HSRI Report No.

HuF-6

Brake Force Requirement Study: DriverVehicle Braking Performance as a Function

of Brake System Design Variables
R. G.Mortimer, L. Segel, H. Dugoff,
J.D. Campbell, C.M, Jorgeson, R. W. Murphy
Highway Safety Research Institute
University of Michigan
Huron Parkway and Baxter Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 481 05
April 10, 1970

The c o n t e n t s of t h i s r e p o r t r e f l e c t t h e views
of t h e Highway S a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e which
i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f a c t s and t h e accuracy
of t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n , The c o n t e n t s do
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e o f f i c i a l views o r
p o l i c y of t h e Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
T h i s r e p o r t does n o t c o n s t i t u t e a s t a n d a r d ,
specification o r regulation.

3. Rec~p~ent's
Catalog Xo.

2. Government Access~onNo.

I . Report No.

4. T~tleand Subt~tle

A p r i l 1 0 , 1970

Brake F o r c e Requirement Study: D r i v e r - V e h i c l e

B r a k i n g Performance a s a F u n c t i o n of Brake
System Design V a ~ i a b l e s
7. Author(s)

R.G.
J.D.

5. Report Date
6 . Perforrn~ngOrgan~zat~on
Code

8. Performing Organ~zat~onReport No.

Mortimer, L. S e g e l , H . Dugoff,
Campbell, C.M. J o r g e s o n , R.W. Murphy

HuF-6
10. Work U u t No.

9. Performing Organ~zat~on
Name and Address

Highway S a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e
U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105

11. Contract or Grant No.

FH-11-6952
13. Type of Report and Per~odCovered

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

F i n a l Report
J u l v 1. 1 9 6 8 - A ~ r i l 1 0 . 1970

F e d e r a l Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
N a t i o n a l Highway S a f e t y Bureau
Washington, D . C .
20591

-- -

14. Sponsonng Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes

The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e f i n e t h o s e b r a k e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
w i t h i n t h e s p a c e bounded by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between b r a k e p e d a l f o r c e and
v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n , which l e a d t o a c c e p t a b l e d r i v e r - v e h i c l e performance. A
d r i v e r - v e h i c l e b r a k i n g t e s t was performed i n which t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
r a t i o , t h e p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t , t h e s u r f a c e - t i r e f r i c t i o n , and d r i v e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( a g e , w e i g h t ) were s y s t e m a t i c a l l y v a r i e d i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s upon minimum s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e and o t h e r performance
variables.
The t e s t s t h a t were performed on a low c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e showed t h a t h i g h v a l u e s of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n r e s u l t i n l a r g e
number of wheel l o c k u p s and lower mean d e c e l e r a t i o n i n b r i n g i n g t h e v e h i c l e t o a
s t o p , compared t o i n t e r m e d i a t e o r low d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n l e v e l s .
T e s t s c o n d u c t e d on i n t e r m e d i a t e and h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s showed
t h a t h i g h and i n t e r m e d i a t e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s produced g r e a t e r mean
d e c e l e r a t i o n s and g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c i e s of wheel l o c k u p s t h a n lower g a i n s y s t e m s .
The f r e q u e n c y o f l o s s o f l a t e r a l c o n t r o l was s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r w i t h t h e h i g h
d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n b r a k e s on a l l s u r f a c e s t h a n w i t h lower g a i n s .
There'were minor b e n e f i t s of 2.5 i n c h p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t compared t o z e r o i n c h e s .
P o t e n t i a l b r a k e f a i l u r e s and t h e i r e f f e c t s upon p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e m e n t s were
a n a l y z e d . The i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e f i n d i n g s f o r a v e h i c l e b r a k i n g s t a n d a r d were
shown i n t e r m s o f d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and p e d a l f o r c e .

1 1 6 . Abstract

1 7 Key Words

' B R A K I N G , DECELERATION, STOPPING DISTANCE,

DRIVER B R A K I N G , PEDAL FORCE, PAVEMENT

FRICTION, BRAKE FAILURE.

19. Secur~tyClass~f(of thls report)

unclassified

20. Securlty Classif.(of thls page)

unclassified

A v a i l a b i l i t y i s u n l i m i t e d . Document
may b e r e l e a s e d t o t h e C l e a r i n g h o u s e
f o r F e d e r a l S c i e n t i f i c and T e c h n i c a l
I n f o r m a t i o n , S p r i n g f i e l d , Va. 22151
fer s a l e t o t h e p u b l i c .

21. No, of Pages

xx

200

22. Pr~ce

TABLE OF CONTENTS
L i s t of Tables
L i s t of F i g u r e s
Acknowledgements

....................
Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction
Summary o f

.............
2 . F o o t F o r c e C a p a b i l i t y of D r i v e r s . . . . . .
3 . D r i v e r B r a k i n g P e r f o r m a n c e a s a F u n c t i o n of
P e d a l - F o r c e and P e d a l - D i s p l a c e m e n t L e v e l s .
4 . Driver Braking P r a c t i c e . . . . . . . . . .
5. Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 . Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. L i t e r a t u r e Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P e d a l F o r c e a s a F u n c t i o n of Design P a r a m e t e r s . .
Brake System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P e d a l Force Design Goals . . . . . . . .
P e d a l F o r c e / B r a k e Torque R e l a t i o n s h i p . .
Brake P r o p o r t i o n i n g . . . . . . . . . . .
Design P r a c t i c e and T r e n d s . . . . . . . . . .
Brakeusage* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

L i t e r a t u r e Review

. . .
and Fade T e s t i n g . . . .
The Phenomenon o f Fade .
Thermal A n a l y s i s . . . .
Lining Materials . . . .
Fade and P e d a l E f f o r t . .

Brake Usage Measurements

Fade

Wear o f F r i c t i o n

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

..
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.............
..............
Elements . . . . . . . . . .

B r a k e System D e g r a d a t i o n
H y d r a u l i c System

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

5
9

9
9
9

12
13
15
15
16

16

17
18
18
19
19
20

............
Importance of Braking C o n t r o l i n A c c i d e n t s . . .
Braking Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road-Tire F r i c t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s . . . . . . . . .
S k i d C o n t r o l by Braking Modulation . . . . . . .
T e s t i n g of t h e Vehicle-Tire-Brake System . . . . . . .
D e c e l e r a t i o n Performance . . . . . . . . . . .
Stopping Distance . . . . . . . .
Skidding a s R e l a t e d t o B r a k i n g

. . . . . .
............

21
22
23
25
25
25
25

Directional Control

26

. . . . . . . .
D r i v e r Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S t a t i c Driver-Vehicle Relationships . . . . . . .
D r i v e r T r a n s i e n t Response C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . . .
Driver-Brake P e d a l System Dynamics . . . . . . .
2 . Foot Force C a p a b i l i t y of rivers. . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P i l o t Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mainstudy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Apparatus

Procedure

.
.
.
.
.

..................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subjects

20

D e c e l e r a t i o n Measurement
C o n t r o l of Braking T e s t s

20

D r i v e r Braking Performance a s a F u n c t i o n of
Pedal-Force ana Pedal-Displacement

.......
..........
Subjects . . . . . . .
The T e s t V e h i c l e . . .

Introduction
Method

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

...........
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.........
.........
.........
.........

26
27
27
28
31
32
32
34
34
38
38

38
40
40
41

41
42
50
50

52
52
52

...........
............

General Description

52

The Brake System

55

.........
B;ake System P a r a m e t e r s . . , . . . .
Speed C o n t r o l System . . . . . .
Data C o l l e c t i o n I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . . .
Brake P r o p o r t i o n i n g

.
.
.
.

............
Dependent V a r i a b l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure: P i l o t Studies . . . . . . . . . .
Independent Variables

58
60
61

63
70
71

71

..............
Braking T e s t . . . . . . . . . . .

71

Performance and S u b j e c t i v e Data Recording

75

Hydroplaning
Procedure:

.............
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Braking Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E x p e r i m e n t a l Design

.................
Braking T i m e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F o r t y P e r c e n t D e c r e a s e i n Speed . . . . . . .
Deceleration

. . . .
Wheel Lockup D u r a t i o n . . . . . .
P r o p o r t i o n of Wheel Lockup T i m e t o
T o t a l Braking Time . . . . . . . .
Loss o f L a t e r a l C o n t r o l . . . .
R a t i n g s of C o n t r o l l a b i l i t y . . . .
Wheel Lockup Frequency

. . . .
......
......
. . . . .
......

............
Performance Comparison . . .

R a t i n g s of P e d a l F o r c e
Between-Subject

C o r r e l a t i o n Between Maximum P e d a l F o r c e s
Measured i n t h e V e h i c l e and t h e Buck

....
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . .
D e c e l e r a t i o n Measures . . . .
Loss of C o n t r o l Measures . . .
S u b j e c t Age and Weight

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

. . . .
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

74
76
76
76
77
84
85

86

86
95
95
99
99

100
100
103
103
103
104

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
D r i v e r - V e h i c l e B r a k i n g E f f i c i e n c y . . . . . . . 106
D e r i v a t i o n of t h e PFG Envelope . . . . . . . . 109
Development o f a R e v i s i o n t o MVSS-105 . . . . . 1 1 2
4 . Driver Braking P r a c t i c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
A p p a r a t u s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
P r o c e d u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
S u b j e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
R e s u l t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 4
5 . F a i l u r e A n a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
F a i l u r e Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
L i n e P r e s s u r e F a i l u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Power Boost F a i l u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Brake Fade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
S u b j e c t i v e Measures

F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g t h e P a r t i a l F a i l u r e of
Brake Systems

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Consequences of F a i l u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
E f f e c t s on V e h i c l e Performance . . . . . . . . 147
I n f l u e n c e of P a r t i a l F a i l u r e s on D r i v e r V e h i c l e B r a k i n g Performance . . . . . . . . . . 148
G e n e r a l D i s c u s s i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix

D e r i v a t i o n of C o n s t a n t P e d a l D i s placement/Deceleration Characteristic

.............
I1 . I n s t r u c t i o n t o Test S u b j e c t s . . . . 1 6 6

Appendix
I n s t r u c t i o n s - P r a c t i c e Run
I n s t r u c t i o n s - O f f i c i a l Run

..........
. . . . . . . . . . . 168

Appendix I11

Vehicle Instrumentation f o r
D e c e l e r a t i o n Recording

.......
D e c e l e r a t i o n Measurement . . . . . . . . . . .
Deceleration Calibration . . . . . . . . . . .
Brake L i n e P r e s s u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brake Line P r e s s u r e C a l i b r a t i o n . . . . . . .
Sample Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I n s t r u c t i o n s t o Driver . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................
Trip Sheet
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

175
175
177
181
181
181
183
184

185

LIST OF TABLES
Table
-

2.1.

Page
P I L O T STUDY MEDIAN RIGHT AND LEFT FOOT FORCE BY
THREE GROUPS OF SUBJECTS FOR "STANDARDtf AND
"INDUCED" MOTIVATION INSTRUCTION.

DATA ARE I N

....................
AGE DISTRIBUTION OF FEMALE AND MALE SUBJECTS. .
POUNDS.

WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF FEMALE AND MALE SUBJECTS

CUMULATIVE PERCENT RIGHT FOOT FORCE DISTRIBU-

...........
CUMULATIVE PERCENT RIGHT FOOT FORCE DISTRIBUTION:
323 MALEDRIVERS. . . . . . . . . . . .
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEST SUBJECTS ( D R I V E R S ) .
PEDAL FORCE GAINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PILOT TEST:
MEAN BRAKING DISTANCE (FEET) ON
DRY AND WET FOR POWER AND MANUAL BRAKE. . . . .
P I L O T TEST : MEAN DECELERATION ( f t / ; e c 2 ) ON
DRY AND WET FOR POWER AND MANUAL BRAKE. . . . .
TION:

2 7 6 FEMALE DRIVERS

PILOT TEST:

MEAN TIME (SECONDS) TO DECREASE

SPEED BY 1 0 MPH FROM START OF BRAKING ON DRY

AND WET FOR POWER AND MANUAL BRAKE.

......

MEAN BRAKING DISTANCE ( F E E T ) AS A FUNCTION OF

SPEED, DECELEIIATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN AND

FRICTION.

DATA FOR 2 8 SUBJECTS

........

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF TRANSFORMED DECELERATION PERFORMANCE.

...............

GEOMETRIC MEAN DECELERATION, I N g , FOR THE

INTERACTION OF SPEED, DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE

GAIN AND SURFACE.

DATA FOR 2 8 SUBJECTS

....

NEWMAN-KEULS TEST O F MEAN DECELERATION FOR

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAINS AT EACH
SURFACE AND SPEED '

' '

ix

' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

Table
3.10.

Page
RANK ORDER OF DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAINS
D I F F E R I N G SIGNIFICANTLY I N DRIVER MEAN BRAK-

...............
MEAN TIME TO REDUCE SPEED BY 4 0 PERCENT FOR
.
MAIN EFFECTS OF SPEED, PFG AND SURFACE. .
MEAN NUMBER OF WHEEL LOCKUPS PER T R I A L FOR
MAIN EFFECTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MEAN WHEEL LOCKUP TIME PER T R I A L FOR MAIN
EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INGDECELERATION..

84

85
91
93

PERCENT OF T R I A L S INVOLVING LOSS OF LATERAL

CONTROL AS A FUNCTION OF BRAKE SYSTEM, SPEED
gg

A N D S U R F A C E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAXIMUM PEDAL FORCES I N THE S T A T I C TEST AND
I N THE TEST VEHICLE.

CELL VALUES INDICATE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF
PEAK DECELERATIONS (MANUAL BRAKES). . . . . . . . 1 2 2
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF
PEAK DECELERATIONS (POWER BRAKES) . . . . . . . . 1 2 3

NUMBER OF SUBJECTS.

TYPICAL IIECELERATION/'PEDAL FORCE RATIOS.

HYDRAULIC L I N E FAILURES FOR VEHICLES WITHOUT
POWERBOOST

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

TYPICAL DECELERATION CHARACTERISTICS.

HY-

DRAULIC L I N E FAILURE FOR VEHICLE WITH

POWERBOOST.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

COMPLIANCE T E S T S , MVSS-105
POWERBRAKES.

FOR VEHICLES WITH NON-

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

COMPLIANCE T E S T S , MVSS - 1 0 5 FOR VEHICLES WITH

POWERBRAKES.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

TABULATION OF REQUIRED PEDAL FORCES FOR FRONT

BRAKE C I R C U I T FAILURES I N LOADED, MANUALLY
BRAKEDSEDAN.

155

PROBABILITY OF FRONT BRAKE C I R C U I T FAILURE

RESULTING I N VEHICLE DECELERATION LOWER THAN
DESIRED.

..................

. a 1 5 5

Table
A.11.
A.11.

Page
Brake Force Modulation Study: Data
Sheet - Official Runs, Displacement
Brake Force Modulation Study: Data
Sheet - Official Runs, Displacement

Collection

.,.,..
Collection
2.5 , , . . . .
0 ,

173
174

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure

Page

..... 6
c u r v e s . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.1.

T y p i c a l h y d r a u l i c b r a k e s y s t e m (drum t y p e ) .

1.2.

T y p i c a l b r a k e performance

1.3.

The b r a k i n g p r o c e s s r e p r e s e n t e d a s a f e e d b a c k
c o n t r o l system

2.1.

