Numbers and The Number System

Copyright 2016
Looking Glass Ventures.

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ISBN: 978-1-944931-04-9

Note To Reader
Welcome to this little Zen Masters
guide on Numbers and the Number
System, the third problem-solving book
in our Zen series for middle-school
students. As with all our texts in this
series, our goal is to simply unveil the
joys and delights of this mathematical
topic, to provide context and make
sense of the details, and help set you
on a path of mathematical mastery and
clever problem-solving.
This title is of help and interest to
students and educators alike. As with
all the titles in the Zen Masters series,
this Numbers guide is an eBook with a
matching online course at
http://edfinity.com/ZenSeries/Numbers
(effective June 1, 2016).

We have well over 100 problems to try,

along with an abundance of practice
examples. So feel free to browse
through this guide casually as a book
on a digital device, or to work through
its details as a focused, auto-graded
course -- or both!
All the details one needs to know about
Numbers are here in this book,
explained naturally and swiftly, along
with a robust compilation of practice
problems. The more you try solving
problems, the more confident youll
become at them -- youll even start to
notice recurring ideas and approaches
which you can then use to your
advantage. If you havent already, be
sure to read 8 Tips to Conquer Any
Problem in our Zen Masters series.
This is the must-read introduction to

building your problem-solving skills. In

fact, this guide is going to assume you
are familiar with the strategies and
advice we go through there.
Okay! Without further ado, lets get
started!
James Tanton
March 2016
Acknowledgements
My deepest thanks and appreciation to
Michael Pearson, Executive Director of
the Mathematical Association of
America, for setting me on the path of
joyous mathematical problem solving
with the MAA Curriculum Inspirations
project, and to Shivram Venkat at
Edfinity for inviting me to extend that
wonderful work to the global community
of younger budding mathematicians. I
am so very honored to be part of the
unique, and truly remarkable, digital
format experience Shivram and Edfinity
have developed for the world.
James Tanton
January, 2016
Edfinitys Zen Masters Series

Edfinitys Zen Masters series is a
collection of 11 digital titles (6 for
Middle School and 5 for High School)
created for the modern educator and
student. The titles are available only in
digital form and consist of carefully
crafted problem collections designed to
help students master problem solving.
Each title guides students through the
themes of a specific topic (such as
Algebra or Probability), presenting
concise expository content, select
examples illustrating specific problem
solving techniques, and between 150200 problems expertly arranged to help
the user achieve complete mastery.
The volumes are each accompanied
with optional access to an Edfinity
digital companion presenting all the

problems in the title as a self-paced,

online course with auto-grading and
performance analysis. Educators may
enroll their students to track their
progress, or students/parents may
enroll individually. Access to the guides
provides educators access to rich,
supplemental problem collections for
classroom use.
The Zen Masters Series is designed to
serve broad usage by educators and
students alike, offering substantive
general enrichment, development of
foundational skills in problem solving,
and contest preparation. In addition to
helping students prepare effectively for
local and major international contests,
the problems provide robust attention to
standards and guidelines of the
Common Core State Standards in

Mathematics (USA), GCSE (UK),

Singapores Math curriculum,
Australian Curriculum, and most other
international syllabi.
ZEN MASTERS MIDDLE SCHOOL

SERIES
8 Tips to Solve Any Problem, by James
Tanton
Counting and Probability, by James
Tanton
Numbers and the Number System, by
James Tanton
Structure, Patterns and Logic, by
James Tanton
Relationships and Equations, by James
Tanton
Geometry, by James Tanton
Solutions Manual for each title by
James Tanton
ZEN MASTERS HIGH SCHOOL SERIES

Algebra, by David Wells
Geometry, by David Wells
Number Theory, by David Wells
Discrete Mathematics, by David Wells
Advanced Topics, by David Wells
Solutions Manual for each title by David
Wells
Enroll at
(effective June 1, 2016) for online
practice with scoring and complete
solutions.
1. The Counting Numbers

What do you think was the first
mathematical activity mankind ever
performed? It might simply have been
counting.
In 1937, archeologists in Moravia
uncovered the radius bones of a wolf
dated over 30,000 years old on which
55 notches were carved, 25 of them in
groups of five.
Do this think this suggests Paleolithic

man was counting? (If so, counting
what? Days? Full moons? Number of
deer caught? Also, why groups of five?)
Counting seems fundamental to human
thinking. It is certainly fundamental to
mathematics.

Definition: The counting numbers

(also called the natural numbers)
are the positive whole numbers
1, 2 , 3 , 4,
Question: Is there a biggest
counting number?
Warning
WARNING:
SOME PEOPLE INCLUDE ZERO,

, IN THE LIST OF COUNTING NUMBERS.
OTHERS ARGUE THAT ZERO SHOULDNT BE
CONSIDERED A COUNTING NUMBER. (AFTER
ALL, WHEN YOU SAY THERE ARE ZERO
ELEPHANTS SITTING UNDER YOUR BED, IS
THAT BECAUSE YOU ACTUALLY COUNTED
THEM?) WATCH OUT WHEN YOU READ MATH
BOOKS SOME AUTHORS WILL CONSIDER
ZERO TO BE IN THIS LIST AND OTHERS
WONT. THERE IS NO FIXED RULE IN THE
COMMUNITY OF MATHEMATICIANS ABOUT
THIS.

To be definite lets use the counting

numbers to count dots. For example,
5 represents this many dots:
Actually, it does not matter how we

arrange the dots, each of these two
pictures represents 5 as well.
ADDITION
We can add numbers by grouping dots.

For example, two dots together with
three dots gives five dots.
2+3=5
We are condition to read from left to
right, but if we look at this picture from
right to left instead we see the
statement 3 + 2 = 5. In our minds eye we
can now see that 11458273+ 9258025
must give the same answer as
9258025+11458273 without doing a lick of
arithmetic.
Viewing the same picture from two
different directions leads us to believe:
ARITHMETIC RULE 1:
no matter which two
counting numbers and represent.
For those who like jargon, this is called

the commutative property of addition.

MULTIPLICATION
In the context of counting numbers,

multiplication is usually seen as
repeated addition. For example, 2 3 is
interpreted as two groups of three,
2 3 = 3+ 3 = 6
and 4 5 as four groups of five,

4 5 = 5+5+5+5 = 20 .
It is not immediately obvious that four

groups of five should philosophically
give the same answer five groups of
four. (Maybe it is a coincidence that
4 5 and 5 4 both equal 20 ?)
But if we arrange our four groups of five

in a rectangular array and then view
this array from the different perspective,
then it becomes clear that both
quantities represent the same 20 dots.
This idea explains, without doing the

arithmetic, why 1167 3107 must give the
same answer as 3107 1167 .
ARITHMETIC RULE 2:
no matter which two
counting numbers and
represent.
.
For those who like jargon, this is called

the commutative property of
multiplication.
Notation
Notation: The symbol is often used
for multiplication of two numbers
( 6 6 = 36 , for example). People also
used a raise dot ( 6 6 = 36 ). Or if some
numbers are represent by letters, then
no symbols are used for multiplication
and the two numbers being multiplied
are simply written side-by-side. For
example, 2a means 2a and pw means
pw . (Writing 66 when you mean 6 6
does not work!)

PROPERTY OF ZERO AND ONE
If I have seven dots and add no more

dots to the page, then I still have seven
dots: 7 + 0 = 7 .
Also, one group of seven dots is
seven dots: 1 7 = 7 .
Challenge: Give interpretations to
the statements 0 + 7 = 7 and 7 1 = 7 .
These observations lead to:
ARITHMETIC RULE 3:
and
all counting numbers .
for
For those who like jargon we call 0 the

additive identity and 1 the multiplicative
identity.
Also, seven groups of zero dots is still
no dots: 7 0 = 0 .

Challenge: Give an interpretation to

the statement 0 7 = 0 . (This one is
philosophically troublesome: If I
dont have a group of seven dots, it
could be because I have four dots.
So 0 7 = 4 ?)
People like to believe this next rule:
ARITHMETIC RULE 4:
for all counting
numbers .
For those who like jargon this is

sometimes called the multiplicative
property of zero.

GROUPING WITH PARENTHESES

How should we interpret 2 + 3+ 4 ?
Reading the picture left to right wed

compute 2 + 3 first to get 5 and then add
4 to get 9 . From right to left wed
compute 4 + 3 first to get 7 and then add
2 to get 9 . Of course all interpretations
will lead to the same answer. But if an
author wants to communicate to the
reader a specific order for computation,
then shell introduce parentheses to
group symbols.
2+ 3+ 4 is computed as 2 + 7 ,to get 9 .

2+ 3 + 4 is computed as 5 + 4 ,to get 9 .

Of course, no matter the order in which

we compute these sums, the answer is
the same.

ARITHMETIC RULE 5:
for all counting
numbers , , and .
Parentheses can be nested and it is

understood that the innermost
parentheses are to be computed first.
(2+ (3+ 4)) +5
is to be computed as
2+ 7 +5, which is then computed as

9 +5 , which is 14 .
We have the social convention:

PARENTHESES CONVENTION:
COMPUTE QUANTITIES INSIDE PARENTHESES
FIRST. IF THERE ARE PARENTHESES WITHIN
PARENTHESES, COMPUTE THE INNERMOST
ONES FIRST.
For example, (2+ 3) + ( 4 +5) is to be

computed as (5+ 9) = 14 .
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: In how many ways can one

place parentheses around a sum of four terms,
a + b + c + d , so that one is only ever adding two
quantities at a time?

Answer: There are 5 ways.
( (a + b) + c ) + d
( a + (b + c )) + d
a + (( b + c ) + d )

a + ( b + ( c + d ))

( (a + b) + (c + d ))
PROBLEM 1: In how many ways can one place

parentheses around a sum of four terms,
a + b + c + d + e , so that one is only ever adding two
quantities at a time?
e

PARENTHESES AND MULTIPLICATION
How does one interpret 2 + 3 4 ?

Reading out loud from left to right this
sounds like two plus three (which is
five) times four (giving twenty).
However, we have the social
convention of always computing
multiplications before additions.
2 + 3 4 is interpreted as 2+ 3 4 ,

which is 2 +12, giving 14 .
We have:
MULTIPLICATION CONVENTION:
MULTIPLICATIONS COME EQUIPPED WITH
INVISIBLE PARENTHESES. THEY ARE ALWAYS
COMPUTED BEFORE ADDITIONS.
For example, 3 3+1+ 2 2 is computed

as (3 3) +1+ (2 2) and so is 9 +1+ 4 = 14 .
(Most people dont bother to draw the
parenthesis back in.)

DISTRIBUTION

Look at this picture of 4 5 , for groups of

five.
Thinking of 5 as 2 + 3 we see in the

picture 4 3 , for groups of three, and
4 2 , four groups of two. We have:
4 5 = 4 3+ 4 2.
In general, this leads us to believe:

ARITHMETIC RULE 6:
for all counting
numbers , , and .
Other variations of this rule include

a + b )c = ac + bc and a( b + c + d ) = ab + ac + ad ,
(

and so on.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Compute 54 23.

Answer: 54 23 is 50 23 plus 4 23.

Now 50 23 is 50 20+50 3, which is
1000+150 = 1150 .
And 4 23 is 4 20+ 4 3 = 80+12 = 92 .
Combining, we get 54 23 = 1150+ 92.
Let me think of this as
1142+ 8 + 92 = 1142+100 so the answer is
1242.

2. Sums In Pictures
Here is a picture of a 6 6 array of dots.
Stare at this picture. Do you see in it

the sum
1 + 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6 +5+ 4 + 3+ 2+1
Look diagonally:
In the same way a 1010 array of dots

would reveal the sum:

1+ 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6 + 7 + 8 + 9+10+ 9+ 8 + 7 + 6
.
+5+ 4 + 3+ 2+1 = 100
PROBLEM 2: What is the sum of all the numbers

from one up to a million and back down again,
1+ 2+ 3+!+1000000+!+ 3+ 2+1 ?

Look at the picture of 6 6 array of dots

again.
This time do you see the sum of the

first six odd numbers
1 + 3+5+ 7 + 9+11 ?

