point,

we

interviewed a local resident; an elderly person aged about 60 years. When asked about tigers, he told us that he had never seen a tiger in the area. However, he claimed to have heard of tigers passing by the banks and told us that the tigers are shy and do not come near the village. Old man interviewed at Kochikhali Mohima Kader

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We also interviewed grass (shon) cultivators, who told us about the uses of shon, golpata and hantal palm, which they stated could be used for roofing, and making crafts after being dried. None of them were giving clear answers about how they cultivate the grass. The ways are illegal as they are not allowed to cut the grasses.

Grass cultivators at Kachikhali Sarah Sanabam

Over 10,000 fishermen come in their boats from as far away as Chittagong and establish temporary encampments in various sites along the coast, where they remain until the approach of the monsoon season in April before

returning to their homes. Also, many local fishermen fish year-round along Fishermen the coast. At at Jamtola Beach Mohima Kader Katka Jamtoli Beach, we encountered

some local fishermen. The fishermen told us they catch mostly faisha, coral fishes and shrimps.

However, since cyclone Sidr hit Sundarban, the fishing industry has been facing a downturn. Also, the lives of the local people have been uprooted since the cyclone. Many bawalis, and fishermens livelihoods depend on the natural resources of the forest, which were damaged by the cyclone. The effects of cyclone Sidr on Sundarban are discussed elaborately in Section 4.3.

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Excessive human interventions, such as the establishment of shrimp cultivation are playing a big role in mangrove degradation. Besides this, excessive golpata harvesting, logging and clearing of trees are also causing degradation, and enough trees are not being planted to replace them. Therefore, if humans continue to clear the forest for commercial purposes, Sundarban mangroves will face further degradation and may even lead to local extinction.

3.5 Wildlife by Sarah Sundarban is extremely rich in the biodiversity of species. Unfortunately, the diversity is being reduced due to many reasons (explained in Unit 4). There has been a sharp decline in the population of Royal Bengal Tigers due to poaching and habitat loss. Despite the rapid destruction of the mangrove forests, Sundarban does not fail to have very rich habitats perfect for many species of wildlife. There are some indicator species that can tell us the condition of the environment of Sundarban. For instance, the tigers and dolphin are species that can tell the condition of two contrasting environments: land and water.

Some of the wildlife that we saw in Sundarban were deer, wild boar, rhesus macaque, birds like egrets, brahminy kite, stork billed kingfisher, crocodiles and a glimpse of a dolphin diving in the water. It is difficult to tell which kind of dolphin it was. There are 49 mammal species documented so far in Sundarban. Javan rhino, water buffalo, swamp deer, gaur, hog deer, and the gharials are extinct in Sundarban. The marsh crocodiles have declined rapidly and there is only two surviving in Karamjal rearing station.