....................

29

Brake and a c c e l e r a t o r d i m e n s i o n s . mean/standard

3.3.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
F o o t p e d a l f o r c e measurement buck . . . . . . . . . . 36
H y d r a u l i c f o r c e gauge and f o o t pad . . . . . . . . . . 37
Cumulative p e r c e n t p e d a l f o r c e f o r 276 f e m a l e s . . . . 43
Cumulative p e r c e n t p e d a l f o r c e f o r 323 males . . . . . 4 4
The h y d r a u l i c b r a k e c o n t r o l s y s t e m . . . . . . . . . . 54
Brake c o n t r o l s y s t e m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
B r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e t e s t v e h i c l e . . . . . . . . 59

3.4.

P e d a l f o r c e and d i s p l a c e m e n t f o r e a c h d e c e l -

d e v i a t i o n . 1968 c a r s

2.2.

2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
3.1.
3.2.

..............
displacenent/decelration r a n g e . . . . . . . . .

eration/pedal force level

62

3.5.

Pedal

62

3.6.

Performance r e c o r d i n g d i s p l a y s i n t h e t e s t
vehicle

3.7.

.......................

Performance d a t a c o l l e c t i o n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
block diagram

3.8.

....................

.................
............
p i l o t test c a r s . . . . .

3.10.

Deceleration/pedal force f o r

3.11.

Mean b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e a s a f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n . s p e e d and s u r f a c e

.....

69
72
78

Mean b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e a s a f u n c t i o n of s u r f a c e
and p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t

3.13.

68

Test c a r i n t h e t r a c k . showing l a n e marker

c o n e s and s t i m u l u s / g o a l lamps

3.12.

65

D e c e l e r a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n o f l o c k e d wheel
v e l o c i t y and s u r f a c e

3.9.

64

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Geometric mean d e c e l e r a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n o f
d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n . s p e e d and s u r f a c e
xii

...

82

Page
Mean t i m e t o r e d u c e s p e e d by 40 % a s a f u n c t i o n
of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , s p e e d and
s u r f a c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

Mean numbzr o f w h e e l l o c k u p s as a f u n c t i o n o f
d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and s p e e d .

88

Mean number o f w h e e l l o c k u p s as a f u n c t i o n o f
d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and d i s p l a c e m e n t

89

Mean number of w h e e l l o c k u p s a s a f u n c t i o n o f
d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and s u r f a c e .

90

Mean wheel l o c k u p time a s a f u n c t i o n o f s p e e d

and s u r f a c e .

....................

92

Mean wheel l o c k u p t i m e as a f u n c t i o n o f d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and s u r f a c e .

. . . . . . .

94

P e r c e n t wheel l o c k u p t i m e / t o t a l b r a k i n g time
a s a f u n c t i o n of s u r f a c e and s p e e d

. . . . . . .

96

P e r c e n t w h e e l l o c k u p t i m e / t o t a l b r a k i n g time
a s a f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n
and s u r f a c e .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

P e r c e n t of t r i a l s i n v o l v i n g l o s s of l a t e r a l cont r o l a s a f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n , s u r f a c e and s p e e d :

0 inch displacement.

98

P e r c e n t of t r i a l s i n v o l v i n g l o s s o f l a t e r a l cont r o l a s a function of deceleration/pedal f o r c e

98

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

101

g a i n , s u r f a c e and s p e e d :

2.5 inches displacement.

Mean c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y r a t i n g f o r 28 s u b j e c t s a s a
f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and
pedal displacemelit

Mean r a t i n g o f f o r c e r e q u i r e d f o r 28 s u b j e c t s a s
a f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and
displacement

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

101

B r a k i n g p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e b e s t s u b j e c t , group
mean and p o o r e s t s u b j e c t a s a f u n c t i o n of d e c c l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and s u r f a c e
xiii

. . . . . . .

102

Page
Mean b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y as a f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , s p e e d and s u r f a c e .

.lo8

C u t - o f f PFG v a l u e s f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y d r i v e r -

.............
deceleration/pedal f o r c e space . . .

v e h i c l e b r a k i n g performance.

,111

The recommended

.113

Data r e c o r d i n g i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n i n t r u n k of t e s t
car.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116

D e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e f o r manual and power

b r a k e mode.

1968 Plymouth 4-door s e d a n .

.......

.117

L o n g i t u d i n a l l o c a t i o n of manual and power b r a k e

p e d a l s and a c c e l e r a t o r

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,118

Height and l o c a t i o n of power and manual b r a k e

p e d a l and a c c e l e r a t o r .

................

.119

Cumulative p e r c e n t of d e c e l e r a t i o n s f o r manual and

power b r a k e s

.....................

.121

D e c e l e r a . t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e f o r a loaded p a s s e n g e r c a r
w i t h o u t vacuum a s s i s t :
inoperative

f r o n t b r a k e s o p e r a t i v e and

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

,127

D e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e f o r a loaded p a s s e n g e r c a r
w i t h vacuum a s s i s t :
inoperative

f r o n t b r a k e s o p e r a t i v e and

....................

.131

Boost c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a vacuum a s s i s t b r a k e

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,.I35
Braking performance diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . -137
F a d e - e f f e c t i v e n e s s diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . .13g

system

Cumulative p e r c e n t of v e h i c l e s w i t h lower
gain:

manual b r a k e s

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.143

Cumulative p e r c e n t of v e h i c l e s w i t h lower
gain:

power b r a k e s

.................

.144

Cumulative p e r c e n t of v e h i c l e s w i t h lower
gain:

30mph.

....................

Peak d e c e l e r a t i o n - c u m u l a t i v e
a l l data

d i s t r i b u t i o n of

.145

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149

Page
P e d a l f o r c e capabilities o f male and f e m a l e

d r i v e r s u s i n g r i g h t f o o t w i t h induced m o t i v a t i o n .

150

Cumulative p e d a l f o r c e d i s t r i b u t A . o n s f o r f r o n t
a x l e brake c i r c u i t f a i l u r e i n a loaded sedan
with manualbrakes.

. . . . . . . . . . . .

.152

Cumulative p e d a l f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r f r o n t
a x l e b r a k e c i r c u i t f a i l u r e i n a loaded sedan w i t h
power b r a k e s .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,153

Cumulative p e d a l f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r power
a s s i s t f a i l u r e i n a loaded sedan.

. . . . . . . .

.154

Sample o f s p e e d , p e d a l f o r c e and wheel l o c k up time h i s t o r i e s f o r t h e b e s t and w o r s t subject:

d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r a t i o = 0.065 g / l b .

. . 170

Sample o f s p e e d , p e d a l f o r c e and wheel l o c k u p

time h i s t o r i e s f o r t h e b e s t and w o r s t s u b j e c t :
d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r a t i o = 0.004 g / l b

.I71

Sample of s p e e d , p e d a l f o r c e and wheel l o c k u p

t i m e h i s t o r i e s f o r t h e b e s t and w o r s t s u b j e c t :

. . . ,172
. . . . . . 176

d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r a t i o = 0.012 g / l b
D e c e l e r a t i o n magn.i.tude i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n .
Top:

A c c e l e r o m e t e r c a l i b r a t i o n check v o l t a g e .

Bottom:

A c c e l e r a t i o n check and a c c e l e r o m e t e r

stepresponse.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.I78

V e l o c i t y - d e r i v a t i v e a c c e l e r o m e t e r low p a s s
f i l t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t o r frequency response.
Top:

179

Brake l i n e p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t i o n check.

Bottom:

D e c e l e r a t i o n c a l i b r a t i o n check

Brake l i n e p r e s s u r e and d e c e l e r a t i o n d a t a sample.

.I80

. . . 182

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h i s r e s e a r c h program i n d r i v e r and v e h i c l e b r a k i n g p e r f o r mance was c o n d u c t e d by s t a f f of t h e Human F a c t o r s and P h y s i c a l
F a c t o r s D e p a r t m e n t s a t t h e Highway S a f e t y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e .
The program was u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f D r . R , G , M o r t i m e r ,
Human F a c t o r s D e p a r t m e n t , and M r . L. S e g e l , P h y s i c a l F a c t o r s
Department, who were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o v e r a l l p l a n n i n g and
e x e c u t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h t a s k s and t h e f i n a l r e p o r t .
M r . H . Dugoff p r o v i d e d a s s i s t a n c e i n o v e r a l l p r o j e c t p l a n n i n g

and i n many s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t t a s k s .

The d e s i g n o f t h e e l e c t r o -

h y d r a u l i c s e r v o c o n t r o l s y s t e m i n t h e b r a k i n g t e s t v e h i c l e and t h e
d a t a r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m s were c a r r i e d o u t by Mr. J . Campbell.

The

r e a r d i s c b r a k e c o n v e r s i o n and o t h e r a s p e c t s of m e c h a n i c a l e n g i neering were t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f M r . J . W i r t h .

Instrumentation

was c o n s t r u c t e d and v e h i c l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s and m a i n t e n a n c e were

c a r r i e d o u t by Messrs. J . B o i s s o n n e a u l t , G . Popp and R . S t e i n
a l l o f t h e P h y s i c a l F a c t o r s Department.

M r . R. Murphy and

M r . R . L i m p e r t were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o n d u c t i n g t h e e n g i n e e r i n g

segments o f t h e F a i l u r e A n a l y s i s S e c t i o n .

The Review of t h e

L i t e r a t u r e was c a r r i e d o u t by Mr. D . F i s h e r .
M r . C. Jorgeson d i r e c t e d t h e o p e r a t i o n s a t t h e t e s t i n g s i t e

and was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n p h a s e i n t h e b r a k i n g
test.

H e was a s s i s t e d by D r .

J . Lower, D r . D .

Damkot, M r . H . S c h i c k ,

M r . G. Popp, and Ilr. R . S t e i n . A n a l y s e s o f t h e d a t a were c a r r i e d

o u t by D r . J . Lower and M r . C . J o r g e s o n . M r . S. S t u r g i s measured
t h e b r a k e p e d a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and a n a l y z e d t h e p e d a l f o r c e and
peak d e c e l e r a t i o n d a t a .
S e c r e t a r i a l S e r v i c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o j e c t were admini s t e r e d by Mrs. M. Damberg, I l r s . D . D a v i s and Mrs. S . P o t t s .

INTRODUCTION
One of the most desirable and important characteristics of
motor vehicles is that they should have qood handling characteristics in terms of directional response to steering inputs
and performance as affected by accelerator and brake application. A previous report by the Highway Safety Research Institute
(HSRI) was concerned with evaluating the present status of vehicle
handling properties and of the potential role of these characteristics upon collisions (HSRI, 1967). In that study, various
aspects of the man-vehicle interface were identified as having
safety significance.
For example, the ability of the driving population to exert
the pedal forces required to brake a car is one facet of this
interface. Further, this facet has both a static and dynamic
component. From a static viewpoint, it appears desirable to
build motor vehicles such that a specific percentile of the driving population can exert the maximum pedal forces associated
with peak decelerations on dry, high-friction surfaces. From a
dynamic standpoint, it appears that pedal-force characteristics
should also enable
driving population to attain maximum
braking performance irrespective of the friction conditions prevailing at the tire-road interface. By "maximum braking performance" we mean the shortest distance to slow or stop that can
be obtained without excessive locking of the wheels in order
that sufficient control and stability prevail for holding the
vehicle in the desired lane of travel.
It is primarily the dynamic aspect of the man-vehicle
interface with which this study is concerned. The braking
process is viewed as a task in which the driver must control
and modulate his pedal force such that he achieves the shortest
braking distance possible under the prevailing road conditions,

while further satisfying the requirement that the trajectory

of his vehicle be under reasonable control. The investigation,
as conceived, is concerned with both the static and dynamic
component of the ergonomics of braking. The major question
addressed is: "In the distribution of anthropometric characteristics and perceptual-motor skills possessed by the driving population, how do the relationship of pedal force and pedal displacement to vehicle deceleration influence the braking performance of the man-vehicle combination?". From the standpoint of
generating a braking standard, this question can be rephrased
to: "What are the bounds on brake pedal force/vehicle deceleration space wherein the bulk of the driving population shall find
it possible to maximize deceleration while making controlled
(i.e., well modulated) braking maneuvers on both,dry pavement
and surfaces with a reduced coefficient of friction?".

SUMMARY OF TASKS
The study was conceived as having six major phases which
will be briefly discussed here so as to provide the reader with
a general orientation of the overall approach.

1. LITERATURE REVIEW
A review of the literature was carried out pertinent to
an analysis of the pedal force/vehicle deceleration characteristics of an automotive vehicle. The factors considered important in the review were brake system design, brake usage, skidding, brake testing, and driver characteristics. The review was
submitted earlier as an interim report.
2.

FOOT FORCE CAPABILITY OF DRIVERS

The vehicle braking system is actuated with the feet of

the driver and, therefore, it is essential to learn more of the
foot force capabilities of individuals comprising the driving
population. A procedure was developed by which left and right

f o o t maximum f o r c e e x e r t i o n c o u l d b e measured f o r a l a r g e sample

of f e m a l e and male d r i v e r s .

The p u r p o s e was t o d e t e r m i n e a

s u i t a b l e upper f o r c e l i m i t f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of v e h i c l e s e r v i c e
brakes.

3.

DRIVER BRAKING PERFORMANCE AS A FUNCTION OF PEDAL-FORCE AND

PEDAL-DISPLACEMENT LEVELS
The m a j o r emphasis i n t h i s s t u d y was t o l e a r n more o f t h e
dynamic r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e d r i v e r , a s a c o n t r o l l e r o f
t h e b r a k e s y s t e m , and v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h a t s y s t e m ,
Major v a r i a b l e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d were t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
t h e f o r c e a p p l i e d t o t h e p e d a l and t h e r e s u l t i n g d e c e l e r a t i o n o f
t h e v e h i c l e , and t h e p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t , i n a f f e c t i n g t h e s t o p ping distance i n a braking task requiring vehicle d i r e c t i o n a l
control.

The c o r e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t was t h e development o f a

s p e c i a l t e s t v e h i c l e i n which v a r i a t i o n s i n b r a k e r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s could be r e a d i l y obtained.

A driver-vehicle braking

t e s t was d e v e l o p e d and measurements t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t

o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f i n t e r e s t on b r a k i n g p e r f o r m a n c e .
4.

DRIVER BRAKING PRACTICE

I t was n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n e m p i r i c a l d a t a d e s c r i b i n g t h e

l e v e l s of d e c e l e r a t i o n t h a t d r i v e r s employ u n d e r normal d r i v i n g
conditions.

Such d a t a were needed a s a p a r t of a n o t h e r p h a s e of

t h i s program, t h e f a i l u r e a n a l y s i s , s i n c e b r a k e d e c e l e r a t i o n
l e v e l s can form one c r i t e r i o n measure o f r e q u i r e d p e r f o r m a n c e
b o t h u n d e r normal and f a i l e d c o n d i t i o n s .
5.

FAILURE ANALYSIS
An a n a l y s i s was c o n d u c t e d t o a s c e r t a i n t h e e f f e c t upon

v e h i c l e p e r f o r m a n c e of v a r i o u s f a i l u r e s i n t h e b r a k i n g s y s t e m .
C o n d i t i o n s u n d e r which s u c h f a i l u r e s a r e l i k e l y t o o c c u r were
c o n s i d e r e d , and t h e consequences e s t i m a t e d from t h e r e q u i r e d
d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l p r o b a b i l i t y and t h e a b i l i t y of t h e d r i v e r t o
e x e r t t h e needed p e d a l f o r c e .