Look at L-shapes

COMMENT: FOR A DISCUSSION OF EVEN AND

ODD NUMBERS, READ THE BOOK STRUCTURE,
PATTERNS AND LOGIC IN THE ZEN MASTERS
SERIES

PROBLEM 3: What is the value of the sum

1+ 3+ 5+ 7 + 9 +!+ 47 + 49 ?

e indicates problem is available online at

http://edfinity.com/ZenSeries/Probability

We have:
The sum of the first N odd numbers
is N N .

The sum of the first six odd

numbers is 6 6 :
1+ 3+ 5+ 7 + 9 +11= 36 .
Add one to each of these six odd

numbers:
and we get the sum of the first six even

numbers.
The sum of the first N even
numbers N N + N .

Adding one to each odd number

corresponds to adding an extra dot to
each L in our picture:
Notice that N N + N equals N(N +1) .

PROBLEM 4: What is the sum of the first one

million even numbers plus the sum of the first one
million numbers?
e

PROBLEM 5: Evaluate the sum

11+1 2 +1 3+1 4 + 2 1+ 2 2 + 2 3+ 2 4 +
31+ 3 2 + 3 3+ 3 4 + 4 1+ 4 2 + 4 3+ 4 4.

Some people find it helpful to draw

squares rather than dots.

Look at this picture:
It shows that 1 + 2+ 3+ 4 +5 equals half of

5 6 .
Challenge: Draw the picture that
shows that 1 + 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6 + 7 equals
half of 7 8 .
IN GENERAL:
EQUALS HALF OF
Comment
We could have seen this

formula at the start of the chapter.
There we showed by looking at
diagonals that
1+ 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6 +5+ 4 + 3+ 2+1 = 6 6 .
The left side almost looks like two

copies of 1 + 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6 . So lets add 6
to each side to get:
1+ 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6 + 6 +5+ 4 + 3+ 2+1 = 6 6 + 6
Thus two copies of 1 + 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6

equals 6 6 + 6 , which equals
67
6 6 +1 = 6 7 . So, 1+ 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6 =
.

2

We can extend this idea.

The sum 5+ 8+11+14 +17 equals half of

5 22 .
Challenge: Consider the sum

37 + 50 + 63+ 76 + 89 +102 +115+128 +141
+154 +167
with terms steadily increasing by 13.

The sum has 11 terms in all and the
first and last numbers in the sum
add to 37 +167 = 204 .
Explain why the sum thus equals
half of 11 204 .
IN GENERAL:
IF THE NUMBERS IN A SUM

INCREASE BY A CONSTANT AMOUNT, THEN THE
VALUE OF THE SUM CAN BE COMPUTED BY
MULTIPLYING THE NUMBER OF TERMS IN THE
SUM BY THE SUM OF THE FIRST AND LAST TERMS
AND THEN DIVIDING BY TWO.

PROBLEM 6: Kasha starts with the number 1000

and subtracts 7 from it to get 993 , which she
writes on a piece of paper. She then subtracts
seven from this to get 886 , which she also writes
on the paper. She keeps doing this, subtracting
seven and writing down the answer until she gets
a two-digit answer, which she does not write on
her page. What is the sum of all the three-digit
numbers she has on her page?
e

3. Factors and Primes

Heres a question:
How many different rectangles can
one produce with 12 dots?
If we regard 90! rotations of the same
picture as the same rectangle, there
are three different rectangles one can
make with 12 dots.
The numbers that arise as the widths

and lengths of these rectangles 1, 2,
3, 4 , 6 , and 12 are called the factors
of the number 12.

They are the numbers that arise in

products of counting numbers that give
12 :
12 = 3 4
12 = 6 2
12 = 112
12 = 2 21 3
PROBLEM 7: How many different rectangles of

area 600 square units are there with each side a
whole number length? (Regard 90! rotations of a
rectangle as the same rectangle.)
e
Definition
DEFINITION: A COUNTING NUMBER

A FACTOR OF
IF WE CAN WRITE
SOME COUNTING NUMBER
IS CALLED
FOR
People like to categorize numbers:

A number is called composite if it
has more than two factors.
A number is called prime if it has
exactly two factors.
For example, 18 is composite because
it has six factors ( 1, 2, 3, 6 , 9 , and 18 ).
The number 13 is prime because it has
exactly two factors ( 1 and 13 ).
COMMENT: ACCORDING TO THIS
DEFINITION, THE NUMBER IS NEITHER PRIME
NOR COMPOSITE. (THE NUMBER HAS ONLY
ONE FACTOR.) MANY STUDENTS AND
TEACHERS ARE CONFUSED ABOUT THIS AND
THINK THAT
SHOULD BE PRIME. THE
PROBLEM IS THAT PEOPLE WILL OFTEN SAY

THAT A PRIME NUMBER IS A NUMBER WHOSE
FACTORS ARE ONLY 1 AND ITSELF. THIS
DEFINITION IS IMPRECISE.
Mathematicians really dont want 1 to

be considered a prime number for the
sake of factoring. For example, the
number 100 can be written as a product
of smaller numbers
100 = 4 25
which can in turn be written in terms of

smaller product still
100 = 2 2 25
100 = 2 255 .
Eventually this process will stop at the

factors that are prime numbers. But if
you choose to regard 1 as prime, then
we have a problem: the process of
factoring will never stop.
100 = 1 2 2 5 5
100 = 11 2 2 5 5
100 = 111 2 2 5 5
100 = 1111 2 2 5 5
!
This is annoying. And a simple way to

avoid this annoyance is to not allow 1 to
be considered prime.
PROBLEM 8: Which prime number is closest to
122 ?
e
PROBLEM 9: What is the smallest three-digit
number N for which none of N , N + 2 , N + 4 , N + 6 ,
and N + 8 is prime?.
e
PROBLEM 10: Consider the formula
N N +1 + 41 .

It gives prime numbers for N = 0,1,2,3,4,5 .
0 1+ 41 = 41 is prime.
1 2+ 41 = 43 is prime.
2 3+ 41 = 47 is prime.
3 4 + 41 = 53 is prime.
4 5+ 41 = 61 is prime.

Does the value of N N +1 + 41 give a prime

number answer for each and every possible value
of N ?
PROBLEM 11: Three different prime numbers

sum to 31 . What is the largest possible value of the
largest prime among the three?
e
PROBLEM 12: The sum of the third and ninth
primes is n greater than the sixth prime. What is
the largest prime that divides n ?
CLEVER PRODUCTS
Sometimes factoring can make

computing products easier. For
example, to work out 28 75, first notice
28 = 4 7 and 75 = 3 25 . So 28 75 equals
the product
4 7 3 25.
Multiply 4 and 25 first to obtain 100 , an

easy number to work with. We have
) (
28 75 = 4 25 7 3 = 100 21= 2100 .
(Alternatively, 75 is three-quarters of 100

and so 28 75 is three-quarters of
28100 .)
As another example, to compute 32 25
it is easier to think of this as 8 4 25 .
(Why? And what is the final
answer?)

Why?
And to compute, 1815 we might say

18 15 = 9 2 15 = 9 30 = 270 .
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Compute the following
products by factoring in a clever way first.

a) 82 5
b) 16 25
c) 12 75
d) 3514
e) 12512
Answer:
a) 4110 = 410
b) 4 100 = 400
c) 3 ( 4 25) 3= 900
d) 7 (5 2 ) 7 = 490
e) 5 ( 25 4 ) 3= 1500 .
PAIRS OF FACTORS
It seems that the factors if numbers

come in pairs, according the rectangle
of dots they represent:
and also
Do all numbers have an even number

of factors?

PRACTICE EXAMPLE:
a) List the factors of 36 . What do you notice about
the number of factors it possesses? Explain
geometrically why this is so.

b) Without listing them, will the count of factors of
110 be even or odd? How about the count of
factors of 225?
Answer:
a) The factors of 36 are 1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36
.

There are nine of them. We have the
rectangle pairs 1 36 , 2 18 , 312 , along
with one square 6 6 (so 6 is paired with
itself).
Because one number is paired with
itself, the count of factors will be odd.
This will be the case for every square
number.
b) 110 is not a square number and so its
factors will come in pairs. It will thus
have an even number of factors. 225 is
a square number (it equals 152 ) and so
will have an odd number of factors.

4. The Area Model

The geometric model of multiplication is
area. For example, the multiplication
of two numbers corresponds to the
computation of the area of a rectangle.
We say, for example, the area of a
3 -by- 4 rectangle is 3 4 = 12 .
This corresponds to dividing this

rectangle into three groups of four unit
squares giving a total of 12 unit
squares. (So instead of counting dots
we are now counting unit squares.)
We can use this simple notion to our

advantage.
For example, computing 23 37 , that is,
computing the area of a 23-by- 37
rectangle, is hard to do directly.
However, one can simplify matters by
breaking 23 into two smaller numbers
that are easier to work with, namely as
20 + 3, and the 37 into 30 + 7 .
This corresponds to subdividing the

rectangle into four pieces as shown:
The area of the entire rectangle is just

the sum of the area of these four
pieces. We have:
23 37 = 600 +140 + 90 + 21= 851.
This is easy to compute! One can

almost do it in ones head.
Notice what we did here. We wrote:
23 37 = (20 + 3)(30 + 7)
= 2030 + 207 + 330 + 37.

This amounts to selecting one number

from the first set of parentheses 20 or
3 and one number from the second
set of parentheses 30 or 7
multiplying them together, and then
adding all possible combinations of one
number from each.
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Compute 371 42 .
Answer: This corresponds to a

rectangle subdivided into six pieces
371 42 = (300 + 70 +1)(40 + 2)

= 30040 + 7040 +140 + 3002 + 702 +12
= 12000 + 2800 + 40 + 600 +140 + 2
= 15582.

Even for the expression

(300 + 70 +1)(40 + 2) we simply select one
term from each set of parentheses and
make sure to cover all possible
combinations.
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: The computation:
(4 + 5)(3+ 7 +1)
corresponds to subdividing a rectangle into how
many pieces?
Answer: Six pieces.
We have:
(4 + 5)(3+ 7 +1) = 43+ 47 + 41+ 53+ 57 + 51
= 12 + 28+ 4 +15+ 35+ 5
= 99.

This was a very complicated way of

computing 9 11= 99 !
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What does this

computation mean geometrically?
(a + b + c + d)(e + f + g)
Answer: This corresponds to

subdividing a rectangle into 12 pieces.
With the appropriate patience, one

could write this out:
(a + b + c + d)(e + f + g) =
ae + af + ag + be + bf + bg + ce + cf + cg + de + df + dg

TAKING MATTERS IT FURTHER
If (3+ 7)(4 + 5) corresponds to subdividing

a rectangle into four pieces:
What does (2 + 3)(4 + 5)(6 + 7)
correspond to geometrically?
Answer: (2 + 3)(4 + 5)(6 + 7) corresponds
to dividing a three-dimensional block
into eight pieces.
Here are the eight pieces:

(2+ 3)(4 +5)(6 + 7) =
2 4 6 + 2 4 7+ 3 4 6+ 3 4 7
+25 6 + 25 7 + 35 6+ 35 7.
(Can you identify each of the eight

pieces in the picture?)
Notice again that this corresponds to
selecting one term from each set of
parentheses and making sure to cover
all possible combinations!
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: If one were to expand:
(x + y + z)(a + b + c + d)(r + s)
how many terms would there be? What does this
correspond to geometrically?
Answer: There would be 3 4 2 = 24

terms. (Do you see why?)

The expression corresponds to

subdividing a rectangular box into 24
pieces.
PRACTICE EXERCISE: If one were to expand:

(x + y)(x + a + b)(a + c + p)
a) How many terms would there be?
b) Would xac be one of those terms? How about
cay, xcp, xax , and xyc ?

Answer:
a) 18 pieces.
b) Yes; Yes; No; Yes; and Yes.
ASIDE: WHEN A NUMBER REPRESENTED BY

A SYMBOL
WRITE
IS MULTIPLIED BY ITSELF WE
AND SAY
SQUARED. NOTICE
THE WORD SQUARE HERE. WE SAY THIS

BECAUSE OF GEOMETRY:
A SQUARE OF SIDE-LENGTH
IS THE AREA OF
AND WHAT DO WE SAY FOR
ANSWER:
IS
CUBED. THIS IS BECAUSE
THE PRECISELY VOLUME OF A CUBE OF SIDELENGTH

Question: Why have we no word for

4
x = x x x x ?
Practice these and more problems online at


)(
PROBLEM 13: If a + b + 2 b + c + 2 = 254 and

a + 4 b + ac = 160 and 2a + bc + 2c = 76 , what is the

value of b2 ?
e
THE FINAL RULE OF ARITHMETIC
The volume of a box is defined to be

the area of its base times its height.
If one views the base of this box to be

the a -by- b rectangle, then the box has
height c and so its volume is area
base = ( ab )c .
But we could turn the box and view the
b -by- c rectangle to be its base. Then a
is the height of the box and so its
volume is area base = ( bc )a .
By the commutativity of multiplication,
this can be rewritten as
area base = a( bc ) .

