Ss.

Cyril and Methodius University - Skopje

Blazhe Koneski Faculty of Philology

Department of Translation and Interpreting

Lecture notes

AMERICAN CIVILIZATION AND

CULTURE

TATJANA
PANOVAIGNJATOVIK, PhD

1. THE COUNTRY
1. Geography of the USA

Position: North American Continent

Conterminous states: 48

latitude: 25 N to 50 N (tropic: 23.7/Arctic Circle 66.30)

longitude: 125 W to 67 W (4, 500 km across 4 time

zones)

Hawaii: in the Pacific Ocean

Alaska: near the Arctic Circle
Area: 3, 615, 122 square miles (31 times the size of Italy) 3rd largest country in the world

The current U.S.A. population is over 311 million people (311,800,000 in mid-2011) so the
United States has the world's third largest population (following China and India).

2. Panoramic View
The ground configuration was formed some 10 000 to 25 000 years ago the great northern ice
cap flowed over the North American Continent.
The position of the mountains and plains east to west:
(mainly stretch north to south)
-

East Coast (Atlantic Coast) North = rocky; Middle and South = rises gently from the sea,
low flat and sandy slowly becoming coastal lowland

The Appalachian Mountains along the east coast old mountains with coal-rich valleys
between them

Plateaus:

Central lowland similar to the plains of Eastern Europe

South broad fields with rich land
North Great Lakes area (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario) of the
worlds fresh water

The Great Plains /the prairie/ - look like the top of a table slightly tilted upward to the west

The Rocky Mountains stop the plains /the backbone of the continent/ - young mountains,
the same age as the Alps, Himalayas, Andes high, rough and irregular in shape

The regions west of the Rockies are distinct and formed in different periods, shaped by
different geological events:
South Colorado Plateau material washed down from the Rockies
North Cascade Range and Columbia Tableland: volcanic origin
Middle Great Basin ridges and Sierra Nevada: the Earths crust broke into high tilted rock
Further west Coastal Ranges: relatively young still earthquakes (LA and San Francisco
area)

Between the Cascades and Sierra Nevada and the Coastal ranges lie a series of valleys
with lots of farms where people grow wheat, oats and clover to the north and green
vegetables, fruit and vine to the south:
o

the southern valley: the Great Central valley (Sacramento & San Joaquin River/ san
Francisco Bay)

the northern valley: Willamette Valley (Willamette River and great Columbia River)

3. The Rivers
Mississippi one of the worlds great rivers (like the Amazon, Volga, Ganges )
together with Missouri 6 400 km from the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico
in the north-west the river washes down the soil from areas of sparse vegetation =
brown water
Ohio eastern tributary comes from hills and valleys with forests and rich vegetation =
clear water for kilometers flow side by side streams of clear and brown water

East of the Rockies = rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean (Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and
Rio Grande (3 200 km southwest boundary with Mexico)

West of the Rockies = rivers flow in the Pacific (Columbia with tributary Willamette in the
north quiet; Colorado, into Los Angeles Bay, to the south still wild, restless and angry,
cuts in the desert rock; Sacramento into San Francisco Bay;))

4. Climate
Depends on latitude and altitude, but other factors also play a role:
o Central area: no natural barrier north/south = cold air from north & hot and humid air
from south; North Central (Dakota) extremes in temperature from +45 C to 40 C
o East coast: more rains, clearly differentiated seasons
o West coast: mild climate cool summers and warm winters, temperature changes
little (10 degrees C)
o Western part: gets less rain, high mountains close to the coast stop the clouds from
the Pacific
o The Southwest: the most arid region; precipitation very low mild in winter, but
severely hot in summer
o Southeast: Subtropical climate mild winters, hot rainy summers

Alaska and Hawaii = very different

4. The Plant Life

o East Coast: forests 1, 600 km (in the past mixed broadleaf / deciduous and
needle leaf/ coniferous forests, now more coniferous)
o Great Plains: (prairies/ grassland)
-

eastern part: tall grass, good soil (not clear why no trees grow = Indians cut
them or some prehistoric reasons); early settlers: prairie grass was very
beautiful, interlaced with flowers in spring, in summer taller than people;

further west: short grass lack of rain

The border matches the 50 cm rainfall line the middle of the continent;
o North-west: forests remarkable sequoia and fir trees (redwood in California)
o West: forests on mountains & bushes and cacti (saguaro) in the desert lowland
o Alaska: tundra grass, lichens and moss
o Hawaii: tropical vegetation

5. Regions
Geographically, historically and culturally distinct (some more, some less)
East / Atlantic Coast:

New England, made up of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut,

and Rhode Island.
-

Low mountain ridges, rolling hills, fast rivers and waterfalls;

Industrial - also has many fields, woods and small towns & farms
The ground is rocky covered with thin layer of soil (the chief product of the land is
stones)

The Middle Atlantic, comprising New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and
Maryland.

Geographically quite diverse: -North cold winters

- Southern states have much in common with the southern states
- Densely populated Megapolis: Boston (Massachusetts), New York, Philadelphia
(Pennsylvania), Baltimore (Maryland) grew on bays suitable for ports that could
accept large ocean-going vessels base for trade and industry;
- Connection to the inland rivers and Lakes canals = Hudson River Erie Canal
(the most successful route)

The South, which runs from Virginia south to Florida and west as far as central Texas. This
region also includes West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and parts of Missouri and Oklahoma.
(Southeast and Deep South)

Geographically, historically, culturally and even linguistically distinctly separate region

Warm climate, rich soil and plentiful rainfalls = good base for agriculture

Coastal plains low hills inland, mountains to the east with rich valleys and forests
Florida garden for subtropical fruit
Landscapes of special beauty
Mississippi and its branches provide easy transportation routes
Cotton main product in the past (plantations)

The Midwest, a broad collection of states sweeping westward from Ohio to Nebraska and
including Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, parts of Missouri, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas, and eastern Colorado.

Industrial cities and farmland

- Great Lakes area industrial cities, but also has many hills and farmland
- South prairie area flat and good soil for farming
- West Great Plains farmed, but is much drier

The Southwest, made up of western Texas, portions of Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona,
Nevada, and the southern interior part of California.
-

Humid lands in eastern Texas

Dry prairies in Oklahoma and Texas
Mountains and deserts in Arizona and New Mexico

The West

The Rocky Mountain Region, comprising Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, Nevada,
Idaho.
- Plains and desserts
- Rocky Mountains main feature stretch from Alaska to Northern Mexico (young)
steep slopes, many peaks and valleys
- Least populated government owned land National parks
- Mining, ranching, farming and tourism

West/Pacific Coast:
-The Pacific North-West (Oregon, Washington)
- Mountains and forests rugged coastline (not level or smooth) with stones and
rocks
- Trade with Asia
- Lumber and fishing
- California
North rocky coast redwood forests (tallest tree in the world
South sandy beaches
Death Valley below sea level

Alaska (admitted in the Union as the 49th state in 1959)

Hawaii (since 1900 in 1959 admitted as the 50th state)

8 major islands of volcanic origin, 3 200 km away from the mainland; closely related
to Pacific Asia;

Further reading: D. Mauk and John Oakland, American Civilization, 5th

edition, Routledge 2009, Ch. 2

2. The American People

Population:
The current U.S.A. population is over 311 million people (311,800,000 in mid-2011) so the
United States has the world's third largest population (following China and India);
population density: about 68 people per square mile (Italy 491, Netherlands 918, Mac.
124)
75% live in urban areas
170 cities of more than 100 000 inhabitants, 25 of them more than 500 000 inhabitants
Most cities lie along the Atlantic and Pacific Coast, the Gulf of Mexico and Great Lakes.
1. Ethnic groups
Racial and ethnic diversity - the most striking feature of the American society

Native Americans

Came from Siberia to Alaska across the Bering Strait (narrow water passage) as
early as
40 000 years ago

Migrations East across North American continent and South towards Central and
South America to the Cape of Good Hope. When Columbus arrived in the 15 th
century there were perhaps 10 mil. people in North America, some estimates say
1.5 mil. in todays USA

Organized in various types of societies:

to the East and Southeast they were farmers;
on the prairie and on the plains in the center and to the north they were hunters;
along the west coast they mainly provided food through hunting and gathering and
along the Gulf of Mexico and on the north-west coast and Alaska fishing was the
main occupation.

Moving west the Europeans/newcomers destroyed the Native Americans;

Nowadays there are about 1.5 mil. people of Native American origin, mainly in the western
states: California, Oklahoma, Arizona, New Mexico live on reservations / many more
claim to have some Native American ancestors/
Percentage of total Native Americans living across the USA (Forum, Oct. 2004):
- West: 43%
- Midwest: 17.4 %
- South: 30%
- Northeast: 9.1 %
What destroyed the Native Americans?
- The Europeans exposed them to diseases to which they were not immune (esp.
smallpox, measles)
7

They were pushed westwards either for reasons of survival or because they were
displaced by government policies;
They were caught up in wars among themselves (encroaching on each others
territory), or with the French or the English they always lost territory because
treaties were broken and promises for territories never fulfilled;
US Government relocated most Indians on reservations, which are confined areas
where the population is dependent on Government help.

Immigration Patterns
1. The British (WASP White Anglo Saxon Protestants) English, Irish, Scots
settled on the East/Atlantic coast and established the first states; French and Dutch
came mainly as traders and traveled through the central part living and trading with
the Indian tribes;
2. African Americans from 1619 1820 (brought as slaves unwillingly) first on a
Dutch ship in 1619
3. Northern and western Europe Scandinavian countries, Germany, Holland since
1820: shaped the farming culture in Midwest
4. Southern and Eastern Europe 1870s to the 1930s no more free land, settled in
industrial centres
5. Hispanic Americans in 1970s and 1980s the largest immigrants group, still
growing (Mexicans: New Mexico, Texas and California; Puerto Ricans: New York;
Cuban Americans: Florida)
6. Asian Americans 19th century, laws limited Asian immigration; since 1960s
change, influx in California across the Pacific; in 1980s of the immigrants from
Asia
Immigration laws (American Life and Institutions, p. 20)
-

until 1850s no restrictions, 90% of immigration from Europe

in 1920s measures to limit immigration, esp. from Asia, Southern and Eastern
Europe.

Quota system abolished 1968

world limit imposed 290 000 per year; special measures to allow refugees;
1970s 430 000
1980s 654 000 (a wave of Cuban refugees)
1986 new immigration law

Reasons for immigration and change of pattern (p. 20-21): wars, revolutions,
periods of starvation, political and religious persecution any disasters that led
people to believe that America was a better place to be.

American culture is described as a mixture of all those cultures that were involved in
its creation. These metaphors are usually applied:

Melting pot
Salad bowl
Pizza
Mosaic

What does each of them stress out? Which do you think is most appropriate for todays
America?
When asked about their ancestors many Americans have more that one group to point out.
e.g. Erica Ward p. 19:
- Nationality groups: English, Dutch, German, Irish and French
- Racial groups: white, black and Native American
- Religious groups: Catholic Christian and at least five types of
Protestant Christian, and Jewish.
Each group has left a trace and has contributed to the American society. It has benefited
from the heritage the immigrants brought with them: e.g. German intellectuals who came
after the failed revolutions in 1930 and 1848 brought with them a liberal tradition; Jewish
immigrants around 1930s and 1940s added to the American culture, education and
science; they all added their contribution to the American Dream and by doing so kept the
dream alive.
Without a doubt, the American immigration experience, then and now, is one of the most
important factors in American life. All immigrants have contributed to the development of
some typical American characteristics. Among these are the willingness to take risks and
to strike out for the unknown with independence and optimism. Another is patriotism for
the many who feel they are Americans by choice. And, equally, there is the self-critical
tradition; those who were fat and happy as the phrase goes, never left home. (American
Life and Institutions, 1987, p. 22)

One group was brought by force African Americans slave trade between 16191820;

between 1777 and 1804 slavery was abolished in all states north of Maryland;

Civil War (1861-1865) end to slavery in all states, but discrimination against the
blacks continued segregation laws in the South till 1960s = Civil Rights Movement

The American society is still under the pressure of the grave social, economic and
moral problems that are the heritage of slavery; many have still not been fully
resolved;
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2. Mobility
(an important feature of American society)

Since settlement moving west The American Frontier : imaginary line dividing
areas
with more than two people per square mile from those with fewer
(frontier = border boundary, limit edge; some sense of "frontier" has also been extended to
other areas of achievement and conquest)

First it was the Appalachian Mountains, then the areas of the Midwest, then across
the Mississippi;

Settlement pattern characteristic for America first the people went and survived in
the wild
(adventurous, brave, reckless or desperate) then it was cultivated (law was enforced and
institutions established).
This had a lasting influence on American character shaped American identity selfreliance, self- confidence, sense of equality, individualism, restlessness (wanting
to move on)
Frederic Jackson Turner (American Historian), The Frontier in American History (1893)
started the Frontier Theses

Nowadays shift from East and North towards West and South:

Fastest growing cities: San Diego (California), Houston, San Antonio (Texas), Phoenix
(Arizona)
Changes in family structure:
- Households with two parent families with children = the percentage declines
- One parent families and single person households = on the increase
- Unmarried couples living together = my significant other / de-facto husband/wife
3. Religion

The First Amendment of the Constitution forbids the Government to give special favour
to any religion or to hinder the free practice of any religion there is no official state
church or state-supported religion; no legal or official religious holidays;

Characteristic for the USA - a great variety of religious denominations, independent

churches, religious groups and sects;

Religion is important for Americans, according to some surveys 58% believe religion
is very important;

Fundamentalist Christian churches (more conservative in their beliefs and practices) membership has gone up;

Mainstream Protestant Churches and the Roman Catholic drop in attendance;

10

Orthodox Jewish Congregation has gone up 100%;

Religion has little influence on Politics;

4. Prosperity and Poverty

100 years ago US overtook Great Britain to become the richest nation in the world: it is
nowadays a prosperous nation, 2004 = median household income 44, 389 dollars per
household

Racial differences:

Regional differences:

White not Hispanic 49 061

Northwest

47 998

Black

30 442

Midwest

45 939

Asian

57 196

South

40 893

Hispanic origin

33 884

West

48 078

Below a decent standard of living/below the poverty line not starving, but poor in
comparison to others

5. Crime

High rate of crime, esp. murder;

Many think handguns are responsible for that.

Laws on possession and use of weapons differ in various regions.

Many Americans would like to forbid owing handguns, but there is no single federal law
to that effect.

NRA National Rifle Association strong opposition (3 mil. members)/

hunters: Guns dont kill, people do.

Further reading: D. Mauk and John Oakland, American Civilization, Ch. 3

11

3. History of the USA

3.1. Colonization and colonial period
1. Explorers from Europe
Who discovered America? - Christopher Columbus in 1492
Why is it called America? After Amerigo Vespucci late 1490s explored and described
the shore claiming it is not Asia, but a new continent; a few
years later, a German scholar revising the worlds geography
read his journals named the continent America
Legends about other seamen reaching the shore of America before Columbus:
-

Buddhist monk from China to Mexico in AD 459

Irish monk Brendan the Bold landed in America in AD 551

Leif Ericson (Lucky Leif) a Viking sailor from Iceland

a Welsh explorer Prince Madoc a plaque in Mobile Bay, Alabama landed on

the shores of Mobile Bay 1170 and left behind, with the Indians, the Welsh
language.

Firm evidence found only in the case of the Vikings

1960s traces of Viking settlements in Newfoundland and in New England
(foundations of huts in Viking style and iron objects esp. the typically Viking spindle
whorl none of the American tribes knew how to make iron before the Europeans
came)
Vikings warriors and explorers described in the sagas The Saga of Leif Ericson
AD 1000 sailed to North America followed by other Vikings set up settlements
dangers made them leave so the settlements did not last and were forgotten

Spanish started colonization of America Columbus brought back with him jewelry
made of gold

treasure-hunters went to look for gold and found it in Central and South America
- Hernan Cortes conquered the Aztecs in 1520s advanced civilization in todays
Mexico wealthy cities
- Francisco Pizarro 1530s attacked the Incas in Peru a stream of looted treasure
began to flow across the Atlantic to Spain from the new empire built by such
conquerors conquistadores
Spanish search for gold in North America:
-1539-1543 Hernando de Soto & Francisco Coronado separately explored much of the
southern part of North America
de Soto from Cuba to Florida westwards to Mississippi and Texas
12

Coronado from Mexico northwards in search for seven cities of gold (legends)
Grand Canyon to Kansas (left horses ???)
These journeys gave Spain the right to claim a large amount of land in North America
foundation of the earliest European settlements there 1565 Sr. Augustin (Florida);
1609 Santa Fe (New Mexico) South and South-West = Spanish colonies
Other European nations explore North America:

1497 King Henry VII of England hired Italian seaman John Cabot to explore the
new lands and look for passage to Asia sailed north, landed on Newfoundland; a
year later a second crossing sailed along the east coast found no gold or
passage to Asia, nut later gave right to the English to claim right to this territory

1524 French King Francis I sent Giovanni Verrazano (same purpose) sailed
the full east coast up to the harbor of New York

1534 French fisherman Jacques Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence River
(Canada) explored the river (thick forests and fur-bearing animals) gave France
the claim to what would later become Canada

These countries claimed the right to these lands, but colonization was only possible by
establishing settlements. In the 17th century many people from Europe were ready to go
motivation: gold or safety from religious and political persecution.
2. The First British Settlements
20. May 1607 Virginia, the river James Jamestown: first permanent settlement
many died of malaria and hunger or Amerindian attacks
Virginia Company private investors established it for the purpose of setting up colonies
along North American coast (joined stock company)
Jamestown settlers were employees of the company. The directors hoped for quick profit
on their investment find gold or other valuables; settlers dreamed of gold and did not
work to produce enough food most died in the famine of the winter 1609 1610 (out of
500 only 60 survived).
Rumors spread about the conditions in Virginia the Company collected settlers in
different ways homeless children, prisoners; despite that some sailed willingly
conditions in England deteriorated, food was expensive. After 1610 strict order was
enforced in Virginia.
Important what saved the colony was the discovery that they can grow good quality
tobacco soon everyone grew tobacco, land was cleared along the rivers it was a
valuable product and its export brought profit.
Rich people came obtained large stretches of land and brought workers from England
plantations came into existence
New method of attracting settlers - indentured servants signed an agreement to work
for several years (4-7) on plantations without pay then were free, some got land
(indenture dogovor)

13

Still life was hard hunger continued, disease and wars with the Amerindians;
between 1619 1621 3 560 people from England settled in Virginia, by the end 3000 were
dead
1619 change in government
- first governed by the Company
- House of Burgesses was set up a body of elected representatives advised the
Governor on the laws the colony needed (started an important tradition in American life)
- 1619 the Dutch ship with 20 black Africans. The captain sold them to the settlers as
indentured servants worked on tobacco fields together with white servants, but they
were never set free.
- 1624 the Virginia Company ran out of money the English Government took
responsibility of Virginia Colony

Puritans - Plymouth Colony 1620; Boston Colony - 1630

16th century reformers of the Catholic Church: Luther (Germany), Calvin (France)
Protested against the teaching and customs of the Church authorities Protestants
against the elaborate ceremonies and rich decorations
1530s Henry VIII formed national Church (the Church of England) with himself as a head
Puritans wanted the church to be more plain and simple pure
James I persecuted Puritans left for Holland, but not happy there decided to go to
America
Virginia Company allowed them to settle in the northern part of American lands. in USA
they are known as Pilgrims
-

Sept. 16, 1620 left from Plymouth on the ship Mayflower (other people
Strangers)

Nov. 9, 1620 reached Cape Code, Massachusetts

Dec. 21, 1620 rowed ashore, set up a camp, called it Plymouth it was winter,
harsh conditions, out of 100 one half died, the rest determined to succeed
Amerindians helped them thought them to fish and hunt, gave them seed corn
and showed them how to plant it. The next fall the Pilgrims celebrated the
harvest together with the Amerindians = Thanksgiving (4th Thursday in
December)

other Puritans followed from England 10 years later a large group landed in
Boston area; prosperous from the start grew quickly as more and more
Puritans left England