6.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Finally, based upon the preceding work, recommendations

for a modified brake performance standard were made utilizing
the information that had been gathered in the analytic and experimental phases of the project.

TASKS
1.

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION
B r a k i n g i s a complex e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n p r o c e s s whereby t h e
k i n e t i c energy of t h e v e h i c l e i s converted i n t o thermal energy
a t t h e b r a k e s and a t t h e r o a d - t i r e i n t e r f a c e .

During t h e b r a k i n g

process, t h e pedal f o r c e a c t s through a mechanical-hydraulic sys-

tem t o a p p l y a r e t a r d i n g t o r q u e t o e a c h of t h e f o u r w h e e l s of t h e
v e h i c l e . The b r a k i n g t o r q u e i s opposed by t h e i n e r t i a o f t h e
w h e e l a n d t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e between t h e t i r e and t h e r o a d , w i t h
t h e n e t r e s u l t b e i n g t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n of t h e v e h i c l e .

The c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c s of t h e m e c h a n i c a l - h y d r a u l i c s y s t e m d e t e r m i n e t h e b r a k i n g
torque a v a i l a b l e a t each wheel, while t h e r o a d - t i r e f r i c t i o n coeff i c i e n t and t h e mechanics of t h e v e h i c l e d e t e r m i n e t h e d e c e l e r a t ing forces.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n of a

v e h i c l e t h r o u g h b r a k e p e d a l f o r c e depends on t h e s t a t i c and dynamic

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e n t i r e system, i n c l u d i n g t h e d r i v e r .
I n t h e r e v i e w t h a t f o l l o w s , t h e t e r m i n o l o g y e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e
S o c i e t y of Automotive E n g i n e e r s (SAE) f o r t h e a u t o m o t i v e v e h i c l e
b r a k i n g p r o c e s s (SAE J 6 5 6 c I 1968; SAE J 6 5 7 a , 1968) w i l l b e u s e d .
By d e f i n i t i o n , b r a k i n g i s i n i t i a t e d i n a motor v e h i c l e by a d r i v e r

a p p l y i n g a f o r c e t o t h e f o o t - a c t u a t e d l e v e r termed t h e b r a k e p e d a l .
The magnitude o f t h e a c t u a t i n g f o r c e a t any i n s t a n t i s c a l l e d the
pedal force.

The v a r i a t i o n o f t h i s f o r c e by t h e o p e r a t o r w i t h

time i s d e f i n e d h e r e a s p e d a l f o r c e m o d u l a t i o n .
A s e t of s i m p l i f i e d e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n of a

t y p i c a l b r a k e s y s t e m i s p r e s e n t e d below.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l

be h e l p f u l i n evaluating the l i t e r a t u r e p e r t i n e n t t o the braking

p r o c e s s , and w i l l s e r v e t o d e f i n e t h e v a r i a b l e s t h a t a r e i n v o l v e d .
F i g u r e 1.1 i l l u s t r a t e s a t y p i c a l b r a k e s y s t e m ( C r o u s e , 1 9 6 5 ) .

rMaster Cvlinder

FRONT BRAKES

F i g u r e 1.1.

REAR BRAKES

T y p i c a l h y d r a u l i c b r a k e s y s t e m (drum t y p e ) .

Application of a pedal force, F, causes the brake pedal to be

displaced through a distance XI. The pedal linkage is designed
to yield a mechanical advantage of force, r, between the pedal
and the master cvlinder piston, resulting in a displacement of
the piston, X2, that is less than the displacement X1. The master
cylinder, with an area Am, traps the oil in the brake line, thereby developing a hydraulic pressure, p. Since there are frictional
losses, it is common to assume a pedal efficiency, E, that is
less than unity. The relationship between line pressure and pedal
force is actually nonlinear but may be simplified for illustration
purposes (Brown, 1965).

where

In power brakes, a vacuum-powered device assists the driver by

multiplying the force F by a factor K. This power boost modi-fies
the above relationship to:

It should be noted that the factor K may be a nonlinear function

of the pedal force.
In the brake proper, a friction material having a coefficient
ilL is pressed against the brake drum (or disc), resulting in a
brake torque, T. Measurements (Brown, 1965, Shigley, 1963, Stroh,
1968) have shown that the relationship between brake torque and
line pressure is not necessarily linear and is very much dependent
upon the type of brake employed. Thus, we have:
T = kp
where
brake type, brake geometry, A ~ ~ )
k = f ,
and
=

area of wheel cylinder.

The development of v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n by means of b r a k e

t o r q u e f o l l o w s d i r e c t l y when wheel i n e r t i a i s n e g l e c t e d and it

i s assumed t h a t no s k i d d i n g o c c u r s . The d e c e l e r a t i o n of a
v e h i c l e due t o a p p l i e d b r a k e t o r q u e can be e x p r e s s e d a s :

where
g = a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y
E'

= e f f e c t i v e r a d i u s of wheel i

W = v e h i c l e weight

Ti

= b r a k e t o r q u e a t wheel i

On combining E q u a t i o n s 3 , 4 , and 5 , t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n of a v e h i c l e
can be e x p r e s s e d a s a f u n c t i o n of p e d a l f o r c e , v i z :

where

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n t h a t can be produced i n a locked-wheel s t o p can be reduced t o t h e s i m p l e e x p r e s sion:

amax = Yt9

(7)

where
=

vt

measured r o a d - t i r e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
under locked-wheel c o n d i t i o n s .

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t n e i t h e r Equation 6 n o r 7 h o l d s f o r t h e

b r a k i n g regime i n which t h e r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l s l i p p i n g between

t i r e and road w i t h t h e wheel s t i l l r o t a t i n g .

PEDAL FORCE AS A FUNCTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS

BRAKE SYSTEM DESIGN.

P e d a l F o r c e Design G o a l s .

A s u c c e s s f u l brake system design

s h o u l d embody t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e l i a b i l i t y , p r e c i s e n e s s o f
c o n t r o l , and t h e a b i l i t y t o w i t h s t a n d s h o r t p e r i o d s o f e x t r e m e
overload (Vallin, 1968).

The s e l e c t i o n o f components f o r t h e

b r a k e s y s t e m (Robson, 1967) e s t a b l i s h e s t h e n o m i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s -

t i c s of t h e p e d a l f o r c e / b r a k e t o r q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

The f i n a l

p r o d u c e , however, i s t h e r e s u l t o f many a s s u m p t i o n s , compromises,

and d e s i g n c h o i c e s .
P e d a l F o r c e / B r a k e Torque R e l a t i o n s h i p .

One m e a s u r e of b r a k e

performance i s t h e p l o t of t h e brake torque v e r s u s l i n e p r e s s u r e

(Winge, 1 9 6 1 ) ; n a m e l y , a g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f E q u a t i o n 4
f o r a c o n s t a n t l i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n .

Typical perfor-

mance c u r v e s o b t a i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y w i t h d i s c and drum b r a k e s

a r e shown i n F i g u r e 1 . 2 .
S e v e r a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e c u r v e f o r t h e drum b r a k e
may b e n o t e d .

The o f f s e t o f t h e c u r v e n e a r t h e o r i g i n i s t e r m e d

t h e p u s h o u t p r e s s u r e and i s t h e b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e n e c e s s a r y t o
overcome t h e b r a k e s h o e r e t u r n s p r i n g s .

The c o n c a v i t y o f t h e p e r -

formance c u r v e r e s u l t s from t h e d i s t o r t i o n of t h e s h o e s and t h e

drum (Winge, 1961) and t h e r e f o r e may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y from one
brake design t o another.

A l t h o u g h drum d i s t o r t i o n h a s b e e n c a l -

c u l a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y (Winge, 1 9 6 1 ) , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f drum d i s t o r t i o n remains t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e o r e t i c a l brake torque

analysis.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c o n c a v e f e a t u r e o f t h e drum b r a k e

performance curve i s n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d brake

t o r q u e / l i n e p r e s s u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( S h i g l e y , 1963; S t e e d s , 1960:
S t r o h , 1968)

With t h e a i d o f E q u a t i o n 5 , i t c a n b e shown t h a t t h e v e h i c l e
d e c e l e r a t i o n i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e sum o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l b r a k e t o r q u e s when no s k i d d i n g o c c u r s .

Consequently,

any d e s i g n f e a t u r e a f f e c t i n g t h e l i n e a r i t y of t h e p e d a l f o r c e /
vehicle deceleration relationship.

I f t h e drum b r a k e s a r e u t i l i z e d ,

Line Pressure --.)

(A) Disc Brake

F i g u r e 1.2.

(B) D r u m Brake

Typical brake performance curves.

t h e n o n l i n e a r i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e brake torque/line pressure

curve a r e introduced.

T h e r e i s some e v i d e n c e ( L e a h , 1964) t o i n d i -

c a t e t h a t t h e b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e i t s e l f may
portional t o the pedal e f f o r t .

n o t b e e x a c t l y pro-

I n t h e c a s e o f power a s s i s t e d b r a k e s ,

t h e l i n e p r e s s u r 3 h a s been r e p o r t e d ( S p u r r , 1965) a s b e i n g d i r e c t l y
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p e d a l e f f o r t up t o a l i n e p r e s s u r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s a t u r a t i o n of t h e vacuum a s s i s t component,
D i s c b r a k e s y s t e m s a r e g e n e r a l l y acknowledged a s h a v i n g a
l i n e a r modulation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; i . e . ,

the vehicle deceleration

i s approximately proportional t o t h e pedal e f f o r t .

I t h a s been

r e p o r t e d (Brown, 1 9 6 5 ) t h a t t h i s f e a t u r e o f d i s c b r a k e s a l l o w s t h e
d r i v e r t o a v o i d u n i n t e n t i o n a l wheel l o c k u p and p e r m i t s h i g h d e c e l e r a t i o n r a t e s under adverse road conditions.

I t should be noted,

however, t h a t t h i s l a s t s t a t e m e n t r e s u l t e d from q u a l i t a t i v e d r i v e r
e v a l u a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n an e x t e n s i v e s t u d y .
I t was s t a t e d e a r l i e r t h a t t h e b r a k e t o r q u e i s d e p e n d e n t on

t h e l i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n a s w e l l a s t h e b r a k e l i n e p r e s sure.

Although t h e t o r q u e o u t p u t s of b o t h drum and d i s c b r a k e s

a r e , i n t h e main, p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e , t h e s e
brakes d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n t h e i r behavior with respect t o
c h a n g e s i n t h e l i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n .

The t o r q u e o u t -

p u t of a d i s c b r a k e i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
of f r i c t i o n f o r a g i v e n l i n e p r e s s u r e (The Bendix C o r p . , 1 9 6 4 ) .
Most drum b r a k e d e s i g n s have a s e l f - e n e r g i z i n g f e a t u r e ( i . e . , t h e
b r a k e a s s i s t s i n i t s own a c t u a t i o n ) which r e s u l t s i n t h e b r a k e
t o r q u e b e i n g v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o changes i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n o f t h e b r a k e l i n i n g (Lueck, 1965; K i n c h i n , 1961; F u r i a e t a l . ,
1967; F a r o b i n , 1 9 6 8 ) .

T h u s , b o t h f a d e and t h e normal day-to-day

v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (Winge, 1961) o f t h e l i n i n g
can have an e x a g g e r a t e d e f f e c t on t h e p e d a l e f f o r t of a drum b r a k e
system.

F u r t h e r , t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e d p o s s i b i l i t y o f s i d e t o

s i d e v a r i a t i o n s i n b r a k i n g t o r q u e when a drum b r a k e s y s t e m i s
employed.

T h i s phenomenon may r e s u l t i n an u n d e s i r a b l e d i r e c t i o n a l

r e s p o n s e o f t h e v e h i c l e ( F u r i a e t a l . , 1967; L i s t e r , 1 9 6 5 )

One factor affecting the choice between drum and disc brakes
is the self-energizing design of most drum brakes. In effect,
this self-actuation feature assists the driver in applying the
brakes, thus allowing relatively low pedal effort for a given
brake torque. Compared to the self energizing drum brake (Farobin,
1968; Winge, 1963) a typical disc brake requires four to five
times the wheel cylinder area and twice the hydraulic line pressure
to produce the same brake torque. In terms of brake pedal actuation this implies higher pedal efforts and greater pedal displacement (Shaw, 1965; SAE, 1963; Burke & Prather, 1965). This problem is
often solved by using a power assist.
Brake Proportioning. When a four-wheeled vehicle decelerates
there is a transference of load (Parker, 1960; Taborek, 1957) onto
the front wheels because the body's center of qravity is above the
ground plane. To achieve optimum braking the proportioning of
the braking effort between the front and rear axles should match
the instantaneous load distribution (Taborek, 1957; Alexander,
1967). Manufacturers build in a front to rear proportioning
(Automotive Industries, 1968), but a brake system having a fixed
front to rear braking ratio can only achieve optimum performance
for a given rate of deceleration (chase, 1949; Hofelt, 1959;
Parker & Newcomb, 1964). Typically, brake proportioning is fixed
with 60 percent to 70 percent of the braking occurring at the
front wheels (Automotive Industries, 1968).
A series of tests on vehicles having different weight distributions and different brake proportioning has shown (Alexander,
1967) that a front/rear brake ratio equalling the wheel load distribution of the vehicle at a deceleration of 1.0 g is desirable
if the car is to remain directionally stable when heavily braked
on all surfaces. On low coefficient surfaces, however, this
would result (Parker, 1960) in premature front wheel lockup and
a deceleration less than maximum for that surface. The overall
effect of proportioning on the driver-vehicle performance during
braking is that under certain conditions the driver may be able
12

t o a p p l y h i g h e r p e d a l e f f o r t s and a c h i e v e h i g h e r maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n s w i t h o u t i n c u r r i n g wheel lockup.

One s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f p r o p e r p r o p o r t i o n i n g i s t o
v a r y t h e b r a k e p r o p o r t i o n i n g w i t h t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n of t h e c a r .
T h i s c a n b e done by c o n t r o l l i n g t h e p r e s s u r e a t e a c h a x l e i n
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o t h e a x l e l o a d i n g ( F u r i a e t a l , , 1967; Eaton &
S c h r e u r , 1966; E n g i n e e r i n g , 1 9 6 4 ) , b u t t h e u s u a l p r o c e d u r e i s t o

l i m i t o r p r o p o r t i o n t h e r e a r b r a k e h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e above some
f i x e d upper l i m i t ( F u r i a e t a l . , 1967).

A t b e s t , however, t h e s e

l a t t e r methods a r e o n l y compromises a s a r e s u l t o f v a r i a t i o n s i n
v e h i c l e l o a d i n g and b r a k e p e r f o r m a n c e .
DESIGN PRACTICE AND TRENDS.

V e h i c l e b r a k i n g s y s t e m s may b e

c l a s s i f i e d a s b e i n g e i t h e r f o u r - w h e e l drum, f r o n t d i s c and r e a r
drum ( ' h y b r i d ' ) , o r f o u r - w h e e l d i s c .