Question: What is the volume of the

box if you view the front a -by- c
rectangle as its base?
As all these ways of computing the
volume of the box must give the same
answer (it is the same box after all), we
have that ( ab )c = a( bc ) .
ARITHMETIC RULE 6:
for all counting
numbers , , and .
5. Negative Numbers
Despite its almost insulting simplicity,
the following model provides a very
powerful tool for understanding
negative numbers.
Imagine being back in kindergarten and
enjoying the pleasures of playing in a
sand box. Suppose that you are a tidy
child and like to start out the day by
leveling out the sand into a nice flat
state.
Lets call this beginning state the zero
state:
Now suppose you reach behind where

you are sitting and grab a pile of sand.
Lets call one pile the 1 state.

Two piles of sand correspond to 2, and

so forth.
Weve discovered the counting

numbers as piles of sand this time.
Instead of making a pile of sand lets
now make the opposite of pile, namely,
a hole.
Call this 1 with the little dash as

shorthand for opposite. The opposite
of two piles, namely, two holes, will be
denoted 2, and so forth.
Notice that holes and piles cancel one

another out, hence the notion of them
being opposite.
We see 3+ ( 2) equals 1
and 5+ ( 7) = 2.
SUBTRACTION
There really is no such thing as
subtraction.
SUBTRACTION IS THE ADDITION OF NEGATIVE
NUMBERS.
Nonetheless, people like to write

expressions in terms of subtraction. For
example,
is to be interpreted as 5+ ( 6) ,
five piles and six holes.
5 6
( ) ( )
1 7 means 1 + 7 , one hole and

seven holes.
3 5 7 + 8 1+10 means
3 + 5 + 7 + 8 + 1 +10 .

() ( ) ( ) () ( )
It is actually easier to think in terms of

adding negative quantities.

DISTRIBUTING THE NEGATIVE

SIGN
5 =
5 =
=
five piles.
the opposite if five piles
five holes
What is the opposite of five holes?

5 = opposite of five holes
( )
= five piles = 5 .
And 5 is the opposite of the
opposite of the opposite of five piles,
which is five holes.
5 = 5 .
Going further, what is the opposite of 3
piles and 2 piles? Clearly, 3 holes and 2
holes.
) ( ) ( )
3+ 2 = 3 + 2 .

What is the opposite if x piles and y

holes?
x + ( y ) = ( x ) + y .

If we write this in the notation of

subtraction, this reads:
x y ) = x + y .
(
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Whats the opposite of
10T + 7 3+ a ?
Answer: (10T + 7 3+ a) = 10+T 7 + 3 a .

People call this action distributing the
negative sign.
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Make 2 20 x look

simpler.
Answer: It really does help to read this

out in terms of piles and holes.

Two piles plus the opposite of twenty

piles and x holes is 2 piles plus 20
holes and x piles.
2(20 x) = 2 20+ x
= 18 + x
= x 18.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Whats x if:
a) x is seven piles?
b) x is seven holes?
c) x is 16 ?
d) x is 16 ?

Answer:
a) seven holes;
b) seven piles;
c) 16 ;
d) 16 .

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Evaluate
(277 + 219) (69+127) .
Answer:
(277 + 219) (69+127) = 277 + 219 69127
= 277 127 + 219 6 = 150+150 = 300.
PROBLEM 14: Evaluate

100 88 + 76 64 +52 40+ 28 16 + 4 .
PROBLEM 15: What is the sum of all the even

three-digit numbers minus the sum of the odd
three-digit numbers?
e

PROBLEM 16: What is the smallest possible nonnegative value the expression 1 2 3 4 5 6
could have if parentheses are inserted into the
expression?
e

PROBLEM 17: Jakob mixes together ten red

marbles and ten blue marbles and then separates
them into a pile of seven marbles and a pile of
thirteen marbles. He counts the number of red
marbles in the small pile and the number of blue
marbles in the large pile and subtracts the two
counts to get a positive number. What positive
number did Jakob get?
e

NEGATIVE TIMES NEGATIVE

In the realm of counting numbers
multiplication is seen as repeated
addition.
2 3 = two groups of three = 3+ 3 = 6 .
We can try to extend this thinking to

negative numbers.
( )
2 3 = two groups of negative

three = 3 + 3 = 6 .
( ) ( )
But ( 2) 3 is problematic. (What does

negative two groups of three mean?).
However, if we like
ARITHMETIC RULE 2:
no matter which two
counting numbers and
represent.
and feel this rule should apply to all

types of numbers, not just positive
counting numbers, then we can say
2 3 = 3 ( 2) = three groups of
( )
negative two = ( 2) + ( 2) + ( 2) = 6 .

So we can handle positive times

positive, positive times negative, and
negative times positive.
But ( 2) ( 3) is truly problematic.
Applying Rule 2 offers no aid.
Lets bring in some of the other rules,
choosing to believe that should hold
even for negative numbers.
In particular, consider
ARITHMETIC RULE 6:
for all counting
numbers , , and .
Variations of this rule hold too.

Recall that this rule is motivated by

dividing rectangles into pieces when
computing products. Although it makes
no sense geometrically to draw
rectangles with negative side lengths,
the pictures we draw are based on this
distributive rule and so represent true
results in arithmetic.
To get at ( 2) ( 3) , lets compute 17 18
four different ways, by writing 17 as
10+ 7 and as 20+ ( 3) , and writing 18

both as 10+ 8 and 20+ ( 2) .
We see we must declare ( 2) ( 3) to be

+6 .
This is why mathematicians set
negative times negative to be positive:
consistency of mathematics seems to
be dictating it so.
Challenge: Draw some diagrams that
explain why ( 4 ) ( 5) should be +20.

PROBLEM 18: Simplify

x a x b x c x d ! x y x z .

e
)(
)(
)(
) (
)(
6. Exponents
Consider the powers of two, the
doubling numbers:
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512,
1024, 2048, 4096, 8192,
The number 8 is the number 1 doubled

three times 1 2 2 2, which is the same
as the product of three twos:
8 = 2 2 2
and 1024 is 1 doubled ten times, which

is the same as the product of ten twos:
1024 = 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 .
DEFINITION:
IF
IS A POSITIVE WHOLE NUMBER WE WRITE

FOR THE PRODUCT:
TIMES)
Notice that this definition makes sense

only for a a positive whole number. Is it
possible to give meaning to the value 2a
if a is not a positive whole number?
What is 20 ? What is 25 ?
A pattern suggests that 20 is one, and
that 21 is a half, and so on, but it is not
clear if patterns can always be trusted.
!
8 = 23
4 = 22
2 = 21
1 = 20 ?
1 1
=2 ?
2
1 2
=2 ?
4
!
What is the true mathematical reason

for setting 20 equal to one, and 22 equal
to a quarter? The answer lies in the
multiplicative property of the powers of
two.

Consider, for instance, 23 25 . This is the

product of three twos multiplied by a
product of five twos. This gives us a
string of eight twos multiplied together:
) (
23 25 = 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 28

.
We can perform the same operation for

any two positive numbers a and b and it
is clear that the following rule holds.
If a and b are positive
whole numbers, then
a
b
a+b
2 2 = 2 .
Rule
This rule feels right, so right that were

now going to play the following game:
Lets make this rule the LAW. The rule
is now going to hold no matter what
types of numbers a and b are.
What are the logical consequences of
this game?

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Give meaning to the

0
quantity 2 .

Answer: Well blindly follow our law.
According to it we must have:
0
3
0+3
3
2 2 = 2 = 2 .
This is saying 20 8 = 8 . We have no

choice but to set 20 equal to 1.

PRATICE EXAMPLE: Give meaning to the
1
quantity 2 .

Answer: According to the rule we must
have:
1
6
1+6
5
2 2 = 2 = 2 .
This is saying 21 64 = 32. We have no

1
2
choice but to set 21 equal to .

CHALLENGE: Show that 22 must be

1
interpreted as equal to .
4

In general we can establish:
1
2 = a
2 .

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Give meaning to the
a
1
2
quantity 2 .

Answer: According to the rule we must
have:
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 = 2 .
1
2
That is, 2 is a quantity, which, when

multiplied by itself, gives the answer 2.
People call this number the square root
of two.
1
2
2 = 2 .

Challenge: Explain why it is

1
3
3
appropriate to interpret 2 as 2 , the
cube root of two.
OTHER EXPONENT PROPERTIES

It is best to think of expressions
involving exponents directly in terms of
repeated multiplication.

24
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Evaluate 6 .
2

Answer: We have
24
2 2 2 2
1
1
=
=
=
6
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 .
In general, we have:
2a
ab
=
2
.
b
2
( ) .
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Evaluate 2

Answer: We have:
( ) (
3
= 2 2 2
) (
) (
) (
= 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 .
12
= 2
In general,
2 =2
( )
a
ab
GENERAL EXPONENTS
Of course there is nothing special about
the number 2 in this work. Let x be any
positive number.
Set, for any positive whole number a ,
a
x = x x ! x ( a times).
Then the following exponent rules hold:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Rules 1, 5, and 6 seem natural if we

write our repeated multiplications.
Rules 2, 3, and 4 are logical
consequences of rule 1.

There are some additional rules that
make sense if we write out repeated
multiplications using counting numbers
(and we like to believe these rules will
also work for all possible types of
numbers).

7.
8.

( )
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Evaluate 5a . Knowing

5
that a = 32.

Answer:
5a
( )
= 5a 5a 5a = 125a3
.
That a5 = 32 means that a = 2, and so
5a
( )
= 125 23 = 125 8 = 1000
(Alternatively, knowing that a = 2, we see

3
3
5a = 10 = 1000 .)
( ) ( )
SQUARE ROOTS
Heres a strangely worded question:

What do you think is the root feature of a

square of area 9 ?
Roots occur at the base of a tree and

provide the basic support of the tree.
So this strange question is probably
asking for the most basic feature of a
square of area 9. That would have to
be its side length, which is 3. We call
this number the square root of 9 are
write:
9 = 3.
Notice that this language comes from

the context of geometry, as does the
symbol , and in classical geometry
all quantities are taken to be positive
(despite what we were doing in chapter
2
2
5!). Although both 3 = 9 and ( 3) = 9 in

arithmetic, we allowed only to write
9 = +3 when we use this symbol from
geometry. (Writing 9 = 3 is invalid with
this symbol.)
DEFINITION: IF
THEN
IS A NON-NEGATIVE NUMBER,
IS A NON-NEGATIVE NUMBER WITH
THE PROPERTY THAT
We have, for example,

25 = 5 since 5 5 = 25.
1 = 1 since 1 1 = 1 .

EQUALS
1 1
1 1 1
= since = .
2 2 4
4 2
(See the chapter on Fractions)

0.01 = 0.1 since 0.1 0.1 = 0.001 .
(See the chapter on Decimals.)

and
0 = 0 since 0 0 = 0.
(Classic scholars did recognize that a

square with no area has no side
length!)
Some square roots are awkward to
compute. For example, the following
picture shows that a square of area 2
exists (do you see why?) and so there
is a number 2 . It has value somewhere
between 1 and 2.
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Show that 10 is a value

between 3.and 4 .
Answer: We are looking for a number

2
x so that x = 10 .
Now x = 3 is too small as 32 = 9 and x = 4
is too large as 42 = 16 . This x must have
a value between 3 and 4 (probably
closer to three than to four).

PROBLEM 19: Show that 2 lies between one

and one-and-a-half.
e

1
2
We saw earlier in this chapter that x is

x.