Later in 1691 Boston and Plymouth colonies combined under the name Massachusetts
had lasting influence on American society. John Winthrop We shall be like a city on a
hill (ideal community the rest of the world should learn from a model for other nations to
copy)
14

Puritan religious believes were imposed in the government and not everyone was satisfied
with that.
Roger Williams a Puritan minister in a settlement called Salem, disagreed with such
government, esp. that the same man controlled both the church and the government
Church and state should be separate and should not interfere in each others affairs.
To escape arrest Williams accompanied by some other discontented Puritans went south
and established a new settlement Rhode Island. Promised its citizens religious freedom
and separation of Church and state ideas still very important in America.
1643 New England Confederation was formed first attempt to regional unity
(Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Heaven colonies) for defense
purposes England neglected them
3. Second Generation of British Colonies
proprietor owner of land under a Charter from the English King gentry and nobility
were granted lands in North America, they settled tenants to work for them
(New Hampshire, Maine, Maryland, North and South Carolina, New Jersey and
Pennsylvania established in this way)
Charter: a written document describing the rights that a particular group should have
- 1632 Calvert family, a charter for land north of Potomac River Maryland, Catholics
encouraged others from England who were persecuted because of religion
manorial estates feudalni posedi a large country house surrounded by land that
belonged to it
Charters had a mixture of feudal and modern elements:
- owners had the power to establish manor estates
- could only make laws with the consent of freemen (property holders)
Proprietors found that in order to attract settlers and make a profit they had to offer people
farms not just tenancy on manor estates. Independent farmers increased demanded a
voice in the affairs of the colonies.
- 1650s North Carolina settlers from Virginia and later French Huguenots (1704)
proprietary governor 1664
- 1670 Charleston, South Carolina from New England and Caribbean island Barbados
early trade in Indian slaves, later timber, rice and indigo good economy base.
- Pennsylvania 1681 William Penn a Quaker and friend to King Charles II was granted
land
Quakers The Society of Friends refuse to swear oaths or go to war unpopular with
English Government Penn promised them freedom to follow their believes many
followed him
Penn attracted Europeans of various nations and religious groups (Irish, German) fair
and tolerant. (Illustrated History p. 23)

15

- 1732 Georgia (the last of the 13 colonies) border with Florida (Spanish colony)
established as a buffer against Spanish incursion: refuge where the poor and former
prisoners would be given new opportunities
4. Dutch and Swedish Settlements
- Henry Hudson 1609 hired by the Dutch East Indian Company explored the area New
York City and the river Hudson
Later Dutch laid claim to this land interested in fur trade cultivated close relations with
the Iroquois
1617 established a settlement
1624 purchased Manhattan from local Amerindians (for $24) New Amsterdam
Settlement under patroon system any stockholder who could bring 50 adults in 4 years
was granted 25 km river front plot, exclusive fishing and hunting rights, civil and criminal
jurisdiction; tenants paid rent.
The English drove the Dutch out of New Netherlands in 1664. Government not popular,
got no help. The English let the Dutch keep their property and worship as they wished.
- New Sweden Delaware River attempt to set up settlement, soon absorbed into New
Netherlands.
5. Colonial Indian Relations
By 1640 British colonies along the Atlantic Coast. To the west were the Indian tribes
sometimes friendly, sometimes hostile.
Native Americans also benefited from the access to new technology and trade; but
decease and early settlers thirst for land posed a serious threat.
Trade brought advantages: knifes, axes, weapons, cooking utensils, fish hooks, etc.
Tribes oriented themselves to fur trapping during 17th century trade provided them with
colonial goods until the late 18th century.
Colonial-Indian relations mix of cooperation and conflict
- friendly e.g. W. Penn
- setbacks, skirmishes and wars resulted in an Indian defeat and loss of land,
- encroachment on Indian territory smaller hunting area, had to move west
conflict with other tribes
- fought wars with Europeans, among themselves, sided with the French or the
English
The Iroquois area below Lakes Ontario and Erie more successful in resisting European
advances
1570 5 tribes joined in League of the Iroquois council of 50 representatives
No tribe could wage war by itself. 1600s and 1700s strong and powerful, traded with the
British, sided with them against the French in the war for dominance of North America
(1754-1763) British won, their help was significant.
16

3.2. The American Revolution

A. English French war for domination
(1756-1763 known as Seven Years War or French and Indian War)
In North America the French had large stretches of land Canada, north of St. Laurence
River & Louisiana center of the continent, lands drained by the Mississippi;
French explorers:
- Samuel de Champlain 1603 St. Lawrence River set up trading posts, later to
become Quebec and Montreal
- Rene de Salle fur trader and explorer, 1670s explored the valley of the Mississippi
report of fertile land and abundance of other resources; reached the Gulf of
Mexico set up trading post later New Orleans.
French claims to these territories worried both the British and the Colonists.
British Colonists afraid that their further settlement to the west would be restricted.
The British sent money and soldiers to North America.
1758 British and Colonial forces captured the French stronghold Louisburg on the Gulf of
St. Lawrence and a Fort on the Ohio River.
1759 they took Quebec
1760 Montreal was taken
1763 The Peace of Paris, French gave up its claim to Canada and all of North America
east of the Mississippi.

B. War for Independence

Britain won an Empire, but this led to conflicts with its American colonies.

1763 Proclamation by King George III forbade colonists to settle west of the
Appalachians until treaties were made with the Amerindians (Proclamation line map 1)
By then settlers had already started to pour over to the western side of the Appalachians
and they were angry about this)
British Parliament enraged/ irritated the colonists by passing other laws to impose their
control over the colonies. Britain spent a lot of money in the war, so they thought they had
the right to this claims.
American merchants opposed the taxes fearing decrease in profit; other colonists feared
that this would rise the cost of living. British army threat for the colonists self government
(colonists believed that government should not become too powerful)
New taxes were introduced on various import goods (sugar, coffee, textile)
Colonies were supposed to finance the keeping of British soldiers in the colony
1765 - Stamp Act arose Resistance no taxation without representation (colonists had
no representatives in the British Parliament)
17

1765 representatives of 9 colonies met in New York The Stamp Act Congress
organised opposition to the Stamp Act (revolutionary organizations established in towns
and regions) = refused to sell British goods; mobs attacked officials selling the stamps;
refused to use them this led to withdrawal of the Stamp Act.
March 5, 1770 Boston Massacre
Declaratory Act the British government had power and authority over the colonies and
people in America.
1767 new taxes on tea, paper, paint and other import goods
Customs offices set up in Boston to collect the import duty
Riots in Boston more soldiers sent to keep order and protect tax collectors
Pressure induced all other taxes to be removed, except on tea did not stop
opposition
1773 a group of colonists disguised as Indians boarded British merchant ships (East
Indian Company) in Boston and threw 342 cases of tea into the sea Boston Tea Party
British government demanded payment of the damage to the Company would lose
credibility and all the world would know that it has no control over American colonies.
Introduced a number of measures Coercive Acts (coercive using force or the threat of
force) /Intolerable Acts
-

Boston harbor closed

More soldiers sent
Power of Massachusetts assembly reduced

June 1, 1774 British warship at Boston Harbor

Sept. 1774 colonial leaders meet in Philadelphia formed The First Continental
Congress motivation: to oppose British oppression
Colonial Congress still declared loyal to the British king called up all Americans to
support Massachusetts organised groups of part-time soldiers militia and gathered
weapons and ammunition.
April 18, 1775 Lexington, Concord incidents
700 British soldiers marched silently out of Boston to Concord where there were rebellious
colonists to seize their weapons and ammunition. Colonists were warned signal lights
from the spire of Boston Cathedral. At Lexington 70 Americans barred their way
(Minutemen had promised to take up weapons in a minute). Ordered to leave, the
Minutemen refused and the soldiers fired eight dead. On the way back, Br. soldiers (red
coats) encountered resistance along the roads and many were killed before they reached
Boston (273 soldiers) Boston surrounded by armed Americans.
May 1775 Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia and began to act as
American national government.
Set up an army of 17 000 men at command of George Washington a Virginia land owner
who had fought in the French and Indian War. Sent representatives to seek help from
France and other European countries. Fighting spread out of Massachusetts.

18

August 1775 King George III issued a proclamation colonies in a state of rebellion
Thomas Paine 50 pages pamphlet Common Sense influenced the opinion throughout
the colonies:
- against the monarchy
- advocating separation
- rallying the undecided
In the colonies various committees individually proclaimed independence. Led to the
Second Continental Congress 2. July 1776.
- finally cut all political ties with Britain
- declared that the united colonies ought to be free and independent states.
July 4, 1776 issued the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas
Jefferson, landowner and lawyer from Virginia. It stated that:
- the colonies were now free and independent states
- officially named them United States of America
was based on ideas that
- claimed all men had a natural right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness.
- the consent of the governed
New definition of democratic government government should consist of representatives
elected by the people; government should protect the rights of individual citizens.
The revolutionary war lasted more than 6 years
After some success, Americans defeated by Br. at several places; Sept. 1776 New York
was taken; Sept. 1777 Br. captured Philadelphia, drove Congress to flight (lack of
discipline in Washingtons army)
Success Oct. 1777 Saragota (N.Y.) 6000 Br. soldiers trapped Br. commander
surrendered prisoners sent back to Britain, sworn never to fight against America (Outline
old: p. 39)
Benjamin Franklin ambassador in France used the victory to persuade the French
government to join them
1778 French sign alliance with America. French ships, soldiers and money played
great part in the war (before, French volunteers in America, favourable atmosphere)
From 1778 fights in the southern colonies (Carolina, Virginia)
End of the War: Yorktown, Virginia, Sept. 1781 (Br. General Cornwallis expected Br.
ships for reinforcement, but French ships arrived).
Sept. 1783 Treaty of Paris Britain recognized its former colonies as an independent
nation
New United States were granted all of North America territories owned by the British
from Canada in the north to Florida in the South, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi
River.

19

C. The Formation of the Nation

-Individual states strong local government how to join them into one nation?
-

During the war of independence National Congress representatives from each

state Legal document, agreement = Articles of Confederation central
government weak: had rights to make decisions, but not to make them effective
depended on governments of individual states

After the war, the states behaved like individual nations tax barriers, import duties
introduced, even fought for certain parts of frontier land

Central government not respected by foreign governments France did not

recognise Congress as a real government (could not pay their debts; states
quarreled among themselves)

Constitutional Convention Feb. 1787 Congress asked for representatives

from each state to discuss changes in the Articles

May 1787 55 men attended chose George Washington to lead the discussion
set out the plan for central government of the Union called Constitution of the
United States

Federal system of government = power to rule is shared between federal/ central

government and the local authorities; Individual state governments = wide range of
powers

Central government: power to collect taxes, organize armed forces, make treates
with foreign countries and control trade of all kinds.

Constitution: arrangements for election of leader President, head of executive

part of the government to run everyday affairs and control execution of laws.
Other parts: legislative (law-making) power given to Congress (representatives
elected by the people): Senate = each state 2 representatives; House of
Representatives number according to population in each state; judicial part of
government: Supreme Court to make decisions about the meaning of laws and
the Constitution (1801 John Marshal The Supreme Court has the power to
decide whether particular American laws are according to the Constitution).

Balance of power between the three main parts made sure that no one individual
or group should become so powerful to take over complete control of the nations
government.

Constitution stated the rights of Individual states allowed to run their affairs as
long as they keep to the rules of the Constitution.

1791 ten amendments added: The Bill of Rights = rights and freedom of individual
citizens: freedom of religion, a free press, free speech, the right to carry arms, the
right to fair trial by jury and protection against cruel and unusual punishment.

20

Tendencies: strong central government appealed to the wealthy (will make their property
safer); strong local government attracted the small farmers and craftsmen (easier to
control government actions).

D. Years of Growth
1787 - Northwest Ordinance to protect Amerindians land rights; soon politics changed.
1817 President James Monroe Indian Removal Act (1830) Indians moved to west
lands, west of the Mississippi = Indian Territory (Cherokees suffered a lot, moved from
Georgia to Oklahoma
Government had prepared the western lands for settlement. Some states claimed the land
west of their territory. Those at the cost protested. Common property was declared,
belonging to the federal government, not to individual states. To ensure that no state
acquires dominance over the others.
Land was surveyed and divided in townships (6 miles by 6 miles), and further into
sections land sold at actions.
Administrative division: Northwest Territory & Southwest Territory
5 000 white males further division territory status, Congress appointed a governor,
representatives in Congress (no votes)
60 000 inhabitants status of a State with the same rights and powers as the original 13
states
Northwest Territory: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Mitchigen, Wisconsin.
The war of 1812 Congress declared war to Britain aimless and pointless war: British
ship blockade taught the Americans how vulnerable they were. Encouraged
manufacturing.
1803 Louisiana Purchase sold by Napoleon for 15 million dollars Thomas Jefferson
President set out an expedition to explore the new territory & look for easy passage to
the Pacific Ocean 1804 led bt Meiwether Lewis and Milliam Clark 29 men up Missoury
(from St. Louis) across the Rockies to Columbia River and to the Pacific. Returned in St.
Louis in 1806 important information about the new land and beyond.

21

3.3. The Civil War

E. North and South
US in the middle of the 19th century sectional division between:

North manufacturing and trade

Midwest agriculture (diversity of crops) and manufacturing
South agriculture based on plantations that depended on slave work

With the expansion of the US the argument over slavery between North and South grew.
Slavery contradicted the statement in the Declaration of Independence = all men are
created equal (G. Washington and Jefferson were from South and had slaves, but felt
uneasy for that and believed it would be eliminated in the future; other landowners
considered slavery their right.)

Beginning of 19th century slavery abolished in the northern states;

1808 slave trade abolished;
Southern states believed their economy depended on slavery;

As new states were accepted into the Union the tension over the status of slavery in them
grew. Each side took great care that the balance was preserved so that no one side wins
primacy.
Southerners moved from the worked out plantations to new more fertile lands taking their
slaves with them. The cotton industry grew with the development of new technology and
demand increased rapidly.
Expansion of the cotton-slavery system was induced by:
1. cultivating only one crop cotton- exhausted the land new fertile lands were
sought;
2. in interest of political power, the South needed new territory for additional slave
states to offset the admission of new free states:
1818 Illinois admitted as free state -10 slave vs 11 slave-free, nut Alabama
the same year as slave state;
Missouri slave / Main free state;
1820 Missouri compromise Congress decreed that Louisiana Purchase
north of Missouri be excluded for slavery for ever;
by 1840 westward migration of the agricultural frontier did not pass
Missouri;
1845 Texas accepted in the Union as slave state;
Slavery not only a moral issue, but also political: Northern farmers moving west did not
want to compete for land with the Southerners who could more easily cultivate the land
with the slaves.
North-South disputes over import tax:
New tariff law 1822 affected the South, which depended on import goods;
South Carolina States Rights Party endorsed a principle called nullification
delegate convention within a state could declare an act of Congress
22

unconstitutional and null and void it within its borders threatened the Union
Supreme Court had that right.
Dispute solved so that tariff law was withdrawn both sides declared victory:

F. Antislavery movement
- abolitionists: combative, uncompromising, insistent upon immediate end to slavery;
- William Lloyd Garison a young man of Massachusetts newspaper The Liberator
(1831)
- Underground Movement helping slaves to escape in safe refuge in the North or over
to Canada an elaborate network of secret routs established in 1830s;
MORAL ISSUE --- turned into --- POLITICAL ISSUE

Territories in the Southwest gained from the Mexican war opportunity for the
slavery to spread in the new lands disputes arose:

strong antislavery Northerners all new regions should be closed to slavery;

moderates Missouri Compromise to be extended to the Pacific;
Another group suggested popular sovereignty= everyone should be
permited to enter (with or without slaves) and at the time when the state is
being organized the people should decide;
Southerners slavery had the right to exist in all territories;

1948 Free Soil Party = the best policy to limit, localize and discourage slavery
1849 with the gold rush California became the crucial question = Congress had to
determine the status of the new region before an organized government could be
determined;
Compromise of 1850 Senator Henry Clay California to be admitted as a state with
free-soil constitution; the other annexed territories to be divided into New Mexico and Utah
without mention of slavery; buying and selling of slaves, but not slavery, to be abolished in
the District of Columbia;
On the surface seemed to settle the disputes
Beneath the surface the tensions grew
Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811 1896) author of the book Uncle Toms Cabin
1852 Uncle Toms Cabin exerted great influence showed how inseparable cruelty
was from the institution of slavery and how fundamentally irreconcilable were free and
slave societies inspired enthusiasm for the antislavery movement;
1854 the issue of the slavery in the territories renewed it was over the region
comprising Kansas and Nebraska;

23

A proposal by a Senator of Illinois Stephen A. Douglas, who wanted to attract more

voters for his Presidential campaign people should be allowed to carry slaves with
them and the status will be decided when the state is formed;

Flow of both southern slaveholders and antislavery men into Kansas resulted
in armed conflicts bleeding Kansas

1857 the Supreme Courts famous decision concerning Dred Scott (Missouri
slave lived 20 years in Illinois and Wisconsin returned to Missouri sued for
liberation on the ground of his residence on free soil) Supreme Court ruled that by
voluntarily returning to a slave state lost the right to be free. Northerners saw this as
legal support to preserve slavery stirred fierce excitement.

New political party Republican firmly against slavery in all new territories;
1856 lost the elections, but their talks during the campaign exerted great influence;

Abraham Lincoln, attorney from Illinois, came to the political scene through
the Republican Party; competed with Douglas for Senator Lincoln lost, but gained
fame and became a national figure because of his strong opposition of slavery.

G. The Civil War

Oct. 16, 1859 John Brown antislavery fanatic seized a federal arsenal at Harpers
Ferry (West Virginia) soon had to surrender, tried and hanged.
Autumn 1960 Lincoln won the election for President of the US
Dec. 1860 South Carolina voted to secede from US. Joined by 10 more southern states
announced an independent nation Confederate States of America - Confederacy
March 4, 1861 - Lincoln appealed to the southern states to stay in the Union in his
inaugural speech when he was sworn President

Beginning of the war:

- Confederate troops opened fire on Fort Sumter, in harbor of Charlston, South
Carolina
Lincoln called for 75 000 men to fight to save the Union
The Confederate president did the same
Not easy for the people to decide families divided

A. North stronger in men and material resources;

B. South defending their own land fought with more spirit / motivation; Saw the
fight not only to preserve slavery, but also to defend themselves from the North;
C. War fought in two main areas: Virginia and down the Atlantic coast and Mississippi
valley
1. Virginia Union forces weaker heavy losses; Confederate generals more
skillful: Robert E. Lee and Thomas J. Jackson;
24

Defeats discouraged northern volunteers bad conditions;

2. Union forces in the Miss. Valley more successful
1862 captured New Orleans
Other Union forces Fighting down the river
1863 after fights and siege Vicksburg fell split the region Texas no
connection with the others;
D. Population in the North lost enthusiasm for the war.
E. January 1, 1863 Emancipation Proclamation (Issued by Lincoln all slaves free if
they lived on the territory of the Confederation later to be passed in Congress as
13th Amendment)
F. General Lee planned occupation of Northern territory June 1863 marched into
Pennsylvania defeated heavily at Gettysburg (50 000 dead or wounded) fourth
day General Lee returned with the rest of the army to the South.
G. Since then Confederacy army weaker April 9, 1865 Final surrender in the village
of Appomattox General Lee signed the surrender of his army.
H. Outcome of the war: two problems resolved:

abolished slavery in the whole of the USA 1865 13th Amendment passed in
Congress in December

the US is one country and can not be separated

The war left bitter memories (divisions long felt) many deaths and a lot of destruction.

H. Reconstruction
April 13, 1865 Lincoln was assassinated by the actor John Wilkes Booth, a short time
after being elected President for the second term in office. There was morning across the
country.
Succeeded by Andrew Johnson not as popular as Lincoln continued his plan to renew
the South:

appointed a governor for each state by presidential proclamation.