D i s c b r a k e s h a v e been

common i n Europe f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s ( F u r i a e t a l . , 1 9 6 7 ; H u n t i n g t o n ,
1964; S t r i e n , 1 9 6 1 ) , b u t h a v e been i n t r o d u c e d o n l y r e c e n t l y i n
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (Burke e t a l . , 1965; T i g n o r , 1966; Thomas, 1 9 6 7 ) .
Only one A m e r i c a n - b u i l t c a r h a s f o u r - w h e e l d i s c b r a k e s a s s t a n d a r d
e q u i p m e n t , and one m a n u f a c t u r e r o f f e r s them a s an e x t r a c o s t
option.

S e v e r a l automalters o f f e r f r o n t d i s c b r a k e s a s s t a n d a r d

e q u i p m e n t w h i l e most l i s t them a s an o p t i o n (Automotive I n d u s t r i e s ,

1968; King, 1 9 6 8 ) .

D i s c b r a k e s were f i r s t made a v a i l a b l e on U.S.

c a r s i n 1 9 6 5 , and 2.19 p e r c e n t of t h e c a r s s o l d were s o e q u i p p e d .

By 1967 t h i s p e r c e n t a g e had r i s e n t o 6.22 p e r c e n t , and i t i s
expected t h a t t h i s t r e n d w i l l continue.
I n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e h a s been a t r e n d t o w a r d s l o w e r p e d a l
e f f o r t s t o achieve a given d e c e l e r a t i o n .

I n 1935 a d e s i g n bogey

( a s t a n d a r d o f p e r f o r m a n c e ) was a d o p t e d ( C h a s e , 1949) f o r t h e
r a t e of d e c e l e r a t i o n f o r a g i v e n p e d a l p r e s s u r e , s p e c i f y i n g t h a t
a b r a k e s y s t e m s h o u l d r e q u i r e between 100 l b and 1 3 0 l b o f p e d a l
e f f o r t t o a c h i e v e a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 2 0 f t / s e c 2 .

T h i s bogey was

e x t e n d e d i n 1949 ( C h a s e , 1 9 4 9 ) t o r e d u c e t h e r e q u i r e d p e d a l e f f o r t
t o a s low a s 77 lb f o r t h e same d e c e l e r a t i o n .

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s

new bogey was t o set a n upper l i m i t of b r a k e s e n s i t i v i t y t h a t

would s t i l l e x c l u d e b r a k e s c a p a b l e of l o c k i n g t h e wheels on d r y
pavement ( e . g .

v=

1 . 0 ) w i t h less t h a n 100 l b of p e d a l e f f o r t .

It

was noted t h a t a number of t h e c a r s t e s t e d o b t a i n e d 20 f t / s e c 2

d e c e l e r a t i o n s w i t h p e d a l f o r c e s lower t h a n t h o s e a l l o w e d by t h e
new d e s i g n bogey.

T h e r e h a s been no l i t e r a t u r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e

i n t e r i m d e a l i n g w i t h t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of v a r i o u s d e c e l e r a t i o n
versus pedal e f f o r t curves.
Some r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d d e s i g n summaries have i n d i c a t e d
s a t i s f a c t o r y performance w i t h v e h i c l e b r a k e s y s t e m s t h a t a c h i e v e d

2 0 f t / s e c 2 d e c e l e r a t i o n s w i t h 50 l b (Brown, 1 9 6 5 ) , 4 4 l h (Winge,
19631, and 3 1 l b ( V a n s t e e n k i s t e , 1963) of p e d a l e f f o r t ,

Data

p r e s e n t e d i n a b r a k i n g t e s t of f o u r d i f f e r e n t B r i t i s h b u i l t c a r s
(Mackenzie e t a l . ,
data:

1966) a l l o w e d t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of c o m p a r a t i v e

f o r a 20 f t / s e c 2 d e c e l e r a t i o n , t h e r e q u i r e d p e d a l e f f o r t s

r a n g e d from 48 l b t o 73 l b .
hybrid brake systems,

A l l f o u r c a r s were equipped w i t h

Comparative d a t a d e r i v e d from o t h e r

p u b l i s h e d performance c u r v e s i n c l u d e seven f o r e i g n s p o r t s c a r s
(Motoring Which?, 1968) r e q u i r i n g 40 l b t o 7 9 l b of p e d a l e f f o r t ,
and s i x f o r e i g n s e d a n s (Motoring Which?, 1968) r e q u i r i n g 39 l b
t o 50 l b , a l l f o r a 20 f t / s e c 2 d e c e l e r a t i o n .

These c a r s were

equipped w i t h a l l t h r e e t y p e s of b r a k e s y s t e m s .

A l l b u t one of

t h e s e c a r s r e p r e s e n t performance i n e x c e s s of t h e l i m i t s u g g e s t e d
i n 1949, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of power b r a k e s o r
advances i n b r a k e s t a b i l i t y have r e s u l t e d i n a c o n s i d e r a b l e s h i f t
i n t h e d e s i g n bogey toward lower p e d a l e f f o r t s .

Motor V e h i c l e s a f e t y

S t a n d a r d No. 105 (1968) s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e s e r v i c e b r a k e p e r formance of motor v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r c a r s must n o t b e l e s s t h a n

t h a t d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n D of SAE Recommended P r a c t i c e J937
( 1 9 6 8 ) , when t e s t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h SAE Recommended P r a c t i c e
J843a ( 1 9 6 8 ) .

The SAE s t a n d a r d s p e r m i t a v e r y broad r a n g e of

b r a k i n g performance (SAE P u b l i c a t i o n SP-299,

1967).

F o r example,

on d r y P o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e t h e y o n l y r e q u i r e t h a t t h e b r a k e

p e d a l e f f o r t f a l l i n t h e r a n g e of 1 5 t o 120 l b i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e
a d e c e l e r a t i o n o f 20 f t / s e c 2 from 60 mph w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e
v e h i c l e w i t h i n a 12 f o o t l a n e .
BRAKE USAGE
BRAKE USAGE MEASUREMENTS.

Several s t u d i e s (Carpenter

&

Lees,

1956) have b e e n made i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e u s e b r a k e s r e c e i v e d u r i n g

normal d r i v i n g .

A l l b u t one of t h e s t u d i e s were European and

i n v o l v e d a v a r i e t y of d r i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

During a t e s t i n v o l v i n g

f o u r d r i v e r s o v e r a d i s t a n c e of 1400 m i l e s , i t was found t h a t o n l y

5 p e r c e n t of t h e s t o p s exceeded an a v e r a g e d e c e l e r a t i o n of . 3 g

and t h a t 50 p e r c e n t of a l l s t o p s were made a t .09 g o r lower

(Carpenter, 1955).

I n a t e s t i n v o l v i n g 23 d r i v e r s o v e r 300 m i l e s

of European d r i v i n g , t h e a v e r a g e o f t h e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n s
o b s e r v e d on a number of d i f f e r e n t t e s t r o u t e s v a r i e d between . 2 1 g
and .34 g , t h e mean b e i n g .26 g.
r e c o r d e d was . 6 g.

The s i n g l e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n

A B r i t i s h s t u d y ( L i v s e y , 1960-61) i n v o l v i n g

16 v e h i c l e s c o v e r i n g a wide s e l e c t i o n of v e h i c l e t y p e s was cond u c t e d over f o u r d i f f e r e n t r o u t e s , i n c l u d i n g f a s t mainroad, c r o s s

c o u n t r y , w i n d i n g r o a d s , and a n a l p i n e d e s c e n t .

I t was found t h a t

d e c e l e r a t i o n s on a l l t h e r o u t e s were u s u a l l y i n t h e r a n g e of . 2 g
t o . 3 g , and r a r e l y exceeded . 4 g . T h i s i s i n agreement w i t h an
American s t u d y which o b t a i n e d d e c e l e r a t i o n f r e q u e n c y d a t a on a n
I t i n town" d r i v i n g c o u r s e (Kumrner

&

Meyer, 1 9 6 5 ) .

I t was f e l t

t h a t t h e b r a k i n g l e v e l s e x p e r i e n c e d were t h e maximum t h a t would

b e g e n e r a t e d by t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c .

A d d i t i o n a l l y i t was found

t h a t t h e r o o t mean s q u a r e of t h e s p e e d a t which b r a k i n g was

i n i t i a t e d f o r a l l the routes increased i n d i r e c t proportion t o
t h e v e h i c l e s ' maximum s p e e d , b u t t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c o n s t a n t
was d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e f o u r r o u t e s .
A n o t h e r B r i t i s h s t u d y (McKenzie e t a l . , 1962-63) was made
a t t e m p t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s which would
enable t h e p r e d i c t i o n of brake usage.

By d e f i n i n g two p a r a m e t e r s ,

a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p e e d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r o u t e , and M , d e s vo
c r i b i n g t h e manner of d r i v i n g , t h e a v e r a g e d e c e l e r a t i o n c o u l d be
15

expressed a s

a = (.039

.093)g

where

-v
V

= .(M

)*45(i0)"2
max

i s t h e a v e r a g e r o u t e speed f o r t h e c a r ,

s p e e d of which t h e c a r i s c a p a b l e .

and 'max i s t h e t o p
For t h e c a r s t e s t e d , t h e

d e c e l e r a t i o n s ranged from .15 g t o . 2 8 g on a l l r o u t e s , and t h e

r o o t mean s q u a r e of t h e speed a t which b r a k i n g was i n i t i a t e d
c o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o Vo and

f o r each r o u t e .

I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n s experi e n c e d by a p a r t i c u l a r c a r d u r i n g r o u t i n e d r i v i n g depends on t h e
d r i v e r and t h e t o p speed performance of t h e c a r , and t h a t t h e s e
d e c e l e r a t i o n s w i l l r a r e l y exceed . 3 g .

S i n c e none of t h e s t u d i e s

d e a l t w i t h emergency b r a k i n g , t h e f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e and t h e
magnitude of t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n s i n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n a r e s t i l l undetermined.
FADE AND FADE TESTING.

The Phenomenon of Fade.

Brake f a d e (SAE J 6 5 7 a , 1968) i s t h e

g e n e r a l t e r m used t o d e s c r i b e any one of s e v e r a l c o n d i t i o n s which

r e s u l t i n reduced brake t o r q u e / l i n e pressure gain f o r a given
vehicle.

Heat f a d e r e s u l t s from t h e change i n b r a k e p a r a m e t e r s

c a u s e d by t h e e n e r g y d i s s i p a t e d a t t h e l i n i n g - d r u m i n t e r f a c e ;
w a t e r f a d e r e s u l t s from t h e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e l i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t
of f r i c t i o n due t o w a t e r c o n t a m i n a t i o n ; and washout d e s c r i b e s
t
1966; P e r c y , 1.952).
f a d e due t o any o t h e r c a u s e ( ~ l e e Owner,
Heat f a d e h a s r e c e i v e d by f a r t h e g r e a t e s t a t t e n t i o n i n t h e
literature.

A s n o t e d e a r l i e r , t h e b r a k e t o r q u e depends on t h e

l i n i n g f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e l i n e p r e s s u r e , and t h e geometry
of t h e b r a k e .

Heat f a d e r e s u l t s ( H e r r i n g , 1967) i n two ways--

t h e r m a l d i s t o r t i o n of t h e b r a k e geometry and changes i n t h e

a p p a r e n t c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n of t h e l i n i n g due t o h i g h tempera-

tures.

The l a t t e r mode o f b r a k e f a d e i s a p p a r e n t l y t h e most

i n f l u e n t i a l , however no comparisons h a v e been r e p o r t e d .

Con-

s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t i s b e i n g d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e temp e r a t u r e r i s e i n t h e b r a k e and t o w a r d s d e v e l o p i n g f a d e resist a n t l i n i n g m a t e r i a l s (Weintraub

&

B e r n a r d , 1968; J a c k o e t a l . ,

1968).
Thermal A n a l y s i s .

T h e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have con-

cernzd themselves w i t h t h e temperature r i s e expected d u r i n g

b r a k i n g w i t h b o t h drum b r a k e s ( F a z e k a s , 1953; Newcomb, 1958-59;
B a n n i s t e r , 1957; Noon e t a l . , 1964) and d i s c b r a k e s (Noon, e t a l . ,
1964; Newcomb, 1959; Newcomb, 1960; R i c h a r d s o n & S a u n d e r s , 1 9 6 3 ) .
An a n a l y s i s o f drum and d i s c b r a k e s (Newcomb, 1960; Newcomb

&

M i l l n e r , 1965-66; P e t r o f , 1965) i n d i c a t e s t h a t of t h e h e a t gene r a t e d d u r i n g a s i n g l e s t o p , 95 p e r c e n t i s d i s s i p a t e d a t t h e

drum w h i l e 99 p e r c e n t i s d i s s i p a t e d a t t h e d i s c .

Durincj a s i n g l e

s t o p t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s a c h i e v e d a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same f o r
b o t h drum and d i s c b r a k e s .

The i n c r e a s e d c o n v e c t i o n c o o l i n g

c a p a c i t y of d i s c b r a k e s ( V a n s t e e n k i s t e , 1963; Newcomb & M i l l n e r ,

1965-66; Newcomb, 1 9 6 0 ) , however, r e s u l t s i n lower a v e r a g e temperatures during repeated braking.

T h i s f a c t , combined w i t h t h e

d i s c b r a k e ' s lower s e n s i t i v i t y t o l i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t c h a n g e s ,
h a s been t h e r e a s o n f o r i t s a d o p t i o n on h i g h performance v e h i c l e s
(Lueck, 1965; H u n t i n g t o n , 1964; I h n a c i k , J r . & Meek, 1967; Kemp,
1961).
O t h e r d e s i g n v a r i a t i o n s s u c h a s b i m e t a l l i c b r a k e drums
(Automobile E n g i n e e r , 1959; E n g i n e e r i n g , 1959) and v e n t i l a t e d
d i s c s (Koffman, 1956) have a l s o been u s e d t o r e d u c e t e m p e r a t u r e

r i s e (SAE 5971, 1 9 6 8 ) .

V a r i o u s p a p e r s have p r e s e n t e d p r o c e d u r e s

f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e b r a k e s i z e (Newcomb, 1964; Newcomb,

1964; Rabinowicz, 1964) f o r v e h i c l e s on t h e b a s i s of e n e r g y
a b s o r p t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t e s t s c h e d u l e s
f o r e v a l u a t i n g b r a k e f a d e p e r f o r m a n c e by d r i v i n g t e s t s (Mackenzie
e t a l . , 1962-63; L i v s e y e t a l . , 1960-61)

Lining Materials.

S e v e r a l t h e o r i e s have been advanced

( H e r r i n g , 1967; Rabins & H a r k e r , 1960; Garg & R a b i n s , 1965)

d e a l i n g w i t h t h e mechanism of f a d e c a u s e d by an i n c r e a s e i n t h e
l i n i n g temperature.

The most r e c e n t of t h e s e ( ~ e r r i n g ,1967)

h a s proposed t h a t t h e phenomenon i s due t o an e v o l u t i o n of g a s e s

from t h e l i n i n g m a t e r i a l which t e n d s t o s e p a r a t e t h e r u b b i n g s u r faces.