Many of the species have some ecological value in Sundarban. Some of them are explained below: Royal Bengal Tiger- There is only 1 species of tiger in the world with 8 sub-species. Three of them are already extinct. They are at the top of the food chain which usually means they keep the population of other secondary consumers stable. It is estimated that in Sundarban there are 350 tigers but the accurate number is not known because the tigers ranges have become smaller and smaller. It is rarely sighted by humans. Sundarban is the only mangrove region where these tigers survive. The numbers have
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declined due to excessive hunting, poaching, human-tiger conflicts and habitat loss. Tigers are skilled hunters. Their food consists of deer, wild boar and rhesus macaque. The stripes help to hide the tigers when they are stalking their prey. When a tiger kills its prey, the carcass is left for other mammals to eat like the jungle cats, civets, monitor lizards, crows, and insects. IUCN Red List of Threatened species put the Royal Bengal Tiger as Endangered. Deer and Wild boar and Rhesus Macaque- They form the main food diet of the tigers. They consume a lot of plants which impact the vegetation of Sundarban. Their droppings provide nutrition for insects and plants and help disperse seeds so that new colonization of plants can take place. There are an estimated 52,600 to 80,000 deer, 20,000 wild boar and 68,200 rhesus macaque. The rhesus macaque is the only primate in Sundarban. The chital deer is hunted for its meat and skin. Crocodiles- There were three well known species of crocodiles in Sundarban of which only two are surviving. The long snorted crocodiles, known as gharial, have disappeared. Crocodile leather is the most expensive in the world and their demand has affected the population of these large reptiles. When we went to Karamjal we saw the breeding saltwater crocodiles, Romeo and Juliet. They are the largest of all reptiles and can reach upto 20ft or more. Studies conducted have shown that crocodiles may be more intelligent than lab rats. The interesting thing about Romeo and Juliet and the marsh crocodiles, Patient 1 and 2, was that they could respond to voices. Crocodiles in the Sundarban have major ecological value especially in the aquatic ecosystem as they feed on fishes. They also eat birds and carrions sometimes. Otter- There are three otter species in Sundarban of which the smooth-coated otter probably numbers 20,000. They are of great help to fishermen as they have been domesticated to drive fish into their nets. Birds- One of the reasons why Sundarban is so valuable is its varieties of birds. A total of 315 species have been recorded. 95 species are waterfowl, 38 species of raptors and nine species of kingfisher are surviving in this ecology. During our trip we spotted the stork billed kingfisher and the blue kingfisher. Other birds like white bellied sea-eagle, grey headed fish eagle can be spotted if fortunate. Herons, egrets, storks, sandpipers,
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whimbrel, and curlew can be seen at the muddy banks when exposed during dry season. Species of gulls and terns are also there. Most of the birds are important to the aquatic ecosystem but there are also important forest birds like the woodpeckers, barbets, shrikes, drongos, mynahs, minivets, and babblers Bees- Insect population is also varied in Sundarban but not much research has been done. There are large numbers of honey-bees from which the mawalis (honey collectors) heavily depend on for livelihood. The interesting fact is that these bees are migratory. When they produce honey from collected nectar they live in Sundarban. Then they go away to the Himalayas. This unusual behavior adds to the rich ecological value of Sundarban.

Comments: It is quite apparent that the wildlife found in Sundarban is very diverse and extremely valuable because such diverse quantities are not found in any other mangrove ecosystems in the world. It is fascinating that the ecology with saline intrusion could have such rich biodiversity. A few ecological values of the animals mentioned above are: Monitor lizards are scavengers as they eat up the remaining carcasses which mean they are natural methods of waste disposals. Other lizards like geckos feed on insects. Snakes help to keep the rodent population stable Birds play a number of roles like being predators, prey, pollinators and seed dispersers. Insects are important pollinators and seed dispersers.

Each organism has important ecological niches that cannot be denied. If their web of life is disturbed by whatever reasons they maybe the entire ecosystem is affected. Therefore, some of these species have been protected by laws but nothing has been able to stop the extinction of important animals like javan rhino, hog deer and single horned rhino. The reason why these species need to be preserved and protected is because from a recent study it has been shown that Bangladesh gets 30% of the reptiles, 37% of the birds and 34% of the mammals from Sundarban.

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In 2000, a study conducted by Laskar Muqsudur Rahman for USDA Forest Service Proceedings has brought up a table to show some of the important species: Table 1: Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Bats Tiger Fishing cat Spotted deer Wild boar Barking deer Crocodiles Otters Name Status Strong following among wildlife specialists. Main national animal therefore of inestimable value; man killing behavior requires urgent study. Small but common secondary carnivore. Continental deer but unusual habitat in mangroves therefore of more than unusual value; harvesting may be possible. Common and with much commercial potential. Rarely seen but well represented therefore good for wildlife specialists. Infrequently seen but important in food chain and ecological stability; farming may be possible. Of great value for biodiversity management and as a unique selling point tourist attraction with traditional fishermen; deserve special conservation attention in future. Strong interest among wildlife conservation specialists and deserve special attention in future; wildlife research especially to breeding areas and to secure threatened species is now essential for urgent action. Infrequently seen but must be well represented. Deserve special effort in future conservation and protection measures. Indiscriminately harvested. Should be researched and actively protected.

