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: Shear test
To find the shear strength of given specimen
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1. Universal testing machine
2. Shear test attachment
3. Given specimen




 


Diameter of the pin d= «.mm
Cross sectional area of the pin(in double shear)
= 2 X 3.14/4 Xd 2 =«. mm2
Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure, W =. ««(N)
Strength of the pin against shearing (ʦ)
ʦ=4w/2(3.14)d2 =« N/mm2


!
1. Insert the specimen in position and grip one end of the attachment in the
upper portion and one end in the lower position
2. Switch on the UTM
3. Bring the drag indicator in contact with the main indicator.
4. Select the suitable range of loads and space the corresponding weight in the pendulum and
balance it if necessary with the help of small balancing weights
5. Operate (push) the button for driving the motor to drive the pump.
6. Gradually move the head control ever in left hand direction till the specimen shears.
7. Note down the load at which the specimen shears.
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
Repeat the experiment with other specimens.
!

1. The measuring range should not be changed at any stage during the test.
2. The inner diameter of the hole in the shear stress attachment should be slightly grater than the
specimen.
3. Measure the diameter of the specimen accurately.
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Shear strength of the specimen «««N/mm 2

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: Tension test
: To determine the tensile strength of specimen

!

Universal testing machine (fig7.a)
Specimen as shown in the( fig7.b)
Of different ferrous and non ferrous materials

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The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of a test piece are
fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a loadmeasuring device. If the applied load
is small enough, the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed
solid will return to its original position as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too
large, the material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension curve (fig.8),
which is recoverable immediately after unloading, is termed as elastic and rest of the
curve,which represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed
plastic. the stress below which the deformation is essentially entirely elastic is known as the yield
strength of material. In some materials (like mild steel) the onset of plastic deformation is
denoted by a sudden drop in load indicating both an upper and lower yield point. However, some
materials do not exhibit a sharp yield point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions
strain hardening cannot compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load passes trough a
maximum and then begins to decrease. As this stage the¶ Ultimate strength µ, which is defined as
the ratio of the specimen to original cross ±sectional area, reaches a maximum value. Further
loading will eventually cause µneck¶ formation and rupture.Usually a tension test is conducted at
room temperature and the tensile load is applied slowly. During this test either round or flat
specimens (fig.7) may be used. The round specimens may have smooth, shouldered or threaded
ends. The load on the specimen is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on the type
of testing machine.
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!
1.V Measure the dimensions of a specimen Diameter=d=««.. ,
Total length of a specimen,
Cross sectional area = Ao=««. ,
Mark gage length (Lo) at three different portions on the specimen,covering effective length of a
specimen.(this is required so that necked portion will remain between any two points of gage
length on the specimen.)
2. Grip the specimen in the fixed head of a machine. (Portion of the specimen has to be gripped
as shown in the fig.7.
3. Fix the extensometer within the gauge length marked on the specimen.Adjust the dial of
extensometer at zero.
4. Adjust the dial of a machine to zero, to read load applied.
5. Select suitable increments of loads to be applied so that corresponding elongation can be
measured from dial gauge.
6. Keep speed of machine uniform. Record yield point, maximum load point,point of breaking of
specimen.
7. Remove the specimen from machine and study the fracture observes type of fracture.
8. Measure dimensions of tested specimen. Fit the broken parts together and measure reduced
diameter and final gage length.


Specimen prepared Specimen prepared from M.S bar/CI/Al
1. Diameter = d = «..mm
2. Gage length (lo)= 5Xd= ««.mm
3. Original cross sectional area of the specimen= Ao = «..mm2
4. Final gage length obtained= Lo¶=««..
5. Final diameter obtained = «..mm
Note
1. Use vernier caliper to measure diameter, gage length etc. for the specimen.
2. If C.I. specimen is to be tested only one observation will be taken at failure.
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1. Calculate stress and strain for every interval of applied load.Draw stressstrain curve as shown
in the Fig.()
2. Compute the following;


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Hook¶s law states that stress is always proportional to strain within elastic limit. The ratio of
stress and strain is constant, called modulus of elasticity or young¶s modulus (E) E=Stress/strain
=Constant=E= ,
'(%)*
The point, at which strain increases without increase in stress, is known as Yield point. Stress
measured at yield point is called yield stress.
!. :
Maximum carrying capacity of a material in tension is called tensile strength Tensile strength=
maximum tensile load/ original cross sectional Area.
. !

:
The extension produced in a gage length, expressed as a percentageof its original value(LO)%
Elongation=[(LO¶ ± Lo)/Lo] X 100 where Lo¶ is final gage length after fracture.
 !!