A d d i t i o n a l work h a s been done i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s

of c o m p o s i t i o n (Weintraub

&

Bernard, 1968; J a c k o e t a l . , 1968)

on t h e t h e r m a l s t a b i l i t y and f a d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f r i c t i o n
materials.
I n v e s t i g a t o r s have a l s o been concerned w i t h d e v e l o p i n g
a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t equipment (Wilson e t a l . , 1968; Anderson e t a l . ,
1 9 6 7 ; C l a y t o n Manufacturing Co., 1967; P e r c y , 1951) f o r t h e

e v a l u a t i o n of l i n i n g m a t e r i a l s .
material i s a trade-off
Burkman

&

Choosing an a p p r o p r i a t e f r i c t i o n

( F l e e t Owner, 1966; A u t o c a r , 1965;

H i g h l e y , 1967; Mulvogue, 1966) between good and bad

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e a v a i l a b l e p r o d u c t s .

Many S o c i e t y of

Automotive E n g i n e e r s (SAE J 6 6 1 a , 1968; SAE J 8 4 0 a , 1968; SAE 5667,

1968) and F e d e r a l ( F e d e r a l S p e c i f i c a t i o n No. KKK-L-370c,
I n t e r i m F e d e r a l S p e c i f i c a t i o n HH-L-00361d,

1961;

1965; V i r g i n i a

Equipment S a f e t y Commission, 1966; F e d e r a l S p e c i f i c a t i o n No.

HH-L-361b,

1952) s t a n d a r d s have been g e n e r a t e d t o p r o v i d e g u i d e -

l i n e s i n brake l i n i n g evaluation.
Fade and P e d a l E f f o r t .

The d r i v e r w i l l s e n s e any d e c r e a s e

i n t h e l i n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n a s a d e c r e a s e d g a i n i n t h e
system, i . e . ,

g r e a t e r p e d a l e f f o r t w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o produce

t h e same v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n .
Iieat f a d e i s n o t a problem i n normal d r i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s
( V a l l i n , 1968; MacKenzie, 1966) a s t h e b r a k e t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e
g e n e r a l l y below 300'

F.

The performance s t a n d a r d recommended by

SAE s p e c i f i e s (SAE J 8 4 3 a , 1968; SAE J 9 3 7 , 1968) t h a t i n f o u r

s u c c e s s i v e s t o p s from 6 0 mph n o t more t h a n 2 0 0 l b p e d a l e f f o r t
s h a l l be n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 15 f t / s e c 2 .

Normal brake effectiveness by the same standards is specified

as being 15 to 120 lb to achieve a 20 ft/sec2 deceleration.
Most drivers are more likely to encounter fade through
water contamination of the lining than through heat fade. The
mechanism is basically the same in that the effective lining
coefficient is reduced, thereby requiring higher pedal efforts.
SAE Recommended Practice (SAE Publication SP-299, 1967; SAE J937,
1968) specifies that 8 ft/sec2 decelerations should be obtainable from 25 mph with less than 200 lb pedal effort after a two
minute soaking of the vehicle's brakes.
BRAKE SYSTEM DEGRADATION. The performance of a brakinq
system may be decreased by wear or 'failure' of any one of its
components. 'Failure' here refers to both catastrophic failure
such as a ruptured brake line or to marginal performance caused
by the deterioration of a single component. A comprehensive
brake system failure analysis of motor vehicles, such as that
normally performed in the aircraft industry (Glasenapp & Gaffney,
1967), has never appeared in the literature. A qualitative discussion of many of the factors affecting brake performance is
available (White, 1963), but it is written from the viewpoint
of vehicle inspection. Some work has been done in determininq
the effectiveness of different dual braking arrangements (Vallin,
1968). Federal Standards (Federal Standard No. 515/9, 1965;
MVSS No. 105, 1968) specify that following a pressure loss in a
portion of a hydraulic braking system, the remaining portion of
the system must be capable of stopping the vehicle from 60 mph
in less than 646 feet on dry Portland cement concrete while maintaining the vehicle within a 12 foot lane. Deqradation of the
braking system will generally result in increased pedal forces
and/or greater pedal travel, or a total loss of braking.
Hydraulic System. Hydraulic brake fluid performance is
affected by its boiling point, water avidity, freezing point,
viscosity, and corrosive action on rubber parts (Markey, 1956;
SAE J664, 1968; Ker, 1968; Shiffler et al., 1968; Hanson & Coryell,

1960; Sharrard & Hanson, 1956). Considerable legislation, based

mainly on SAE Recommended Practice (SAE J70b, 1968; Wright,
19651, has been passed (Richards, 1954; Lederer, 1955; Federal
Specification No. W-B-680a, 1967) to control the quality of brake
fluid reaching the consumer. Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No.
116 (1969) sets federal specifications for hydraulic brake fluid
using the testing procedures set forth in SAE Standard J70b
(SAE J70b, 1968; Wright, 1965). Other SAE publications include
information on the storage and handling (Niehaus & Shiffler, 1966;
Shiffler, 1966; SAE 575, 1968) of brake fluid, brake line hoses
(SAE J40d, 1968), and hydraulic cylinder seals (SAE J60, 1968;
SAE J65, 1968). Motor Vehicle Standard No, 106 (1968) sets federal
specifications for hydraulic brake hoses.
Wear of Friction Elements. The wear characteristics of the
lining and drum (or disc) depend on the particular combination
of the materials used (Willer, 1967; Lang, 1961). Lining wear is
compensated for on all current U.S. production vehicles by automatic adjusters (Automotive Industries, 1968) and is therefore
only a problem when this device fails. Procedures for determining lining wear performance are specified in various SAE publications (SAE J661a, 1968; SAE J667, 1968) yet no specific level
of performance is suggested. Other SAE documents cover the
lining bonds (SAE J840a, 1968) and rivets (Csathy, 1964) for
attaching the brake lining or pad to the shoe.
SKIDDING AS RELATED TO BRAKING
IMPORTANCE OF BRAKING CONTROL IN ACCIDENTS. Skiddinq, as
used here, is any situation in which there is gross slippage
between one or all of the vehicle's tires and the road surface.
Skidding of a vehicle occurs when the limits of adhesion between
the tire and the road are exceeded, and frequently results in a
loss of directional control of the vehicle. The relationship
between braking, skidding, and highway accidents should not be
underestimated.

In a study (Grime, 1963) of 453 accidents involving one or

more vehicles, more than three-fourths of the accidents involved
skidding, and loss of control occurred following application of
the brakes in more than half of these. It was not made clear in
this study whether or not there was a cause and effect relationship between braking and skidding or whether skiddinq was simply
symptomatic of the situation. A similar trend was indicated in
a survey of commercial vehicle accidents (Starks, 1963). Althouqh
two-thirds of all accidents occur on dry roads, the incidence of
accidents involving skidding is two to seven times higher when
the roads are wet (Grime & Giles, 1954-55; Bulmer, 1962; Normann,
1953). It is felt that improved braking control (Grime, 1963) in
many of these skidding accidents would have had a beneficial
effect.
BRAKING DYNAMICS. During braking there is a dynamic transfer of weight onto the front wheels of a vehicle with a corresponding decrease at the rear wheels. Consequently there is a
redistribution of usable braking torque between the front and
rear axles for every different vehicle deceleration (Parker, 1960;
Newcornb & Spurr, 1967; Lister, 1963; Ellis, 1963; Chandler, 1960).
Studies of vehicle dynamics during braking (Lister, 1965; Odier,
1960; Radt & Milliken, 1960; Jones, 1962-63) have shown that the
initial speed, braking characteristics, road surface friction
coefficient, and vehicle parameters are important factors determining the directional response characteristics of the car. If
a brake application should result in 100 percent longitudinal
slip of a tire, the lateral force capability of that tire is
reduced essentially to zero (Francis, 1963). This means that
locking the f r o ~ twheels in a braking maneuver results in nearly
total steering loss. Locking the rear wheels causes the car to
slew around if the vehicle encounters a yawing moment disturbance.
If all wheels lock, the car can sideslip as well as rotate,
depending on whether or not there is an external disturbance con-

sisting of a side force and a yawing moment.

ROAD-TIRE FRICTION COEFFICIENTS. As indicated by Equation
7, the deceleration produced in a locked-wheel braking maneuver
is determined by the locked-wheel coefficient of friction between
the tire and the road. It is possible, however, for the friction
coefficient achieved by a rolling, braked tire to allow decelerations in excess of those produced under locked-wheel conditions. Considerable research has shown (Csathy, 1964; Frood,
1962; Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research,
1959; Giles, 1963; ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 326,
1962; Texas Transportation Institute, 1962) that the effective
coefficient of friction achieved by a rolling tire is dependent
on many variables, the primary one being the longitudinal slip
of the tire.
Longitudinal slip is the ratio of the equivalent ground
speed of the tire to the actual vehicle speed. Measurements
have shown that the coefficient of friction reaches a maximum
at a longitudinal slip of 10 percent to 30 percent and then
decreases gradually to a value termed the sliding coefficient
at 100 percent slip. For a given tire, the shape of this curve
and its magnitude varies (Hofelt, 1959; Kulberg, 1962) with
both the surface condition and the vehicle speed. It has been
found that both the peak and sliding coefficients generally
decrease with increasing speed, but the peak value decreases at
a lower rate (Kulberg, 1962; Schulze & Beckman, 1962). As the
speed increases, the value of slip at which the coefficient is
maximum tends to decrease (Goodenow et al., 1968). The measured
coefficient of friction for a public road is by no means a constant and varies seasonally (Csathy, 1964; Kummer & lleyer, 1967
and from lane to lane (Mahone, 1962) on the highway. The tread
pattern, construction, and composition of the tire influence
the tire-road friction coefficient (Easton, 1960; Mechanical
Engineering, 1968; Kelley, Jr. & Allbert, 1968) whereas tire

inflation pressure appears to have negligible effect (DeVinney,

1967). Wet road surfaces change the frictional characteristics
of the road (Kelley, Jr. & Allbert, 1968; Maycock, 1965-66;
Obertop, 1962; Hoefs, 1961) and introduce the additional factor
of hydroplaning (Allbert, 1968). It appears that vehicle speed
(DeVinney, 1967) is the single most important variable in wet
surface conditions, the coefficient decreasing with increasina
vehicle speed. Investigations have also been made on winter
driving conditions (NSC, 1966; Sapp, 1968; NSC, 1962) and tread
wear (Leland & Taylor, 1964).
Although the problem of accurately measuring the coefficient of friction (Texas Transportation Institute, 1962; Goodwin
& Whitehurst, 1962; Davisson, 1968) of a road surface has been
dealt with in many ways, basically three methods have been used:
skid trailers, vehicle stopping distance measurements (Whitehurst,
1965), and portable testers (ASTM Special Technical Publication
No. 366, 1965). Skid trailers of various designs (Kulberg, 1962;
Goodenow et al., 1968) have been employed to measure both the
sliding and peak friction coefficients. Comparisons between the
British Portable Tester and automobile-stopping distance measurements (Rizenbergs & Ward, 1967) have shown a useful correlation
(ASTM Special Technical Publication No.366, 1965) between their
results when patterned tires are used. In all skid resistance
measurements (Frood et al., 1962) the conditions and methods
must be carefully controlled to obtain consistent results.
SKID CONTROL BY BRAKING MODULATION. An examination of the
frictional characteristics of the tire-road interface indicates
that maximum braking is obtained when tire slip is maintained
near the peak of the curve. Braking beyond this point (Bulmer,
1962) can result in significantly longer stopping distances
(Lister & Kemp, 1961) and the loss of directional control. Modulating the pedal force so as to control the wheel slip at the
peak of the curve is a difficult task for the driver, so simpler
methods of pedal modulation have been suggested.
23

Pumping and cadence braking (Lister & Kemp, 1961) are two
ways of improving braking performance and maintaining steering
control. The philosophy of these methods is that repeated onoff braking will cause the tire slip to pass repeatedly through
the peak of the coefficient/slip curve, Pumping consists of
applying and releasing the brakes rapidly, while cadence braking
is pumping the brakes in resonance with the pitch motion of the
car. Comparisons (Lister & Kemp, 1961) indicate that these two
methods can achieve shorter stopping distances than those of
locked-wheel stops on low coefficient surfaces. On high coefficient surfaces the stopping distances were the same, although
pumping or cadence braking also enabled the driver to maintain
directional control.
Anti-wheel-lock systems have been employed for several years
on large aircraft (Collier, 1958) and a few systems have been
developed for automotive use (SAE J840a, 1968; Autocar, 1962;
Automobile Engineer, 1958; Lister & Kemp, 1958; SAE J660, 1968).
When using these systems, the driver operates as usual under
normal conditions; however, as the driver causes the wheels to
approach lockup in a panic s t o ~ ,the device takes over. Using
an inertia switch (Design News, 1959; Design News, 1957; Machine
Design, 1959) to sense impending wheel lockup, the anti-skid
device automatically pumps the brakes to maintain a slip rate
close to that value producing maximum adhesion. Control is
returned to the driver when he reduces the pedal effort. Other
anti-skid systems operate similarly but derive the wheel acceleration signal from wheel velocity. It is claimed that several of
these systems (Lister & Kemp, 1958; Scafer & Howard, 1968) provide performance superior to locked wheel stops by improving
driver steering control and shortening stoppinq distances, particularly in adverse driving conditions.