9.

Turtles

10. 11.

Python Dolphin

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3.6 Wildlife in Pictures by Sarah

Photographs by Sarah Sanabam

Unit 4: Changes in Sundarban

In recent decades many changes have come in Sundarban for which conservation efforts have been taken up. Factors like climate change are causing immense changes in the ecology of Sundarban and recent tourism in Sundarban as well as cement factories has affected the ecology in many negative ways.

The degradation of mangroves also affects the lives of fauna. Removing a species from a certain area will lead to removal of faunal species depending upon the mangrove. If the wildlife is limited to that area, then destroying its natural habitat may lead to its extinction. Due to mangrove degradation in Sundarban, animals such as Royal Bengal Tigers and others are now endangered.

Mangroves act as a shield to protect inland from natural calamities. Due to previous destructions from cyclones like Sidr, the land inside is left unprotected. Salinity intrusion can become a very natural occurrence now that the coastal belt is being destroyed. Further in the future, if any cyclones hit that region, the consequences will be catastrophic.

The salinity increase in Sundarban can turn the mesohaline regions into polyhaline regions and oligohaline regions will become small around the Baleswar River in the east. So, during the dry season we maybe face different conditions. There is already lack of adequate supply of freshwater and saline intrusion is highly encouraged. Sundri could be replaced by gewa and gewa could be replaced by goran. In normal sucession, usually species would begin to grow inland, in the higher grounds. The changes will affect the local communities who are dependent on forest produce.

Mangroves all over the world are also threatened and disappearing. A recent study has shown that there are only 15 million km of mangroves left from 18.1 million km in the world. 26 countries have mangroves that are going to be extinct.

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We noticed the top dying of sundri trees and the effects of the cement factories on the banks of the rivers. Some of the changes have been categorized under three sections:

4.1 Climate Change by Mohima The coastal zones, local communities and ecosystem of Sundarban, are exposed to the various combined effects of climate change. Some of the causes and consequences of climate change are: Sea level rise Salt water intrusion Increasing cyclones and storm surges Increasing floods and riverbank erosion Increase in temperature and Unpredictable weather patterns

Rises in the sea level by 25cm is expected to destroy 40% of Sundarban, and a 45cm rise would fatally destroy 75% of the coastal areas, while wiping out the development made in the area. It will result in the change in agricultural productivity, livelihood option and risking food security. Besides this, the seawater is saline and the entrance of saltwater will increase the level of salinity. This will result in decreased fresh water crops like rice.

Also, extreme weather events such as cyclones and storm surges are major factors caused by climate change. The coastline of Sundarban is highly vulnerable to recurring cyclones. The enhancement in intensities of the wind speed causes great losses to exposed communities and fragile ecosystems. We witnessed the destruction caused by cyclone Sidr in Katka Jamtoli beach and Katka Obbhoyoranno Kendro. Sarah Sanabam

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Furthermore, an increase in sea level rise means that it brings the water line further inwards. As a result, the affect of storm surge penetrates deeper into the landmass. Through flooding, the rivers bring with more sediments that make the shallow riverbed even shallower, which results in a lower capacity of the riverbed for rapid flow of the water, and thus increases flooding and erosion of riverbanks. As the riverbanks are eroded, the vegetation is lost as there is no soil to support them any longer. \ Therefore, one may conclude that the Sundarban is exposed to the risks of sea level rise, saline intrusion, and extreme weather events, which are the effects of climate change. If provided with enough time the mangroves that are under threat and rapid change may readjust and recogonize if space and time would permit. However, the demographic pressures in northern areas of the Sundarban may not permit the requisite space. The rate, at which climate change related sea level rise and saline intrusion is likely to take place, is going to be much faster than the rate at which the mangrove ecosystem will be able to readjust and regenerate. It will result in reduction of species and biodiversity and decrease in the areas of the mangrove forest, alongside other consequences. The livelihoods of the coastal communities are and will continue to be affected by sea level rise and water inundation, intrusion of salt water, increase in cyclones and water surges as well as consequent loss of biodiversity, communication and livelihood options.