Conventions were held in which Confederate states repealed the Ordinance of

secession, repudiated (disclaim, renounce, deny otfrla, negira) the war debts and
drafted new constitution;

later states elected a governor and a state legislature when they ratified the 13th
Amendment government was recognized and representatives could take positions
in the US Congress;

25

whites in the south resented the changes found ways to cheat the blacks of their
rights Black codes

Congress acted against the President wanted to punish the South, refused to seat
the duly elected Senators and Representatives;

July Civil Rights Act 14th Amendment All persons born or naturalized in the US
and subject of the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the US and of the state in
which they reside gave blacks all legal rights, including the right to vote.
(later 15th Amendment (1870) (Old Outline p. 92-93)

Southern states, except for Tennessee refused to ratify it. in March 1867
Congress passed Reconstruction Act
-

dissolved the governments of the states

divided the South into 4 districts and placed them under military government
Reconstruction governments until 1877 some where dishonest and
corrupt and only sought to get sth for themselves; others contributed a lot to
the development of the South both equally unpopular, because tried to
establish equal conditions for whites and blacks, which was strongly opposed
by the southern whites.

Southern whites, seeing that they had no power for protecting their civilization in a
legal way, turned to illegal means violence increased (Ku Klux Klan organization
intimidated, tortured and killed blacks who tried to seek their legal rights)

1870 Enforcement Act passed = severe punishments for for those who attempted
to deprive blacks from their civil rights

segregation continued well into the 20th century 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson:
Supreme Court ruled that Constitution allowed separate facilities to be provided for
whites and blacks as long as the facilities and services were of equal quality

26

3.4. YEARS OF GROWTH

(after the Civil War till the beginning of the 20th century)

1. Settlement of the Great Plains

2. Industrial revolution and the wave of immigrants
3. The Faith of the Amerindians
1. Settlement of the Great Plains
o Miners in the mountains of Nevada, Montana, Colorado;
o Cattlemen: grasslands stretching from Texas to Missouri River
o Sheepmen discovered the mountain valleys and slopes
o Farmers swamped into the plains spur by Homestead Act 1862 granted free
land of 64 hectares if the family cultivated the land for 5 years.
o Railroads speeded the settlement: 1862 Congress charted Union Pacific Railroad
building a line from Council Bluffs, Iowa westwards; at the same time Western
Pacific from Sacramento, California eastwards = meeting point in Utah ,
Promontory Point (rt) on May 10, 1869
o The continental rail network grew steadily by 1884 4 lines connected Mississippi
Valley with the Pacific
o People were first drawn by the prospects of finding gold mining communities
established:
-

California 1848 10 years later Colorado and Nevada

1860s Montana and Wyoming
1870s Black Hills in Dakota

o Farming and stock-raising potentials soon realized the real wealth of this region
proved to be grass and soil
Cattle raising ranching wild west
First ranching started in Texas, after the war longhorn cattle driven across the open public
domain to the railroad and from there by train to the slaughter houses in Chicago and
Kansas City;
Cowboys drove the cattle north to the railway hard life, but seemed exciting: former
confederate soldiers, black ex-slaves and boys from the eastern farms looking for
adventure;
Travelled along regular trails last portion moved slowly to give cattle time to graze and
get heavier cities grew along the railway - best known Dodge City;
Meet industry proved very profitable fed the east and exported to Europe;

27

Later cattle raising spread into trans-Missouri region ranches in Colorado, Wyoming,
Nebraska and Dakota territory;
As the regions became populated, rangers could not move freely with the cattle across
land without legal title wild west ceased to be its peak between 1866 and 1888
romantic wild west
Agriculture
Between 1860 and 1900 farmed area doubled (from 160 mil. to 352 mil. hectares:
-

production of basic crops wheat, corn, cotton grew

nations population more than doubled mainly in industrial cities
American farmers produced enough to feed the population and also created
surpluses

Achievements accounted to:

1. Expansion into the west
2. Application of machinery to farming ploughs with steel blades (cut through the
tangled grass roots sod), reaper, threshing machine, combine, mechanical
planters, cutters, huskers, potato planters, hay driers, poultry incubators, manure
spreaders, barbed wire (for prairie farmers cheap and efficient fencing material
protection of crops from strayed animals)
3. Science 1862 Morrill Land-Grant College Act = public land allotted to each state
for the establishment of agricultural and industrial colleges educational and
centres of research; funds for creation of agricultural experiment stations, for
research which resulted in practical innovations (new strains of crops, animal
breeds, cure for animal and plant diseases);
Farmers face hardships which recur in the 19th century - several reasons:
1. Soil exhaustion (south cotton)
2. Vagaries of the nature soil erosion, wind storms, insect pests
3. Overproduction prices went down
4. Lack of adequate legislation farmers sold their products in competitive market but
purchased supplies, equipment and household goods in market protected from the
competition (protective tariff); from 1870 1890 prices of most products plunged.
Formation of Farmers organizations:
-

Grange (Patrons of Husbandry) 1867 (dwindled in 1870s then revived during

crises in 1880s and 1890s) formed cooperatives, made states to pass
Granger Laws government bodies to control railroad freight charges

Farmers Alliances 1890 2 mil members demands for political reforms

political party Populists became influential and later merged with Democrats 28

2. Industrial revolution and the wave of immigrants

Mechanization and technical innovation boomed: railway, telegraph, telephone, - printing
press, typewriter, electricity and electrical appliances
Railway vital for the development of the industry railway companies fight among
themselves
for domination ruthless fight for profits (catch-as-catch-can) public
interest completely marginalized;
William H. Vanderbit (1882) said: The railroads are not run for the benefit of
the dear public. That cry is all nonsense. They are built for men who invest
their money and expect to get a fair percentage on the same.

Interstate Commerce Act 1887 prohibited rebates and pools; railroads to publish
their rates openly; Interstate Commerce Commission set up to enforce and
administer the new legislation the first large scale attempt by Washington to
regulate business in the interest of society, followed by a series of independent
regulatory commissions government to monitor and direct the private economy.

Corporations and trusts gained power and threatened to take over control
Corporations Vertical integration - Carnegie, the steel tycoon The United States Steel
Corporation combining in one organization all phases of manufacturing mining,
shipping, railroad, factory, marketing for the purpose of efficiency. Carnegie
(combination of independent industrial enterprises into federated or centralized
companies)
Trust Horizontal integration - Rockefeller, the oil company owner stockholders of
smaller companies assign their stocks to the Board of Directors of Rockefellers Standard
Oil Company. It then operated the previously competing enterprises. Those out of the
agreement were weaker and many collapsed (elimination of the competition) bring
competing firms into single organization control over production and market.
Morgan banker interlocking directors placed officers of his own banking syndicate
on their board of directors.
golden barons domination of capital = mixed blessing /captains of industry or robber
barons/ brought advancement of industry, but created a lot of miseries among the working
population
Jeffersonian ideas still strong individuals should be given chance private enterprise as
the pillar of the society with minimal interference of the government. General view: there
is no person in the USA who was not made poor by his own shortcoming.
This view gradually changed as the capital concentrated in the hands of few people who
had such power as to manipulate the whole system. Oligarchy: 1/10 of the people owned
and controlled 9/10 of the nations wealth.
Sherman Anti-Trust Act 1890 new principle: private greed must henceforth be
subordinated to public need (corporation curbing and trust-busting)
29

Labor unions:

Trusts and corporations suppress/ restrain/ curb attempts of workers organization

something imported, not in the spirit of American tradition -

The national Labor Union (1866 lasted 6 years): skilled, unskilled workers
and farmers fought for social reform (got 8 hour day for office workers)

The Knights of Labor 1869 social reforms, security at work, 8 hour day
newly emigrated anarchists wanted to overthrow the government

American Federation of Labor 1886 skilled workers more successful

Gompers (president 1886-1924) anti-socialist, conservative wanted labor
to win its fair share.
Objectives: better wages and hours & other improved conditions for the
workers.
Achievements for skilled workers left out esp. women and blacks
Exerted some political influence during elections members awarded friends
and punished foes.
-

By 1900 only 3% of the workers involved in Unions

Immigration boom Ellis Island (1892-1954)

Reforms and progress:

-

Progressive movement Progressives waged war on many evils: monopoly,

corruption, inefficiency and social injustice
The real heart of the movement to use the government as an agency of human
welfare

women fight for the right to vote = suffrage

Muckrakers beginning about 1902 criticised capitalist system attack on evils

in the industrial world in publications books, newspapers
Two aims: (1) to use state power to curb the trusts; (2) to stem the socialist
threats by generally improving the common persons conditions of life and labor
Recruited from the middle class, squeezed between the capitalist magnates and
the working class;

Theodore Roosevelt Republican President 1901 - 1909 (SQUARE DEAL)

square deal for capital, labor and general public his program consisted of 2Cs:
control of the corporations, consumer protection and conservation protection
(1) limited the power of the trusts (supported the coal miners strike; railroad
companies; meat packing trusts 120-121 old Outline)

strike in the anthracite coal mine in Pennsylvania; miners demanded pay

rise & from 10 to 9 hours work day; representatives of miners and owners
summoned in the White house. R. threatened to seize the mines and
30

operate them with federal troops for the first time threat to use federal
force against capital, not against labor.
1903 Department of Commerce and Labor

Railroad legislation Elkins Act 1903 fines for rebates

Hepburn Act 1906 free passes severely restricted

Attacked the trusts distinguished bad & good trusts (Trustbuster).

Initiated law suits and dissolved many trusts that had monopoly on some
key products (beef, sugar, fertilizers)

(2) Caring for the customer:

Sinclare 1906 (The Jungle) the state in the meat-canning factory in Chicago
1906 Meat Inspection Act
1906 Pure Food and Drug Act (alcohol and other habit formation substances in
medicines).

(3) Earth Control

Wasteful Americans, assuming that their natural resources were inexhaustible,
had looted and polluted their incomparable domain with unparalleled speed and
greed.
Conservation need to protect the nature from overexploitation - set aside many
hectares of timberland and began systematic efforts to prevent forest fires and to
re-timber denuded tracks.
1907 Inland Waterways Commission appointed to study the relation of rivers,
soil and forests, waterpower development and water transportation. conservation
of forests, water and minerals and addressed the problem of erosion and irrigation
gave some recommendations 1909 National Conservation Association was
formed
Roosevelts successor Taft made some forward steps continued the prosecution of
trusts, strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission, established a postal savings
bank and a parcel-post system, expanded the civil service and sponsored the enactment
of two amendments to the Constitution:
- The 16th Amendment authorized a federal income tax;
- The 17th Amendment 1913 substituted the direct election of Senators by
the people for the requirement that they be elected by state legislature.
Wilson (Democratic party)

New freedom Laws passed between 1913 and 1917 customs duties and
reduce power of trusts
Progressive Laws: stop child labor, secret voting, improve safety at work,
compensation for injuries at work
Protection of nature resources
31

3. The Faith of the Amerindians

What happened to the Amerindians as the white settlers moved west.
After Independence first government wanted to keep peace with Indian tribes
1787 Northwest Ordinance land and property ) later policy changed
1830 Removal Act - Indians east of the Miss. moved west (Indian Territory)
Cherokees (between Georgia and Miss.) suffered most changed to civilization moved to
Oklahoma (The Trail of Tears)
Great Plains homesteaders and cowboys found Indians roaming the plains and hunting buffalos
which provided them with food, clothes, material for building tents, material for weapons. White
hunters were shooting the buffalos in thousands; in two years between 1872 and 1874 they almost
destroyed the great herd completely. Encouraged by the American Army
-

several deals with tribes that gave up large stretches of land promises to leave
them live in peace on the remaining land promises always broken;

Dakota Sioux Black Hills sacred mountains refused to sell. Government allowed
prospectors and miners to enter the Black Hills winter of 1875 thousands of white men pour
in.
More settlers demanded homesteads on the prairie Indians driven to reservations dry,
rocky areas that th whites were not likely to want;
Battle of the Little Big Horn - June 1876 the Sioux won the battle and killed 225 men of the
American cavalry last stand for the Amerindians; Government sent more soldiers and the
Sioux could not confront them defeated they were led to the reservation.
By then the same had happened to other tribes between the Mississippi River and the Pacific
where the white cattle ranchers, farmers and miners were occupying the land. Promises by the
American Government to help them were often broken.

Ghost dance 1890 Sioux prophet told them to dance a special dance dead warriors
would come back, the buffalo would return, the white man would disappear.
Peaceful movement, but the government worried sent troops to arrest the leaders;
December 1890 350 Sioux (men, women and children) left the reservation led by their chief
Big Foot. Soldiers took them to an army post at Wounded Knee Creek. In shooting many
dead and wounded Wounded knee massacre.

1924 Indian Citizenship Act recognized Amerindians as full citizens of the US including
the right to vote.
1934 Indian Reorganization Act right to set up their own councils to run the affairs of their
reservations. Still remained far behind the other Americans in health, wealth and education
1970s Amerindians from al US join together to improve condition 1972 Trail of Broken
Treaties attempts to return some land or rights, but not successful.
Now American Indians try to get integrated into the American society, but also try to
preserve the memories of the people and traditions of the past.

32

3.5 WAR, PROSPERITY AND DEPRESSION

(first half of the 20th century)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Colonial Power
First World War
The Roaring Twenties
Crash and Depression
Franklin Roosevelts New Deal
The Second World War

1. Colonial Power
Monroes Doctrine
In 1820s rebellions in Central and South American colonies ruled by Spain. Spain asked
European powers for help.
President Monroe 1823 warned Europeans not to interfere in Latin America. He presented
any growing influence of the European countries as a threat to the peace and safety of the
USA.
1904 Theodore Roosevelt made an addition corollary (outcome, upshot) to it: USA
would intervene there whenever it thought necessary.

Aim: to discourage Europeans to interfere;

Result: American soldiers landed in some countries, took over their government or
chose government that suited the US. e.g. Panama 1900 Panama Canal on the
Isthmus (prevlaka) of Panama; Columbian government not ready to give consent
President T. Roosevelt sent warships which helped a group of businessmen rebel
against the Columbian government took over the country and gave Americans
control over the Canal Zone across the country Panama Canal built from 1904
1914.

In 1890s time of gaining colonies (Britain, France and Germany busy extending their
influence over important territories) in US government some congressmen suggested
USA should do the same or will be at a disadvantage in the world trade market.
American Spanish War of 1898
- Over Cuba - Spanish colony, started war for independence 1895

Americans had invested a lot of capital, owned plantations

First America tried to stay impartial, but newspapers published sensational new
about the cruel treatment of the Cuban population and the government sent the ship
Maine in Havana Harbor. It was blown and that was a good reason to interfere.

President McKinley demanded that Spain should withdraw from Cuba and when
they refused war was declared.

33

First battle in the Philippines another Spanish colony American fleet destroyed
Spanish (sent there because the island was considered useful protect the
growing number of American traders in China)

American soldiers landed on Cuba defeated the Spanish in less than two weeks;

Occupied Puerto Rico Spanish owned island

Spain asked for peace Dec 10th, 1898 transferred Cuba to the US for temporary
occupation preliminary to the islands independence. Also Spain ceded Puerto Rico
and the Pacific island of Guam; Philippines was handed over on payment of $20
million.

At the same time US also annexed Hawaii a group of islands in the middle Pacific
where Americans owned pineapple and sugar plantations.

America colonial power against the traditions and values of their own country; most
Americans were proud and believed that in this way they were helping the underdeveloped
nations, teaching them civilization and democracy.
-

The Philippines became independent in 1946

Puerto Rico became self-governing in 1953
Hawaii was admitted as the 50th state in 1959
Cubas independence in 1902 was not real Platt Amendment = US could send troops
to take control of Cuba any time it believed that American interests were in danger
(whenever they wanted)
1959 Fidel Castro took over the government took over American owned
businesses communist state very close to the US
1960 President Eisenhower weapons and ships to refugees from Cuba to
overthrow Castro
April 17, 1961 1 400 anti-Castro Cubans landed on the island defeated by
Castro after that he asked the Soviet Union for help Khrushchev sent him
weapons Americans watched;
A spy plane discovered missile bases on Cuba turned towards the US. Kennedy
ordered a blockade of the island with American ships and aircrafts missiles
directed towards the Soviet Union for ten days nuclear war crisis.
Khrushchev ordered the missiles to be destroyed, Kennedy called off the
blockade and promised to leave Cuba alone the crisis was over.

Dollar Diplomacy Open Door

Trade with China important new market
Chinas defeat by Japan 1894-95 various European nations had acquired naval bases,
leased territories, spheres of influence; monopolistic trade rights and exclusive
concessions for investing capital in railway construction and mining development.
American government insisted on equality of commercial privileges for all nations
suggested the so called open door policy (president McKinley, Secretary of State John
Hay), which was accepted by the powers concerned. It involved: equality in trading
opportunities (including equal tariffs, harbor duties, and railway rates) in the areas they
controlled.
34

2. First World War

Outbreak of the war in Europe in 1914 came as a shock for Americans;
President Wilson Woodrow tried to stay impartial his partys slogan He kept us out of
war. was for peace without victory, which was the only peace which could last;;
Economic prosperity boosted by production aimed for the western Allies;
February 1915 German military leaders announced they would destroy all ships around
the British Isles; President Wilson protested that they would not forsake (give up) their
traditional right to trade on the high seas and declared that the nation would hold Germany
to strict accountability (responsibility) for the loss of American vessels or lives;
In spring 1915 British ship Lusitania was sunk 1 200 people aboard, 128 Americans
tension grew protests to the German government;
May 1916 German government announced that its submarine warfare would be limited in
accordance with American demands Wilson celebrated victory
American ships supplying the Allies with ever more arms and other goods - April 1917
German government gave notice that all ships sailing towards Allies ports would be sunk
five American vessels sunk Wilson asks Congress for a declaration of war.
Opinion also changed in favor of war when the German Foreign Secretary Zimmermans
plan was discovered to involve Mexico in the war: if the USA attacked Germany, Mexico
to attack the southern part of the USA in return Mexico would get back the territories it
lost in 1848.
America needed some time to recruit an army, equip it and train it; in spring 1918
Germans started an offensive hoping to win the war before the American army was ready;
soon American soldiers started to arrive in France and in October 1918 there were 1, 750,
000 American soldiers in France; the German army was driven back towards their country
the German government asked for peace Nov. 1918 an armistice was signed.
Wilson had a plan for the treaty (fourteen points) he thought that Germans should not be
treated severely, so that they do not feel revengeful later and start a war again presented
the war as not against the German people, but against their aggressive leaders; the
French president had completely different opinion Germany should be made weak so
that it never gains enough strength to wage such a war; Wilson disappointed with the
Versailles Treaty - all the blame for the war, made to pay for all the damage reparation
payments fixed to many millions of dollars;
Wilson persuaded the Allies to accept his plans for the League of Nations it was to be an
organization where representatives of the worlds nations would meet and settle their
differences by discussions instead of war;
Americans were not in favor of this idea; didnt want to be involved in European affairs or
disputes of other countries; Wilson started a campaign in order to persuade the public, but
on the way suffered a stroke and could not finish it; in March 1920 Senate voted against
the United States joining the League of Nations.
The dilemma remains, if the events that followed would have been prevented, had the
fourteen points suggested by Wilson been followed more closely.
35

3. The Roaring Twenties

American economy flourishes war debts repaid, factories produce more consumer
goods cars, electrical appliances assembly line / mass production doubles the output
between 1919 and 1920. Beginnings of the film industry silent movies;
Growth of industry more people had money to invest and take share of the profit more
people could buy new products installment plan motto: Live now pay tomorrow
Government (Republican) supported businessmen by placing high income tax on goods
from abroad and reduced tax on high income and company profits to enable rich men to
invest more President Hoover, elected in 1928 thought the same, although he new that
there were many people who were so poor that they didnt have enough to eat workers
in the bid cities and the farmers (sharecroppers in the south and in farm owners in the
west).
People who owned stocks in industrial companies did earn well; consumer goods were
sold well and the profits were high, which made the value of the shares go up.
The 1920s known for:
Red Scare after the Russian revolution in 1917 fears that this might happen in the US
people who criticised the system were regarded as enemies and esp. those with socialist
ideas were persecuted (e.g. the case of the Italian immigrants who were accused of a $15
000 robbery in Boston and executed even though it was never proven).
Prohibition 1919 passed 18th Amendment - prohibited the making or selling of alcohol
provoked illegal trade (bootleggers) and growth of gangs or mobs that acquired a lot of
money and power (Al Capone best known Chicago mob leader);