1
6 2
PROBLEM 20: Evaluate 26 + 26 + 26 + 2

e
) .
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Show that

3 5 .equals 15 .
Answer: Does 3 5 work as the

square root of 15? Lets check:
3 5 3 5 = 3 3 5 5 = 35 = 15 .
Yes! So 3 5 is 15 in disguise.
In general, we have
a b = ab .

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Compute
45 50 10 .
Answer:
45 50 10 = 95 25 2 10
= 9 5 25 2 10
= 35 5 2 10
= 15 10 10
= 1510

= 150.
PROBLEM 21: Evaluate 60 15 .
PROBLEM 22: Evaluate
( 10 + 20 )
5 .
e
PROBLEM 23: What is the largest integer

smaller than 1000 ?
PROBLEM 24: What is the largest integer

smaller than 30 + 40 ?
DEFINITION: IF
IS A NON-NEGATIVE
NUMBER, THEN
IS A NON-NEGATIVE
NUMBER WITH THE PROPERTY THAT

EQUALS
CUBE ROOT OF
. IT IS CALLED THE
(CAN YOU GUESS WHY THE NAME CUBE

ROOT?)
For example,
3
3
125 = 5 because 5 = 125
1000 = 10
3
64 = 4
3
1 =1
3
and so on.
We saw earlier in this chapter that

1
3
3
a = a .

PROBLEM 25: The quantity 3 17 17 equals

an integer. Which integer?
PROBLEM 26: Round 3 350 to the nearest whole

number.
e

PROBLEM 27: Find

64000000 .
e
PROBLEM 28: What is the largest whole number

whose square is less than 2,249,909 ?
e

e indicates problem is available online at

http://edfinity.com/ZenSeries/Probability
7. Prime Factorizations

Each counting number, if it isnt already

prime, can be written as a product of
primes by repeatedly factoring the
number. For example

600 = 3 200
= 3 2010
= 3 4 5 25

= 3 2 25 25 = 23 352.
It is quite remarkable that each number

factors into the same list of primes no
matter the manner one chooses to
factor the number. (For example,
starting with 600 = 20 30 , for example,
will lead to the same prime factorization
3
2
600 = 2 35 .) This fact is far from
obvious, and requires proof. It was one
of the great intellectual accomplishment
of the Greek mathematician Euclid (ca
300 BCE) to prove that prime
factorizations are unique:

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ARITHMETIC:

EACH COUNTING NUMBER IS EITHER PRIME OR
FACTORS INTO A PRODUCT OF PRIMES. THE
PRIME FACTORIZATION OF A NUMBER IS UNIQUE
(UP TO THE ORDER OF THE PRIMES).

For example, if a number can be written

as 25 72 1954 and also as 24 72 1950 b ,
then it better be that b = 2194 so that the
prime factorizations match. We also
notice that if 3a = 3b , then we must have
a = b so that the prime factorizations of
the common value match.
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Can a power of 7 equal a
power of 19 ?
Answer: Yes: 70 = 1 and 190 = 1 , so we

have one cheap example.

But this is the only example: If, for a > 0,

a
b
7 = N and 19 = N , then the number N

has two different prime factorizations,

which is impossible.

PROBLEM 29: Can the product of a large number

of 14 s equal a product of a large number of 24 s?
e

5
4
N
PROBLEM 30: If 33 33 = 2 m with m an odd
number, what is N ?
e

6 x2
PROBLEM 31: Solve for x in 5

= 252+x .
COUNTING FACTORS
How many factors does the number
3
2
600 = 2 35 possess?

Recall, among the counting numbers,

we say that a is a factor of N if N = ab for
some counting number b .
Jargon: We also say
that a is a divisor of N
and that N is a
multiple of a if N = ab .
Jargon
If a is a factor of N so that N = ab , the

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
dictates that a must contain the same
primes as does N .
So each factor of 600 = 23 352 , for
example, must be of the form 2p 3q 5r
where p = 0 , 1, 2, or 3 and q = 0 or 1, and
r = 0 , 1 , or 2. For example:
The factor 20 equals 22 30 51 .


As there are four choices for p , two
choices for q , and three choices for r ,
there are 4 2 3 = 24 options in all, and
so 600 has 24 different factors.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: A number N has prime

factorization p12 p22 p32 p42 where p1 , p2 , p3 ,

are four different three-digit prime numbers.
p4
How many factors does N have?
Answer: Each factor is of the form

a
b
c
d
with three choices for
p
p
2
3
4
1
each of a,b,c,d (either 0 , 1, or 2). Thus N
has 3 3 3 3 = 81 different factors.

PROBLEM 32: How many different factors does

the number 24 30 32 45 possess?

PROBLEM 33: How many times does the factor 3

appear in the prime factorization of 20!? (Here 20!
is the product of all the numbers from 1 up to and
including 20 .)
e

PROBLEM 34: What is the largest odd factor of

10! ? (Here 10! is the product of all the numbers
from 1 up to and including 10 .)
e

PROBLEM 35: In how many ways can the number

900 be written as a product of two two-digit
numbers a and b with 900 = a b and a b ?
e

If a number N has prime factorization

a
b
c
9
N = 2 3 5 7 !, then
) (
N 2 = 2a 3b 5c 79 ! 2a 3b 5c 79 !
= 2a 2a 3b 3b 5c 5c 7d 7d !
2a
2b
2c
2d
=
2
3
5
7
!.

All the exponents in the prime

factorization of N 2 are even. And,

conversely, if all the exponents that

appear in the prime factorization of a
number are even, that that number is a
perfect square.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: How many factors of 500

are perfect squares?
Answer: We have
2
3
500 = 2 2555 = 2 5 . Were looking
for factors with exponents in their prime

factorizations even. We see:
0
0
0
2
2
0
2
2
2 5 , 2 5 , 2 5 , and 2 5 .
The number 500 has four square

factors.

PROBLEM 36: How many factors of the number

300
200
3
2 19 41 are odd perfect squares?
PROBLEM 37: How many factors of the number

24 30 32 45 are perfect cubes?

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is the smallest

number we can multiply
6
17
24
98
23
1004
N = 2 3 5 7 11 13 by to get a
perfect square?
Answer: We need to increase each

exponent to an even number.
Multiplying by 3 11 = 33 will do the trick.

GREATEST COMMON FACTORS

Since every number has 1 as a factor, 1
is common factor to any given
collection of numbers.

DEFINITION: THE GREATEST COMMON FACTOR

OF A SET OF COUNTING NUMBERS IS THE
LARGEST FACTOR THEY SHARE IN COMMON.
For example, the numbers 24 , 60 , 72

have 12 as a common factor, and this is
the greatest common factor they
possess. We can see that this is correct
by looking at the prime factorizations of
the three numbers:

3
24 = 2 3
2
60 = 2 35
3
2
72 = 2 3
Any common factor must be of the form

a
b
c
2 3 5 (involve the same primes), but
in order to be common to all must have

at most 2, b at most 1, and c zero.

Thus the largest common factor is
2
1
0
2 3 5 = 12 .
PROBLEM 38: The greatest common factor of 14

and some number N between 20 and 30 is 7 .
What is N ?
e

PROBLEM 39: I have three lengths of string: 48

inches, 120 inches, and 84 inches. I want to cut
each of these strings into sections and obtain a
final collection of strings all of the same length.
What is the smallest possible final count of strings
I could have?
e

PROBLEM 40: What is the largest two-digit

number that has greatest common factor 12 with
the number 48 ?
e

PROBLEM 41: What is the largest three-digit

number that is divisible by 3, 4 , and 5, but not 8
and not 9 ?

LEAST COMMON MULTIPLES

What is the smallest number that is
simultaneously a multiple of 18 , 60 , and
75 ?

This is hard question, but we can use

prime factorizations to help us out.

2
18 = 2 3
2
60 = 2 35
2
75 = 35
We want to find a number N that is a

multiple of each of these numbers. That
is, we want 18 , 60 , and 75 to each be
factors of N . For N to be as small as
possible, we should take N to be of the
form N = 2a 3b 5c and with a = 2, b = 2, and
2
2
2
c = 2 , so N = 2 3 5 = 900 . (Smaller powers
of these numbers wont work. For
example, 22 352 fails to have 18 as a
factor and 2 32 52 fails to have 60 as a
factor. We need N = 22 33 52 at the very
least.
DEFINITION: THE LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE OF

A SET OF COUNTING NUMBERS IS THE SMALLEST
POSSIBLE (NON-ZERO!) NUMBER THAT IS A
MULTIPLE OF EACH OF THE GIVEN NUMBERS.
We have that 900 is the least common

multiple of 18 , 60 ,and 75 .
Looking prime factorizations helps find
least common multiples.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is the least common

multiple of two distinct primes p and q ?

Answer: It must be their product pq . (If

N is a common multiple, then it must
have p in its prime factorization, as well
as the prime q . This means that N = pq
is indeed the smallest possible
common multiple.)

PROBLEM 42: What is the least common multiple

of all primes between 30 and 40 ?
e

PROBLEM 43: Let x be a number such that the

least common multiple of x and 20 is 60 . What is
the sum of all possible values of x ?
e

PROBLEM 44: If b is a multiple of 2a , what is the

least common multiple of a and b ?
e

PROBLEM 45: What if the least number of pieces

of candy in a bag that can be evenly distributed
among each of 4 , 5, 6 , 7 , and 8 friends?
e

PROBLEM 46: If N is the least common multiple

of a , b , and c , what is the second least common
multiple of those three numbers?
e

PROBLEM 47: The least common multiple of two

2
3
numbers is 2 3 11 and their greatest common
divisor is 2311 . What is the product of the two
numbers?
e

PROBLEM 48: One clock rings a chime every 24

minutes, one every hour, and one every hour and
fifteen minutes. If all three clocks simultaneously
chimed at 7 :30 am, at what time of day will they
next chime in unison?
e

PROBLEM 49: What is the least number of pieces

of candy in a bag that, when distributed among 4 ,
5 , or 6 friends, produces two pieces of candy left
over each time?
e

8. Divisibility Rules

DIVISION BY NINE
Each of the numbers 1, 10 , 100 , 1000 , ...
leaves a remainder of 1 upon division
by 9 . For example, 10,000 = 9,999+1 , a
multiple of nine plus one.
So, for instance,
2000 = 1000+1000 leaves a remainder of
1 +1 = 2 upon division by 9 ,
500 = 100+100+100+100+100 a remainder
of 1 +1+1+1+1 = 5 ,
30 = 10+10+10 a remainder of 1 +1+1 = 3 ,
and 7 a remainder of 7 (of course).
Consequently the number

2537 = 2000+500+ 30+ 7 leaves, upon
division by 9, a remainder of 2 +5+ 3+ 7 ,
the sum of its digits.

Since 2 +5+ 3+ 7 = 17 is eight more than a

multiple of nine this corresponds to a
remainder of 8 .
We see:
A number has upon division by 9 the
same remainder as the sum of its
digits.
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What remainder does the
number 1004762055 leave upon division by nine?

Answer: It leaves the same remainder

as:
1 + 0+ 0+ 4 + 7 + 6 + 2+ 0+5+5 = 30
and since 30 = 27 + 3 this matches a

remainder of 3.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What remainder does the

number 54612 leave upon division by nine?

Answer: Upon division by nine, the

number leaves the same remainder as
does:

5 + 4 + 6 +1+ 2 = 18
which is a multiple of nine and so

corresponds to a remainder of zero.
Thus 54612 is a multiple of nine.
The previous example shows:
A number is divisible by 9 if the sum
of its digits is.

DIVISION BY THREE
Each of the numbers 1, 10 , 100 , 1000 , ...
leaves a remainder of 1 upon division
by 3. For example, we have
10,000 = 9,999+1 , a multiple of three plus
one.
Consequently the number

2537 = 2000+500+ 30+ 7

= 21000+5100+ 310+ 7 1

leaves, upon division by 3, the same

remainder as
2 1+51+ 21+ 7 1 = 2+5+ 3+ 7 = 17.
And since 17 = 15+ 2, this corresponds to

a remainder of 2.
Just as for nine, we have:
A number leaves the same
remainder upon division by 3 as the
sum of its digits.

Consequently:
of its digits is.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is the largest prime

number one can make using each of the digits
1,2,3,4,5,6 exactly once?