4.2 Human Intervention by Sarah Rapid increase in population of Bangladesh has lead to exploitation of land and forest resources. Along with human interventions, the poor management influences a high rate of illegal activities such as felling of trees and killing of endangered animals.

Golpata is consumed in order to produce oil and alcohol from its fruit. The leaves of the plants are used for roofing materials in the villages and also used to make mats. However, they have been over exploited and so alternative means have been developed. We noticed
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that many villages just outside Sundarban are planting their own golpata trees so that most of them do not have to get inside the forest to harvest them. Otherwise, the loss of golpata in the muddy banks will make Sundarban very vulnerable. Nypa palm makes the forest look dense and is a great habitat for wildlife. Logging of Sundri trees for timber and pulp can be a very common site, especially in the eastern part of the Sundarban where Sundri trees are very dominant. Logging has been continuing at such a rate, that changes have been picked up in the forest composition of Sundarban. Other trees like gewa and goran may become the dominant species which will eventually change other aspects of the ecology. Clearing of Gewa trees from large areas were carried out in order to make pulp and paper for a newsprint industry that has been shut down a few years ago. Artificial Plantation is being done for aesthetic purposes, especially at the tourist spots. If not chosen properly, these plants can be competitive and pose a threat to the mangrove species of Sundarban. Sundarban is a world famous tourist location. With tourists entering the depths of forests, the amount of wastes and littering is also increasing. Not only does it hamper the beauty of the forest, but it also hampers with the ecological processes that may lead to degradation of soil quality of the forest. Shrimp culture- The establishment of shrimp aquaculture ponds has grievously threatened the mangroves. Around the world, shrimp aquaculture is responsible for 2050% of mangrove degradation. The scenario is the same in Sundarban. The unscientific and excessive human interventions have already managed to wipe out the Chakaria Sundarban in the 1990s. Oil Spillage- One of the major man-made causes of mangrove degradation is the exploitation of oil and gas. There have been oppositions against this exploitation of oil and gas offshore. Moreover, boats and big ships in the Sundarban release crude oil. An oil spillage occurred in 1994 when a Panamanian cargo ship capsized near Dangmari Forest Station. The spillage spread out 15km and killed several seedlings of sundri and gewa. Wildlife was affected too.

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Sundarban mangrove ecosystem has a huge value but they are being destroyed in alarming rates. Human intervention and overexploitation of forest resources by locals, converting areas into developments for agriculture, forestry, salt extraction, urban development and infrastructure a diversion of fresh water for irrigation help contributed immensely to the degradation of mangroves. (Sarah 0930156)

4.3 Cyclone Effects by Shamim Bangladesh has been experiencing more frequent and intense natural disasters since last two decades. Its southern frontier is one of the most vulnerable regions of the world, which is exposed to many damaging weather events as an effect of climate change and consequent devastation of nature. The recent super cyclonic Sidr, originating in the Bay, ravaged the entire south and south western coast with peaking winds over 220km an hour on November 15, 2007. This coastline is home of nearly 12 million people whereas Sidr caused human loss of about 5,000 and made the survivors homeless. The eye of cyclone Sidr made landfall on the eastern parts of Sundarban near Boleshwer River and caused havoc of wild flora and fauna of this unique mangrove. However, it sustained the main thrust of Sidr and weakened it devastation while crossing over the country from Bagerhat to Dhaka and Sylhet border in the north-eastern part of the country. This blockade caused massive destruction of the forest by destroying many trees in the coastal belt.