TESTING OF THE VEHICLE-TIRE-BRAKE SYSTEM

DECELERATION PERFORMANCE. The deceleration performance
(Tignor, 1966; Harding, 1961) achieved during a stop can be
expressed as a function of (a) the stopping distance, (b) the
average deceleration produced during the stop, and (c) the degree
of driver control.
Stopping Distance. The total distance covered during a
braking maneuver includes the distance traveled during the driver's
response time and the actual deceleration of the vehicle. During
the driver's response period the vehicle would be continuing at
nearly the initial velocity. The deceleration experienced during
the braking interval depends on the rolling resistance, aerodynamic
drag, and engine drag as well as the braking torque and the coefficient of friction existing at the tire-road interface.
Stopping distance may be measured experimentally by integration of a fifth wheel velocity signal or by direct distance measurement. The latter method can be made reasonably accurate by
employing an explosively-fired chalk pellet (Lister, 1959) to
indicate the point of brake application. Minimum driver response
times have been measured by recording the time period between the
flashing of a signal and the start of brake application (Normann,
1953, Konz & Daccarett, 1967).
Deceleration Measurement. An average value of vehicle deceleration can be computed from a measurement of the initial speed
and stopping distance. An instantaneous value can be obtained by
differentiation of a fifth wheel velocity signal (Carpenter, 1956)
or by direct measurement with an accelerometer on board the
vehicle (Harding, 1961). The computation of average deceleration
method is not useful, however, in correlating pedal force with
deceleration. Accelerometers on board the vehicle have the problem (Harding, 1961) of being sensitive to the vibrations caused by
normal road roughness, the pitch motion during braking, a n d the
ascent and descent of grades. The latter two problems may be

eliminated by mounting the accelerometer on a stabilized platform

within the vehicle. The velocity signal differentiation method
avoids the difficulties encountered with the on-board accelerometer and has been successfully used in brake usage tests
(Carpenter, 1955). This method does, however, suffer from a loss
in frequency response because of the necessary electrical filtering circuits.
Directional Control. Studies in which measurements have
been made of the steering control required during braking have
not appeared in the literature. The few quantitative measurements
of directional response that have been made consist of a determination of the final angular deviation of the vehicle from its
intended path after a straight line braking maneuver (Lister,
1963). Although tests and evaluations of anti-skid systems
(Traffic Institute, Northwestern University, 1960) have included
cornering maneuvers during severe braking, quantitative evaluations of improvements in directional stability and control with
respect to conventional braking schemes have not been made. SAE
Recommended Practice (SAE J937, 1968) for brake evaluation tests
requires only that the vehicle remain within a straight 12 foot
roadway.
CONTROL OF BRAKING TESTS. The variables influencing stopping distance measurements (Goodwin & Whitehurst, 1962) are
largely the same as those affecting the measurement of the surface friction coefficient. A method for statistically analyzing
deceleration data (Leah, 1964) has been published claiming that
decelerations may be measured accurately to within 2 1/2 percent.
Repeatability of the measurements, however, depends on controlling other variables such as the surface coefficient, tire wear,
and pedal actuation. In an attempt to remove the human element
from pedal actuation, programmed servo-controlled brake pedal
actuators have been employed in some brake tests (Automotive News,
1968). Despite careful control of the variables, high speed
braking tests, using the same car and driver, and conducted on
26

the same day and surface, have shown considerable scatter with
respect to stopping distance (Normann, 1953) and directional
stability (Odier, 1960).
DRIVER RESPONSE
STATIC DRIVER-VEHICLE RELATIONSHIPS. Several investigators
have dealt with the problem of defining driver-vehicle relationships from the standpoint of applied anthropometry. In a study
of the knee heights of 2,376 civilian drivers (McFarland, 1954),
a 95th percentile knee height of 23 1/2 inches was established,
with the recommendation that there be a minimum distance of
24 1/2 inches between the pedal and the steering wheel of a
vehicle. Data accumulated for 12 different brake pedal designs
indicated a wide range of pedal heights, sizes, and locations.
A similar study of 10 truck cabs indicated (McFarland, 1958)
that many designs were far below the minimum standards essential
to ease of operation and driver efficiency. An example ,cited
was the physical interference of the cab interior with leg movement during brake pedal actuation. The anatomical variables considered important for proper pedal design were foot breadth,
foot length, leg length, knee height, buttock-popliteal length,
and the range of angles formed by the leg foot articulation.
In addition to providing sufficient seat adjustment, a proper
design should (McFarland, 1958) also include appropriate clearances forward of the pedals and lateral clearances between the
pedals as required by a 95th percentile driver. Useful anthropometric data have been compiled (Drillis & Contini, 1966;
Product Engineering, 1967) providing information on the dimensions, masses, volumes, densities, centers of gravity, and moments
of inertia of many body segments for various population samples.
A study of the driver's position relative to the brake pedal
indicates that the pedal force which a subject can exert ( ~ o k i ,
1960) is maximized at a particular knee angle and posture angle.
In 1953 researchers at the Harvard School of Public Health (Reqis,

1953) found that the maximum foot power for a downward motion
could be generated when the initial included angle between the
foot and tibia was 78 degrees. This is based on a horizontal
femur and an included angle of 114 degrees between the femur and
the tibia. Data presented for a study of Japanese drivers (Aoki,
1960) indicated that the 95th percentile driver could exert at
least 25 pounds and recommended that the force necessary to
operate the brakes should not exceed 20 kg (44 lb). If the
pedal is designed for operation with the driver's heel placed
on the floor, the required force should be further reduced.
DRIVER TRANSIENT RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS. During normal
braking maneuvers the driver and vehicle operate as a closed
loop system, but in maneuvers approaching emergency conditions,
it is likely that the braking is performed in a completely open
loop manner. In the former instance it is postulated that the
driver observes the current rate of deceleration and increases
or decreases the brake pedal effort according to the deceleration
error sensed. It is possible, therefore, to represent the driver
as a servo-system element operating within a complex man-machine
system (see Figure 1.3). In using this representation, the
dynamics of the 'error' sensing operation are included in the
driver's transfer function.
The response characteristics of the driver as a control
element are discussed in this section. The next section deals
with a study of the dynamic behavior of a man-pedal force system.
An examination of the literature indicates that the total
human response time in braking is considered to consist of three
periods: a reaction time (time period from stimulus until the
foot is removed from the accelerator), a transfer time (period
from removal of the foot from the accelerator to start of brake
application), and a force transient (time to apply the full pedal
force). The brake-pedal configuration has been shown to have a
considerable effect on the driver's performance (Barnes, 1942;

Des i r e d
Deceleration

Pedal
Vehicler

-1

Perceived
Deceleration

Figure 1.3.

Feedback
Operator

Vehicle
Deceleration

The braking process r e p r e s e n t e d a s a f e e d b a c k

control system.

Ensdorf, 1964). Overall response time measurements on 12 university students using an unspecified stationary 1964 auto and a
light stimulus resulted in an average response time of .59 seconds
(Kontz & Daccarett, 1967). In a similar Japanese study (Aoki,
1960) using a fixed brake pedal, 80 percent of the male and female
drivers tested showed response times less than 1.2 and 1.4 seconds
respectively. Laboratory experiments with a combined brakeaccelerator pedal (Konz et al., 1968; Motor Vehicle Research Inc.,
1959) have resulted in a savings in the overall response time of
.1 to . 2 seconds over that obtained using a conventional brakepedal configuration. Actual road tests employing a conventional
brake pedal and a light stimulus have resulted in a response
time of .73 seconds (Normann, 1953).
In a Japanese study ( ~ o k i ,1960) the magnitude of the brake
force was reported to have little effect on the reaction time,
and 50 percent of the subjects tested had a reaction time of
.30 seconds or less. An American study (Ayoub, 1967), however,
indicated that the reaction time increased in proportion to the
required force. Furthermore, the reaction time was minimized
for a foot-tibia angle of 78 degrees, which coincides with the
angle that maximizes (Rejis, 1953) the power output of a human
operating a foot pedal.
The transfer time (Aoki, 1960) appears to be a function of
pedal angulation and the vertical and lateral heights between
the pedals. The transfer time for 50 percent of the Japanese
subjects tested was approximately .25 seconds, and empirical
equations for transfer times were derived for two cases; namely,
the driver's foot being on or off the floor,
The pedal force transient is a function of the required
final force and the posture of the driver ( ~ o k i ,1960; Ayoub,
1967). This force response can be described by a first order
lag transfer function (Aoki, 1960; Aoki, 1964) in which the time
constant (see Equation 10) decreases as the maximum pedal force

decreases and as the driver's position approaches that corresponding to his maximum force output.

where
Fo= final pedal force achieved
F = driver's response

T = time constant
S = Laplace operator

In the case of a fixed brake pedal, values of the time constant,

T I were observed to range from . 0 4 seconds to .2 seconds for
Fo = 10 kg (22 lb). As the commanded force increased, a trend
towards slightly higher values of the time constant was observed.
DRIVER-BRAKE PEDAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS. A laboratory investigation (Aoki, 1964) of the effects of force and displacement
feedback on the performance of a subject actuating a foot pedal
has been reported in the Japanese literahure. The experimental
apparatus consisted of a simulated driver's seat (stationary)
with a brake pedal having controlled force and displacement characteristics. The subject was shown a display representing a
commanded force signal. His resulting pedal force effort was
compared to the command signal on an oscilloscope, thus providing feedback. Feedback was not begun, however, until the driver's
pedal force exceeded the command force. The experiments showed
that the overall system response was similar to that of a second
order underdamped system. It was found that the amount of overshoot increased as (a) the time to the first overshoot decreased,
(b) the commanded brake force decreased, and (c) the pedal displacement decreased. The measured overshoots were approximately
35 percent at 10 kg and 10 percent at 20 kq. On the basis of
these results and because of the desire to avoid fatiguinq high
pedal forces, the author speculated that the best operator performance would be achieved when the required pedal force was in
the region of 20 kg (44 lb)

31

2.

FOOT-FORCE CAPABILITY OF DRIVERS

INTRODUCTION
Many measurements h a v e been t a k e n o f t h e human's a b i l i t y
t o e x e r t p r e s s u r e i n p u s h i n g movements w i t h t h e f e e t l o c a t e d a t
v a r i o u s l a t e r a l p o s i t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m i d l i n e of t h e
body and a t v a r i o u s h o r i z o n t a l a n g l e s and d i s t a n c e s from t h e
body (Damon e t a l . , 1 9 6 6 ) .

I n most i n s t a n c e s , t h e s e d a t a have

been c o l l e c t e d f o r d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e o f concern i n the present study.

Moreover, a l m o s t a l l o f t h e s e s t u d i e s

were c a r r i e d o u t w i t h s u b j e c t s s e l e c t e d from m i l i t a r y p o p u l a tions.

I n t h e few s t u d i e s i n which d a t a were o b t a i n e d f o r

c i v i l i a n s , t h e s a m p l e s were s m a l l a n d , w i t h one e x c e p t i o n , d i d
n o t i n v o l v e an American p o p u l a t i o n .
F o r example, meager d a t a f o r J a p a n e s e m a l e s and a s e l e c t e d
group o f young J a p a n e s e f e m a l e s showed t h a t t h e 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e
young J a p a n e s e f e m a l e c o u l d e x e r t a maximum p e d a l f o r c e o f o n l y
37 l b s (Aoki, 1 9 6 0 ) .

Thus, on a d r y s u r f a c e , t h i s f e m a l e would

b e u n a b l e t o o b t a i n t h e maximum b r a k i n g c a p a b i l i t y o f any
American c a r t h a t d o e s n o t p o s s e s s p o w e r - a s s i s t e d b r a k e s .

On

t h e o t h e r h a n d , s t u d i e s ( i n v o l v i n g male m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l )
have r e s u l t e d i n much h i g h e r 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e v a l u e s , e . g . , 407
l b ( E l b e l , 1949) and 484 l b ( H a i g h - J o n e s , 1947)

I t i s apparent t h a t pedal-force c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e highly

v a r i a b l e and v e r y much a f u n c t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n sample.

Although m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between c e r t a i n p o p u l a t i o n
g r o u p s , measurements have shown t h a t t h e f o r c e c a p a b i l i t i e s (and
i n d e e d t h e a n t h r o p o m e t r i c measurements) of German, R u s s i a n ,
A u s t r a l i a n , and c e r t a i n o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o
t h e American p o p u l a t i o n ( ~ u s t r a l i a nArmy Op. Res. Group, 1958;
Kroemer, 1966)

R e c e n t l y , maximum f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y , i n d e p r e s s i n g a b r a k e
p e d a l , was measured on a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample o f 50 U.S. f e m a l e s
32

(Stoudt e t a l . ,

1969).

A mock-up o f an a u t o m o b i l e was u s e d

and measurements were made of t h e a v e r a g e f o r c e m a i n t a i n e d by

s u b j e c t s i n d e p r e s s i n g a b r a k e pedal over a t e n second p e r i o d .
Measurements were made f o r f i v e c o n s e c u t i v e t r i a l s , r e s u l t i n g
i n a 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e f o r c e o f 86, 110, 1 2 2 , 1 3 1 , and 1 4 0 pounds
b e i n g r e c o r d e d i n t r i a l s one t h r o u g h f i v e , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
S t u d i e s made of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between pedal-force
c a p a b i l i t y and limb o r i e n t a t i o n and geometry h a v e shown t h a t
t h e d r i v e r ' s knee a n g l e s h o u l d be between 160 and 170 d e g r e e s
when t h e b r a k e and c l u t c h a r e i n t h e u n d e f l e c t e d p o s i t i o n (HSRI,
1967).

With t h i s geometry, maximum f o r c e can b e a t t a i n e d ;

i n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t allowance f o r l e g extension
t o d e p r e s s t h e c l u t c h and b r a k e .

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e

d r i v e r i s p l a c e d i n an awkward and u n c o m f o r t a b l e p o s i t i o n i f
t h e knee a n g l e i s l e s s t h a n 90 d e g r e e s .
R e l a t i v e l o c a t i o n s and d i m e n s i o n s of t h r o t t l e , c l u t c h and
b r a k e p e d a l s t h a t have been d e m o n s t r a t e d t o b e a p r e f e r r e d
a r r a n g e m e n t have been summarized i n a p r e v i o u s HSRI r e p o r t
(1967).

Another ergonomic s t u d y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e l o c a t i o n of

d r i v e r c o n t r o l s h a s s i n c e been r e p o r t e d (Woodson e t a l . , 1 9 6 9 ) .
I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e Harvard s t u d y ( S t o u d t e t a l . ,

1969) was n o t completed u n t i l a f t e r t h i s p r o j e c t g o t underway.

A t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of t h i s p r o j e c t , a d e c i s i o n was made t o

acquire pedal-force c a p a b i l i t y data similar t o t h a t being

s o u g h t by t h e Harvard g r o u p , b u t u s i n g a l a r g e r sample of
b o t h male and f e m a l e s u b j e c t s .

I t was a l s o d e c i d e d t o u s e a

h a r d s e a t t o c o l l e c t t h e s e d a t a , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e Harvard
e f f o r t which employed a s o f t s e a t .
P r i o r t o f i n a l i z i n g t h e d e s i g n of HSRI's t e s t a p p a r a t u s ,

a sample o f v e h i c l e s were s u r v e y e d t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on
c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e i n d i m e n s i o n i n g and l o c a t i n g b r a k e and
accelerator pedals.

The s u r v e y was r e s t r i c t e d t o 1968 models

w i t h measurements b e i n g made a t new- and u s e d - c a r

dealerships.

The sample c o n s i s t e d of 1 0 i n t e r m e d i a t e and 1 3 f u l l - s i z e c a r s

w i t h power b r a k e s .
The mean and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of (1) t h e dimensions of
t h e a c c e l e r a t o r and b r a k e p e d a l s ,

(2) t h e pedal separation

d i s t a n c e and ( 3 ) p e d a l a n g u l a r i n c l i n a t i o n a r e shown i n F i g u r e
2 . 1 f o r t h e four v e h i c l e groupings.
d e g r e e s t o 39 d e g r e e s were found.

Brake p e d a l a n g l e s of 33
Accordingly, t h e simulated

p e d a l used t o measure f o o t f o r c e i n t h i s s t u d y was a d j u s t e d

t o f a l l within t h i s range.

I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t t h e

a c c e l e r a t o r and b r a k e p e d a l dimensions found i n t h i s s u r v e y

g e n e r a l l y m e t t h e recommended minimum r e q u i r e m e n t s d e r i v e d by
H S R I i n a p r e v i o u s r e v i e w of a n t h r o p o m e t r i c d a t a ( H S R I , 1 9 6 7 ) .

METHOD

APPARATUS.

F i g u r e 2 . 2 shows t h e d e v i c e used t o measure

t h e maximum f o o t - f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y of s u b j e c t s .

A c h a i r , 28

i n c h e s wide and 16 i n c h e s d e e p , was covered w i t h a n o n s l i p

v i n y l s u r f a c e and was r a i s e d / l o w e r e d by means of a h y d r a u l i c
lift.

The c h a i r back was 17 i n c h e s h i g h , mounted a t an a n g l e

of 25 d e g r e e s from t h e v e r t i c a l .