4. Crash and Depression

Wall Street Crash in the autumn of 1929 marked the end of the prosperity of the 1920s.
October 24th Black hursday (13 million shares sold)
October 29th - Terrifying Thursday (16.5 million shares sold)
What was it and what caused the crash?
The value of the stocks shares went up as there was more demand more people wanting
to buy and getting favourable terms (payment in installments) more people were able to do
that easy earnings by selling the shares for higher prices later = selling and buying
shares became like gambling.
Shares went much higher than the real value of the companies profits fictional /illusive/
money didnt really exist; some more rational people began to have doubts and started
selling the shares; as there were more people selling then buying the value of shares
started falling, so people were not gaining, but loosing; if they had taken loans they were
not able to return the money many banks collapsed and many people lost their savings
and retirement money; as more people sank into poverty, factories stopped producing so

36

much and started laying off workers, no new companies were open as people were
uncertain and didnt feel safe to invest this caused serious unemployment.
In the cities men roamed in the streets aimlessly, stood in breadlines and slept in the
street, desperate and without hope psychological effects deep and lasting.
In the country many people lost their farms and were homeless.
The real problem by the end of the 1920s not enough people in America buying the
ever growing number of products produced low workers wages and the disadvantaged
farmers kept the majority out of the flourishing market. The money concentrated in the
hands of the few who invested in more production that could not be absorbed. The crises
in Europe also contributed.
Hoover vs. Franklin Roosevelt
Hoover was a Republican and believed in the traditional individualism and private
enterprise he believed that the recovery will come without strong intervention of the
government, which he strongly opposed as it would make people lazy, he thought. He was
President during the crash and people expected him to do something about the ever
growing crises, but they were disappointed and did not elect him again.
F. Roosevelt was the Democratic candidate in the election of 1932 his main idea was
that the federal government should take some measures to fight the Depression and he
promised the anxious American people a New Deal. He was elected by large majority
only 6 states chose Hoover.
5. Franklin Roosevelts New Deal
After he was sworn president, F.R sent Congress a lot of proposals for new laws
Hundred days
-

Laws to set up agencies to to help the nation to recover from depression;

Civilian Conservation Corps created work for young people
Work Progress Administration set up people in jobs useful for the community
The Federal Emergency Relief Administration federal money for
unemployment and homeless;
The Agricultural Adjustment Administration paying farmers to produce less in
order to raise prices;
The Tennessee Valley Authority network of dams for electricity and to stop
floods in a poor southeastern region;
National Recovery Administration made sure businesses paid for wages and
charged fair prices;

Mainly projects funded by the federal budget in order to create jobs and boost up
consumption which was to create need for goods and will revitalize trade and industry, as
well as farming.
For workers:
-

1935 passed a law to protect their right to join the workers unions

National Labor Board government body to protect this right

37

Against fear of another collapse:

Social Security Act: government pensions to people unable to work &
unemployment insurance;
Even though there was opposition and some people thought that Roosevelts policies
would destroy the peoples ability to fight for their progress, he was enormously popular
among the voters and was re-elected by largest majority ever in the American history.
-

In fact what ended unemployment was the beginning of the Second World War. After Hitler
occupied Poland in Sept. 1939. American factories supplied the Allies with weapons and
factories demanded more workers. Then in 1941 the US joined the war and the
unemployment ended.
Franklin Roosevelt got very sick by the end of the war; in April 1945 he had a stroke and
died in a few hours; his Vice President Harry Truman took over as a President of the US.

7. The Second World War

Isolationist ideas America should stay out of the conflicts between foreign countries;
Neutrality Acts 1930s against selling military equipment or lending money to nations at
war;
Roosevelt persuaded Congress to suspend the Neutrality act and start gathering an army;
Land Lease Plan send supplies to Britain and other countries whose defense was
considered important for Americas safety without payment;
even to Russia when it was attacked in June 1941;
In Asia Japan invaded Manchuria and China, then the French colonies in Indochina
Japan a threat to peace in Asia and to American trade interests; US reduced trade with
Japan and in 1941 stopped shipment of oil 80% of Japans oil came from USA;
Japan decided to use the oil in southeast Asia and in order to make it impossible for the
Americans to stop them attacked the American Pacific Base at Pearl Harbor 2000 men
died;
US declared war on Dec. 8th, 1941, then Hitler declared war on the US, since Japan was
Germanys ally; US joined the Allies against the axis Germany and Japan;
The whole American industry was oriented towards war production weapons and
supplies for the army; secret research project the Manhattan Project by 1945 produced
the first atomic bomb.
First defeating Germany:
1943 in North Africa (defeated Rommel) 1943 Sicily Italy June 4th, 1944 freed
Rome;
1944, June 6th, - Normandy D-Day (D=Deliverance); advanced eastwards;
38

April 1945, British and American soldiers met advancing Russian soldiers on the River
Elbe in the middle Germany Hitler shot himself May 5th 1945 Germany surrendered;
In the Pacific first Japan conquered some countries in Southeast Asia (among them the
Philippines and trapped American soldiers in the bases there);
1943 an elaborate attack on Japanese forces began the pacific offensive the Allied
forces advanced and took islands that were near the Japanese islands air raids on
Japanese cities invasion planned;
On July 16, 1945 atomic bomb tested surprisingly effective; August 6, dropped one on
Hiroshima and on August 7, on Nagasaki. Devastating effects thousands people dead
grave consequences;
August 14, 1945 Japanese government surrendered; the Second World War finished;
The government was about to surrender anyway, so the dilemma remains whether it was
really necessary to drop the terrifying new weapons;

3.6 POSTWAR PERIOD

(second half of the 20th century)
April 25, 1945 United Nations (50 representatives in San Francisco; US Senat ratified
the UN Charter by large majority)

Prosperity Truman, Eisenhower (Fair Deal Reforms), John F. Kennedy & Sosial
Security Measures
Civil Rights Movement
Lyndon B. Johnson (1963 9) War on poverty
Richard Nixon (1969-1974) Watergate Affair
Gerald Ford
Jimmy Carter
Ronald Regan (1980)
Cold War - Korea, Cuba (iron curtain)
A Balance of Terror
Vietnam
End of cold war (detent improvement in relationships between countries which
have been unfriendly)

1. Civil Rights Movement

Blacks fought in the American Army during WWII with their distinguished actions won
equal status in the army.
In the North, Blacks contributed to the production of goods needed for the army earned
more money and acquired high positions.
Legal turning point: 1954 segregated schools declared illegal by the Supreme Court;

39

Little Rock, Arkansas black children tried to enroll in an all white school federal troops
helped the law to be enforced.
Dec. 1, 1955 Rosa Parks, Montgomery, Alabama resented segregation on the bus
arrested boycott of the buses led by young clergyman Martin Luther King (lasted for 1
year)
Nov. 1956 - the Supreme Court declared that segregation on buses was unconstitutional;
Climax: 1963 - Mass demonstration in Washington for full racial equality
John Kennedy (president) sympathized with the blacks, drew a plan that was a proposal
for a law assassinated in Dallas 1963
1964 Civil Rights Act became a law changes did not happen overnight racial
discrimination too deep-rooted in society;
1964 Riots in Los Angeles ghetto
1968 Martin Luther King murdered in Memphis, Tennessee
Black Power Movement proclaimed that Blacks should resort to force
1970s & 1980s voting a more effective way; many blacks elected to government
positions;
2. Cold War
Conflicts between the Soviet Union and the other Allies over interest zones Europe
divided Churchill cold this Iron Curtain separating communist ruled nations of the east
from the countries of the west;
- Americans feared communism and wanted to balance Soviet influence so that it does not
spread;
- Russians new that and feared that USA would drop an atomic bomb;
(suspicious of one another Cold War)
Truman Doctrine containment means: containing communism within the existing
borders, not let it spread out to other territories; Congress allotted money for the purpose
-

1947 helped Greece beat communism

Marshal Plan (Secretary of State George Marshal): sending help to Europe food,
fuel, raw materials, machines (Stalin refused it, so the help did not reach Eastern
Europe)
1952 Europe recovered from the war and began to prosper;

Containment in Asia:
Korea
Divided division line 38th parallel of latitude:
- North Korea Occupied by Soviet forces, communist government established
- South Korea USA

40

North Korea occupied South Korea UN troops (largely American) sent to help South
Korea;
China interfered the division line preserved;
Efforts for peaceful cooperation failed:
Cuba (Castro 1959 communist regime)
1962 missiles pointed towards USA discovered by a spy plane
USA blockade of the island set up; nuclear missiles directed towards the Soviet
Union
10 days tension on the edge of nuclear war
Khrushchev withdrew the missiles, crisis solved
Berlin Wall (July 1961) - built to stop the spill over of highly qualified work force from East
into West Germany; Berlin separated city for almost thirty years;
1989 citizens tore down the wall as the first step towards reuniting the two Germanies;
Hungary 1956 rebellion against Soviet control - occupied by Soviet Army; hoped for help
from the West, but did not get it;
Suez built in 1869 and maintained by an international company, mainly British and
French;
- 1956 Egypt nationalized the canal
- negotiations on a new form of international control
- Israel sent its army across Sinai Peninsula towards the Suez & Britain and France
landed troops in the canal zone;
- USA opposed this action and voted for immediate ceasefire and withdrawal of troops;
- March 1957, under the supervision of the UN, the canal was cleared and opened for
shipping.
Eisenhower Doctrine asked Congress for authorization to use force in the Middle East if
needed and to send help to any country in that region that will ask the USA for help (in
order to counter the growing Soviet efforts to gain a foothold in the Middle East);
Vietnam
1954 French driven out of Vietnam;
Ho Chi Minh communist leader North Vietnam
Americans helped the French against Ho (containment)
1950s and early 1960s presidents Eisenhower and then Kennedy sent money to South
Vietnam, later soldiers
1960s South Vietnam losing the war - Ho Chi Minh guerilla army (Vietkong people are
the water, our soldiers are the fish);
Lyndon Johnson sent soldiers to fight in Vietnam by 1968 there were 500 000;
Russians and Chinese sent help to South Vietnam.
Nixon (Henry Kisinger Secretary of State) from January 1973 till March 1973 American
soldiers left Vietnam.
41

Part Two
American Society
and Culture

42

AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
Constitution:
adopted June 21, 1788 the oldest constitution still in force
Represents supreme law of the land, above all other laws, protects the citizens of the US
from unseasonable actions by the national government or any state governments.
State laws have to comply with the provisions of the Constitution. If not they are ruled as
void (have no force) by the Supreme Court.
Final authority vested in the people can amend it or draw a new one.
People delegate the day-to-day business of government to public officials elected or
appointed control is assured by Constitution (officials public actions must conform to the
laws made in accordance with the Constitution):
- Elected officials stand for election;
- Appointed officials can be removed;
- President and justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life = free of
political obligation or influence;

Constitutional measure against misconduct of government officials = impeachment;

[to impeach to raise doubt about sth; to charge an important public figure with a serious
crime, of a court or other official body, esp. in the USA]
The House of Representatives must bring charges of misconduct by voting a bill of
impeachment. The accused official is tried in the Senate, with the chief justice of the
Supreme Court presiding at the trial. If convicted, the official is dismissed from office.
Since 1797 16 impeachments, 7 convicted
Presidents:
- 1868 Andrew Johnson (Senate wanted proper treatment of Confederate States) not
convicted
- 1974 Richard Nixon Watergate Affair (resigned before voting took place)
- 1998 Bill Clinton perjury and obstruction of justice (acquitted by Senate)

The principles of government: three main branches of government, separate and

distinct
- Separation of power
- Checks and balances

Supreme law all persons are equal before the law and are equally entitled to its
provisions. All states are equal each state must recognise the law of the others.
State government democratic in form like the federal government;

People have the right to change their form of national government by legal means
defined in the Constitution.
43

Provisions for amendments

Amendments enshrined in Article 5. The Constitution could be revised:
- Congress by a 2/3s vote in each house;
- States may ask Congress to call a national convention to discuss and draft
amendments;
- 3/4s of the states must approve before an amendment enters into force;
- Change by judicial interpretation: 1803 Marbury v. Medison (doctrine of judicial
review) = power of the Court to interpret acts of Congress and decide their
constitutionality.
Constitution amended 27 times since 1789:
-

First ten amendments the Bill of Rights: freedom of religion, speech, the
press, the right to complain to and about the government; 4,5,6 & 8 protect
people suspected or accused of crimes (also all US residents against arrest and
search without reason); 2nd amendment right to keep and bear arms;

13, 14, 15 Civil War Slavery;

14th passed to protect slaves from state laws that discriminate against them;
Prohibits the states from violating the rights of American citizens all people
have equal legal rights (While Bill of Rights protects people from federal action,
14th amendment protects them from state action)

Government
Legislative Branch Congress
Senate (upper house)
house)
(Senators 100/two from each state)
six years term, can be renewed

House of Representatives (lower

(congressmen/women 435 members
congressional district = constituency)
2 years term, renewed once

Function: to pass laws; proposed laws before passed = bills;

Bills must be approved by a majority of each house and by the President (veto);
If vetoed = 2/3s of the members in each house must vote for so that the bill can
become law;
Executive branch
President
Chief executive must see that all national laws are carried out; power to manage national
affairs and working of the national government; Presides over the Cabinet and appoints/
nominates Heads of Departments, approved/ confirmed by the Senate (14 Executive
Departments); issues rules, regulations and instructions [executive orders];
Commander in chief of the Army;

44

Foreign policy appoints ambassadors and receives foreign ambassadors; manages

official contacts; relations of USA with foreign nations;
Legislative role can veto any bill; can propose legislation;
Judicial power nomination of federal judges, including members of the Supreme Court,
confirmed by the Senate;

Judicial branch
Supreme Court
Federal Courts appeal courts [13], district courts [94]
Function: hears cases in which it represents the federal government, in cases where a
foreign official or a state is a party. Decides on constitutionality of certain laws passed by
states or by Congress.

Checks and Balances

Congress makes laws President approves and enforces;
Court determines what they mean and whether they are constitutional;
Separation of Power: one branch of government can not interfere with the others.
Political parties
Federalists

Democratic republicans

Whig (1828)
Republican
(1854 antislavery Lincoln)
1930s crisis

Hoover
(no intervention by the gov.)
right

Democrats

F. Roosevelt
(for intervention measures by the gov.)
left -

Presidential Elections
Presidential candidates chosen at:
- Party conventions caucus /
-

/ (for party members only);

State primary elections (open or close primaries)

Electoral College: a body of electors = people chosen under state laws and procedures to
vote for president and vice president. Each elector is expected to vote for the candidate
who won majority votes in his/her state;
Nr. of electors for each state = Nr. of representatives and senators in Congress;
To be elected = must have majority of votes in the Electoral College.
45

The US Government and Political Structure

1. U.S. Constitution dating from 1787, with 27 "amendments" (the 27th in 1992)
2. The Bill of Rights (1791), first 10 amendments added together
3. Separation of Powers into Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branches representing
different constituencies in different ways
4. Each branch has certain "checks and balances" over the others (Montesquieu)
5. "Bills" becoming Law must be agreed by the Executive branch and both chambers of the
Legislative Branch. After enactment they are subject to Review by the Judicial Branch
The Executive Branch
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

President and Vice-President, elected together on the same ticket

Must be at least 35 years old, natural-born citizens
Elected by an Electoral College, based on voting within the individual States
Four-year term, can be re-elected once (maximum of 8 normal-term years)
The Executive "Cabinet" (equivalent of Ministries, Ministers), consisting of 15 Departments
[State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and
Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education,
Veterans Affairs, and Homeland Security (2003)] headed by a "Secretary of xxx", with the
exception of the Department of Justice and its "Attorney General"
6. Federal elections are held every second year, on the "first Tuesday after the first Monday in
the month of November in even-numbered years". Each time, all 435 Representatives and
one-third of the 100 Senators are elected. Presidents are elected in every second Federal
election.
The (Bicameral) Legislative Branch: the U.S. Congress
1. The United States Senate
Represents the interests of the States; there are 100 Senators, 2 from each state
Six-year term of office, staggered over 2-year periods, no term limits
Must be at least 30 years old, citizen, resident of the state
Senate is the "upper chamber", powerful, "advice and consent" needed for
Executive appointments, ratification of treaties, etc.
2. The House of Representatives
Represents the people on a proportional basis by State; there are 435
Representatives from the 50 states
Each state must have at least one Representative, but can have more in proportion
to the state's population
Two-year term of office, all re-elected each Federal election
No term limits, must be at least 25 years old, citizen, live within the Congressional
Election District of the State which he/she represents
District boundaries may be redrawn [by the State governments] following each U.S.
Census
3. Seniority brings power to Senators and Representatives through becoming Chairs of key
legislative committees, and building contacts and influence "inside the Beltway"
4. Chair positions are held by the majority party following each federal election, usually by the
most senior member of that party on that committee.
5. Senators and Representatives both should "represent the views of their constituents."
Aspects of this include: contact between constituents and their representatives, public
nature of their voting, recall threats, occasional conflict between voting as the merits seem
to indicate vs. voting the views of one's constituents, lobbying and special-interest
influences, etc.

46

The Electoral College (only used for electing Presidents)

1. 538 members (=100 Senators and 435 Representatives, plus 3 from the District of
Columbia)
2. Each state has electoral votes totaling the number of senators (2) and representatives
(minimum 1, but variable in proportion to population) in that state.
3. Most state electoral votes are decided on an "all or nothing" basis; results are not
proportional to the votes received by each candidate, but rather by who "won" in each state
(Maine and Nebraska differ)
The United States Supreme Court (cf. State Supreme Courts)
1. Nine justices; one Chief Justice and 8 Associate Justices
2. Nominated by President, confirmed by Senate, for "duration of good behavior"
3. Highest court of appeal in the Federal Court System (cf. State Court Systems), original
jurisdiction in some instances
4. "Judicial Review" and the formation of "Constitutional Law"
Chooses ca. 80 cases per term of over 10,000 which are appealed to it
Decisions of the court are final in deciding on the "Constitutionality" of a law
5. Recent need for "political", racial, ethnic and gender "balancing" of justices and potential
long-term influence has made the nomination and confirmation process lengthy and heated
Election Dates and Types, Voting Terminology
1. Federal elections are held every two years, Presidential elections are every second federal
election (every four years); distinct from state, county, and municipal elections
2. Number of elective offices (federal, state, county, municipal) and "issues" on the ballot,
3. Differences in number of parties, types of choices, among the states
4. Polls, polling station, a ballot, proposition, initiative, amendment, statutory measure,
referendum, recall, partisan & non-partisan politics
5. In some states, the option to vote a "straight" or "split ticket" for candidates in elections, as
well as the option of write-in votes (applies only to candidates running for office, and not to
the numerous initiatives, propositions, referenda, etc., which may also be on an election
ballot)
6. Primary elections, open and closed primaries, "crossover voting", aim of primaries is to
make selection of candidates more democratic, avoid "smoke-filled back rooms"
7. The electorate, a constituency, the incumbent, "mandate" from the voters
Political Parties
1. Republicans (conservative) and Democrats (liberal) best-known, but many other parties
2. Comparatively little party discipline (cf. Europe) in elections, general Congressional voting
(cf. partisan voting on procedural issues)
3. Votes often go to "individuals" rather than to "parties" (cf. split-ticket inferences from State
election results); "individualism" often prevails over party or ideology
4. Political party conventions, a party platform, "planks" in the party platform
State and Local Government and Elections
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

All state legislatures are bicameral except Nebraska (unicameral)

State laws are based on English Common Law except for Louisiana (Napoleonic Code)
Most states are divided into "counties", but Louisiana into "parishes"
State Governors, Lt. Governors, Cabinet positions, etc. often elected individually
"States" may have different official names; e.g. the "Commonwealth of Massachusetts"
Municipal elections; cities are divided into "precincts" and "wards"

47

Law Enforcement, Policing and Investigation

1.
2.
3.
4.