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The natural vegetation of the Sundarban is composed mainly of halophytic tree species. The eastern part is mainly dominated by Sundari and Gewa, which were affected by cyclone Sidr on 15 November 2007. It was estimated that around 1,900 sq km (31% of total the Sundarban area) of area in the eastern part of the Sundarban was affected by the cyclone.. On our visit to the Sundarban, we found many trees still lying around the forest floor. Some of the trees were uprooted and many others were shattered into splinters. Various species, mainly Sundari and Gewa are physically affected within this area. Many of the trees we saw were damaged badly.

4.4 Conservation Efforts Because Sundarban is the largest mangrove forest in the world with the most productive ecosystem it is very important to manage the forest sustainably. In the 1860s Sundarban was the first mangrove forest that was managed scientifically. It falls under a WWF Global 200 Ecoregion.

The four ranges are guarded by 16 forest stations, 55 compartments and 9 blocks. Revenue collection was the earliest factor that was monitored by implementing felling rules which reduced the amount of over-cutting of the four main timber species. A wildlife conservation plan was prepared under the joint sponsorship of the World Wildlife Fund and the US National Zoological Park with emphasis on the conservation of tiger. This plan was in accordance to the sustainable forest and coastal management of both timber and the local communities needs.

Sundarban is categorized under Category IV of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). During our field trip we checked whether the current situation of the

management of Sundarban forests was actually falling under Category IV or not. The category says the forests must be managed nature reserve. Its primary objective is To maintain, conserve and restore species and habitats. We think the category IV is right for Sundarban. Conservation efforts for internationally important species like the Royal Bengal Tiger, dolphins and turtles are going on. Key species and habitats need to be protected by practical conservation strategies.

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One of the main problems is the lack of availability of data on Sundarban. So, some intensive data collecting projects have been taken with the goal to integrate conservation of wildlife. In the late 1990s a plan was raised to manage the area where buffer zones were recommended to limit access to some areas. An Integrated Sundarbans Management Plan was prepared under the Sundarbans Biodiversity Conservation Project. This was funded by the Asian Development Bank. Moreover, because Sundarban is a Reserved Forest unless permitted, no activity can take place by humans inside the forest. The Forest Department issues entry permission and collection of forest produce. Normally, hunting permits would also be given under the Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Act, 1974 but in reality none has been issued in Sundarban. Hunting is not permitted legally but illegally hunting still takes place.

A recent study by IPAC has shown that the concept of co-management for the conservation of the ecology and benefits for the poor communities of the surrounding Sundarban areas are not known amongst the locals. A few have been recorded as saying that the co-management program would help in involving the locals more and resist the pressure from external powerful people/industries that destroy the natural resources of the forest for profits.

The study also revealed that the perspectives of these communities are very important to design a co-management program for Sundarban. More than two-fifths of the population is in extreme poverty and a co-management program will help tackle this situation. A few factors that need to be considered for a successful co-management program for the preservation of the forest as well as local communities are:

Role of local institutions- The roles of Union Parishad and Upazila Parishad are very important for protecting the forests and improving the livelihood of the people. Many of the politicians under these local government institutions are not involved in managing and conserving the forest. Without their participation any conservation effort would not be successful or sustainable. Ownership of the local people- The local communities need to feel responsible for the management of the forest. For their involvement in conservation work they need to know
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they play a role in preserving the ecology and improving their livelihood. The benefit is for them and for the ecology. This idea needs to be established in the participants of any conservation project in Sundarban. A policy framework needs to be adopted in order to confirm their participation. Natural hazards- The natural hazards that hit Sundarban cause a lot of problems for the poor communities. This in turn forces them to exploit the forests even more which is many times done illegally. So the effects of natural calamities need to be addressed for a successful forest co-management. Alternative livelihood means for fish fry collectors- Many of the communities are involved in fishing. An alternative livelihood means should be provided. If the FD could issue permits and licenses for seasonal fishing only would be of great help.