A h y d r a u l i c f o r c e g a u g e , 300

l b s f u l l s c a l e , e q u i p p e d w i t h a r i b b e d c i r c u l a r s t e e l pad
( 1 . 7 5 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r ) , was mounted a t an a n g l e o f 35 d e g r e e s
and was h o r i z o n t a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y a d j u s t a b l e ( F i g u r e 2 . 3 ) .
Body w e i g h t and f o o t w e i g h t were measured w i t h a g e n e r a l u t i l i t y
scale.
I n u s i n g t h e p i c t u r e d a p p a r a t u s , t h e p e d a l h e i g h t and
d i s t a n c e from t h e s u b j e c t were a d j u s t e d t o y i e l d a t h i g h a n g l e
of z e r o d e g r e e s and a knee a n g l e of 160 d e g r e e s .

This adjust-

ment was f a c i l i t a t e d by computing t h e s e s e t t i n g s i n advance as

a f u n c t i o n of a l l l i k e l y c o m b i n a t i o n s of d r i v e r f o o t l e n g t h
and lower l e g l e n g t h t h a t might be e n c o u n t e r e d .

(a)

(c)

1 0 I n t e r m e d i a t e s , S i z e Cars,
Power Brake

6 Intermediate Size Cars,

Manual Brake

Figure 2 . 1 .

(b)

(d)

13 F u l l - S i z e C a r s ,
Power Brake

7 Full-Size Cars,
Manual Brake

Brake and A c c e l e r a t o r D i m e n s i o n s , Mean/ S t a n d a r d

D e v i a t i o n , 1968 C a r s .

Figure 2.2.

F o o t p e d a l f o r c e measurement b u c k .

PILOT STUDY.

Procedure.

A p i l o t s t u d y was conducted t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

c o n s i s t e n c y o f p e d a l f o r c e s a s measured under v a r i o u s conditions:

(1) h i g h and low m o t i v a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n s ,

(2) right-

and l e f t - f o o t f o r c e , and ( 3 ) s u b j e c t a b l e t o s e e t h e gauge

while applying a force.
P a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e p i l o t s t u d y were e i g h t males weighing
from 142 t o 250 l b s w i t h a mean weight of 180 l b s , and 28 females
weighing 105 t o 168 l b s w i t h a mean of 133 l b s .
S u b j e c t s were t e s t e d on two c o n s e c u t i v e days.

On t h e f i r s t

day r i g h t - f o o t p e d a l f o r c e s were r e c o r d e d f o r each s u b j e c t w i t h

s t a n d a r d (low) m o t i v a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n - - " p u s h
a s you can and h o l d it f o r t h r e e seconds."
f o r c e gauge was v i s i b l e t o t h e s u b j e c t s .
s u b j e c t s were r e t e s t e d .

t h e pedal a s hard
In a l l cases, the

On t h e second day a l l

The 8 males and 16 (Group A ) of t h e

28 females were a b l e t o s e e t h e f o r c e gauge a s on t h e f i r s t day.

For t h e remaining 1 2 females (Group B) v i s i b i l i t y of t h e gauge
was occluded.

Also, on t h e second day each s u b j e c t was t e s t e d

f o r r i g h t - and l e f t - f o o t f o r c e u s i n g t h e s t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n
( s e e above) on t h e f i r s t t r i a l and t h e n immediately r e t e s t e d
with t h e following i n s t r u c t i o n :
a s you c a n - - l i k e

" T h i s time r e a l l y push a s h a r d

you a r e d r i v i n g a c a r and have t o s t o p t o avoid

a s e r i o u s a c c i d e n t . I'
Results,

A comparison of t h e mean f o r c e s e x e r t e d (Table

2 . 1 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l l t h r e e groups improved from t h e f i r s t

t o t h e second day.

The mean f o r c e of t h e females t h a t were

allowed t o s e e t h e gauge i n c r e a s e d 34.3 p e r c e n t compared t o

an i n c r e a s e of l e s s t h a n two p e r c e n t f o r t h e females n o t allowed
t o s e e t h e gauge. For t h e females allowed t o s e e t h e gauge,
"induced" m o t i v a t i o n f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d t h e mean f o r c e 20.7 p e r cent over the standard i n s t r u c t i o n .

The mean f o r c e f o r t h e

females s e e i n g t h e gauge and given "induced" m o t i v a t i o n i n s t r u c -

TABLE 2.1,

DAY

Males
(N=8)
Females (NA=16)
Females (NB=12)

Male
(N=8)
Females (NA=16)
Females (NB=12)

(A):

(B)

" STANDARD'I
If INDUCED"
MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
YE'T
RIGHT
LEFT llrHT

SUBJECTS

PILOT STUDY MEDIAN RIGHT AND LEFT FOOT

FORCE BY THREE GROUPS OF SUBJECTS FOR
"STANDARD" AND "INDUCED" MOTIVATION
INSTRUCTIONS. DATA ARE IN POUNDS

249
119

113

254
160
116

268
158
128

Force gauge visible both day 1 and 2

Force gauge visible on day 1, occluded on day 2

t i o n s was 71.3 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t f o r t h e group n o t

s e e i n g t h e gauge and g i v e n t h e s t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n s .

High
c o r r e l a t i o n s were found between r i g h t - and l e f t - f o o t f o r c e i n

b o t h m o t i v a t i o n a l conditj-ons.

For a l l s u b j e c t s (N=36) on t h e

second day of t e s t i n g i n t h e " s t a n d a r d " m o t i v a t i o n c o n d i t i o n ,

r*

R. L=

.96; i n t h e "induced1' m o t i v a t i o n c o n d i t i o n , r

.93.

Right f o o t f o r c e s were a l s o h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d a c r o s s t h e
two ( " s t a n d a r d " and "induced") m o t i v a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s (rS I= 0 . 9 4 )

f o r t h o s e s u b j e c t s allowed t o see t h e gauge on t h e second day.

For t h o s e s u b j e c t s who d i d n o t s e e t h e gauge on t h e second d a y ,
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n i n f o o t f o r c e between " s t a n d a r d " and "induced"
m o t i v a t i o n was r S a I =0.66.

Thus, v a r i a b i l i t y i s reduced

when t h e s u b j e c t i s a b l e t o s e e t h e gauge.

Rank-order c o r r e l a -

t i o n s between r i g h t - f o o t f o r c e s o b t a i n e d i n t h e s t a n d a r d motivat i o n c o n d i t i o n on t h e f i r s t and second days seemed t o r e f l e c t

t h e p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t of s e e i n g t h e gauge.

Sub-

j e c t s a b l e t o see t h e gauge on b o t h days produced a c o r r e l a t i o n

of rl.*= 0.39.
I n view of t h e above r e s u l t s , it was d e c i d e d t o make t h e
gauge v i s i b l e t o t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e f i n a l s u r v e y , a s w e l l a s
t o u s e b o t h l e v e l s of m o t i v a t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n s and t o measure
f o r c e s produced by e a c h f o o t i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e most comp r e h e n s i v e and r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s .

MAIN STUDY.
Procedure. The t e s t equipment was t a k e n t o a l a r g e shoe
s t o r e i n a l o c a l shopping c e n t e r and s u b j e c t s were r e c r u i t e d
frorn p a t r o n s and p a s s e r s - b y .
The equipment was l a t e r moved t o
t h e D r i v e r L i c e n s e Bureau of t h e Michigan Department of S t a t e

* r R.L i s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between r i g h t and l e f t f o o t maximum

force.
40

where, with t h e cooperation of o f f i c i a l s , a g r e a t e r age range

of s u b j e c t s could be t e s t e d .

Experimenters followed a pro-

cedure i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t used i n t h e second day of t h e p i l o t

study.

The f o r c e gauge was v i s i b l e ,

S u b j e c t s were g i v e n t h e

" s t a n d a r d " i n s t r u c t i o n s and d a t a r e c o r d e d f o r t h e r i g h t and

l e f t foot.

F o o t o r d e r was a l t e r n a t e d a c r o s s s u b j e c t s ,

Right-

a n d l e f t - f o o t f o r c e measurements were t h e n t a k e n w i t h t h e
"induced" i n s t r u c t i o n s .

I n a d d i t i o n , f o o t l e n g t h , body w e i g h t ,

l o w e r l e g w e i g h t ( w i t h s u b j e c t s e a t e d a n d l e g s r e s t i n g on t h e
scale)

and l o w e r - l e g h e i g h t w e r e m e a s u r e d .

Subjects.

The s t u d y sample c o n s i s t e d o f 276 f e m a l e and

323 male d r i v e r s .

The f e m a l e s were 16 t o 79 y e a r s o f a g e w i t h

a mean a g e of 32.5 y e a r s .

T h e i r w e i g h t s r a n g e d from 89 t o

225 l b s w i t h a mean o f 135.9 l b s .

The m a l e s were 16 t o 89

y e a r s of a g e w i t h a mean a g e of 31.8 y e a r s .

Their weights

r a n g e d from 119 t o 285 l b s w i t h a mean o f 1 7 8 . 1 l b s .

The a g e

and w e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n of s u b j e c t s i s shown i n T a b l e s 2 . 2
and 2 . 3 .

I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t younger d r i v e r s (16-24 y e a r s )

a r e o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e sample.

A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e measured

d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t l i k e l y t o b e an u n d e r e s t i m a t e o f t h e
p e d a l - f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e d r i v e r p o p u l a t i o n .
KESULTS
T a b l e s 2 . 4 and 2 . 5 show t h e c u m u l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s of maximum f o r c e a c h i e v e d by f e m a l e and male s u b j e c t s ,
respectively, with the r i g h t foot.

(Left-foot data a r e not

shown b e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n t h a t was found f o r t h e

two f e e t . )

For t h e s t a n d a r d m o t i v a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e 5 t h

and 5 0 t h p e r c e n t i l e s o f maximum f o r c e a c h i e v e d by t h e 276

f e m a l e s ( T a b l e 2 . 4 ) a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y , 7 0 . 3 l b s and 152.7 l b s .
For t h e i n d u c e d m o t i v a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e 5 t h and 5 0 t h p e r c e n t i l e s a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o 1 0 2 . 3 l b s and 1 9 3 . 7 l b s . M a l e s ,
on b e i n g g i v e n t h e s t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n , a t t a i n e d a 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e f o r c e of 1 3 3 . 1 l b s and a 5 0 t h p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l of 2 7 9 . 1

l b s (Table 2 . 5 ) .

Note t h a t t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e very s i m i l a r t o

t h o s e o b t a i n e d i n t h e p i l o t s t u d y f o r t h e analogous t e s t condit i o n s ( s e e Table 2 . 1 ) .

Performance a t t h e 50th p e r c e n t i l e could

n o t be determined f o r h i g h l y motivated males s i n c e t h e m a j o r i t y

of male s u b j e c t s exceeded t h e 300 l b l i m i t of t h e f o r c e gauge.
Figures 2 . 4 and 2 . 5 show t h e cumulative p e r c e n t of f o o t - f o r c e
c a p a b i l i t y a s achieved by females and males i n t h e two t r i a l s .
Person Product-Moment c o r r e l a t i o n s performed on a random
sample of 1 0 0 s u b j e c t s (57 males and 4 3 females) showed t h a t f o o t
weight (W,) i s h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d with t o t a l body weight (WB) :
l2
r W .WB = . 8 3 . However, f o r t h i s sample of s u b j e c t s , body weight
an% r l g h t f o o t f o r c e ( F ) with s t a n d a r d motivation had a low
c o r r e l a t i o n of rW.F = . 2 4 . A sample of 46 females produced a
c o r r e l a t i o n of rW. F = 0 . 2 6 between body weight and r i g h t - f o o t
f o r c e produced w i h a s t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n . The same sample

a t t a i n e d a c o r r e l a t i o n of rWm F = . 1 8 when body weight was compar-

51

ed with r i g h t - f o o t f o r c e p r o uced under an induced motivation.

DISCUSSION
A comparison of t h e above r e s u l t s w i t h t h o s e obtained i n

t h e Harvard s t u d y produces t h e following f i n d i n g s .

The 50

female s u b j e c t s t e s t e d by Stoudt e t a l . , a t t a i n e d a mean f o r c e

of 2 0 1 l b s and a 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e f o r c e of 126 l b s , averaged over
a l l five trials.

The Harvard s u b j e c t s were t e s t e d f i v e times

( a l l on t h e r i g h t f o o t ) under c o n d i t i o n s corresponding t o t h e
"induced" motivation c o n d i t i o n of t h i s s t u d y . The measured
f o r c e s i n c r e a s e d with each s u c c e s s i v e t r i a l , suggesting t h a t both
a l e a r n i n g arid m o t i v a t i o n a l e f f e c t were p r e s e n t . The subj e c t s i n t h e H S R I study were t e s t e d f o u r times. Only two of
t h e t e s t s were on t h e r i g h t f o o t , t h e f i r s t i n t h e ' s t a n d a r d "
and t h e second i n t h e "induced motivation c o n d i t i o n ,

PEDAL FORCE (lbs)

Figure 2 . 4 .

Cumulative percent pedal f o r c e f o r 2 7 6 females.

PEDAL FORCE (lbs)

Figure 2 . 5 .

Cumulative p e r c e n t p e d a l f o r c e f o r 3 2 3 males.

TABLE 2.2.

AGE DISTRIBUTION OF FEMALE

ANC MALE SUBJECTS

FEMALES
Age

Frequencx

National
Percent Estimate ( % )**

Mean Age=

MALES
Age

Frequency

National
Percent Estimate ( % I **

Mean Age=

Age not given for one subject

**From: Automobile Facts and Figures (1968)

TABLE 2.3.

WEIGHT DISTRIBUTIQ?I OF FEMALE

AND MALE SUBJECTS
FEMALES

Weight ( l b s )

no weight t a k e n
Range:

89-225 l b s

Mean:

135.9 l b s

Frequency

Percent

1.81

276

100.00

Cumulative
Percent

MALES

Weight, ( l b s )

no weight t a k e n
Range:

119-285 l b s

Mean:

178.1 l b s

Frequency

Percent

1
323

.31
100.03

Cumulative
Percent

TABLE 2.4.

CUMULATIVE PERCENT RIGHT FOOT

FORCE DISTRIBUTION: 276 FEMALE DRIVERS

STANDARD MOTIVATION
Pressure (lbs) Frequency

Cumulative
Percent

INDUCED MOTIVATION
Frequency

Cumulative
Percent

TABLE 2.5.

CUMULATIVE PERCENT RIGHT FOOT

FORCE DISTRIBUTION : 323 MALE
DRIVERS

STANDARD MOTIVATION
Cumulative
Pressure (lbs) Frequency
Percent

INDUCED MOTIVATION
Cumulative
Frequency
Percent

On t h e f i r s t t r i a l t h e mean and 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e f o r c e v a l u e s

were 153 l b s and 70 l b s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , which compare q u i t e well

w i t h t h e 164 l b s and 86 l b s o b t a i n e d a t Harvard.

On t h e second

t r i a l , t h e Ann Arbor f e m a l e s produced mean and 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e

l e v e l s of 194 l b s and 102 l b s , a s compared t o H a r v a r d ' s 194 l b s
and 110 l b s .

The lower v a l u e s o b t a i n e d i n t h e s e t e s t s i n t h e

f i r s t t r i a l , a s compared t o t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a t Harvard, may

be due t o t h e l e s s e m p h a t i c i n s t r u c t i o n s .