Hierarchical (decentralized) structure; jurisdiction may overlap

Federal level: FBI, U.S. Customs, Federal Marshals, etc.
State level: State Police (Highway Patrol, State Troopers)
County Level: Sheriffs (usually elected by popular vote)

5. City level: City police, widely-varying training and specializations

6. Courts: Municipal, county, state district, state Supreme, federal district, federal appeals,
U.S. Supreme; plus tax courts, customs courts, etc.

The U.S. Constitution "Bill of Rights"

1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
2. A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the
people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
3. No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the
Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
4. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue,
but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the
place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
5. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a
presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval
forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any
person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall
be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life,
liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public
use, without just compensation.
6. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by
an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed,
which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the
nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to
have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance
of Counsel for his defence.
7. In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the
right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual
punishments inflicted.
9. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or
disparage others retained by the people.
10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to
the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

48

The Justice System of the United States

The justice system in the United States has two "branches", the federal and the 50 different statelevel systems. The state level systems vary from one state to another, so this paper will
concentrate on the federal level.
The federal justice system in the United States has three levels. The Supreme Court is the highest
court, with appellate and trial courts under it. Outside this judicial branch are the Trial and
Appellate Military Courts, The Court of Veterans Appeals, the U.S. Tax Court and various federal
administrative agencies and boards.
The sources of contemporary US law

Common (case) law accepted in all states except in Louisiana

Statutory law

Common (case) law

Administered and interpreted by state courts and found in court decision of judges
Judges adopt established principles of law from previous cases
Earlier decisions create precedents which are followed in subsequent similar cases

Statutory law

Laws passed by state or federal legislatures

Interpreted and determined by courts
At federal levels, it is virtually the only type of law and includes:

The Constitution
Treaties
Acts of Congress
Presidential proclamations
Executive orders and rules of federal departments

Legal System Differences between Europe and United States

Europe
Legislation is rarely amended and regulations are rarely revised
Courts are not as often asked to give their interpretations
If they are, the decisions are rarely appealed
United States
Laws and regulations are constantly being amended or revised by legislatures and
the agencies

Legal System Differences between England and the U.S.

England has a split legal profession with barristers and solicitors

England has no jury for civil court actions
Contingency fees less common in England
Award of costs to the winner in civil litigation standard in England
Pretrial discovery differs

49

The Trial Courts

Trial court is another name for a district court. Both these names are generally used. There are 94
federal judicial districts in the United States, with at least one district in each state, and also in the
District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. The district courts have jurisdiction to hear nearly all
categories of civil and criminal matters; all of the 94 districts also have a bankruptcy court as an
included unit of the district court.
There are also two special trial courts with nationwide jurisdiction: the Court of International Trade
and the United States Court of Federal Claims. The first court handles cases involving international
trade and customs issues. The second court addresses most claims for monetary damages
against the United States, handles disputes over federal contracts, unlawful "takings" of private
property by the federal government, and a variety of other claims against the United States.
Nearly 63,000 criminal cases were filed in trial courts in the year 2000, and the number of civil
cases was almost 260,000 (Caseload).

A Structural Overview of the United States Federal Courts

Appellate Courts
The 94 judicial districts form 12 regional circuits. Each of these regional circuits has a Court of
Appeals. A court of appeals hears appeals from the district courts located within its circuit. There is
also one Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has nationwide jurisdiction to hear appeals
in cases such as those involving patent laws and cases decided by the Court of International Trade
and the Court of Federal Claims. There have been Courts of Appeal since 1891.
When the appellant appeals to any one of the appellate courts, he cannot introduce new evidence,
but must demonstrate that the district court judge made an error of law or an error in procedure in
the original case which is being appealed.
In 1989, over 40,000 appeals were brought to the Courts of Appeal, and in most cases their
decisions were the final judgment. Only 1.4% of appellate court decisions are ever reversed by the
Supreme Court. The number of appeals is growing all the time.

50

The table below shows the names of the circuits and the states where the specific court of appeals
has jurisdiction.
The United States Courts of Appeal
Circuit

Jurisdiction

Federal

Includes patents, trademarks, some civil actions in which US

government is defendant including those based on contract and
international trade.

District of Columbia

District of Columbia

First Circuit

Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Puerto Rico and

Rhode Island

Second Circuit

Vermont, Connecticut and New York

Third Circuit

New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Virgin Islands

Fourth Circuit

Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia and West

Virginia

Fifth Circuit

Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas

Sixth Circuit

Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio and Tennessee

Seventh Circuit

Illinois, Indiana and Wisconsin

Eighth Circuit

Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Nebraska and North

Dakota

Ninth Circuit

California, Oregon, Nevada, Montana, Washington, Idaho,

Arizona, Alaska, Hawaii and the Territory of Guam

Tenth Circuit

Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah and Wyoming

Eleventh Circuit

Alabama, Florida and Georgia

There are about 175 judges in these circuits. The Ninth Circuit has the largest number of judges,
28, and the First circuit has the smallest, only six. The size of the bench (number of judges) in each
circuit varies and each circuit has its own chief justice.

The United States Supreme Court

The United States Supreme Court is the only court explicitly created by the U.S. Constitution; the
other courts were created by Congress. The U.S. Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice of
the United States and eight Associate Justices. The number of Associate Justices can be fixed
by Congress; however, the Act of June 25, 1948 (Title 28 of the U.S. Code, Section 1), established
the number as eight.
The Supreme Court hears a limited number of the cases which are appealed to it. Usually, the
cases involve important questions about the Constitution or federal law. The ruling of the Supreme
Court on a constitutional issue is virtually final and can be altered only by the rarely-used
procedure of constitutional amendment or by a new ruling of the Supreme Court (The Court and
Constitutional, 2).
The President of the United States nominates the justices to the Supreme Court under Article III of
the U.S. Constitution. This appointment can only be made if the Senate consents. As these "Article

51

III justices" are appointed for life, they can only be removed through the impeachment process.
However, they are allowed, but not required, to retire at the age of 70.
The annual Term of the Supreme Court begins, by statute, on the first Monday of October and
usually sits until late June or early July (The Court and Its Procedures, 1). The court considers
about 7,000 cases a year. In addition, each year some 1,200 applications of various kinds are filed
and can be acted upon by a single Justice (A Brief, 2).

The Supreme Court Case Selection

The U.S. Supreme Court hears more than 7,000 cases a year. Plenary reviews with oral
arguments by attorneys are granted in about 10% cases, formal written opinions are delivered in
80 - 90 cases, and approximately 50 - 60 additional cases are disposed of without granting plenary
review. Each week, the Justices evaluate more than 120 petitions seeking a review by the
Supreme Court.
The Term of the Supreme Court is divided between "sittings," when the Justices hear cases and
deliver opinions, and intervening "recesses," when they consider the business before the Court
and write opinions. Sittings and recesses alternate at approximately two-week intervals.
The Supreme Court usually selects cases which involve interpretations of the U.S. Constitution or
federal law. At least four Justices must have selected the case for it to be heard.
Each side has 20 minutes to argue its case in front of the Supreme Court . There is no jury and
there are no witnesses, and for each case the Supreme Court has the records> of prior
proceedings and printed briefs which contain the arguments of each side.
Before the oral argument each side will have submitted a legal brief to the Supreme Court,
outlining the party's points of. The Justices will be thoroughly familiar with the case and they will
ask questions which the counsel must carefully answer . The counsel's behavior in front of the
Supreme Court Justices is closely regulated and every counsel gets a conduct guide [large PDFfile] before their case.
The Justices study the argued case and also forthcoming cases during the recesses. The Justices
meet to discuss the argued cases and to discuss and vote on petitions for review on Fridays during
and preceding argument weeks.

52

The legal profession

http://www.duhaime.org/LegalDictionary

Lawyer

Public Defender

A person that has been trained in the law and that has been certified to give
legal advice or to represent others in litigation.

An attorney in the USA paid for by the state but representing an indigent individual
in a criminal matter

Public Prosecutor

Lawyers hired by the government to administer the prosecution of criminal charges in the
courts
Types of lawyers
Solicitor

A lawyer that restricts his or her practice to the giving of legal advice and
preparation of formal legal documents, and does not normally litigate.

Barrister

A litigation specialist; a lawyer that restricts to, or includes within, his or her practice,
the court room and trial, or who makes Court appearances on behalf of his/her clients. Also known
as a trial lawyer.
Litigation

A dispute is in 'litigation' (or being 'litigated') when it has become the subject of a
formal court action or law suit.

Attorney

An alternate word for lawyers or barrister and solicitor, used mostly in the USA.

Trial by jury
Jury

A group of citizens randomly selected from the general population and brought
together to assist justice by deciding which version, in their opinion, constitutes 'the
truth' given different evidence by opposing parties.

Jury > 6 -12 citizens, depending on the level of courts

Unanimous decision is needed in federal criminal cases

Trial by jury is a fundamental tradition in America and is guaranteed in indictable criminal

cases (6th amendment)

A defendant charged with a capital offence such as murder must have previously been
indicted by a Grand Jury

Grand Jury
Generally a group of 12 to 23 citizens who meet in closed sessions to investigate charges
coming from preliminary hearings or to engage in other responsibilities. A primary purpose
of the grand jury is to determine whether there is probable cause to believe that the
accused committed the crime or crimes.

53

Because the grand jury has to determine only probable cause: only the prosecutions
evidence and witnesses are heard

In most jurisdictions, the defendant does not have a right to be present

Prosecutors are allowed to present hearsay or illegally obtained evidence
In addition, prosecutors have the authority to subpoena witnesses.
In practice, the grand jury system is criticized for merely providing a rubber stamp for whatever
the prosecutor wants to do.
Suspects waive the right to a grand jury hearing in about 80% of cases.
Key Actors in the Court Process
The three key actors in the court process are:
The prosecutor

The defense attorney

The judge

-The Decision to Plea-Bargain

Probably the most strategic source of power available to prosecutors is their authority to
decide which cases to plea bargain.

Negotiations during a criminal trial, between an accused person and a prosecutor in which
the accused agrees to admit to a crime (sometimes a lesser crime than the one set out in
the original charge), avoiding the expense of a public trial, in exchange for which the
prosecutor agrees to ask for a more lenient sentence than would have been recommended
if the case had of proceeded to full trial.

Justice in America is dispensed mostly through plea bargaining.

The Defense Attorney

The Sixth Amendment to the Constitution guarantees the right to the effective assistance of
counsel.
Defendants have a right to counsel during many stages in the criminal justice process.
In the American system of justice, the role of defense counsel is to provide the best possible legal
counsel and advocacy within the legal and ethical limits of the profession.
The Court-Appointed Lawyer
In some circumstances, defendants who cannot afford a lawyer are provided with a courtappointed, private attorney.

If they are paid at all, court-appointed private attorneys are paid a nominal sum.

The Public Defender

In many large jurisdictions, people who cannot afford an attorney are provided with public
defenders.
Public defenders are paid a fixed salary by the jurisdiction.

Although public defenders may have a conflict of interest because of their close working
relationship with prosecutors and judges, most defendants prefer them because they
specialize in criminal law.

54

The Contract Lawyer

A relatively new and increasingly popular way to provide for indigent defense is the contract
system.
Private attorneys, law firms, and bar associations bid for the right to represent a
jurisdictions indigent defendants, and are paid a fixed dollar amount.
The Judge
Judges have a variety of responsibilities in the criminal justice process:
Determining probable cause
Signing warrants
Informing suspects of their rights
Setting and revoking bail
Arraigning defendants
Accepting guilty pleas
In some jurisdictions, managing their own courtrooms and staff
Allowing the jury a fair chance to reach a verdict on the evidence presented
Contingency fee
A method of payment of legal fees represented by a percentage of an award.

Lawyers get paid in one of two ways: either you pay a straight hourly rate (eg. $400 an
hour) or the lawyer might "gamble" (i.e. "contingency" fee) and agree to only get paid if the
claim is successful and by taking a portion (eg. one-third) of any award that comes after the
filing of the claim.

This allows the client to receive legal services without putting any money down and it allows
the lawyer to advertise "we don't get paid unless you do.

Pro bono legal work

Provided at no cost to the interested party.

It is derived from pro bono publico, which means "for the public good.

Law firms donate a certain percentage of their time to assisting poor clients on a pro bono
basis.

Private attorneys (American Bar Association) - contribute at least 50 hours of pro bono
legal work each year

Miranda warning
Also known as the "Miranda Rule, this is the name given to the requirement that
police officers, in the U.S.A., must warn suspects upon arrest:

that they have the right to remain silent, that any statement that they make could be
used against them in a court of law, that they have the right to contact a lawyer and
that if they cannot afford a lawyer, that one will be provided before any questioning,
if so requested.

Failure to issue the Miranda warning results in the information or confessions and the like,
so obtained, to not be admissible as evidence in the court.

The warning became a national police requirement when ordered by the US Supreme
Court in the 1966 case Ernest Miranda v. Arizona and that is how it got the name.

Criminal suspects are entitled to legal counsel (6th amendment) reflected in the
well-known Miranda warnings

55

Death penalty
As of April 1, 2008, the Death Penalty was authorized by 37 states, the Federal Government,
and the U.S. Military.
Those jurisdictions without the Death Penalty include 13 states and the District of Columbia.
(Alaska, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, North
Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin).
In 2008, the Nebraska Supreme Court ruled that the use of the electric chair as a method of
execution violated the Nebraska Constitution. With no alternative method of execution on the
books, Nebraska is practically without a death penalty.
In 2004, the New York Supreme Court ruled that the existing death penalty procedures violated
the New York Constitution. The New York legislature has made no effort to change the
procedures, effectively eliminating the death penalty in the state.
Capital punishment - Pros and cons
Americans feel that crime and violence are among the most serious problems in the US.
They are afraid that these might directly affect their own lives and wish for strong punitive
responses to them.
The 8th amendment (Bill of Rights) explicitly outlaws cruel and unusual punishment
controversial: death penalty is authorized by 37 states.
Supporters of death penalty (75% of the public, according to opinion polls) tend to argue for its
deterrent force, its use as a valid punishment for criminals and its revenge capacity.
Opponents of capital punishment maintain that it is unconstitutional as a cruel and unusual
punishment and does not serve as a deterrent.

56

American Economic Structure and Institutions

Image and Magnitude of the American Economy

The business of America," President Calvin Coolidge said in 1925, "is business."
Substitute "preoccupation" for the first "business," and you have a capsule
summary of the entrepreneurial spirit behind America's prosperity.
The United States declared its independence in the same year, 1776, that Scottish
economist Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, a book that has had an
enormous influence on American economic development.

The American economic system

Like many other thinkers, Smith believed that in a capitalist system people are
naturally selfish and are moved to engage in manufacturing and trade in order to
gain wealth and power.
Smith's originality was to argue that such activity is beneficial because it leads to
increased production and sharpens competition. As a result, goods circulate
more widely and at lower prices, jobs are created, and wealth is spread.
Most Americans believe that the rise of their nation as a great economic power
could not have occurred under any system except capitalism, also known as free
enterprise after a corollary to Smith's thinking: that government should interfere
in commerce as little as possible.
HOW HAS THE CONSTITUTION SHAPED THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM IN THE UNITED
STATES?
The U.S. Constitution is an economic document as well as a political one.
Numerous provisions in the Constitution that support and encourage the operation of a
market economy
Thus, as the basic "law of the land," the U.S Constitution defines the essential features
of our economy:
Private Property
Freedom of Enterprise and Choice
Motive of Self-interest
Competition
Markets and Prices
Limited Role of Government
The general welfare
The Preamble to the Constitution:
We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish
justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the
general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity,
do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
"promote the general welfare - this phrase has been used to justify government
intervention in the market economy, for example: minimum wage laws, social
security, unemployment compensation, and occupational safety regulations.

57

The contemporary national economy

1. Comparative GNP, reputation: ('business of America is business', 'Americanization',
'consumer society', etc.)
2. High percentage of many sectors of world production, resources
3. California alone would be the 70th-10th largest 'global' economy at ca. $1.7 trillion GDP
(exceeded only the U.S., China, Japan, India, Germany, the U.K., Russia, France, Brazil
and Italy, depending on which statistics are used)
4. Uneven distribution of wealth, individually and regionally; regional concentration of
traditional 'smokestack' industries (iron belt, steel belt, industrial belt, rust belt) vs newer IT
centers (Silicon Valley, Silicon Alley, Silicon Forest, Silicon Prairie, Route 128, etc.);
differences in average income of different states, etc.
5. Knowledge-based 'information' economy mobile, global; importer of knowledge, capital,
and resources, abundant information available ('Fortune 500'), 'public' stock exchange
company data, U.S. Government Budget, etc.)
Structure and Images of Working Force
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Primary producers (agriculture, mining, etc.) ca. 3%

Secondary producers (manufacturing, building) ca. 20%
Tertiary activities (trade, government, professions) ca. 63%
Self-employed, unemployed , "flexi-time, home-office...
Over 50% employed in "information work" cf physical services or primary/secondary
Blue & white collar workers; pink collar, gold collar; also 'glass ceiling', 'silicon ceiling',
etc.

Blue collar > manufacturing, manual workers

White collar > bank tellers, clerks, government jobs
Pink collar > job considered to be a female occupation (nurse, secretary, maid, nanny,
flight attendant, teacher)
Gold collar [GCW] > highly skilled and highly valuable knowledge workers (lawyers,
comp. programmers, engineers, stock analysts)
Job discrimination

Glass ceiling > limited advancement of deaf, blind, disabled, aged, black and sexual
minorities. It is an invisible (transparent) barrier that prevents women and minorities from
advancing in business
Silicon ceiling > communication b/w men and women working in computer technology
industries

Unions:
Unions are now recruiting members from a new proletariat of low-wage African Americans
and immigrants from Laos and Vietnam
Global economy crisis reflected in increasing the number of unemployed
Unions: AFL-CIO, UAW, Teamsters, etc. largely non-ideological though traditionally
inclined toward the Democratic party
Collective bargaining, binding arbitration, Taft-Hartley (anti-strike) legislation, strong
traditional distrust of unions;
Taft-Hartley Act authorizes individual states to outlaw the union shop and agency shop for
employees working in their jurisdictions.

58

 In other words, the employee has the right to work, regardless of whether or not he or she
is a member or financial contributor to such a union.
Current decline in blue-collar union membership; rise in white-collar and professional
'unions'.
Only 13% of U.S. workers unionized
Government Influence on the Economy; Banking and Payments; Individual Taxation
1. Fiscal vs monetary policy; USG FY (FY2010) October-September
2. The Federal Reserve System (the 'Fed') 12 district reserve banks, monetary policy
regulation via prime interest rate, etc., administrator of 'clearinghouse' system of checkbased payments for private banks
3. Traditionally no national branch banking, reliance on personal checks as payment system,
thus need for guarantor/clearinghouse mechanism
4. Recent government 'intervention' in the economy (cf. the September 2008 takeover by the
federal government of "Fannie Mae" [The Federal National Mortgage Association, or
FNMA] and "Freddie Mac" (The Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, with the
common name an analogue of "Fannie Mae")
5. Federal (vs. State and local) taxation: personal vs. business tax (fiscal) year, limits on
employer-withheld tax, ability of 'affluent' individuals to reduce overall tax liability by
investment in tax-exempt securities, donations to tax-exempt institutions, etc.
6. Individual retirement accounts [IRA's] , matching-value stock plans, etc.
Business, Manufacturing, Stock Exchanges, Labor Unions
1. Although bulk of manufacturing/business is via 'small business' (fewer than 20 employees
as one definition), economy dominated by large conglomerate corporations
2. However, competition an important concept: Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) as basis for
most current competition legislation
3. "Wall Street" & various public stock exchanges, Dow Jones, NASDAQ & Standard & Poor's
indexes, public takeovers and stock buyouts of companies, corporate write-offs,
restructuring, parent and subsidiary corporations, corporate diversity, synergy; traditional
stockbroker agencies vs recent net-based 'day trading'
THE STOCK MARKET
Larger businesses are more likely to acquire cash by selling stocks or bonds to unrelated parties.
These transactions usually take place through a stock exchange, or stock market. Europeans
established the first stock exchange in Antwerp, Belgium, in 1531.
It was brought to the United States in 1792, the institution of the stock market flourished, especially
at the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), located in the Wall Street area of New York City, the
nation's financial hub.
NYSE is internationally known for its Dow Jones average = a list of prices of stocks and bonds in
companies on the Exchange.
Dow Jones very influential, investors and governments see it as an accurate indicator of USs
economic health.
The NASDAQ Stock Market, known as NASDAQ, is an American stock exchange.
It is the largest electronic screen-based equity securities trading market in the United States.
With approximately 3,700 companies and corporations, it has more trading volume than any other
stock exchange in the world.

