CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND SOIL

FORMATION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
 Almost every work of construction in CE is
built on soil or rock.
 In many instances these are also the raw
materials of construction.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
 The term soil has various meanings,
depending upon the general field in which
it is being considered.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Meanings
of
SOIL

To To To
a a an
PEDOLOGIST GEOLOGIST ENGINEER
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soil is the substance

existing on the Earth’s
To a
surface, which grows PEDOLOGIST
and develops plant life
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soil is the material in

the relative thin surface
zone within which roots
To a occur, and all the rest
GEOLOGIST of the crust is grouped
under the term ROCK
irrespective of it
sharpness.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

• Soil is the un-

aggregated or un-
cemented deposits of
mineral and/ or organic To an
particles or fragments
covering large portion of ENGINEER
the Earth’s crust.
• The void space
between the particles
containing water and/ or
air.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soil means material that

can be worked without
drilling or blasting
1.0 INTRODUCTION

SOIL MECHANICS is single of

the youngest disciplines of CE
involving the study of soil, its
behaviour and application as
an engineering material.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The study of soil and rock

materials is an important
part of a wider area of
study.

Geotechnical
Engineering.
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetics
Soil Mechanics
(Soil Improvement) Rock Mechanics
(Soil Properties and
Behaviour) (Rock Stability and
Tunneling)

GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING

Soil Dynamics Pavement Engineering

(Dynamic Properties (Flexible & Rigid
of Soils, Earthquake Pavement)
Foundation Engineering
Engineering,
Machine Foundation) (Deep & Shallow
Foundation)
2.0 SOIL FORMATION
SOIL

All soils originate, directly

The un-cemented or
or indirectly from solid
weakly cemented
rocks and these are
material overlying the
classified according to
harder rock on the
their mode of formation:
plane’s surface.

-Igneous rocks
-Sedimentary rocks
-Metamorphic rocks
 2.0 SOIL FORMATION

IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCKS

• Formed by cooling • Formed in layers from • Formed by alternation
from hot molten sediments settling in of existing rocks due to
material (magma) bodies of water, such as extreme heat & extreme
with or on the surface seas and lakes. pressure.
of the earth’s crust
• e.g., limestone, • e.g., marble, quartzite,
• e.g., granite basalt, sandstone, mudstone, slate, schist.
dolcrite, andesite, shale, conlonerate.
gabbro, syenite,
porphyry.
 2.0 SOIL FORMATION
Mode and condition of
transport.
Nature and Interference by
composition other agencies,
of the parent e.g. cataclysmic
rock. storms,
CONTROLLING earthquakes,
action of man etc.
FACTORS OF SOIL
FORMATION
Climate Length of time relate
conditions, to particular
particularly prevailing conditions.
temperature Topographic and general terrain
and humidity. conditions, such as degree of
shelter or exposure, density and
type of vegetation, etc.
2.0 SOIL FORMATION

Igneous Rock
2.0 SOIL FORMATION

Igneous Rock
2.0 SOIL FORMATION

Metamorphic
Rock
2.0 SOIL FORMATION

Metamorphic Rock
2.0 SOIL FORMATION

Sedimentary Rock
2.0 SOIL FORMATION

Sedimentary
Rock
2.0 SOIL FORMATION

The geological
process that
produce soil

The effect of The effect of

WEATHERING TRANSPORT
2.1 THE EFFECT OF WEATHERING

The effect of
WEATHERING

Weathering embraces a number

of natural surface processes
which result from the single or
combined action of such
agencies as wind, frost,
temperature change and gravity.

Frost action, in which water

within the pore spaces of a
rock expands upon freezing
Wind action, causes the causes flakes or rock to split
particles to become away. The resultant debris is
rounded. therefore sharp and angular.
2.1 THE EFFECT OF WEATHERING

Wind action causes the particles to become rounded.

2.1 THE EFFECT OF WEATHERING

The volume change as liquid water transforms to ice is an

important physical weathering force in temperate
climates.
2.1 THE EFFECT OF WEATHERING
2.1 THE EFFECT OF WEATHERING
2.2 THE EFFECT OF TRANSPORT

Soils that have not been

transported and have
remained at their parent
site are termed
RESIDUAL SOILS.
 2.2 THE EFFECT OF TRANSPORT

The principal effect of

transportation is that of
sorting. During the
processes of movement,
separation of the original
constituents takes place.