= [(AoAo¶)/Ao ] X100 where Ao¶ is final reduced cross sectional area after fracture

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: compression test
: To determine the compressive strength of specimen

The objectives of this experiment are:

1.V to determine the strength of wood under compressive loading applied at different angles with
respect to the orientation of the wood grains
2.V to determine the modulus of rupture and the modulus of elasticity of wood subjected to
bending
3.V to study the failure characteristics of wood under compression and bending
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A Universal Testing Machine

Micrometer or ruler


!
Wood to be used in the experiment with clear grains and free from defects. The specimens
consist of three blocks, nominally 1.5 in. by 1.5 in. by 3 in., with wood grains oriented at 0o and
90o with respect to the longitudinal axis of the specimen.


!
1. Measure the cross-section and length of the specimen and record the dimensions on the
data sheet. The ends of the specimens should be plane and at right angles to the axis of the
specimen.

2. Place the specimen in the machine.

3. Apply the load continuously until the specimen fails. Record the maximum load.

4. Draw a sketch, in perspective, indicating the grain of the wood and the manner of failure.

5. For the specimen with the grains oriented at 90o, plot the load vs. deformation and
determine the proportional limit from the curve.

6. Compute the compressive strength (for the specimen with 0o grain orientation) or the
proportional limit (for the specimen with 90o grain orientation).

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!-.Hardness test
/! To determine the hardness the Hardness of the given Specimen using Rockwell
hardness test.


Rockwell hardness testing machine.
Black diamond cone indenter,
Hard steel specimen.


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Rockwell test is developed by the Wilson instrument co U.S.A in 1920.This test is an indentation
test used for smaller specimens and harder materials.The test is subject of IS: 1586.In this test
indenter is forced into the surface of a test piece in two operations, measuring the permanent
increase in depth of an indentation from the depth increased from the depth reached under a
datum load due to an additional load.Measurement of indentation is made after removing the
additional load. Indenter used is the cone having an angle of 120 degrees made of black
diamond.
!

1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentation to avoid the
deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a specimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the center of indentation should
be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may rise a little
because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic flow of a material,
which produces effect on size of indentation.

!
1. Examine hardness testing machine (fig.1).
2. Place the specimen on platform of a machine. Using the elevating screw raise the platform and
bring the specimen just in contact with the ball. apply an initial load until the small pointer shows
red mark.
3. Release the operating valve to apply additional load. Immediately after the additional load
applied, bring back operating valve to its position.
4. Read the position of the pointer on the C scale, which gives the hardness number.
5. Repeat the procedure five times on the specimen selecting different points for indentation.


1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the hardness number
from the dial of a machine.
2. Compare Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests obtained.



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Rockwell hardness of given specimen is

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Brinell hardness test.
: To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Brinell hardness test.

!
!
Brinell hardness tester (fig.2)
Aluminum specimen
Ball indenter.
!

1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentation to avoid the
deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a specimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the center of indentation should
be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may rise a little
because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic flow of a material,
which produces effect on size of indentation.
4. Surface of the specimen is well polished, free from oxide scale and any foreign material.

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Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanent indentation under
static and dynamic load. When a material is required to use under direct static or dynamic loads,
only indentation hardness test will be useful to find out resistance to indentation.In Brinell
hardness test, a steel ball of diameter (D) is forced under a load (F) on to a surface of test
specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation is measured after the removal of the load (F).


1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the hardness number
from equation (!).
2. Compare Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests obtained.

!
1.Load to be applied for hardness test should be selected according to the expected hardness of
the material. However test load shall be kept equal to 30 times the square of the diameter of the
ball (diameter in mm) F=30.D 2
2.Apply the load for a minimum of 15 seconds to 30 seconds. [if ferrous metals are to be tested
time applied will be 15 seconds and for softer metal 30 seconds]
3.Remove the load and measure the diameter of indentation nearest to 0.02 mm using
microscope (projected image)
4.Calculate Brinell hardness number (HB). As per IS: 1500

2F/3.14D (D-¥(D2-d2)

Hardness numbers normally obtained for different materials are given below (under 3000 kg and
10 mm diameter ball used)

Ordinary steels medium carbon 100 to 500

Structural steel 130 to 160

Very hard steel 800 to 900

Note: Brinell test is not recommended for then materials having HB over 630. It is necessary to
mention ball size and load with the hardness test when standard size of ball and load are not
used. Because indentation done by different size of ball and load on different materials are not
geometrically similar. Ball also undergoes deformation when load is applied. Material response
to the load is not same all the time.
6.Brinell hardness numbers can be obtained from tables 1 to 5 given in IS: 1500, knowing
diameter of indentation, diameter of the ball and load applied.
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TheThe Brinell hardness number of the specimen is««.