Answer: This is a trick question. As

1 + 2+ 3+ 4 +5+ 6 = 21 is a multiple of three,
any number one makes will also be a
multiple of three and so not prime.
DIVISIBILITY BY TWO, FIVE, AND

TEN
Every number can be written in the
from 10a + b with b a single digit. For
example:
273 = 27 10+ 3
8888 = 888 10+ 8
7 = 10 0+ 7
Since 10a is a multiple of ten, for 10a + b

to be a multiple of ten too we need the
single digit b to be a multiple of ten.
Only b = 0 works.
A number is a multiple of ten only if
its final digit is 0 .
Since 10a is a multiple of five, for 10a + b
to be a multiple of five too we need the
single digit b to be a multiple of five.
Only b = 0 or 5 works.
A number is a multiple of five only if

its final digit is 0 or 5.
Since 10a is a multiple of two, for 10a + b
to be a multiple of two too we need the
single digit b to be a multiple of two.
Only b = 0 , 2, 4 , 6 or 8 works.
A number is a multiple of two only if
its final digit is even.

DIVISIBILITY BY FOUR
form 100a + bb where bb is some twodigit number. For example,
273 = 2100+ 73
8888 = 88 100+ 88
7 = 0100+ 07
Since 100a is a multiple of four (can be

halved twice), for 100a + bb to be a
multiple of four we need bb to be a
multiple of four.
A number is a multiple of four only if
its final two digits represent a
number that is divisible by four (can
be halved twice).

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Is 17652566 a multiple of

four?

Answer: Look at 66 . We can halve it

once (to get 33), but not twice. As 66 is
not a multiple of four, nor is 17652566 .

DIVISIBILITY BY EIGHT
form 1000a + bbb where bbb is some
three-digit number. For example,
273 = 01000+ 273
8888 = 8 1000+ 888
7 = 01000+ 007
Since 1000a is a multiple of eight (can

be halved three times), for 1000a + bbb to
be a multiple of eight we need bbb to be
a multiple of eight.
A number is a multiple of eight only
if its final three digits represent a
number that is divisible by eight
(can be halved three times).

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Is 835273760 a multiple of

eight?

Answer: Look at 760. We can halve it

once (to get 380), and again ( 190 ), and
again ( 85 ). We have a multiple of eight.

Challenge: Develop a divisibility rule

for 16 .

DIVISIBILITY BY SIX
A number of divisible by 6 if it is
divisible by 2 and by 3.
of its digits is a multiple of three and
its final digit is even.

DIVISIBILITY BY TWELVE
A number of divisible by 12 if it is
divisible by 4 and by 3.
A number is divisible by 12 if the
sum of its digits is a multiple of three
and its final two digits represent a
multiple of four.
Challenge: Create a divisibility rule for
18 and one for 45 .

COMMENT:
DIVISIBILITY RULES EXIST FOR THE NUMBERS ,
, , AND SO ON.
Question: Whats the divisibility rule for

1?

PROBLEM 50: What is the largest multiple of 8

one can make using each of the digits 1, 2, 4 , 8
exactly once?
e

PROBLEM 51: What is the first four-digit number

that is a multiple of 24 ?
e

PROBLEM 52: The three-digit number 3a4 added

to the three-digit number 323 gives a multiple of
9 . What is a ?
e

PROBLEM 53: The four-digit number 444a is

divisible by 12 . Give all possible values of a .

PROBLEM 54: The four-digit number a46a is

divisible by 36 . Give all possible values of a .
e

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: The three-digit number

3a3 is a multiple of seven.
Give all possible values for a .

Answer: We know that 280 is a multiple

of 7 and so 3a3 280 = 300+ a3 280 = 20+ a3
must be as well. Lets look at all the
options for the number 20+ a3 .
a = 0 gives the number 23, which is not a
multiple of 7 .
a = 1 gives the number 33, which is not a
multiple of 7 .
a = 2 gives the number 43 , which is not a
multiple of 7 .
Carrying on this way we see that a = 4

gives 63, a multiple of 7 , and this is the
only one up to a = 9.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Is 393 divisible by 13 ?

Answer: We know that 130 is a multiple

of 13 and so is 390 = 3130 . As
393 = 390+ 3 , we see that 393 is not a
multiple of 13. (It leaves a remainder of
3 upon division by 13 .)

PROBLEM 55: Is 5491 a prime number?
PROBLEM 56: What is the largest possible value

n
of n so that 2 is a factor of 1152?
9. Arithmetic Puzzles

Its good to be on the lookout for

efficient ways to perform a
computation.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Think of an efficient way to

compute 59+197 .

Answer:
59+197 = 197 + 3+56 = 200+56 = 256

compute 267 + 441 .

Answer:
267 + 441 = 260+ 40+ 7 + 401

= 300+ 400+ 8 = 708


compute 1002 787 .

Answer: This is the same as

computing 1000 785 (do you see why?),
and this difference is 200+15 = 215 .


compute 43+ 41+ 39+ 38 + 42.

Answer: All the numbers in the sum

are close to 40 , so think of this as
( )
( )
40+ 3+ 40+1+ 40+ 1 + 40+ 2 + 40+ 2 =

200+ 3 = 203


compute 2100 270 250 330 .

Answer: Think of this as
2100 200 200 300 70+50+ 30
= 1400 100+50
= 1250.


compute 18 25.


2 955 = 10 45 = 450 .


compute 28 14 125 .


2 2 7 2 7 555 = 49101010 = 4900 .


compute 731993 721993.

(73 72) 1993 = 1993.
THE DIFFERENCE OF TWO

SQUARES

The following rectangle shows that

x a )( x + a ) = x
(
ax + ax a2 = x 2 a2
Most people prefer to think of this

formula as a difference of two squares
formula:
)(
x 2 a2 = x a x + a .


compute 19 21 .

Answer:
)(
19 21 = 201 20+1 = 202 12 = 4001 = 399 .

compute 152 1317 .

Answer:
)(
152 15 2 15+ 2 = 152 152 4 = 4 .

PROBLEM 57: Compute 87 93 78 82 .
PROBLEM 58: Is 250 81 a prime number?
PROBLEM 59: If the three-digit number abc has

digits that sum to 8 , what is the sum of the digits
of the answer to abc 111?
PROBLEM 60: What is the seventh digit of

99999 99999 ?
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is the remainder

when 1,376,521 is divided by 12 ?

Answer: We can subtract off multiples

of 12 from 70376521. This will not affect
the final remainder.
Now
1,376,5211,200,000 = 176,521 .
176,521120,000 = 56,521 .
56,521 48,000 = 8,521 .
8,521 7,200 = 1,321 .
1,3211,200 = 121 .
121120 = 1 .
We see a remainder of 1.

PROBLEM 61: What is the remainder when

70376521 is divided by 1021 ?

A HARD PUZZLE
Alphametic puzzles are popular. A
classic one is:
Here each letter of the alphabet stands

for a single digit (distinct letters
represent distinct digits) so that SEND
and MORE each represent a four-digit
number and MONEY a five-digit
number. (It is assumed that no number
begins with the digit 0 .) The puzzle is to
find the valid addition problem this
picture represents. One has to use
logic and wits to solve it.
Be
Patient
WARNING: THIS PUZZLE IS VERY HARD TO SOLVE.

For starters, we see that when adding

the thousands digits a carry occurs.
Since long addition only ever carries a
1, this means that M = 1 . We have:

Since there is a carry in the thousands

place either S = 9 or S = 8 if there is a
carry from the hundreds place.
If S = 9 , there cant be a carry from the
hundreds place as well because then
S +1+1 = 11 makes O = 1 . But we already
have the digit 1. So S = 9 must come
with no carry from the hundreds place
and so O = 0 . If, on the other hand, S = 8 ,
then we need a carry from the
hundreds place, and S +1+1 = 10 , again
making O = 0 . Either way, we have O = 0 .

Since E and N must be different, there

must be a carry from the tens place to
the hundreds place. So N = E +1 . As N
is a single digit, E 9 .

Because E 9 there is no carry to the

thousands place. Given our earlier
discussion this means that S = 9 (not
S = 8 ).

Look at the tens place: E +1+ R = E is

impossible. We must have
E +1+ R = 10+ E to give a carry (which, I
recall now, we needed). So R = 9?
Thats not right, weve already used 9 .
So it must be that there is a carry on
the ones place and we have
E +1+ R +1 = 10+ E giving R = 8 .
The numbers we have left for E , D , and

Y are 2, 3, 4 , 5, 6 , and 7 . And we need
D + E to give a carry. So E 2. Also, E 7
as this would give a repeat digit of 8 for
E +1 .
Lets go through the options.
E = 3 gives:
To get a carry in the ones place we

need D = 7 forcing Y = 0 , which is not
allowed.
E = 4 gives:
To get a carry in the ones place we

need D = 6 or 7 forcing Y = 0 or 1, not
allowed.
E = 5
gives:
We can have D = 7 forcing Y = 2 and this

works! We have the solution:
(Verify that E = 6 does not lead us to a

second possible solution.)
Lets now practice some easier ones.

PROBLEM 62: The digits 1 , 2, 3, and 4 are placed

into the boxes shown, one digit per box. What is
the largest possible sum that could result?

PROBLEM 63: The digits 1 , 2, 3, and 4 are placed

into the boxes shown, one digit per box. What is
the largest possible positive difference that could
result?

PROBLEM 64: Each of the letters A, B, C, D

represents a single digit in the sum of four-digit
number and a single digit number to get a fivedigit answer. What is the value of D ?

PROBLEM 65: The letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G

represent the digits 1 , 2, 3, 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 in some
order. If the following arithmetic sum is correct,
what is the value of B + C + E F G ?

PROBLEM 66: The letters A, B, C represent distinct

digits. Find their three values if the following
arithmetic sum is correct.

PROBLEM 67: If x , y , and z are single digits and

the sum of the three-digit numbers xxx + yyy + zzz
is a four-digit answer beginning with x and ending
with z , what is y ?
e

PROBLEM 68: Are there non-zero values for the

digits p , q , and r so that the following arithmetic
problem is true? If so, find some. If not, explain why
not.

PROBLEM 69: If A, B, C, and D are non-zero digits

and the following arithmetic product is true, what
is the value of C?

PROBLEM 70: In the following product A and B

are single digits. What is the value of AB ?

PROBLEM 71: What is the largest possible

product one can obtain for AB CD if A, B, C, D are
four distinct non-zero even digits?
e

PROBLEM 72: If ABC C gives a three-digit

answer that ends with C , what is the largest
possible value of this product assuming A, B, and C
are distinct non-zero digits?
e

10. Remainders
The final digits of the powers of two fall
into a cycle:

(An number that ends with a 2 will end

with a 4 when doubled. A number that
ends with a 4 will end with an 8 when
doubled. And so on.)
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is the final digit of
100
2 ?

Answer: The final digits of the powers

of two follow a 2, 4, 8, 6 repeating
cycle. As 24 = 16 ends with a 6 , so does
8
12
16
2 , 2 , 2 , and so on all the way up to
100
2 .

PROBLEM 73: What is the final digit of 3100 ?

Another way to answer questions like

these is to think in terms of remainders.
For example, 1024 = 10210+ 4 and so
leaves a remainder of 4 when divided
by 10. In general,
The final digit of a number is its
remainder upon division by 10 .
Lets see how remainders behave
under the rules of arithmetic.
If N leaves a remainder of a upon
division by 10 (say, N = 10n + a ), and
M leaves a remainder of b upon
division by 10 (say, M = 10m+ b ), then
N + M = 10 n + m + a + b has the same

remainder as a + b .
)(
N M = 10n + a 10m+ b
= 100nm+10am+10bn + ab

= 10 10nm+ am+ bn + ab
has the same remainder as ab .
N 2 = 10n + a = 100n2 + 20na + a2

= 10 10n2 + 2na + a2
has the same remainder as a2 .

And so on.
In terms of final digits,
If N has final digit a and M final digit
b , then the final digits of N + M , N M ,
2
N , and so on, match the final digits
of a + b , a b , a2 , and so on.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Again, what is the final

digit of 2100 ?

Answer: We have that 210 = 1024 has

10
100
10
final digit 4 . So 2 = (2 ) has the same

final digit as ( 4 ) .
10
Now 4 = 2 = (2
10
20
10
) = (1024)
2
has the same
final digit as ( 4 ) = 16 , a six.

2
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is the final digit of

100
174 ?