In hot arid climates, e.g. a fine

wind-blown dust known as LOESS
may be carried considerable
distances before being deposited.
2.2 THE EFFECT OF TRANSPORT
The principal effect of
transportation is that of
•The action of flowing water may dissolve sorting. During the
some minerals, carrying some particles in processes of movement,
suspension and bounce or roll others separation of the original
along. constituents takes place.
•The load carried by a river or stream
depend largely on the flow velocity.
•In the upper reaches the velocity is high
and so even large boulders maybe moved.

•However, the velocity falls as the river drops down towards the sea, and so
deposition takes place: first, gravel-sized particles are deposited in the flood plain
and then coarse to medium sands, finally fine sands and silts in the estuary or
delta area.
•Clay particles, because of their smallness of size and flaky shape, tend to be
carried well out into the sea or lake.
•Thus, river-deposited (alluvial) soils are usually well sorted, i.e. poorly or
uniformly graded.
 2.2 THE EFFECT OF TRANSPORT

The principal effect of

transportation is that of
sorting. During the
processes of movement,
separation of the original
constituents takes place.

The movement of ice also provides

transport for weathered debris e.g.
boulder clay.
 They have different What type of soils are
shapes and usually produced by
textures. the different
weathering and
transportation
process?
Boulders, gravel
cohesionless, sand
These soils can be
and silt cohesive and
dry, saturated and
clay
partially saturated.
 2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY
Hard rigid coherent deposit
forming part of the earth’s
crust, which may be of
igneous, sedimentary or ROCK
metamorphic origin.

To geologist, the term rock

indicates coherent crustal
material over about 1 million
years old.

Soft materials such as clays, shales

and sands, may be described by a
geologist as rock, whereas an
engineer will use the term soil.
2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY

SOIL

In engineering taken to be
any loose or diggable
material that is worked in,
worked on or worked with.
2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY

ORGANIC SOIL

This is a mixture of mineral

grains and organic material
of mainly vegetable origin in
varying stages of
decomposition.
 2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY

From an
engineering point
True peat is made
of view, peat
up entirely of
poses many
organic matter, it is
problems because
very spongy, highly PEAT of their high
compressible and
compressibility,
combustible.
void ration and
moisture content,
and in some case
Inorganic materials may their acidity.
also be present and as
this increased the
material will grade
towards an organic soil.
 2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY
These are the weathered
remains of rocks that have
undergone no
transportation. RESIDUAL
SOILS
They are normally sandy
and gravelly.

E.g., China clay.

2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY

ALLIVIAL SOILS
These are materials, such
as sands and gravels which
have beeb deposited from (ALLUVIUM)
rivers and streams.
2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY

COHESIVE
SOIL

Soils containing sufficient

clay or silt particles to
impart significant plasticity
and cohesion.
2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY
Soils, such as sands and
gravels, which consist of
rounded and angular (non-
flaky) particles and which
COHESIONLESS
do not exhibit plasticity or SOIL
cohesion.
2.3 ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY

This is soil of glacial origin BOULDER CLAY

consisting of a very wide
range of particle sizes from
finely-ground rock flour to
boulders.
SOIL MECHANICS (7 TOPICS)

1. Soil Formation
• Formation
2. Soil Classification
• Soil classification system
3. Physical Properties
• Soil compositions and their relationships
4. Index Properties
• Plastic, liquid and plasticity index
SOIL MECHANICS (7 TOPICS)

5. Moisture Density Relationships

• Soil compaction
6. Flow of Water in Soils
• Permeability and seepage
7. Stress Distribution
• Effective stress and pore water pressure
 LAB TESTS

1. Liquid Limit & Plastic Limit

Plastic Limit
Liquid Limit
 LAB TESTS

2. Sieve Analysis & Field Density

Sieve Analysis Field Density

 LAB TESTS

3. Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil

 LAB TESTS

4. Water Content Determination

Compaction Graph
Drying Oven
By: fiza