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CharpyImpact test
To determine the Impact toughness (strain energy) through Charpy test

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In a impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single blow from a heavy
hammer and energy required being a measure of resistance to impact.
Impact load is produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer) from a height h.
Release of the weight from the height h swings the weight through the arc of a circle, which
strikes the specimen to fracture at the notch (fig..
Kinetic energy of the hammer at the time of impact is mv 2 /2, which is equal to the relative
potential energy of the hammer before its release. (mgh),where m is the mass of the hammer and
— = ¥(2
 is its tangential velocity at impact, g is gravitational acceleration (9.806 m/s 2 ) and h
is the height through which hammer falls. Impact velocity will be 5.126 m/s or slightly less.Here
it is interesting to note that height through which hammer drops determines the velocity and
height and mass of a hammer combined determine the energy.
Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between potential energies is
the fracture energy. In test machine this value indicated by the pointer on the scale. If the scale is
calibrated in energy units, marks on the scale should be drawn keeping in view angle of fall ()
and angle of rise (. Height h1 and h2 equals,
h1= R (1-cosș) and h2= (1-cosș).
With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on scale showing energy also
increase or decrease. This can be seen from the attached scale with any impact machine.
Energy used in fracturing the specimen can be obtained approximately as
Wh1-Wh2
This energy value called impact toughness or impact value, which will be measured, per unit
area at the notch.
Charpy introduced Charpy test in 1909. Test is as per the IS: 1499.


!
:
1. Impact testing machine. (Fig.6)

2. U notch is cut across the middle of one face as shown in (fig.5).


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Specimen is tested as a beam supported at each end (fig.7). Hammer is allowed to hit then
specimen at the opposite face behind the notch.


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!
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen. Also, measure the dimensions of The notch.
2. Raise the hammer and note down initial reading from the dial, which will be energy to be used
to fracture the specimen.
3. Place the specimen for test and see that it is placed center with respect to hammer. Check the
position of notch.
4. Release the hammer and note the final reading. Difference between the initial and final
reading will give the actual energy required to fracture the Specimen.
5. Repeat the test for specimens of other materials.
6. Compute the energy of rupture of each specimen.


Initial and final reading of the dial.
"Strain energy of given specimen is«««.

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Flexural Strength Test
To find the values of bending stresses and young¶s modulus of the material of a beam (say
a wooden or steel) simply supported at the ends and carrying a concentrated load at the center.


1. Universal testing machine
2. Beam of different cross sections and materials (say wood or steel)
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If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at the center, the beam
bends concave upwards. The distance between the original position of the beam and its position
after bending is different at different points (fig) along the length if the beam, being maximum at
the center in this case. This difference is called µdeflection¶.
In this type of loading the maximum amount of deflection () is given by the relation,

E=WI3/48EI
Where W= load acting at the center, N
l=length of the beam between the supports, mm
E=young¶s modulus of material of the beam, N/mm 2
I=second moment of area of the cross section (moment of inertia) of the beam, about the neutral
axis, mm 4
 
As per bending equation,

M/I=ɛb/Y
Where M= bending moment, Nmm
I= moment of inertia, mm 4
ɛb=Bending stress, N/mm 2
y=distance of the fiber of the beam from the neutral axis.


!
1. Adjust the supports alone the UTM bed so that they are symmetrically with respect to the
length of the bed

2. Place the beam on the knifeedges on the blocks so as to project equally beyond each
knifeedge.
See that the load is applied at the center of the beam.
3. Note the initial reading of vernier scale.
4. Apply a load and again note the reading of the vernier scale.
5. Go on taking reading applying load in steps each time till you have minimum 6 readings.
6. Find the deflection (d) in each time by subtracting the initial reading of vernier scale.
7. Draw a graph between load (W) and deflection (d). On the graph choose any two convenient
points and between these points find the corresponding values of W and d. Putting these values
in the relation E=WI3/48EI Calculate the value of E.
8. Calculate the bending stresses for different loads using relation M/I=ɛb/Y
9. Repeat the experiment for different beams.
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1. Make sure that the beam and load is placed at the proper position.
2. Cross section of the beam should be large
3. Note down the readings of the vernier scale carefully.
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a. Bending stress«««..units
b. Young¶s modulus«««units