59

Agriculture, Agribusiness, the 'Food and Fiber Industry'

1. Agricultural production as a chief U.S. export sector, especially wheat, corn, soybeans,
oranges, chickens, beef, rice, cotton, sugar, tobacco, fruit, GM technologies, etc.
2. Steady 20th century increase in production simultaneous with decline in number of farms
and farmers since 1920; hybrid and GM seeds and fertilizing techniques, improved soil &
crop rotation, state university agricultural extension office services, reliance on capitalintensive mechanization to compensate for lack of physical labor, need to produce
3. 'Farmer' stereotype changing to 'agribusiness' stereotype; not just traditional hard work &
muddy boots but also information technology, high capital costs, needs to develop &
consolidate markets, produce crop supply to match market demand, etc.
4. Dilemma of needing to increase efficiency and value of output to offset rising capital costs,
taxation overhead & threat of reduced government subsidies vs concern over increased
specialization of production, possible GM ('transgenetic') consequences, takeover of the
'family farm' by large commercial agri-corporations, etc.

Successful economy what enabled that?

land, water and favourable climate conditions
natural resources:
-

iron: north- east (esp. Lake Superior District)

zinc, copper, silver: the West, esp. Texas and California = mineral producing areas

coal: the Appalachian Mountains (Pennsylvania, Virginia)

oil: Philadelphia, the Southwest (Texas, Louisiana)

Political system that encouraged entrepreneurship individual initiative (frontier mentality =

willingness to try something new and readiness to risk)

Leading corporations:
General Motors (Detroit)
and
Ford (Michigan)
- vehicles
Exxon (New York)
oil refining
International Business Machines (IBM) computers
General Electric (Connecticut)
- electronics

Agriculture
USA started as a nation of farmers

At the time of the Revolution (1775-83) 95% of the population was engaged in farming

Today less than 2% of the working force is engaged in farming

individuals and families own 64% of the farmland the rest is owned by the big or small
corporations - agribusiness = farming and related industries

60

As settlement advanced from east to west various types of farms came to exist.
Typically: scattered farmhouse and related buildings in the middle of the land owned esp. in the
Midwest, the Great Plains and the South. Large stretches of gently rolling land provided conditions
for large-scale agriculture.
Homestead Act (1862) = offered homestead of 65 hectares to each family of settlers for a nominal
fee (stakeholders)
There was more land than people. Farmers were willing to accept all innovations to make work
easier and more productive.
Decline in agricultural prices 1920s, during and after the Great Depression in 1930s still lower
-

laws to protect farmers and their products

federally subsidized basic crops: grains, dairy products and cotton

Nowadays USA is the leading agricultural nation the only country that produces enough food for
its population
grains: 20% of worlds production of wheat, corn, oats
14% of worlds dairy products
17% of its meats
60% of soybeans
American farmers produce more food than needed which has lowered the prices (and made many
farmers to change occupation). The higher production rate was enabled by:
use of irrigation
use of chemicals
bio-engineering
Disruption of natural configuration of the land and of plant and animal habitates. Since the 1970s
and 1980s strong opposition resulted in passing legislation for protection of nature.
Industry
In 1900 USA overtook Great Britain sa the most prosperous nation ever since the greatest
industrial nation / the strongest world economy
In 1913 US accounted for more than 1/3 of the worlds industrial production
Post World War II 50% of worlds gross product
Nowadays still dominant, although not so much participates with around 25% of the worlds
industrial products, agricultural goods and services.
GNP gross national product (bruto nacionalen proizvod) tripled since WW II

61

It is not any more the world leader in all areas, but still dominates in:
-

biochemical and genetic engineering

aerospace research

communications

computer and information services (Silicon Valley near San Francisco many more around
the world, but still the biggest)

similar high-technology fields

Progress: traced to a characteristic that is typically American

- This is the constant willingness to experiment, combined with the desire to find new
solutions to old problems.
-

Social and geographic mobility have also played part. When some industries had problems
in the Midwest people moved to areas where they could find jobs. The legacy of The
American Frontier.

Now, fewer workers in manufacturing while the number of white collar jobs grows selling
services, rather than products.
Services in growth:
-

entertainment and recreation

hotels and restaurants

communications and education

banking, financing, insurance

The latest trend home office more and more people work from home

Attitudes to the economic system

Political conservatives believe there is too much government regulation of business.
They argue that some of the rules that firms must follow are unnecessary and costly.
In response to such complaints, the government has tried to reduce the paperwork required of
businesses and to set overall goals or standards for businesses to reach, as opposed to
dictating detailed rules of operation.

The American dream

The rules and regulations governing business conduct today do not seem to prevent ambitious
Americans from realizing their dreams -- and occasionally of surpassing them.
One such entrepreneur is Bill Gates. Gates started a computer software company called
Microsoft in 1975, when he was 20 years old.
Just three decades later, Microsoft was the world's largest software company, with 20,000
employees worldwide and annual net income of more than $2 thousand million a year.

62

United States Foreign Policy

The Shift from Anti-communism to Anti-terrorism & the Spread of Democracy
1989-2009

The Cold War set the framework for 45 years after the end of World War II.
It also influenced American domestic politics, the conduct of foreign affairs, and the role
of the government in the economy after 1945.
The Cold War was essentially a competition between two very different ways of
organizing government, society, and economy:
the American-led western nations belief in democracy, individual freedom and a
market economy,
and the Soviet-led belief in a totalitarian state and socialism.
Origins of the Cold War
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed as a defensive alliance
among the United States and western European countries to prevent a Soviet invasion
of Western Europe.
Soviet allies in Eastern Europe formed the Warsaw Pact and for nearly 50 years both
sides maintained large military forces facing each other in Europe.
The U.S. governments anti-Communist strategy of containment in Asia led to
Americas involvement in the Korean and Vietnamese Wars.
The Vietnam War demonstrated the power of American public opinion in reversing
foreign policy.
It tested the democratic system to its limits, left scars on American society that have
not yet been erased, and made many Americans deeply skeptical of future military or
even peacekeeping interventions.
The Cold War lasted from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union
in 1991.
The Collapse of Communism and End of the Cold War
Both internal and external pressures caused the collapse of the Soviet Union
Internal Problems of the Soviet Union
Increasing Soviet military expenses to compete with the United states
Rising nationalism in Soviet republics
Fast-paced reforms (market economy)
Economic inefficiency
Gorbachev glasnost and perestroika (openness and economic restructuring)

Role of Ronald Reagan

40th President of the United States -In office: January 20, 1981 January
20, 1989
Challenged moral legitimacy of the Soviet Union; for example, speech at Berlin Wall
(Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall)
Increased U.S. military and economic pressure on the Soviet Union.
President George H.W. Bush
41st President of the United States- In office: January 20, 1989 January 20, 1993
The Berlin Wall comes down
The Cold War ends
63

1993- Mikhail Gorbachev resigns the presidency and Boris Yeltsin takes over as the
leader of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Panama
1989 - The U.S. invades Panama, takes dictator Manuel Noriega out of power, and
helps to establish a Panamanian democracy.
The Gulf War (1990-1991)
1990 - Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait. President Bush responds with Operation
Desert Storm, sending troops to the Persian Gulf.
General Norman Schwarzkopf US commander of the armed forces operation
Desert Storm
The 1991 Gulf War represented a radical escalation of U.S. intervention in the region
and an attempt to usher in a new 'world order' of unfettered U.S. dominance.
These objectives demanded crushing Iraq as a regional power and forcefully
demonstrating U.S. military power to the world.
-88,500 tons of bombs were dropped on Iraq, the explosive equivalent of six
Hiroshimas. But they were not only dropped on Iraq's military, but on its economic and
social infrastructure as well-the foundations of civilian life.
The Effects of the Invasion
No one knows precisely how many Iraqis died or were permanently injured as a result
of the 1991 Gulf War and 12 years of sanctions.
In 2002, the Iraqi government stated that 1.7 million children had died from disease or
malnutrition since the imposition of sanctions in August 1990
President Bill Clinton
42nd President of the United States - In office: January 20, 1993 January 20, 2001
Bosnia
1994-1996 - The U.S. helps to suppress conflict between the Bosnian Serbs and the
Croat-Muslim forces, and proceeds to establish a democratic system in Bosnia.
KOSOVO (1999)
1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between March 24 and
June 10, 1999
NATO attacked Yugoslavia, and Albanian paramilitaries continued battles with
Yugoslav forces, amidst a massive displacement of population in Kosovo estimated to
be close to 1 million people.
Result
Kumanovo Treaty
Yugoslav security forces pull out of Kosovo; FR Yugoslavia maintains sovereignty.
Territorial changes
No legal changes to Yugoslav borders according to the Resolution 1244, but effective
political and economic separation of Kosovo from the rest of Yugoslavia under United
Nations temporary administration.
Kosovo independence February 2008.
Meanwhile, terrorist forces begin to rise around the world.
In 1996, Osama bin Laden aligned himself with the Taliban and joined Al-Qaeda.
Al-Qaeda suicide bombers began launching attacks against the United States.

64

President George W. Bush

September 11, 2001
The War on Terrorism
The War in Iraq
2003 Joined by British troops, the U.S. invades Iraq and takes Saddam Hussein out
of power.
2005 - The U.S. establishes democracy in Iraq.
The 2003 invasion and occupation were designed to solidify American political/military
domination of the energy heart of world-the Middle East/Central Asian region, and are
part of broader efforts to secure control of global energy sources
Liberation' is merely 21st century neo-colonialism.
President Barack Obama
Under the Obama Administration, the U.S. continues to fight terrorism and work for
stability in the Middle East, particularly in Afghanistan.
The U.S. is also working to keep weapons of mass destruction out of the hands of
dangerous regimes, like those in Iran and North Korea.
We sleep peacefully at night, cradled by the big strong hands of America. -Val
Saintsbury

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Education in the United States

General Background and Administrative Structure
Education is the responsibility of each of the 50 states. While overall structure is
similar, there may be considerable differences in financing, options, 'equality' and other
aspects from state to state.
Public education is further decentralized within each state from a State Board of
Education down to local school districts; general requirements established by the State
Board of Education are implemented by school districts relative to local need and
financing.
Local school districts are administered by an elected School Board, of public citizens,
headed by a hired educational professional, the Superintendent of Schools. The School
Board hires teachers, decides on textbooks to be used, and administers local school
finances.
School financing is traditionally based on property taxation, but in recent decades has
increasingly been supplemented by State and sometimes Federal funding in order to
increase equal opportunity (for example between suburban and "inner city" schools).
Public schools provide a 12-year curriculum (K-12) of primary and secondary education
leading to the High School Diploma. Usually structured in a "6-3-3" plan, but "6-2-4", "84" and other options are also used.
In addition to public schools, there may also be "parochial" and private schools which
provide either all or parts of the 12-year curriculum.
No Child Left Behind Act (2001)
The 'No Child Left Behind' initiative of President George W. Bush (currently affecting
grades 3-8) was an attempt to create more universal standards and ensure equality of
educational resources via compulsory 'standards' testing.
The Act (often abbreviated in print as NCLB and sometimes shortened in pronunciation
to "nicklebee) requires states to develop assessments in basic skills to be given to all
students in certain grades, if those states are to receive federal funding for schools.
The Act does not assert a national achievement standard; standards are set by each
individual state.
Both the implementation and results have been controversial.
EDUCATION, A LOCAL MATTER
Each of the 50 states has its own laws regulating education
All states require young people to attend school. The age limit varies, however.
Most states require attendance up to age 16, some up to 18.
Thus, every child in America receives at least 11 years of education.
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 This is true regardless of a child's sex, race, religion, learning problems, physical
handicaps, ability to speak English, citizenship, or status as an immigrant.
Curriculum
Although there is no national curriculum in the United States, certain subjects are
taught in virtually all elementary and secondary schools throughout the country.
Almost every elementary school, for example, teaches mathematics; language arts
(including reading, grammar, writing, and literature); penmanship; science; social
studies (including history, geography, citizenship, and economics); and physical
education. In many schools, children are taught how to use computers, which have
also become integral parts of other courses.
In addition to required courses -- for example, a year of American history, two years
of literature, etc. -- secondary schools, like colleges, typically offer electives.
Popular electives include performing arts, driver's education, cooking, and "shop"
(use of tools, carpentry, and repair of machinery).
Different types of schools
In large public school districts [where the same district includes more than one
school for each level] there may be "magnet schools," which "attract" higher-level
students and offer a more advanced curriculum. There may also be "charter
schools," which are publicly funded but privately administered, often with a
specialized curriculum.
The Primary (Elementary, "Grade", "Grammar") School: Grades K-6
1.
2.
3.
4.

Usually begins with half-day kindergarten at age 5

Various "pre-school" options may be available; "Head Start" program...
Classroom-based teaching focusing on the "3 R's" (reading, writing and arithmetic)
"Tracking" often used to make teaching more specific to aptitude, though
"mainstreaming" is also used.
5. Extracurricular and co-curricular activities have traditionally been emphasized from
the beginning, with extracurricular activities increasing after the 3rd or 4th grade
The Junior High (Middle) School: Grades 7-9
1. Subject-based teaching, changing of teachers and subjects each class hour
2. Individualized curriculum begins with choice of different options for required
subjects by ability level, and varying options for non-specific course requirements
3. Extracurricular activity widens, inter-school activities begin
The Senior High School: Grades 10-12
"Comprehensive" secondary education, combining 'academic' and 'vocational'
subjects for 100% of the age cohort
Preparation for higher education for those who are continuing
Basic vocational skills and foundation for further training for those who will
enter the work force directly
Essential citizenship skills, both general and state-specific, for all

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High School Diploma requirements general; must be reachable by 100% of the

age cohort at varying levels; one rough example of this is:
17 "units" required over the final 4 years, with a "unit" being one hour of a
six-hour school day taken each day of a 5-day week throughout the school
year
Ca. 8-10 of these units usually specified by 'field' (3 English, 3 History/Civics,
1 Math, 1 Science, 0.5 "Health", 1 P.E. (over 4 years), with the remaining
units comprising individually-chosen subjects by field, future need, and ability
level
Subjects like foreign languages often not required for the High School
Diploma, but are taught and may be required to get into further education
Extracurricular activity widens further; noted on one's high school transcript and is often
influential in admission to higher education or competitiveness for employment
Urban school districts may have specialized high schools, e.g. "Aviation High",
"High School for the Performing Arts", Vocational High Schools, etc., and/or general
or specialized "Magnet schools" or "voucher" options.
Options to public schools include parochial schools (administered by a church or
religion), private day and boarding schools, military academies, and home schooling
High-school-level "charter schools" have increased rapidly in recent years. Charterschool students now comprise ca 15% of U.S. secondary students, vs. 12% for
private schools, including parochial schools

After High School: Admission to Further Education

1. Primary choices: Vocational colleges or institutes, Community Colleges, Liberal Arts
Colleges, Universities
2. Universities offer a wide range of Master-level degrees in addition to the Bachelor's
degree; research universities also offer doctoral degrees (academic and/or
professional)
3. Requirements: High school diploma, transcript of grades & activities, references,
financing. For admission to private (vs 'public' state universities) institutions, often
also personal interviews, high scores on the "SAT" or equivalent exams, evidence
of personal distinction vs other potential applicants, 'suitability' for the institution in
question, etc.
4. Students obtain the undergraduate (Bachelor's) degree, and then apply for
admission to a graduate (Master-level) program, often moving to a different
institution for each degree
5. Admissions policy at all institutions and levels tends to focus more on the individual,
also subject to political and social policies.
College/University
In American parlance, a college is a four-year institution of higher learning that
offers courses in related subjects.
A liberal arts college, for example, offers courses in literature, languages, history,
philosophy, and the sciences, while a business college offers courses in
accounting, investment, and marketing.
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 Many colleges are independent and award bachelor's degrees to those completing
a program of instruction that typically takes four years.
But colleges can also be components of universities. A large university typically
comprises several colleges, graduate programs in various fields, one or more
professional schools (for example, a law school or a medical school), and one or
more research facilities.
Americans often use the word "college" as shorthand for either a college or a
university.

Every state has its own university, and some states operate large networks
of colleges and universities:
The State University of New York, for instance, has more than 60 campuses in New
York State. Some cities also have their own public universities. In many areas, junior or
community colleges provide a bridge between high school and four-year colleges for
some students.