One other conservation project that is currently going on in Sundarban is the Sundarbans Tiger Project. It is a joint tiger conservation program of the Wildlife Trust of Bangladesh (WTB) and Zoological Society of London (ZSL). They used a research base first to get information on the tiger population, behavior, habitat and current problems. Then, a conservation program was drawn:

Improve basic ecological understanding, data collection skills and general motivation of Forest Department staff working in the Sundarbans; this is being done through field training, workshops, presentations and the development of a field handbook and a short documentary film. Enable the forest department to carry out scientific research and monitoring of tigers; this is being enables through the experience gained through the day to Capacity day activities of the research team Enable the Forest Department to deal with problem tigers; this is being done through the creation of a problem tiger response team and a communications network throughout the human settlements bordering the Sundarbans.

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GENERAL PUBLIC: through this web site, newspape articles, TV reports, books, films Increasing conservation awareness TOURISTS: through presentations, literature and hopefully in the future a visitors center SCHOOLS & UNIVERSITIES: through field trips, work opportunities, presentations and the production of educational materials LOCAL COMMUNITIES: through presentations and free educational material

When we visited the Karamjal deer and crocodile rearing station we witnessed some of the conservation efforts for the survival of the saltwater crocodiles. Their ecological value is not understood by many. The increase in salinity in the waterways, hunting, overcutting of vegetation and other reasons are raising questions about the few estuarine crocodiles left in Sundarban. The effect is not limited to just a change in the aesthetic view of the ecology and the local communities but each and every organism, like the estuarine crocodile, are heavily impacted.

Conservation efforts are the only ways Sundarban forests can be returned its original ecological importance. Maybe, most of it cannot be recovered but we must all we can to repopulate the important species in Sundarban. There are natural causes for some changes in Sundarban but we are responsible for some of the adverse effects. Projects like Sundarban Tiger Project and funding from organizations like WWF and the implementation of Co-management are so important. There is immense scope for research in Sundarban. If researches are not done any conservation effort will be successful.

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Unit 5: Drawbacks & Conclusion

For the study we carried out in Sundarban we faced some drawbacks. They are: Lack of eco-guides- We did not have guides to explain to us about the ecology. The forest guards were also not adequately equipped with verified information. Press of time- We were following a particular organized set of events that were set by Your Bangla Tour so we had no scope of staying longer in one location. The trip was not particularly designed for intense field work.

However, because this was our first trip to Sundarban, we were very satisfied with whatever data we could collect for our field report. For more field study we would need to go back and we are very eager to work further on Sundarban.

For about 4000 years, Sundarban has been thriving in the Indo-Malayan region and formed by the silt carried down from the Himalayas by big rivers like the Ganges and Brahmaputra. Now, this venerable ecosystem is under threat. We witnessed the changes in Sundarban and our experience there is unforgettable. We were able to study such a diverse coastal ecology that Bangladesh is fortunate to have. Sadly, its ecological value is hardly understood.

We believe this trip was successful and we have only just begun to understand the importance of this mangrove ecosystem and explored the conservation strategies that need to be adopted to preserve the remaining forests of Sundarban. There is a lot more that can be done to study the mangrove ecology. Sundarban is a living, thriving, unique, diverse and complex coastal region that holds a lot of ecological value as well as social and economical value for Bangladesh and must not be, at any cost, be lost.

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Section 6: References

1. The Sundarbans: A Unique Wilderness of the World by Laskar Muqsudur Rahman

2. The Sundarbans, Bangladesh- IUCN

3. IPAC

Volume

1:

Report-

Study

of

the

Principal

Marketed

Value

Chains derived from the Sundarbans Reserved Forest

4. Impact of climate change on Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest: ways forward by Syed Azizul Haq 5. The Sundarban of Bangladesh by Equity and Justice Working Group (EJWG) 6. www.sundarbantigerproject.info

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