Answer: 174100 has the same final digit

2
100
100
100
as 4 . Now 4 = (2 ) and weve just

100
seen 2 ends with a six. So 4100 ends
with the same final digit as 62 which is a
six.
(Alternatively: The power of four are
1,4,16,64,256,1024,.... have final digits that
alternate 4,6,4,6,4,6,... and we see
directly that 4100 ends with a 6 .)

PROBLEM 74: What is the final digit of

76263293728100 ?
The number 1024 = 10100+ 24 leaves a

remainder of 24 upon division by 100 . In
general,
The final two digits of a number
represent its remainder upon
division by 100 .
Writing N = 100n + aa and M = 100m+ bb
where aa and bb are the final two digits
of N and M , respectively, we see that:
2
N + M , N M , N and so on have the
same final two digits as do aa + bb ,
( ) , and so on.
aa bb , aa

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What are the final two

digits of 2100 ?

Answer: We know 210 = 1024 ends with

10
100
10
24 . So 2 = (2 ) ends with the same

two digits as 2410 does. Since 24 = 23 3
we have 2410 = 230 310 .
Now 2 = (2 ) ends with the same two

digits as 243 = 29 33 . As 29 = 512 and
3
30
3 = 27 , 2 ends with the same two digits
as 12 27 = 324 , namely 24 .
30
10
( )
3 = 243 ends with 43 and so 3 = 3

ends with the same two digits as 43 43
does, namely, 49 .
5
10
So 2100 = 230 310 ends with the same two

digits as 24 49 does, which is 76 .

PROBLEM 75: What are the final two digits of

1000
6 ?
PROBLEM 76: If a and b are positive whole

numbers with ab = 343, what is the units digit of
a
b ?
PROBLEM 77: What is the remainder when 9100 is

divided by 100 ?
e

There is nothing special about the

numbers 10 and 100 in this thinking.
If N is a more than a multiple of 8
and M is b more than a multiple of
8 , then N M is ab more than a
multiple of 8 , N 2 is a2 more than a
multiple of 8 , and so on.
To see this:
If N = 8n + a and M = 8m+ b , then
(8n + a)(8m+ b) = 64nm+ 8am+ 8nb + ab

= 8(8mn + am+ bn) + ab.

8n + a )
(
= 64n2 +16na + a2 = 8 8n2 + 2na + a2
There is, of course, nothing special to

the number 8 here!

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What remainder does one

obtain dividing 521 by 8 ?

Answer: Notice that 521 = 555!5

and 5 5 = 25 is one more than a multiple
of 8 .
So 521 = (25) 5 leaves the same
10
remainder as (1) 5 does, which is 5.

10
PROBLEM 78: What remainder does one obtain

dividing 71001 by 16 ?


dividing 100300 +10301 +1302 by 9 ?


dividing 220 + 320 by 5?
Of course there are other types of

remainder problems.

PROBLEM 81: What day of the week is the 500 th

day after Tuesday?
e

( )
PROBLEM 82: Let S N = 1+ 2+ 3+!+ N be the

sum of the first N counting numbers. How many of
the values S 1 , S 2 , , S 1000 are multiples of

four?
e
() ()
11.
Fractions
A fraction is an answer to a division

problem (that is, a sharing problem).
For example, in sharing six pies among
three boys, the result is two pies per
boy.
We write:
6
= 2.
3
If we share just one pie between two

boys, the call the amount of pie each
boy receives a half.

1
= half.
2
If a and b are positive counting

a
numbers we call a fraction and
b
interpret as the amount of pie an

individual boy receives when a pies as
shared equally among b boys.
a
b
Jargon: Given a fraction , we call a

the numerator of the fraction and b
its denominator.
Here is the result of sharing two pies

among five boys. This picture
2
5
represents .
This approach to fractions suggests

some immediate rules for fractions:
FRACTION RULE 1:
for each counting number .
FRACTION RULE 2:
for each counting number .
(If a pies are shared among a boys,

that makes 1 pie per boy. If a pies are
shared among just 1 boy, that boy gets
all a pies.)
Is it possible to extend our thinking
beyond just whole numbers?
What does
1
represent?
1
2

If we share one pie among half a boy,

how much pie does a whole boy get?
We see, to pies!
(1/2)
= 2.
In the same way,
(1/3)
, one pie for
each third of a boy, gives the result of

three pies for a whole boy:
1
( 1/3)
= 3.
And so on.
What happens if we double the number
of pies and double the number of boys
in a given sharing problem? Nothing,
the amount of pie per boy remains the
same:
2a a
= .
2b b
For example, as the picture shows,

and
6
3
12
both give two pies for each boy.
6
Tripling the number of pies and the

number of boys does not change the
final amount of pie per boy, nor does
quadrupling the counts of each, and so
on.
a 2a 3a
= = =!
b
2b 3b
This leads us to:
FRACTION RULE 3:
for positive counting
numbers.
This is the rule that allows us to simplify

fractions.
For example,
32 216
=
,
20 210
so by the Key Fraction Rule,

32 16
= .
20 10
Another application of the rule shows

8
5
us that this equals .

Comment: If we are willing to push the
Key Fraction Rule beyond the counting
numbers we can also write, if we like,

8 2 4
4
.
=
=
5
1
1
2 2
2
2
2

26666666666
PROBLEM 83: If the fraction
is
66666666665
a
written in the equivalent form with a and b
b
single positive digits, what is a + b ?
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING

FRACTIONS

We like to say that adding
2
3
and is
7
7
just as easy as adding two apples and

three apples (to get five apples).
2 3
+ = two sevenths + three sevenths
7 7
5
= five sevenths = .
7
If we follow this approach, then adding

and subtracting fractions with a
common denominator is
straightforward.
For example,
2 6 9 5 1
+ =
= .
10 10 10 10 2
Fractions with unlike denominators can

be added and subtraction if we use the
Key Fraction Rule to rewrite them with

a common denominator. For example,

in
2 1
+
5 3
we would like to rewrite each of
2
and
5
1
each with the same denominator.
3
The number 15 comes to mind.

so

2 2 3 6
=
=
5 5 3 15
1 15 5
=
=
3 35 15
2 1 6 5 11
+ = + = .
5 3 15 15 15

5
6
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Which is larger: or ?
9 11

Answer: It is hard to compare fractions

with different denominators. Lets
rewrite each with the same
denominator. The number 99 comes to
mind.
5 511 55
=
=
9
911
99

6
6 9 54
=
=
11 11 9 99
5
We see now that is larger.
9
Mixed numbers can be seen as two

fractions added together.
4
9
For example, 2 is the sum

4
2+ .
9
Placing over a common denominator,

this can be rewritten
2 4 18 4 22
+ = + = .
1 9 9 9 9

Conversely, any fraction with numerator

larger than its denominator can be
written as a mixed number. For
example,

32 30 2
2
2
= + = 6 + = 6 .
5 5
5
5
5
PROBLEM 84: Arrange these three numbers from

999 1
1
smallest to largest:
, 9 , 10 .
99 9 10
e

1 1 1 1
1
PROBLEM 85: Compute + + + +

3 9 27 81 243

writing the answer as a fraction in simplest form.
e

2
7
PROBLEM 86: Compute 4 2 writing the
5 16
answer as a mixed number.
e

MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS
a
In a pie per boy sharing problem ,
b
how do we double the amount of pie

each boy receives? Double the number
of pies!
a 2a
2 =
.
b b
In general, this suggests:

FRACTION RULE 4:
for counting numbers.
a
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Show that b = a .
b

Answer: We have
a ba
b =
by Fraction Rule 4.
b
b
And
ba ba
=
.
b 1
b
By the Key Fraction Rule 3 this equals

a
1
which, by Fraction Rule 2 is a .

Even though we just proved is as a

logical consequence of the other rules,
lets list the property as its own rule as
it comes in handy to use.
FRACTION RULE 5:
for counting numbers.
So what happens if we extend these

two latest rules beyond counting
numbers?
Consider, for example,

2 5
.
3 7
By Fraction Rule 4, if we want to

believe it, this equals

2
5
3 .
7
The two thirds in the numerator is

irritating. Lets use the Key Fraction
Rule 3 and get the help of Fraction
Rule 5 along the way.

2
2
5 3 5 25 10
3
3
=
=
= .
3 7
3 7 21
7
Notice, these rules suggest we should

set:
2 5
25
as equal to
.
3 7
3 7
In general, to multiply fractions, the

rules suggest:
a c ac
=
.
b d b d

PRACTICE EXERCISE: What is an efficient way to

18 70
compute ?
7 36

Answer:
18 70 18 70 18 70 1
=
=
= 10 = 5 .
7 36 7 36 36 7 2
Comment: Sometimes students are

1
1 10 10
taught to write 10 = = = 5 .
2 1
2
2
THE WORD OF
When people say a third of six they
are actually referring to a sharing
problem: What is the result of sharing
six pies among three boys? Of course
6
3
the answer is: = 2 .
1
In general, of a is taken to mean the
n
a
answer to .
n
2
3
Whats two-thirds of six, that is, of 6 ?

This should be two copies of a third of
6
3
six, and so equals 2 = 4 .

In general, we like to interpret

a
n
x
of a
n
to mean x copies of .
a
n
This is x , which, by our rules of

fractions, happens to equal
x
a . For
n
this reason, in the context of fractions,

folk often translate the word of into
one multiplication.
x
x
of a does happen to equal a .
n
n
7
1
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is of 2 ?
9 4

7 1 7 9 7
3
Answer: 2 = = = 1 .
4
9 4 9 4 4

DIVIDING FRACTIONS

2
3
3
4
What is 7 5 ?
2
3
2
3
3
7+
, and 5 means 5+ .
3
4
4
Here the mixed number 7 means
As fractions are the answers to division

problems, this division problem is the
fraction:
2
3.
3
5+
4
7+
This doesnt look very friendly. To make

it more manageable lets use the Key
Fraction Rule 3 and multiply numerator
and denominator each by 3.
2 7 + 2 3
7+
3
21+ 2
3=
=
.
3
9
3
5+
15+
5+
3
4 4
4

Lets now multiply each by 4
21+ 2 4 84 + 8 92
21+ 2
=
=
= .
9
60+ 9 69
9
15+
15+
4
4

The answer
92
looks more
69
manageable.
(This equals
69+ 23
23
= 1 , by the way.)
92
69
Another example:
3 4
5 7
Compute .
This is the sharing problem
3
5
4
7
(three-fifths of a pie for four-sevenths of

a boy). Lets use Key Fraction Rule 3 to
make this look manageable.
3
5 5
4
7 5

3
3 7
21
=
= .
20 20
20
7
7 7
Thus
3 4 21
=
5 7 20
and we have just divided fractions.
Comment: People say that dividing by

a fraction is just the same as
multiplying by its reciprocal and they
memorize the rule:
a c a d
= .
b d b c
This rule is correct as we see as a

consequence of Key Fraction Rule 3.
a
b b
a /b
a
ad
ad a d
=
=
=
=
= .
c /d c
cb cb
cb b c
d
d
d d

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Use Fraction Rule 3 to

make each of these expressions look more
manageable.