Higher Education: Community Colleges (Junior Colleges)

1. Intended mainly for residents of a particular community; do not provide housing
2. Combine a 2-year academic "transfer program" with vocational training specific to
community needs and "recreational" adult education courses
3. Award the Associate of Arts (A.A.) degree (transfer program)
4. Low tuition cost, "low-threshold" admissions, accommodates both full- and part-time
students

State (Public) Universities

Each state has a public State University system, often with multiple campuses, larger
states may have multiple systems of Masters-level and Doctoral-level universities (cf.
California State University System vs University of California System) .
State universities are designed to meet the higher education needs of that state, meant
primarily for state residents, financed primarily by state funding; all provide a solid,
quality education. Admission policies vary by state from open-admission to exclusive
Advantages: relatively low tuition (cf. private universities), relatively easy admission,
wide range of study options, relatively close to home (for state residents)
Potential disadvantages: may be relatively "mass" education, especially during the
first two years; fewer opportunities for personal interaction with teaching staff and fewer
individualized study options, generally higher attrition rate
Liberal Arts Colleges
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Mostly private (as opposed to public "state" institutions)

4-year curriculum leading to the Bachelor's Degree
Admissions may be quite selective and tuition costly
Often provide a highly-personalized, supportive study environment
May differ significantly in status, orientation of studies, etc
Offer primarily the undergraduate (first, Bachelor's) degree, although some colleges
may also have limited Masters-level programs
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Private Universities
1. Extensive range of private universities of differing types, aims and qualities
2. Private universities may admit whatever mixture of students they wish, as long as
they do not violate "equality" or "equal-access" statutes
3. Range includes very high-status universities (the "Ivy League" institutions,
Stanford, etc.), less-selective provincial universities, religiously-oriented universities,
special-curriculum or special-needs universities, ethnic-oriented universities,
business-sponsored universities, etc.
4. Advantages: usually fewer students, lower student-faculty ratio, admitted as an
"individual", more personalized support and study options, more personalized
counseling & career services, high graduation rates
5. Disadvantages: often much higher tuition costs, more selective admissions policies,
may be a much greater distance from home

Graduate School and Graduate Education (Public or Private)

1. Admission to a Masters program of ca. 1-2 years (full-time study plus a Master's
Thesis), and then often separate admission to a Doctoral program of at least 1-2
more years of full-time coursework, plus the writing of the Dissertation
2. Academic graduate degrees (Humanities, Sciences, etc.) and Professional
graduate degrees (medicine, law, journalism, theology, etc.).
3. With increasing specialization, students often move to different institutions which
have more specialized profiles and professors in their area(s) of choice
4. Graduate students often receive financial assistance as "Teaching Assistants"
(TA's) or "Research Assistants" (RA's)
Student Activities and Organizations, Student Life
1. Social "fraternities" and "sororities" (from the Latin words frater and soror,
meaning "brother" and "sister" respectively). Typically, Greek letter organizations
are single-sex organizations, sometimes the basis for campus social life; examples:
Sigma Chi, Phi Gamma Delta
2. Also academic (honorary, professional) fraternities and sororities; example: Phi
Beta Kappa
3. Rich menu of extracurricular and co-curricular activities, clubs, associations
4. Recent trend toward campuses providing health clubs, leisure centers, etc. as an
incentive in the competitive recruitment of new students
5. History, especially for more ambitious students on more competitive campuses, of
intense study pressure, long library hours from Sunday evening through Friday
afternoon; may result in weekend 'blow-outs' (binge drinking, etc.) on Saturday
evenings
6. Generally speaking, relatively few visits home per school year
7. Often (at undergraduate level) adjustment problems with being away from home &
parents for the first time, temptations of extracurricular activities vs study pressures,
etc.
Students
Freshman (fresher): is a first-year student in an educational institution
Sophomore: a student in the second year of study (generally referring to high
school or university study
Senior: a student in the last (usually fourth) year
Alumni: graduate or former student of a school, college, or university
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 Faculty: people who teach at a university are called its faculty

The Ivy League

The Ivy League is an athletic conference comprising eight private institutions of higher
education in the Northeastern United States.
The term also has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and
social elitism. Members:
Brown University > Providence, Rhode Island
Columbia University > New York City, New York
Cornell University > Ithaca, New York
Dartmouth College > Hanover, New Hampshire
Harvard University > Cambridge, Massachusetts
Princeton University > Princeton, New Jersey
University of Pennsylvania > Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Yale University > New Haven, Connecticut

The University of Pennsylvania (commonly referred to as Penn) is a private research

university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Penn is the first university and the
fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the US.
Benjamin Franklin, Penn's founder, advocated an educational program that focused as
much on practical education for commerce and public service as on the classics and
theology.
Penn is today one of the largest private universities in the nation, offering a very broad
range of academic departments.
Penn is particularly well known for its business school, law school and its biomedical
teaching and research capabilities.
Harvard
Founded in 1636 by the colonial Massachusetts legislature, Harvard is the oldest
institution of higher learning in the United States. Initially called "New College, the
institution was named Harvard College on March 13, 1639, after a young clergyman
named John Harvard, who bequeathed the College his library of 400 books and half of
his estate.
Yale University has achieved a reputation for academic excellence because of the
intellectual achievements of its faculty and students. The University today has an
enrollment of approximately 11,000 students, with about 2,500 students enrolled in the
Graduate School.
Columbia University was founded in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of King
George II of England. It is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New
York and the fifth oldest in the United States. Today, Columbia is one of the top
academic and research institutions in the world, conducting research in medicine,
science, the arts, and the humanities. It includes three undergraduate schools, thirteen
graduate and professional schools, and a school of continuing education
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Freedom of Religion: Separating Church and State

Early in their history, Americans rejected the concept of the established or government-favored
religion that had dominated and divided so many European countries. Separation of
church and state was ordained by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which
provides in part that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
prohibiting the free exercise thereof...."
The First Amendment sounds straightforward, but at times it is difficult even for American
constitutional scholars to draw a distinct line between government and religion in the United
States. Students in public schools may not pray publicly as part of the school day, yet sessions
of the U.S. Congress regularly begin with a prayer by a minister. Cities may not display a
Christmas crche on public property, but the slogan "In God We Trust" appears on U.S.
currency, and money given to religious institutions can be deducted from one's income for tax
purposes. Students who attend church-affiliated colleges may receive federal loans like other
students, but their younger siblings may not receive federal monies specifically to attend
religious elementary or secondary schools.
It may never be possible to resolve these apparent inconsistencies. They derive, in fact, from a
tension built into the First Amendment itself, which tells Congress neither to establish nor to
interfere with religion. Trying to steer a clear course between those two dictates is one of the
most delicate exercises required of American public officials.
Religious symbols

Religious sensibility is reflected in national symbols and emblems:

The seal of the US

The currency

The pledge of allegiance to the American flag : one Nation under God

Religion part of American society

US presidents have nominally belonged to a religious group. Newly elected presidents swear
the inaugural oath on the Bible. Politicians frequently refer to God and the Bible in their
speeches (God bless America)
About 50% of Americans regularly go to church (much more than many Western countries)

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Over 1000 religion groups

60% Protestant

25% Catholic

3% Jewish

The many Protestant groups exist side-by-side, and may even preach in each others
churches.

Diversity of religious practices

Since 1960s the Supreme court has forbidden Government from aiding one religion over
another
No church taxes in the US
The churches receive no state support
No legal or official religious holidays
No political party is affiliated to a particular denomination
Too much "entanglement" between state and church, the Court held, violated the First
Amendment's ban on establishing religion
Despite the Supreme Court's clear rulings, this and similar issues pitting reason versus faith
remain alive.
Meanwhile, the trend toward removing religious teaching and practices from public schools
has prompted some parents to send their children to religious schools and others to
educate their children at home.

Interpreting the First Amendment

One of the first permanent settlements in what became the North American colonies was
founded by English Puritans, Calvinists who had been outsiders in their homeland, where the
Church of England was established. The Puritans settled in Massachusetts, where they grew
and prospered. They considered their success to be a sign that God was pleased with them,
and they assumed that those who disagreed with their religious ideas should not be tolerated.
When the colony's leaders forced out one of their members, Roger Williams, for disagreeing
with the clergy, Williams responded by founding a separate colony, which became the state of
Rhode Island, where everyone enjoyed religious freedom. Two other states originated as
havens for people being persecuted for their religious beliefs: Maryland as a refuge for
Catholics and Pennsylvania for the Society of Friends (Quakers), a Protestant group whose
members espouse plain living and pacifism.
Even after the adoption of the Constitution in 1787 and the Bill of Rights (which includes the
First Amendment) in 1791, Protestantism continued to enjoy a favored status in some states.
Massachusetts, for example, did not cut its last ties between church and state until 1833. (As
written, the First Amendment applies only to the federal government, not to the states. The
Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, forbids states to "deprive any person of life, liberty, or
property, without due process of law." This clause has been interpreted to mean that the states
must protect the rights including freedom of religion that are guaranteed by the Bill of
Rights.)
In the 20th century, the relationship between church and state reached a new stage of conflict
that between civic duty and individual conscience. The broad outlines of an approach to that
conflict took shape in a number of Supreme Court rulings.
Perhaps the most noteworthy of these was West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette
(1943). The suit stemmed from the refusal of certain members of the Jehovah's Witness

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religion to salute the American flag during the school day, as commanded by state law.
Because their creed forbade such pledges of loyalty, the Witnesses argued, they were being
forced to violate their consciences. Three years earlier, the Supreme Court had upheld a nearly
identical law a decision that had been roundly criticized. In the 1943 case, the Court in effect
overruled itself by invoking a different clause in the First Amendment, the one guaranteeing
freedom of speech. Saluting the flag was held to be a form of speech, which the state could not
force its citizens to perform.
Since then the Supreme Court has carved out other exceptions to laws on behalf of certain
religious groups. There remains, however, a distinction between matters of private conscience
and actions that adversely affect other people. Thus, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) were jailed in the 19th century for practicing polygamy
(subsequently the Mormon Church withdrew its sanction of polygamy). More recently, parents
have been convicted of criminal negligence for refusing to obtain medical help for their ailing
children, who went on to die, even though the parents' religious beliefs dictated that they refuse
treatment because faith would provide a cure.
Protestant Christianity: Both Liberal and Conservative
Americans have been swept up in many waves of religious excitement. One that occurred in
the 1740s, called the Great Awakening, united several Protestant denominations in an effort to
overcome a sense of complacency that had afflicted organized religion. A second Great
Awakening swept through New England in the early 19th century.
Not all of New England's clergymen, however, were sympathetic to the call for revival. Some
had abandoned the Calvinist idea of predestination, which holds that God has chosen those
who will be saved the "elect" leaving humans no ability to affect their destinies through
good works or other means. Some ministers preached that all men had free will and could be
saved. Others took even more liberal positions, giving up many traditional Christian beliefs.
They were influenced by the idea of progress that had taken hold in the United States
generally. Just as science adjusted our understanding of the natural world, they suggested,
reason should prompt reassessments of religious doctrine.
Liberal American Protestantism in the 19th century was allied with similar trends in Europe,
where scholars were reading and interpreting the Bible in a new way. They questioned the
validity of biblical miracles and traditional beliefs about the authorship of biblical books. There
was also the challenge of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to contend with. If human beings
were descended from other animals, as most scientists came to believe, then the story of
Adam and Eve, the biblical first parents, could not be literally true.
What distinguished 19th-century liberal Protestants from their 20th-century counterparts was
optimism about the human capacity for improvement. Some of the early ministers believed that
the church could accelerate progress by trying to reform society. In the spirit of the gospels,
they began to work on behalf of the urban poor. Today's liberal clergymen not just
Protestants but Catholics and others, too may be less convinced that progress is inevitable,
but many of them have continued their efforts on behalf of the poor by managing shelters for
homeless people, feeding the hungry, running day-care centers for children, and speaking out
on social issues. Many are active in the ecumenical movement, which seeks to bring about the
reunion of Christians into one church.
While liberal Protestants sought a relaxation of doctrine, conservatives believed that departures
from the literal truth of the Bible were unjustified. Their branch of Protestantism is often called
"evangelical," after their enthusiasm for the gospels of the New Testament.
Evangelical Christians favor an impassioned, participatory approach to religion, and their
services are often highly charged, with group singing and dramatic sermons that evoke spirited

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responses from the congregation. The South, in particular, became a bastion of this "old-time
religion," and the conservative Baptist church is very influential in that region. In recent
decades some preachers have taken their ministry to television, preaching as "televangelists"
to large audiences.
In 1925 the conflict between conservative faith and modern science crystallized in what is
known as the Scopes trial in Tennessee. John Scopes, a high school biology teacher, was
indicted for violating a state law that forbade teaching the theory of evolution in public schools.
Scopes was convicted after a sensational trial that featured America's finest criminal lawyer of
the time, Clarence Darrow, for the defense and the renowned populist and former presidential
candidate, William Jennings Bryan, for the prosecution.
Since then the Supreme Court has ruled that laws banning the teaching of evolution violate the
First Amendment's prohibition of establishing religion. Subsequently the state of Louisiana tried
a different approach: It banned the teaching of evolution unless the biblical doctrine of special
creation was taught as an alternative. This, too, the Court invalidated as an establishment of
religion.
Despite the Supreme Court's clear rulings, this and similar issues pitting reason versus faith
remain alive. Religious conservatives argue that teaching evolution alone elevates human
reason above revealed truth and thus is antireligious. And even some thinkers who might
otherwise be considered liberals have argued that the media and other American institutions
foster a climate that tends to slight, if not ridicule, organized religion. Meanwhile, the trend
toward removing religious teaching and practices from public schools has prompted some
parents to send their children to religious schools and others to educate their children at home.
Catholics and Religious (Parochial) Schools
By the time of the Civil War, over one million Irish Catholics had come to the United States. In a
majority Protestant country, they and Catholics of other backgrounds were subjected to
prejudice. As late as 1960, some Americans opposed Catholic presidential candidate John F.
Kennedy on the grounds that, if elected, he would do the Pope's bidding. Kennedy confronted
the issue directly, pledging to be an American president, and his election did much to lessen
anti-Catholic prejudice in the United States.
Although Catholics were never denied access to public schools or hospitals, beginning in the
19th century they built institutions of their own, which met accepted standards while observing
the tenets of Catholic belief and morality. On the other hand, the Catholic Church does not
require its members to go to church-run institutions. Many Catholic students attend public
schools and secular colleges. But Catholic schools still educate many Catholic young people,
as well as a growing number of non-Catholics, whose parents are attracted by the discipline
and quality of instruction.
Catholics have long recognized that the separation of church and state protects them, like
members of other religions, in the exercise of their faith. But as the costs of maintaining a
separate educational system mounted, Catholics began to question one application of that
principle. Catholic parents reasoned that the taxes they pay support public schools, but they
save the government money by sending their children to private schools, for which they also
pay tuition. They sought a way in which they might obtain public funds to defray their
educational expenses. Parents who sent their children to other private schools, not necessarily
religious, joined in this effort.
The legislatures of many states were sympathetic, but the Supreme Court ruled
unconstitutional most attempts to aid religious schools. Too much "entanglement" between
state and church, the Court held, violated the First Amendment's ban on establishing religion.

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Attempts to alter the separation of church and state by amending the Constitution have not
been successful.
Religion and education

Public schools can teach about religion - but cannot promote it

Religious education supposed to be neutral
Supreme Court ruled laws requiring the reciting of the Lords prayer, Bible verses or
prayers in public schools were unconstitutional violated the principle of separation b/w
church and state
Public school prayers are banned, although the practice does continue rural South
Supreme Court rulings allowed state university property to be used by students for
religious purposes - as long as that property can also be used by others for other purposes
Banned prayers at graduation ceremonies for public elementary, middle and high schools.
Some private schools are still run by churches or religious groups at primary and secondary
level
Catholic parochial schools majority (40%)
Land of Many Faiths

Like Catholics, Jews were a small minority in the first years of the American republic. Until the
late 19th century, most Jews in America were of German origin. Many of them belonged to the
Reform movement, a liberal branch of Judaism which had made many adjustments to modern
life. Anti-Semitism, or anti-Jewish prejudice, was not a big problem before the Civil War. But
when Jews began coming to America in great numbers, anti-Semitism appeared. Jews from
Russia and Poland, who as Orthodox Jews strictly observed the traditions and dietary laws of
Judaism, clustered in city neighborhoods when they first arrived in the United States.
Usually, Jewish children attended public schools and took religious instruction in special
Hebrew schools. The children of Jewish immigrants moved rapidly into the professions and into
American universities, where many became intellectual leaders. Many remained religiously
observant, while others continued to think of themselves as ethnically Jewish, but adopted a
secular, nonreligious outlook.
To combat prejudice and discrimination, Jews formed the B'nai Brith Anti-Defamation League,
which has played a major role in educating Americans about the injustice of prejudice and
making them aware of the rights, not only of Jews, but of all minorities.
By the 1950s a three-faith model had taken root: most Americans belonged to one of three
basic groups Protestant, Catholic, and Jew. The order reflects the numerical strength of
each group: In the 1990 census, Protestants of all denominations numbered 140 million;
Catholics, 62 million; and Jews, 5 million.
Today the three-faith formula is obsolete. The Islamic faith also has 5 million U.S. adherents,
many of whom are African-American converts. It is estimated that the number of mosques in
the United States today, about 1,200 has doubled in the last 15 years. Buddhism and
Hinduism are growing with the arrival of immigrants from countries where these are the
majority religions. In some cases, inner-city Christian churches whose congregations have
moved to the suburbs have sold their buildings to Buddhists, who have refitted them to suit
their practices.
Principles of Tolerance
America has been a fertile ground for new religions. The Mormon and Christian Science
Churches are perhaps the best-known of the faiths that have sprung up on American soil.
Because of its tradition of noninterference in religious matters, the United States has also

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provided a comfortable home for many small sects from overseas. The Amish, for example,
descendants of German immigrants who reside mostly in Pennsylvania and neighboring states,
have lived simple lives, wearing plain clothes and shunning modern technology, for
generations.
Some small groups are considered to be religious cults because they profess extremist beliefs
and tend to glorify a founding figure. As long as cults and their members abide by the law, they
are generally left alone. Religious prejudice is rare in America, and interfaith meetings and
cooperation are commonplace.
The most controversial aspect of religion in the United States today is probably its role in
politics. In recent decades some Americans have come to believe that separation of church
and state has been interpreted in ways hostile to religion. Religious conservatives and
fundamentalists have joined forces to become a powerful political movement known as the
Christian right. Among their goals is to overturn, by law or constitutional amendment, Supreme
Court decisions allowing abortion and banning prayer in public schools. Ralph Reed, former
executive director of the Christian Coalition, estimates that one-third of delegates to the 1996
Republican Convention were members of his or similar conservative Christian groups, an
indication of the increased involvement of religion in politics.
While some groups openly demonstrate their religious convictions, for most Americans religion
is a personal matter not usually discussed in everyday conversation. The vast majority practice
their faith quietly in whatever manner they choose as members of one of the traditional
religious denominations, as participants in nondenominational congregations, or as individuals
who join no organized group. However Americans choose to exercise their faith, they are a
spiritual people. Nine out of ten Americans express some religious preference, and
approximately 70 percent are members of religious congregations.
Religion and politics
The most controversial aspect of religion in the United States today is probably its role in
politics.
In recent decades some Americans have come to believe that separation of church and state
has been interpreted in ways hostile to religion.
Religious conservatives and fundamentalists have joined forces to become a powerful political
movement known as the Christian right.
Among their goals is to overturn, by law or constitutional amendment, Supreme Court decisions
allowing abortion and banning prayer in public schools.
Attitudes to religion

US Polls: 95% of Americans believe in God

4 out of 5 believe in miracles, life after death and the Virgin Mary
65% believe in the devil
75% believe in angels
9 out of 10 own a bible
While some groups openly demonstrate their religious convictions, for most Americans
religion is a personal matter not usually discussed in everyday conversation.
The vast majority practice their faith quietly in whatever manner they choose
Nine out of ten Americans express some religious preference, and 70 percent are members
of religious congregations.

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Mass Media in the United States

Overview of U.S. mass media: Highly diverse, decentralized; private-sector; increasing
convergence of telephony, TV, film, newspapers, and periodicals into "ubiquitous" web and
wireless-based digital information on-demand. However, also growth in print media, particularly
small-press books, newspapers and magazines using micro-based production technologies.
Redefinition of the concept of "mass" communication.
The role of the media
The average American, according to a recent study, spends about eight hours a day with the print
and electronic media -- at home, at work, and travelling by car.
This total includes:
four hours watching television,
three hours listening to radio,
a half hour listening to recorded music,
and another half hour reading the newspaper.
Freedom of the press, newspapers, radio, and television
The central role of information in American society harks back to a fundamental belief held
by the U.S. Constitution:
that a well-informed people is the strongest guardian of its own liberties.
First Amendment to the Constitution, which provides in part that "Congress shall make no
law...abridging the freedom of speech or of the press."
A corollary to this clause is that the press functions as a watchdog over government actions
and calls attention to official misdeeds and violations of individual rights.
The Fourth Estate
In the 1970s, American reporters (Washington Post) uncovered the Watergate scandal,
which ended with the resignation of President Richard Nixon
In 1971 American newspapers (Washington Post and The New York Times) printed the
"Pentagon papers," classified documents related to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
Press reports of official corruption that in some countries would bring arrests and the
shutdown of newspapers are made freely in the United States, where the media cannot be
shut down.
General characteristics
A. Wholly private control vs. mixed state-private; in U.S. no viewer-license fees, programming
almost purely market-directed
B. Much greater diversity of programming, esp. via cable, satellite
C. Number of channels, daily broadcast hours, type and quality of program content
D. Speed and influence of new development: cable TV, direct satellite reception, digital TV,
general regulation and accessibility.
NEWSPAPERS: PIONEERING PRESS FREEDOM
In 1990 the press celebrated its 300th anniversary as an American institution.
The first newspaper in the colonies, Publick Occurrences: Both Foreign and Domestick, lasted only
one day in 1690 before British officials suppressed it. But other papers sprang up, and by the
1730s the colonial press was strong enough to criticize British governors.
In 1734 the governor of New York charged John Peter Zenger, publisher of the New York Weekly
Journal.