1
x
a)
1
1+
x
1
+5
b) x + h

1
x +h
1
c)

1 1
+
a
b
1
1
d) x + a x
a
2
Answer:
a) Multiply numerator and denominator

each by x to get
2x 1
.
x +1
b) Multiply numerator and denominator

each by ( x + h) to get

1+5x +5h
= 1+5x +5h .
1

c) Multiply numerator and denominator

each by a and then b to get
ab
ab
=
.
b + a a + b
d) Multiply numerator and denominator

each by x and then ( x + a) to get

( ) = a = 1 .
ax x + a ) ax ( x + a ) x ( x + a )
(
x x +a
PROBLEM 87:
3/4
Compute
writing the answer as a fraction
3
2/
5
in simplest form.
e
NEGATIVE FRACTIONS
3
3
3
Are and and the same?
5
5
5
If we like to believe that x and ( 1) x

are the same, and that the five Fraction
Rules we have should hold for all types
of numbers, even negative ones, then
we can say by Fraction Rule 4:

( )
3
3 1 3 3
= 1 =
= .
5
5
5
5

( )
And by Key Fraction Rule 3
( ) ( )
( )
3 3 1
3
=
=
.
5
5
5 1

So indeed,
3 3 3
=
= .
5
5
5

DIVIDING BY ZERO

5
0
Does have an answer?

a
b
Fraction Rule 5 states b = a . If we like

to believe that this rule always holds,

then 0

5
should equal 5.
0
But multiplying a quantity by zero

should give 0 , not 5. The mathematics
5
is not consistent and so assuming
0
has meaning is not valid.
0
Does have an answer?
0
Fraction rule 5 says we should have

0
0
0 = 0 . Some people think that = 1 ,
0
0
and this fits Fraction Rule 5 as 0 1 = 0 .
0
But thinking = 17 fits this rule as well
0

0
3
= 1672 fits the
4
0
3
rule too since 01672 = 0 .
4

since 0 17 = 0. Also,
There is no one consistent value x for

0
(we always have 0 x = 0 ) and for this
0
reason, people tend to say that this

quantity is undefined.
Dividing by zero is problematic and is

best avoided!
0
5
Comment: The quantity , however, is

meaningful: sharing no pies among five
boys gives zero pie per boy, and so
0
= 0.
5

PROBLEM 88: If the fraction 1+
1+

is
1
1+
1
2
a
rewritten in the equivalent form with a and b
b
positive integers sharing no common factor larger
than one, what is a + b ?
e

PROBLEM 89: If a , b , c , and d are positive integers

a c
a+c
with < , show that
is a fraction that lies
b
d
b
+
d

a
c
between and .
b
d
e

PROBLEM 90: If a , b , c , and d are positive

a c
ac
integers show that equals
.
b d
b d

PROBLEM 91: Which of the following condition

a a +1000
will ensure that <
for positive integers
b b +1000
a and b ?
(A) a < b
(B) a = b
(C) a > b
(D) None of these will guarantee the inequality to
be true.
e

PROBLEM 92: Which is larger:

1251 100
1251 1
50
or 50
?
12 100 12 1
1
PROBLEM 93: The quantity
is
1 1 1
+ +
10
11 12

closest to which integer?
e

PROBLEM 94: Which is larger:

1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
or 1 ?
1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6

PROBLEM 95: Find

1
1
2

and 2+
.
3
4
7

2+
10

PROBLEM 96: What is the units digit of N if

1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3
=
?
N
3 3 3 3 3
PROBLEM 97: The quantity

1
1 1 1 1
1
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 ! 1 100

equals an integer. Which integer?
(The denominator is a product of 99 terms.)

PROBLEM 98: Which fraction is half way between
1
28
1 and ?
2
9
e

PROBLEM 99: Compute

1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 + + + .
1 2 3 4

PROBLEM 100: What is the largest value of n

360
that makes
an integer?
13+
n

12.
Decimals
We humans are naturally drawn to the

number ten because of our biology and
we write all our numbers in terms of
powers of ten. For example,
8502 = 8 1000+5100+ 010+ 21

= 8 103 +5102 + 0101 + 21
Using negative powers of ten,101 =

1
,
10
1
1
102 =
, 103 =
, and so on, leads
100
1000

us to decimals.
For example,
82.431 = 8 101 + 21+ 4 101 + 3102 +1103

4
3
1
= 80+ 2+ +
+
.
10 100 1000

(The decimal point is use to indicate

when to start using negative powers of
ten.)

We see that the number 82.431

corresponds to the mixed number:
400
30
1
431
82.431 = 80+ 2+
+
+
= 82
.
1000 1000 1000
1000

PROBLEM 101: What is the positive difference

between the largest and smallest numbers in the
set {3.33, 33.033, 3.003, 30.33, 33.303}
PROBLEM 102: Compute the sum

1 1 1 1
1
+ + + +
expressing the answer as a
4 5 20 25 100
decimal.
e

Every finite decimal corresponds to a

fraction with denominator a power of
ten.
a
0.a =
10

a
b
10a + b
0.ab = +
=
10 100
100

a
b
c
100a +10b + c
0.abc = +
+
=
10 100 1000
1000

and so on.
Also, any fraction with denominator a
power of ten can be represented as a
finite decimal.
For example,

27
20+ 7
2
7
=
=
+
= 0.027 .
1000 1000 100 1000
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Write

form.

3
in decimal
3 2
2 5
Answer: By multiplying the numerator

and denominator of the fraction each by
5 we create a fraction with a power of
ten in the denominator.
3
35
15 10+5
=
=
=
3 2
3 2
3
2 5 2 5 5 10 1000 .
1
5
=
+
= 0.015
100 1000

When working with finite decimals it is

often easier to rewrite them as
fractions.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Compute 2.1 0.03.

Answer:
1
3
21 3
2.1 0.03 = 2+
=
10 100 10 100
63
=
= 0.063
1000
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Compute

0.03
.
0.006
Answer: We have
3
3
1000 30
100 = 100

=
= 5 .
6
6
6
1000
1000 1000

PROBLEM 103: Compute 0.0045 0.009 0.3 .

PROBLEM 104: Compute

3
5
0.0025
+
0.027
+
0.00032 , writing the final

answer as a decimal.
REPEATING DECIMALS
Consider the decimal 0.111.... which
continues with the digit 1 after the
decimal forever. This corresponds to
the quantity
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+!.
10 100 1000 10000
What is the value of this quantity?

Lets start by giving it a name, F for
Fred, say.
1
1
1
1
F= +
+
+
+!.
10
100
1000
10000

Since the are many 10 s in this

expression, lets see what happens if
we multiply F by 10 .
1
1
1
10F = 1+ +
+
+! .
10 100 1000

Look at the right side of this expression,

it is one plus F again! We have:
10F = 1+ F .
1
Solving for F gives 9F = 1 and so F = .
9
We have:
1
0.111111... = .
9

In fact, this type of argument shows

that any infinitely long decimal that falls
into a repeating pattern has a value
corresponding to a fraction.
Notation
Notation: A bar is often

used in decimals to
indicate a block of digits that repeat
forever. For example, 0.18 represents
the infinite decimal 0.181818181818... and
7.35 the infinite decimal 7.3555555.... . We
1
have just shown that = 0.1 .
9

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What fraction has decimal

expansion 0.45 ?
e

Answer: Let G represent the decimal

0.4545454545.... .

4
5
4
5
4
5
G= +
+
+
+
+
+!

10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

Then

5
4
5
4
5
10G = 4 + +
+
+
+
+!
10 100 1000 10000 100000

But I dont quite see G on the right side.

Multiply through by another ten?
4
5
4
5
100G = 40+5+ +
+
+
+!= 45+ G
.
10 100 1000 10000

So we have

45 5
= .
99G = 45 and G =
99 11
PROBLEM 105: Rewrite
0.4
0.5
as a fraction of the
a
form with a and b integers.
b
PROBLEM 106: Which fraction has decimal

expansion 0.27 = 0.277777!?
e

) (
PROBLEM 107: Compute 1.6 103 3.2105

expressing the answer in the form a 10b with a a
single digit and b an integer.
e

PROBLEM 108: If x = 0.63 and y = 0.7 , what is

the decimal expansion of x + y ?
COMMENT:
IT CAN BE PROVED THAT EVERY FRACTION,
WHEN CONVERTED INTO A DECIMAL, WILL
PRODUCE A DECIMAL THAT IS EITHER FINITE
OR FALLS INTO A REPEATING PATTERN.
THIS MEANS THAT ANY REAL NUMBER THAT

HAS AN INFINITE DECIMAL EXPANSION CANNOT
BE A FRACTION!
Consider, for example,

w = 0.1010010001000010000010000001... .
Although it has a pattern to its decimal

expansion, it is not a repeating pattern.
Thus w is a real number that is not a
fraction. (It is an irrational number.)
It is very hard to prove that numbers
like 7 and are irrational. (It took
mathematicians many centuries to
prove that is irrational.)

REPEATING SHORTCUTS
1
We showed = 0.1111... . Doubling,
9
tripling, quadrupling, and so on then

gives:
2
= 0.2222... ,
9
3 1
= = 0.33333.... ,
9 3
4
= 0.44444... .
9
In general:
a
0.a = 0.aaaaa..... = .
9

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What fraction has decimal
expansion 0.01 ?
e
Answer: Let
0
1
0
1
G = 0.010101010.... = +
+
+
+!
10 100 1000 10000

Lets take a different approach than you

might expect. We have
1
0
1
0
10G = 0+ +
+
+
+! .
10 100 1000 10000

Adding G and 10G gives:

1
1
1
1
1
11G = +
+
+
+!= 0.11111.... =
10 100 1000 10000
9

so
1
G= .
99
Knowing that
that
1
= 0.01010101.... it follows
99
2
= 0.02020202.... , and
99
3
= 0.03030303.... , and
99
45
= 0.4545454545... , and so on.
99

In general:
ab
0.ab = 0.ababababab... = .
99

One can also prove that

abc
0.abc = 0.abcabcabcabc... =
.
999

PROBLEM 109: Compute 11 0.14 + 0.2

writing the answer as a fraction.
e

13.
Percentages
In the first century B.C.E. Emperor

Augustus levied, for the first time, a tax
of one part per one hundred on the
proceeds of all goods sold at markets
and auctions in ancient Rome. From
the Latin phrase per centum meaning
by the hundred comes the term
percent.
A percent is a simply a fraction
expressed with denominator 100 . To
convert a fraction into a percentage,
just rewrite the fraction as one with
denominator 100 .
1 50
1
and so = 50%.
2 100
2
For example, =
We also have 5 =
500
= 500% and
100

1
33
1 1/3100
1
3
=
=
= 33 % .
3
100
100
3

In the reverse direction:

10
1
=
100 10
25 1
25% =
=
100 4
150 1
150% =
=1
100
2

10% =
In general,
N
N% =
100

and if
a
p
a
=
, then = p%.
b 100
b
COMMENT:
THE SYMBOL WAS DEVELOPED IN ITALY
DURING THE 1500S. CLERKS STARTED
SHORTENING PER CENTO TO P OO, WHICH
THEN EVENTUALLY BECAME
.
THE ANCIENT ROMANS ALSO USED PARTS
PER THOUSAND. TODAY (IF IT IS EVER USED)
THIS IS CALL PER MILLAGE, USING THE
SYMBOL O/OO. FOR EXAMPLE,
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is 2.036 as a

percentage?
e
Answer:
2.036 =

2.036 203.6
=
= 203.6% .
1
100
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: What is 20% of 300?

e
Answer:
20
20% 300 =
300 = 3 20 = 60 .
100

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Find an efficient way to

1
compute 17 % of 84 .
2
e
Answer: 10% of 84 is 8.4 , 5% is half of

1
2
this, 4.2 and 2 % is half of this, 2.1.

1
2
As 17% = 10%+5%+ 2 % the answer must

be 8.4 + 4.2+ 2.1 = 14.7 .
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: The value of a stock

increased from $54 to $57 . What percentage
increase is that?
e
Answer: Percentage increases and

decreases always refer to the first
(original) price or size of the quantity.
We have a $3 increase. The original

value was $54 . So the fraction increase

is
3
1
= .
54 18
Rewriting this as a fraction with

denominator 100 we get
1/18 100 100/18 5.5555...

1
=
=
=
18
100
100
100

= 5.555...%
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: A sofa, originally $1200 is

marked up in price by 15% . A week later it is on
sale for 25% off. What is the sale price of the sofa?

Answer: Original price:

$1200 .
Before sale price:
$1200+10% $1200 = $1320 .
Sale price:
$1320 25% $1320

.
= $1320 $330 = $990
PROBLEM 110: Two percent of two percent of a
number is two. What is the number?
e
PROBLEM 111: The price of a car is reduced by

20% . Later, this price is increased by 20% . What is
the percentage decrease of the final price of the
car compared to its original price?
e

PROBLEM 112: We sold our house for 129,600

making an 8% profit from our purchase price.
What was our purchase price?
e
PROBLEM 113: If the population of a town grows
from 1 to 1000 , what is the percentage increase of
the town population?
e

14.
Ratios
Two quantities are said to be in an a to

b ratio (often written a :b ) if whenever a
groups of the first quantity occur in a
situation, b groups of the second
quantity also appear.
For example, suppose in a class of 35
students the ratio of boys to girls is 2 :3 .
This means we can find a group size x
so that two of these groups are
boys ( 2x ) and three of these groups are
girls ( 3x ) making 35 students in all. We
must have:
2x + 3x = 35
telling us that the group size here is

x = 7 and so there are 14 boys and 21
girls.
This work can be conducted purely

visually:

2 :3 ratio of boys to girls; 35 students in all.

Each group must consist of 7 students.
Another class with boys and girls in the

same 2 :3 ratio could have 2 5 = 10 boys
and 3 5 = 15 girls, and another could
have 2 40 = 80 boys and 3 40 = 120 girls,
and so on.
Ratios can extent to more than two
quantities.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: I have three sections of

rope whose lengths come in a 5 :7:8 ratio. Of the
total length of rope is 360 meters, what is the
length of the shortest piece?
e

Answer:
This diagram consists of 20 sections of

length. As the total length of rope is 360
meters, each section of length is
360 20 = 18 meters. Thus the shortest
rope has length 5 18 = 90 meters.

PROBLEM 114: It takes Albert four minutes to

pack a goody bag for a party and Bilbert six
minutes. Albert and Bilbert started filling goodie
bags at the same time and stopped filling bags at
the same time. They had, together, filled a total of
60 bags. How many of those bags did Albert fill?
e

PROBLEM 115: A punch recipe for 25 servings

calls for 15 cups of soda water. How many cups of
soda water are needed if want to make just
enough punch to serve 80 people?
e

PROBLEM 116: The number 540 is divided into

1 1 1
four parts in the proportions 1: : : .
3 4 6

What is the difference between the largest and
smallest parts?
e

15.
Tape Diagrams
The previous chapter hinted at the

power of diagraming blocks of
quantities in a given situation. Heres a
sampler of problems that can be solved
this way.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: I am a dishonest person.

Ill buy a computer with the intent of reselling it.
But Ill mark up its price by a third, and then say it
is on sale, 25% off the marked price. (Hee hee.)
How much profit do I expect to make?

Answer: I make no profit. (Serves me

right!)

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Ms Dubolt has twice as

much money as Ms. Fortitude. Ms. Fortitude has
only 80% as much money as Ms. Grizwald. What is
the ratio of Ms. Dubolts wealth to Ms. Griswalds?

Answer:

We see that Ms. D.s wealth is eight

parts to Ms. Gs five parts. The ratio of
their cash wealth is 8 :5 .

1
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Box A contains 33 %
3
more apples than box B.

If half the apples are taken from Box A and moved
to box B, what will be the ratio of the number of
apples in box A to the number in box B?

Answer: The new ratio is 2 :5 .

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Albert and Bilbert

collected seashealls. Albert collected only half as
many seashells as Bilbert. When Bilbert asked how
many seashells Albert had, Albert lied and gave a
number that was three more than he really had.
Bilbert responded: Oh, so the number of shells you
collected compared to the number I collected are
in a 3 :4 ratio. How many shells did Albert
actually collect?

Answer:

In the picture that is a lie, Albert

supposedly has three groups of a
quantity and Bilbert four. Divide each of
Bilberts blocks in half to see he has
four half block. Albert has three half
blocks, one with three shells. Thus
each block contains six shells. Looking

at the truthful picture we now see that

Albert, in reality, collected six shells.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Cuthbert and Dilbert were

given equal amounts of cash. After Cuthbert spent
$55 and Dilbert spent $25 , the ratio of Cuthberts
cash to Dilberts was 4 :7 . How much money was
each lad given initially?

Answer:

In the second diagram we see that

three blocks match a difference of $30 .
So each block is worth $10 and so
Cuthbert was initially given
$40+ $55 = $95 , as was Dilbert.

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Egbert and Filbert each

have cash in their wallets. Their cash amounts are
in a 6 :11 ratio with Filbert possessing more cash
than Egbert. The men go on a shopping spree.
Egbert spends half his cash and Filbert spends $20 ,
leaving Filbert now with triple the amount of cash
than Egbert. How much money did Egbert spend
on this shopping spree?

Answer:

Before spending, Egbert has six blocks

of cash and Filbert eleven. After
spending, Egbert has three and Filbert
triple this, which must be nine. Thus the
$20 Filbert spent matches two blocks of
cash. Each block is thus worth $10 ,

having spent three blocks spent a total

of $30 .

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: I have a supply of lemon

candies and lime candies, with the ratio of lemon
to lime candies 3 :2 . I eat 10 lemon candies and the
ratio of lemon to lime candies is now 2 :3 . How
many dandies did I have in total to begin with ?

Answer:

It is hard to make sense of the after

diagram.
The 2 :3 ratio says we must think of the
count of lemon candies that remain as
two blocks and the count of lime

candies as three blocks. Lets divide

each of the blocks into thirds.

So the count of limes is 6 third blocks.

Thus the count of lemon candies must
be 4 third-blocks. This means that the
ten candies removed must match five
third-blocks.
So each third-block is worth 2 candies
and each original full block six candies.
Thus initially we had 3 6 = 18 lemon
candies and 2 6 = 12 lime candies for a
total of 30 candies.
Here are two different types of
problems.
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Three bananas and two

pears cost $3.45 . Two bananas and one pear cost
$2.10 . What is the cost of one banana?

Answer:
We see from the diagram that a banana

and a pear together cost
$3.45 $2.10 = $1.35 . From the bottom
diagram we see than that a single
banana costs $2.10 $1.35 = $0.75 .
PRACTICE EXAMPLE: There are 37 people in a

room. One third of the men and 40% of the women
are Australian, making for a total of 14
Australians in the room. How many Australian
men are there and how many Australian women?

Answer: We dont know the block

sizes for the men not for the women in
the schematic below. But we have
three equal-sized blocks for the men,
with one all Australian, and five equalsized blocks for the women, with two all
Australian.

We are told that all eight blocks

represent a total of 37 people and that

But all the male blocks are the same

size, as are all the female blocks.
We thus see that one block for the men

and one block for the women together
account for 9 people. Looking at the set
if Australians we now see that one
block for the women accounts for 5
women. Consequently each block for
the men accounts for 9 5 = 4 men.

There are 4 Australian men and 2 5 = 10

Australian women in the room.
16. Answer Key

1. 14 arrangements.
2. A quadrillion.
3. 625
4. 1,500,001,500,000
5. 100
6. 70,208
7. 12
8. 127
9. 115 , 117 , 119 , 121 , 123
10. It is not prime
11. 23
12. 5
13. b2 = 14
14. 52
15. 450
16. 1
17. 3
18. Zero
19. Proof in Solutions Manual
20. 16
21. 30
22. 2 + 2
23. 31
24. 11
25. 17
26. 7
27. 20

28. 1499
29. No
30. N = 5
31. x =

3
2
32. 150
33. Eight times
34. 14175
35. 7
36. 202
37. 8
38. 21
39. 21
40. 84
41. 930
42. 1147
43. 126
44. b
45. 840
46. 2N
47. 23 34 112
48. 5 :30 p.m.
49. 62
50. 4128
51. 1008
52. a = 3
53. a = 0
54. a = 4
55. It is not prime

56. n = 7
57. 1695
58. It is not prime
59. 24
60. The seventh digit is a nine
61. There is a remainder of 12
62. 73
63. 31
64. D = 0
65. 3
66. 954
67. y = 9
68. This arithmetic problem cannot hold
69. C = 6
70. AB = 8
71. 82 64
72. 975 .
73. Ends with a 1
74. Ends with a 6
75. Ends with 76
76. 5
77. ends with 01
78. 7
79. 3
80. Remainder 2
81. Friday
82. 250 values
83. a + b = 7

1 999
1
< 10 .
84. 9 <
10
9 99
85. 121
243
77
86. 1
80
9
87.
40
88. a + b = 13.
91. [A]
1251 1
92. 50
is smaller
12 1
93. The closest integer is 3
1
94. 1 is larger
6
95.
3
2
4

3

96. N ends with a 1

97. 100
98.
83

36

99. 50

100. n = 347
101. 30.3

102. 0.55
103. 0.15
104. 0.55
4
5
5
106.
18
105.
107. 5103

41

99
108. 1+
109. 2
110. 5000
111. 4% decrease
112. $120,000
113. 99900% increase
114. Albert packed 36 bags
115. 48 cups of soda
1
116. 257

About The Author
JAMES TANTON
Visit http://www.maa.org/mathcompetitions/teachers/curriculuminspirations/james-tanton-biography.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:

Believing that mathematics really is
accessible to all, James Tanton (PhD,
Mathematics, Princeton 1994) is

committed to sharing the delight and

beauty of the subject. In 2004 James
founded the St. Marks Institute of
Mathematics, an outreach program
promoting joyful and effective
mathematics education. He worked as
a fulltime high-school teacher at St.
Marks School in Southborough, MA
(2004-2012), and he conducted, and
continues to conduct, mathematics
courses and workshops for
mathematics teachers across the
nation and overseas.
James is the author of Solve This: Math
Activities for Students and Clubs (MAA,
2001), The Encyclopedia of
Mathematics (Facts on File, 2005),
Mathematics Galore! (MAA, 2012),
Geometry: An Interactive Journey to
Mastery (The Great Courses, 2014),
Without Words: Volumes 1 and 2

(Tarquin 2015), Trigonometry: A Clever

Study Guide (MAA, 2015), and twelve
self-published texts. He is the 2005
recipient of the Beckenbach Book
Prize, the 2006 recipient of the Kidder
Faculty Prize at St. Marks School, and
a 2010 recipient of a Raytheon Math
Hero Award for excellence in school
teaching and currently serves as the
Mathematician-at-Large for the
Mathematical Association of America.
James is the author of Edfinitys Zen
Masters Series For Middle School
Students - a unique collection of digital
titles for the modern educator and
student.
Edfinity, a division of Looking Glass Ventures,

is an educational technology company
headquartered in Silicon Valley that offers
transformative educational technology solutions
and digital content to educators and students
worldwide. Edfinity works with the worlds
premier academic associations, research
organizations, and educational institutions to
provide equitable access to exceptional
educational content.
Palo Alto |
Boston
http://edfinity.com
Edfinity is a registered trademark of Looking
Glass Ventures, LLC. All other trademarks are
the property of their respective owners.
Copyright 2016 Looking Glass Ventures, LLC.
All rights reserved 1/16.
ISBN: 978-1-944931-04-9

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Mathematics (USA), GCSE (UK),

ZEN MASTERS MIDDLE SCHOOL

ZEN MASTERS HIGH SCHOOL SERIES

1. The Counting Numbers

Do this think this suggests Paleolithic

Definition: The counting numbers

SOME PEOPLE INCLUDE ZERO,

To be definite lets use the counting

Actually, it does not matter how we

We can add numbers by grouping dots.

For those who like jargon, this is called

In the context of counting numbers,

and 4 5 as four groups of five,

It is not immediately obvious that four

But if we arrange our four groups of five

This idea explains, without doing the

For those who like jargon, this is called

PROPERTY OF ZERO AND ONE

If I have seven dots and add no more

For those who like jargon we call 0 the

Challenge: Give an interpretation to

For those who like jargon this is

GROUPING WITH PARENTHESES

How should we interpret 2 + 3+ 4 ?

Reading the picture left to right wed

2+ 3+ 4 is computed as 2 + 7 ,to get 9 .

Of course, no matter the order in which

Parentheses can be nested and it is

(2+ (3+ 4)) +5

2+ 7 +5, which is then computed as

We have the social convention:

For example, (2+ 3) + ( 4 +5) is to be

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: In how many ways can one

Answer: There are 5 ways.

PROBLEM 1: In how many ways can one place

PARENTHESES AND MULTIPLICATION

How does one interpret 2 + 3 4 ?

For example, 3 3+1+ 2 2 is computed

Look at this picture of 4 5 , for groups of

Thinking of 5 as 2 + 3 we see in the

In general, this leads us to believe:

Other variations of this rule include

PRACTICE EXAMPLE: Compute 54 23.

Answer: 54 23 is 50 23 plus 4 23.

Stare at this picture. Do you see in it

In the same way a 1010 array of dots

PROBLEM 2: What is the sum of all the numbers

Look at the picture of 6 6 array of dots

This time do you see the sum of the

COMMENT: FOR A DISCUSSION OF EVEN AND

PROBLEM 3: What is the value of the sum

e indicates problem is available online at