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Yellow journalism
Two media giants, Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, began building their newspaper
empires after the American Civil War (1861-65).
Fiercely competitive, they resorted to "yellow journalism" -- sensational and often inaccurate
reporting aimed at attracting readers.
Muckraking
Early in the 20th century, newspaper editors realized that the best way to attract readers was to
give them all sides of a story, without bias. This standard of objective reporting is today one of
American journalism's most important traditions.
Magazines and newspapers embarked on crusading investigative journalism, which President T.
Roosevelt called muckraking (exposing scandal and corruption).
-

Investigative reporting, which had previously been largely political, now included criticism of
the general social system.

Another dominant feature of early 20th-century journalism was the creation of chains of
newspapers operating under the same ownership, led by a group owned by Hearst. This trend
accelerated after World War II, and today about 75 percent of all U.S. daily papers are owned by
newspaper chains.
With the advent of television in the 1940s and 1950s, the new electronic medium made inroads on
newspaper circulation:
Readers tended to overlook the afternoon paper because they could watch the day's news on TV.
In 1971, 66 cities had two or more dailies, usually one published in the morning and one in the
afternoon. In 1995, only 36 cities had two or more dailies.
Newspapers: National vs Local Papers
-

ca 62.6%, [115.3 million] read daily newspapers; ca. 4 million more read Sunday editions

Only a few American newspapers of national importance

New York Times, "national paper of record," Index, Sunday edition with 12-15
sections, incl Magazine, Book Review
Washington Post, Wall Street Journal, USA Today, etc.

Daily tabloid "man-on-the-street" papers (N.Y. Daily News, N.Y. Post, etc.)
Popular Periodicals: Subscription or Newsstand Sales
-

TV Guide, Reader's Digest, Sports Illustrated, National Geographic, etc. all national sales
leaders
News periodicals: Time, Newsweek, U.S. News & World Report, etc.
Cultural magazines: Atlantic, New Yorker, Downbeat, Ebony, etc.
Men's mags: Playboy, Esquire, Hustler, Gentleman's Quarterly...
Women's mags: Playgirl, Cosmopolitan, Ladies' Home Journal, Women's Day, McCalls,
Vogue...
Financial: Fortune, Business Week, Money, Barron's Index

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Business, Education, Hobby, etc: Infoworld, PC, MacWorld, Car & Driver, Rod & Stream,
Popular Mechanics, Popular Science, American Heritage
Children's: Sesame Street, Humpty Dumpty, Cricket...

Newsletters
-

A new hybrid of newspaper and magazine became popular starting in the 1970s: the
newsletter.
Printed on inexpensive paper and often as short as four to six pages, the typical newsletter
appears weekly or biweekly.
Newsletters gather and analyze information on specialized topics.
Southern Political Report, for example, covers election races in the southern U.S. states,
and FTC Watch covers the actions of the Federal Trade Commission.
small-circulation, quick information

Elite Periodicals: Meant For Special, Informed, 'Intellectual' Audiences

-

New York Review of Books

Foreign Affairs, Foreign Quarterly, Foreign Policy
Scientific American, Technology Review, etc.
Partisan Review, Commentary, The New Republic, etc.
Scholarly journals, mainly professional and university library sales only, expensive

Book Publishing
-

Ca. 172,000 new titles annually;

Lower cost of publishing but higher cost of marketing;
How to 'break in' and sell?
Book costs relatively low, but short turnover time and shelf-space are problems.
"Remaindered" discounted books
B. Dalton, Waldenbooks & Borders Books as national franchises, influence on book
publishers, consumers, low-cost and availability.
Challenge to these of Amazon.com and web-based sales
THE ROLE OF RADIO

The beginning of commercial radio broadcasts in 1920 brought a new source of information
and entertainment directly into American homes.
The widespread availability of television after World War II caused radio executives to
rethink their programming.
Starting in the 1950s, radios became standard accessories in American automobiles.
The medium enjoyed a renaissance as American commuters tuned in their car radios on
the way to work.
The expansion of FM radio, which has better sound quality but a more limited signal range
than AM, led to a split in radio programming in the 1970s and 1980s.
FM came to dominate the music side of programming, while AM has shifted mainly to allnews and talk formats.
Talk radio usually features a host, a celebrity or an expert on some subject, and the
opportunity for listeners to call in and ask questions or express opinions on the air.
Church/religious radio stations, university stations
"Citizens band" radio; International VOA, RFE/RL, etc.

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TELEVISION: BEYOND THE BIG THREE

Since World War II television has developed into the most popular medium in the United
States, with enormous influence on the country's elections and way of life.
Virtually every American home -- 97 million of them -- has at least one TV set, and 65 percent
have two or more.
-

Three privately owned networks that offered free programming financed by commercials -NBC, CBS, and ABC -- controlled 90 percent of the TV market from the 1950s to the 1970s.
In the 1980s the rapid spread of pay cable TV transmitted by satellite undermined that
privileged position.
60 percent of American households had subscribed to cable TV, and non-network
programming was drawing more than 30 percent of viewers.
Among the new cable channels were several that show movies 24 hours a day; Cable
News Network, the creation of Ted Turner, which broadcasts news around the clock; and
MTV, which shows music videos.
Cable TV

In the meantime, a fourth major commercial network, Fox, has come into being and
challenged the big three networks;
several local TV stations have switched their affiliation from one of the big three to the
newcomer.
Two more national networks -- WB and UPN -- have also come along, and the number of
cable television channels continues to expand.
There are 335 public television stations across the United States, each of which is
independent and serves its community's interests.
But the stations are united by such national entities as the Public Broadcasting Service,
which supplies programming.
American Television Broadcast 'Networks'
A. Four well-established large general commercial networks
1. ABC (American Broadcasting Company)
2. CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System)
3. NBC-Universal (2004), formerly NBC (National Broadcasting Corporation)
4. FOX (since 1986; ABC, CBS & NBC since the 1940s)
Has defined itself as a channel for religiously-conservative and "patriotic" viewers
B. The national non-commercial PBS (Public Broadcasting System) network
C. An expanding variety of 'newer' (general and specialized) commercial networks

The CW Network
MyNetwork TV (replaced the former WB and UPN)
ION Television (replaced the former PAX TV)
Telemundo (Spanish-language only)
Univision (Spanish-language only)
Gannett TV
The Hallmark Channel, etc.
cable "networks", including CNN, ESPN, C-SPAN, Nickelodeon, Disney Channel,
Home Box Office (HBO), Showtime

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Newer and smaller networks

Religious networks (3ABN, CTN, CTVN, Daystar, Faith TV, Workship, etc.)
Special-audience networks (Spanish, Russian, German, French, etc.)
All-news and all-weather networks
Home shopping networks
Occasional state-wide educational networks
And a wide variety of others . . .

FCC (Federal Communications Commission Executive Branch)

Independent federal agency, financed by Congress, members appointed by President

Controls stations by granting limited-period licenses
Supervisory and regulatory role (no monopolies)
Licensing requirements:

Financial and technical resources to run station

Provide "public interest" alternative to available broadcasting
No "excessive influence" on overall local media, though there are proposals to abolish
these limits

Determination of Programming Content

The "ratings" systems: how their minute-by-minute and second-by-second audience
measurements work; data produced; continuous monitoring
1. % age of total viewer market
2. % of specialized markets
3. 5000 random families in national people meter

Give the customer what he wants

Network copy syndrome
Influence of program sponsors on program content

Programming regulation
A. by FCC and NAB (National Association of Broadcasters)
B. FCC "fairness doctrine" and "equal time" stipulations stations to give equal time to
opposing views and commercial stations must show free public announcements: Red Cross
blood drivers, Alcoholic Anonymous Programs
C. NAB "Blue Book" guidelines
Advertising policy
A.
B.
C.
D.

1 product per commercial;

no more than 5 consecutive commercials,
8.5 min/ad/hour;
no liquor, smoking, contraceptives, etc.

But, lawsuits against NAB claim illegal restrictions on advertising (freedom of speech).
Possibility of more restrictive local community sanctions

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Regulation of programming content

Complaints have been voiced about the words and images accessible on computers. Congress
recently passed a law attempting to keep indecent language or pictures from being transmitted
through cyberspace, but a federal court struck it down as unconstitutional.
Possible solution - close parental supervision of children's time on the computer or the
development of a technological barrier to use of certain computer functions.

The Public Broadcasting System (PBS)

A. Also network/affiliate, but no commercial advertising (although "sponsor credits" are allowed,
with restrictions)
B. Memberships sold in local stations, foundation grants to national PBS and to local stations
for production of special programs; local membership services
C. Connections with local school systems; university courses; adult education
D. High percentage of imported programs, chiefly British

Current issues:
One of the most debated media-related issues facing Americans today - personal privacy.
Many critics believe that increased prying by the media will deter capable people, regardless of
their beliefs, from going into politics.
But most Americans believe: in a democracy it is better to share information than to suppress
it.

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The arts
The arts include:
literature,

(serious) music,

opera, ballet/dance,

painting/sculpture,

theatre, film

The term art or fine art refers to painting and sculpture

During the 1980s funding for the arts fell dramatically - great reliance now on sponsorship.
In areas such as literature and film things tend to be left to market forces.
The arts in the USA receive less political attention than kultura does in Macedonia.
Also that artists and intellectuals don't have the same status.
The arts/culture often seen as elitist or a 'minority taste'
In schools, little importance attached to subjects like art and music
DISTINCTIVELY AMERICAN ARTS
Music
Dance
Architecture
Visual arts
Literature
The development of the arts in America is marked by a tension between two strong sources of
inspiration:
European sophistication
Domestic originality
Frequently, the best American artists have managed to harness both sources.
MUSIC
Until the 20th century, "serious" music in America was shaped by European standards and
idioms.
A notable exception was the music of composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869)
He was the first American pianist to achieve international recognition, but his early death
contributed to his relative obscurity.
- Distinctively American classical music
Came to fruition when such composers as George Gershwin (1898-1937) and Aaron
Copland (1900-1990) incorporated home-grown melodies and rhythms into forms borrowed
from Europe.
Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue" and his opera Porgy and Bess were influenced by jazz and
African-American folk songs.
Some of his music is also self-consciously urban: The opening of his "An American in Paris,"
for example, mimics taxi horns.
Copland - studied in Paris, where he was encouraged to depart from tradition and indulge his
interest in jazz
Besides writing symphonies, concertos, and an opera, he composed the scores for several
films.
He is best known, however, for his ballet scores, which draw on American folk songs;
among them are "Billy the Kid," "Rodeo," and "Appalachian Spring."

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Symphony orchestras
In the last decades of the 20th century, there has been a trend back toward music that pleases
both composer and listener - related to the uneasy status of the symphony orchestra in
America.
Unlike Europe, where it is common for governments to underwrite their orchestras and opera
companies, the arts in America get relatively little public support.
To survive, symphony orchestras depend largely on philanthropy and paid admissions.
DANCE
20th century - emergence of a new, and distinctively American, art form -- modern dance.
Among the early innovators was Isadora Duncan (1878-1927) --pure, unstructured movement
Martha Graham (1893-1991), whose New York-based company became perhaps the best
known in modern dance
Later choreographers searched for new methods of expression.
Merce Cunningham (1919- ) introduced improvisation and random movement into
performances.
Alvin Ailey (1931-1989) incorporated African dance elements and black music into his works.
Recently such choreographers as Mark Morris (1956- ) and Liz Lerman (1947-) have defied
the convention that dancers must be thin and young.
Ballet
The first American ballet troupes were founded in the 1930s
Lincoln Kirstein (1907-1996) invited Russian choreographer George Balanchine (1904-1983) to
the United States in 1933,
The two established the School of American Ballet, which became the New York City Ballet in
1948.
The American ballet scene has been a mix of classic revivals and original works,
choreographed by such talented former dancers as:
Jerome Robbins (1918- ), Robert Joffrey (1930-1988), Eliot Feld (1942- ), Arthur Mitchell
(1934- ), and Mikhail Baryshnikov (1948- ).

ARCHITECTURE
America's unmistakable contribution to architecture has been the skyscraper
the first skyscraper went up in Chicago in 1884
Many of the most graceful early towers were designed by Louis Sullivan (1856-1924),
America's first great modern architect.
Architects:
Louis Sullivan
Frank Lloyd Wright (1869-1959) : The Guggenheim Museum in New York City.
Immigrants like Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) and Walter Gropius (1883-1969), both
former directors of Germany's famous design school, the Bauhaus
Based on geometric form, buildings in their style - "glass boxes."
Michael Graves (1945- ) - rejected the austere, boxy look in favor of "postmodern" buildings
with striking contours and bold decoration that alludes to historical styles of architecture.
THE VISUAL ARTS
America's first well-known school of painting -- the Hudson River school -- appeared in 1820.
Much of American painting and sculpture since 1900 has been a series of revolts against
tradition
In the years after World War II, a group of young New York artists formed the first native
American movement to exert major influence on foreign artists: abstract expressionism.
The abstract expressionists
Abandoned formal composition and representation of real objects
Concentrated on instinctual arrangements of space and color and to demonstrate the effects of
the physical action of painting on the canvas.

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Among the movement's leaders were Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning and Mark
Rothko.
Pop Art
Members of the next artistic generation favored a different form of abstraction: works of mixed
media
Pop artists, such as Andy Warhol (1930-1987), Larry Rivers (1923- ), and Roy Lichtenstein
(1923- ), reproduced, with satiric care, everyday objects and images of American popular
culture -- Coca-Cola bottles, soup cans, comic strips.
LITERATURE
Much early American writing is derivative: European forms and styles transferred to new
locales.
Even the tales of Washington Irving (1783-1859), notably "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of
Sleepy Hollow," seem comfortably European despite their New World settings.
Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849)
Perhaps the first American writer to produce boldly new fiction and poetry was Edgar Allan
Poe.
In 1835, Poe began writing short stories -- including "The Masque of the Red Death," "The Pit
and the Pendulum," "The Fall of the House of Usher," and "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" -that explore previously hidden levels of human psychology and push the boundaries of fiction
toward mystery and fantasy.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)
Collected some of his stories as Twice-Told Tales, a volume rich in symbolism and occult
incidents.
Hawthorne went on to write full-length "romances," quasi-allegorical novels that explore such
themes as guilt, pride, and emotional repression in his native New England.
His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, is the stark drama of a woman cast out of her community
for committing adultery.
Herman Melville (1819-1891)
made a name for himself by turning material from his seafaring days into exotic novels.
Inspired by Hawthorne's example, Melville went on to write novels rich in philosophical
speculation.
In Moby-Dick, an adventurous whaling voyage becomes the vehicle for examining such
themes as obsession, the nature of evil, and human struggle against the elements.
In another fine work, the short novel Billy Budd, Melville dramatizes the conflicting claims of
duty and compassion on board a ship in time of war.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), an ex-minister, published a startling nonfiction work called
Nature.
His work influenced not only the writers who gathered around him, forming a movement known
as Transcendentalism.
Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) --Walden, a book-length memoir that urges resistance to the
dictates of organized society.
His radical writings express a deep-rooted tendency toward individualism in the American
character.
Mark Twain (1835-1910)
the pen name of Samuel Clemens
His regional masterpieces: the memoir Life on the Mississippi and the novel Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn.

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Twain's style -- influenced by journalism, direct and unadorned but also highly evocative and
irreverently funny -- changed the way Americans write their language.
His characters speak like real people and sound distinctively American, using local dialects,
newly invented words, and regional accents.
Walt Whitman (1819-1892) - his magnum opus was Leaves of Grass, in which he uses a freeflowing verse and lines of irregular length to depict the all-inclusiveness of American democracy.
Emily Dickinson (1830-1886)- her poetry is ingenious, witty, exquisitely wrought, and
psychologically penetrating
Many of her poems dwell on death, often with a mischievous twist. "Because I could not stop
for Death," one begins, "He kindly stopped for me."
At the beginning of the 20th century, American novelists were expanding fiction's social spectrum
to encompass both high and low life.
Stephen Crane (1871-1900), best known for his Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage,
depicted the life of New York City prostitutes in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets.
In Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser (1871-1945) portrayed a country girl who moves to Chicago
and becomes a kept woman.
The poet Ezra Pound (1885-1972) was born in Idaho but spent much of his adult life in Europe.
His work is complex, sometimes obscure, with multiple references to other art forms and to a
vast range of literature, both Western and Eastern.
T.S. Eliot (1888-1965), another expatriate, wrote spare, cerebral poetry, carried by a dense
structure of symbols.
In "The Waste Land" he embodied a jaundiced vision of post-World War I society in
fragmented, haunted images.
Eliot won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1948.
F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940)
The stories and novels of Fitzgerald capture the restless, pleasure-hungry, defiant mood of the
1920s.
Fitzgerald's characteristic theme, expressed poignantly in The Great Gatsby, is the tendency of
youth's golden dreams to dissolve in failure and disappointment.
Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961)
He adhered to a moral code that emphasized courage under pressure, and his protagonists
were strong, silent men who often dealt awkwardly with women.
He cut out unnecessary words from his writing, simplified the sentence structure, and
concentrated on concrete objects and actions.
The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms are generally considered his best novels; he won
the Nobel Prize for literature in 1954.
Eugene O'Neill (1888-1953)
There had not been an important American dramatist until Eugene O'Neill began to write his
plays.
Winner of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1936, O'Neill drew upon classical mythology, the
Bible, and the new science of psychology to explore inner life.
He wrote frankly about sex and family quarrels, but his preoccupation was with the individual's
search for identity.
One of his greatest works is Long Day's Journey Into Night, a harrowing drama, small in scale
but large in theme, based largely on his own family.
Tennessee Williams (1911-1983)
Another strikingly original American playwright, who expressed his southern heritage in poetic
yet sensational plays, usually about a sensitive woman trapped in a brutish environment.

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Several of his plays have been made into films, including A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat
on a Hot Tin Roof.
William Faulkner (1897-1962)
Another American novelist who had won the Nobel Prize
He recorded his characters' seemingly unedited ramblings in order to represent their inner
states -- a technique called "stream of consciousness."
Among his great works are The Sound and the Fury, Absalom, Absalom!, Go Down, Moses,
and The Unvanquished.
In the 1950s the West Coast spawned a literary movement, the poetry and fiction of the "Beat
Generation"
A name that referred simultaneously to the rhythm of jazz music, to a sense that post-war
society was worn out, and to an interest in new forms of experience through drugs, alcohol,
and Eastern mysticism.
Poet Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997) set the tone of social protest and visionary ecstasy in
"Howl.
Jack Kerouac (1922-1969) celebrated the Beats' carefree, hedonistic life-style in his episodic
novel On the Road.
The recent emergence of fiction by members of minority groups has been striking.
Native American writer Leslie Marmon Silko (1948- ) uses colloquial language and traditional
stories to fashion haunting, lyrical poems such as "In Cold Storm Light."
Amy Tan (1952- ), of Chinese descent, has described her parents' early struggles in California
in The Joy Luck Club.
Oscar Hijuelos (1951- ), a writer with roots in Cuba, won the 1991 Pulitzer Prize for his novel
The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love.
African-American women have produced some of the most powerful fiction of recent decades.
One of them, Toni Morrison (1931- ), author of Beloved and other works, won the Nobel Prize
for literature in 1993, only the second American woman to be so honored.
Popular Culture
Mickey Mouse, Babe Ruth, screwball comedy, G.I. Joe, the blues, "The Simpsons,"
Michael Jackson, the Dallas Cowboys, Gone With the Wind, the Dream Team, Indiana
Jones, Catch-22
These names, genres, and phrases from American sports and entertainment have joined more
tangible American products in travelling the globe.
Many nations now have two cultures:
- their indigenous one
-

and one consisting of the sports, movies, television programs, and music whose energy
and broad-based appeal are identifiably American.

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Further reading:
OCallaghan, An Illustrated History of the USA, Longman 2005
Mauk, E. and Oakland, J., American Civilization, 5th edition, Routledge 2009
Tiersky E.& Tiersky M. The U.S.A.: Customs and Institutions, Longman 2001
Garwood Ch., Gardian G. & Peris. E., Aspects of Britain and the USA, Oxford
University Press, 2000

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