However, t h e c o r r e s p o n -

dence between t h e s e two sets of r e s u l t s seems t o be s u r p r i s i n g l y

good, p a r t i c u l a r l y when it i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t d i f f e r e n t s e a t conf i g u r a t i o n s were u s e d .
The c o n c l u s i o n t h a t " a l m o s t a l l ! ' d r i v e r s can e x e r t 100 l b s
of f o r c e on a p e d a l f o r t e n seconds i s n o t s u p p o r t e d by t h e measurements o b t ai n ed i n t h i s study.

Even t h e v a l u e s of 80 and 90

l b s which S t o u d t e t a l . c l a i m c o u l d be r e a c h e d by " a l l b u t t h e
most a b e r r a n t o r p a t h o l o g i c a l l y weak"

seem h i g h when compared

w i t h t h e 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e female f o r c e of 85 l b s t h a t i s o b t a i n e d
by a v e r a g i n g t h e r e s u l t produced by b o t h i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e t s , o r
trials.

I n t h e Harvard s t u d y , t h e f i r s t p e r c e n t i l e d i d n o t

s u r p a s s 100 l b s u n t i l t h e f i f t h t r i a l .

A more a p p r o p r i a t e con-

c l u s i o n from t h a t s t u d y would be t h a t 9 9 p e r c e n t of t h e female

d r i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n might be a b l e t o make a t e n second p e d a l
p r e s s of o v e r 100 l b s a f t e r s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s .
I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e s e d a t a do n o t s a y what a d r i v e r w i l l

be a b l e t o do i n r e a l b r a k i n g e m e r g e n c i e s .

Presumably, h e might

be more m o t i v a t e d t h a n was t h e c a s e i n t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s .

How-

e v e r , t h e m o t i v a t i o n produced by a s t r e s s f u l d r i v i n g s i t u a t i o n
i s , a s y e t , unknown and u n e x p l o r e d .

3.

DRIVER BRAKING PERFORMANCE AS A FUNCTION OF

PEDAL-FORCE AND PEDAL-DISPLACEMENT LEVELS

INTRODUCTION
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h

s e e k i n g t o d e f i n e t h e r o l e o f t h e human o p e r a t o r a s a dynamic,
vehicle brake c o n t r o l l e r i s indeed sparse.
Feedback v a r i a b l e s i n t h e b r a k i n g p r o c e s s a r e t h o s e which
p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e d r i v e r d i r e c t l y , namely, t h e f o r c e
and d i s p l a c e m e n t a p p l i e d t o t h e b r a k e p e d a l , o r i n d i r e c t l y ,
namely, t h e v i s u a l , a u d i t o r y , k i n e s t h e t i c , v e s t i b u l a r , o r p r o p r i o c e p t i v e s e n s a t i o n s produced by t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e v e h i c l e
t o the braking input.

Some e a r l i e r s t u d i e s have a t t e m p t e d t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e manner i n which t h e s e d i r e c t f e e d b a c k p r o c e s s e s
i n f l u e n c e t h e a b i l i t y of a d r i v e r t o a c h i e v e minimum b r a k i n g
d i s t a n c e s (Kontz e t a l . ,
1960; Barnes e t a l . ,
1 9 6 4 ; Dupuis, 1 9 5 7 ) .

1969; Ayoub and Trombley, 1967; Aoki,

1942; Trumbo and S c h n e i d e r , 1963; H i n d l e ,

These l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s were n e c e s s a r i l y

c a r r i e d o u t i n an open-loop manner ( i . e . , w i t h o u t v e h i c l e motion

c u e s ) and were c o n c e r n e d w i t h e v a l u a t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p e d a l
geometry t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f e e d b a c k t h a t comes from o p e r a t i o n o f
t h e pedal i t s e l f .

S p u r r (1965) r e p o r t e d an o n - t h e - r o a d

study i n

which h e was a b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t p a s s e n g e r s were a b l e t o

e s t i m a t e d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l s q u i t e w e l l w i t h o u t v i s u a l feedback
b e i n g p r o v i d e d , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e v e s t i b u l a r , k i n e s t h e t i c and
p r o p r i o c e p t i v e s t i m u l i d e r i v e d from d e c e l e r a t i o n p r o v i d e t h e
major c u e s i n t h e b r a k i n g p r o c e s s .

Alexander (1967) performed

a s t u d y p r i m a r i l y t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e of b o t h b r a k e t o r q u e and w e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n on b r a k i n g p e r f o r m a n c e .

Of par-

t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o t h i s s t u d y was h i s f i n d i n g t h a t human o p e r a t o r s c o u l d , on t h e a v e r a g e , a t t a i n a maximum b r a k i n g p e r f o r m a n c e

t h a t was o n l y 60 t o 85 p e r c e n t of t h e b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y * b u i l t
i n t o the vehicle.
With r e s p e c t t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e most p e r t i n e n t s t u d y
h a s been t h a t c o n d u c t e d by Brigham ( 1 9 6 8 ) .

Using a v e h i c l e i n

which i t was p o s s i b l e t o v a r y t h e deceleration/pedal-force g a i n * *

and t h e p e d a l - d i s p l a c e m e n t l e v e l , he found t h a t a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h
g a i n ( g l s / l b ) p l u s a low v a l u e of p e d a l c o m p l i a n c e produced t h e
b e s t b r a k i n g p e r f o r m a n c e and t h e h i g h e s t d r i v e r r a t i n g s .

In

B r i g h a m ' s s t u d y , t h e s l o p e s o f t h e l i n e a r p o r t i o n of t h e p e d a l
f o r c e v e r s u s d e c e l e r a t i o n c u r v e s were 48, 7 2 , 7 6 , and 100 pounds
p e r g ( t h e f o r c e s r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e 1 . 0 g d e c e l e r a t i o n were
5 5 , 80, 9 0 , and 130 pounds, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .

Test d a t a show t h a t

t h e h i g h e s t d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n (.0208 g / l b ) used i n
B r i g h a m ' s s t u d y i s w e l l below t h e maximum g a i n s d e s i g n e d i n t o

U.S. a u t o m o b i l e s w i t h p o w e r - a s s i s t b r a k e s y s t e m s .

Notwithstand-

ing t h i s r e s t r i c t e d variation i n deceleration/pedal force gain,

B r i g h a m ' s s t u d y s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a p i o n e e r i n g e f f o r t .

Unfor-

t u n a t e l y , it was n o t funded t o p e r m i t t e s t s which i n c l u d e d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a s an e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a b l e .

( T h i s work h a s y e t

t o b e r e p o r t e d i n t h e open l i t e r a t u r e and was d i s c o v e r e d a f t e r

t h e NHSB s t u d y was i n i t i a t e d , )

Braking e f f i c i e n c y i s d e f i n e d a s t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n i n g

u n i t s t h a t c a n be a c h i e v e d , p r i o r t o wheel l o c k i n g , r a t i o e d t o
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n e x i s t i n g a t the t i r e - r o a d i n t e r face.

**

Gain i s d e f i n e d e i t h e r a s a r a t i o o f an i n p u t t o o u t p u t

v a r i a b l e o r a s a r a t i o of an o u t p u t t o i n p u t v a r i a b l e .

Thus,

we may h a v e a p e d a l f o r c e / d e c e l e r a t i o n g a i n i n pounds p e r g
u n i t s of d e c e l e r a t i o n o r a d e e e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n i n
g 1s p e r pound.

The e x i s t i n g U.S.

Motor V e h i c l e S a f e t y S t a n d a r d No. 105

(1968) f o r b r a k i n g s y s t e m e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r p a s s e n g e r v e h i c l e s

i s d e r i v e d from a p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t d e v e l o p e d by t h e
S o c i e t y o f Automotive E n g i n e e r s (SAE J 9 3 7 , 1969; SAE J 8 4 3 a , 1 9 6 6 ) .
B r i e f l y s t a t e d , i t i s r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e p e d a l f o r c e , u n d e r nondegraded c o n d i t i o n s of t h e b r a k e system, be n o t less than 1 5 n o r
more t h a n 100 pounds from 30 mph and 120 pounds from 60 mph, f o r
a d e c e l e r a t i o n o f 20 f e e t p e r s e c o n d p e r second.
The q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s a s t o w h e t h e r t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l
f o r c e g a i n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c u r r e n t U.S.

standard represent

a match w i t h d r i v e r m o d u l a t i o n s k i l l s and f o r c e c a p a b i l i t i e s o r
t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d i s i n need of r e v i s i o n and, i f such i s t h e
c a s e , what s h o u l d b e t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s r e v i s i o n .

The p u r p o s e

o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t was t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s problem.
METHOD
SUBJECTS.

O r i g i n a l l y f i f t e e n men and f i f t e e n women were

t o be t e s t s u b j e c t s t o f i l l t h e c e l l s of a 3 x 5 m a t r i x ( 3
w e i g h t and 5 a g e c a t e g o r i e s ) f o r e a c h s e x .

The t h r e e w e i g h t

c a t e g o r i e s ( l o w e r , m i d d l e , u p p e r t h i r d ) were d e r i v e d from d a t a
o b t a i n e d by S t o u d t e t a l .
(18-24, 25-34,

35-44,

(1965).

45-54,

maximum a g e o f 60 y e a r s .

The f i v e a g e c a t e g o r i e s

and 55-60 y e a r s ) were l i m i t e d by a

T h i s was done a s a s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n

b e c a u s e o f t h e demands p l a c e d on t h e d r i v e r s by t h e e x p e r i m e n t .
Because o f a d v e r s e w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s it was i m p o s s i b l e t o comp l e t e the study with a l l desired subjects.
t w e l v e women were u s e d .

S i x t e e n men and

T h e i r a g e s and w e i g h t s a r e shown i n

Table 3.1.
THE TEST VEHICLE.

General Description.

The t e s t v e h i c l e was a 1969 C h e v r o l e t

Townsman s t a t i o n wagon which was e x t e n s i v e l y m o d i f i e d t o a c h i e v e

the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s required i n t h e driver-vehicle test.

TABLE 3.1.

Weight

18-24

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
TEST SUBJECTS ( D R I V E R S )

25-34

35-44

45-54

55-60

Male
Lower
Third
Third
Upper
Third

Lower

Third

Third
Upper
Third

21/136

25/148

41/151

51/154

59/148

22/162

26/168

37/165

51/170
46/162

60/175

23/190

25/250

35/188

47/231

56/188

24/112

Female
30/118
37/119

52/110
45/115

55/130

21/133
21/163

The f i r s t number i n e a c h c e l l i s t h e a g e o f t h e
s u b j e c t ; t h e s e c o n d number i s t h e w e i g h t of t h e s u b j e c t .

s p e c i a l e l e c t r o h y d r a u l i c b r a k e c o n t r o l s y s t e m was i n s t a l l e d
( F i g u r e 3 . 1 ) which p r o v i d e d a s i m p l e and r a p i d method o f s e l e c t i n g b r a k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s from a f i x e d s e t o f d e c e l e r a t i o n /
p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s and p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s .

A two-fluid

system

was u s e d t o i n s u r e c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h t h e s e a l m a t e r i a l s u s e d
i n t h e h y d r a u l i c components.
I n o r d e r t o minimize problems of b r a k e f a d e d u r i n g t h e t e s t
and t o o b t a i n a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n between b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e and
d e c e l e r a t i o n , d i s c b r a k e s were u s e d on a l l f o u r w h e e l s .

For t h e

f r o n t w h e e l s t h e v e h i c l e was e q u i p p e d w i t h s t a n d a r d f a c t o r y
i n s t a l l e d d i s c brakes.

A f t e r d e l i v e r y t h e r e a r wheel drum b r a k e s

were removed and t h e a x l e and a x l e t u b e m o d i f i e d f o r t h e i n s t a l -

Figure 3.1.

The hydraulic brake control system.

l a t i o n of c a l i p e r s and b r a k e d i s c s .

Two s e p a r a t e c a l i p e r s were

i n s t a l l e d a t e a c h r e a r w h e e l , one o p e r a t e d by t h e e l e c t r o h y d r a u l i c b r a k e c o n t r o l s y s t e m and t h e o t h e r o p e r a t e d by a s e p a r a t e
b r a k e p e d a l and c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c s y s t e m t o p r o v i d e emergency b r a k i n g .

The c a l i p e r s and d i s c s u s e d were i d e n t i c a l t o

t h o s e on t h e f r o n t w h e e l s t o i n s u r e s i m i l a r b r a k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f r o n t and r e a r .

S t a n d a r d f a c t o r y equipment f r i c t i o n

m a t e r i a l was u s e d a t a l l w h e e l s .

The SAE ( J 8 4 3 a ) p r e s c r i b e d

b u r n i s h i n g p r o c e d u r e was f o l l o w e d e a c h time new f r i c t i o n p a d s

were i n s t a l l e d .

T h i s amounted t o s e v e r a l s t o p s from 4 0 mph

and 6 0 mph a t d e f i n e d g l e v e l s w i t h i n t e r v a l s between t o a l l o w

t h e brakes t o cool.

Thermocouples were i n s t a l l e d i n one b r a k e

pad i n e a c h w h e e l , w i t h a r e a d - o u t i n t h e c a r .

The pad tempera-

t u r e d u r i n g b u r n i s h i n g was n o t a l l o w e d t o e x c e e d 300" F .
Permanent magnet DC t a c h o m e t e r g e n e r a t o r s were l o c a t e d a t
e a c h w h e e l and d r i v e n d i r e c t l y by t h e wheel t o i n d i c a t e wheel
lockup.
IIeavy d u t y shock a b s o r b e r s were i n s t a l l e d on t h e f r o n t o f
t h e v e h i c l e and a i r - a d j u s t e d , c a r - l e v e l i n g shock a b s o r b e r s were
i n s t a l l e d on t h e r e a r t o compensate f o r t h e a d d i t i o n a l l o a d o f
t h e h y d r a u l i c equipment and r e d u c e r e a r - e n d d r a g .
A r o l l b a r and c o m p e t i t i o n t y p e s e a t b e l t s and s h o u l d e r

s t r a p s f o r t h e d r i v e r and e x p e r i m e n t e r were i n s t a l l e d t o p r o t e c t
t h e o c c u p a n t s i n t h e e v e n t o f r o l l - o v e r d u r i n g v i o l e n t maneuvers.
The v e h i c l e was e q u i p p e d w i t h 8 . 5 5 x 1 5 , p o l y e s t e r c o r d ,
4-ply

( l o a d range-D) t i r e s .

I n n e r t u b e s were u s e d t o p r e v e n t

a i r l o s s d u r i n g h a r d t u r n s and s t o p s .

The t i r e s were r e p l a c e d

when t r e a d wear r e a c h e d 50 p e r c e n t .
The c u r b w e i g h t o f t h e v e h i c l e d u r i n g t h e t e s t was 5945 l b s .
T h i s was d i s t r i b u t e d 2563 l b s on t h e f r o n t and 3382 l b s on t h e
r e a r wheels.
The Brake System.

The b r a k e s y s t e m r e q u i r e d q u i c k and

s i m p l e s e l e c t i o n o f s i x l e v e l s of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n and two l e v e l s of p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t . The l a t t e r were a
z e r o d i s p l a c e m e n t p e d a l and a n o n l i n e a r d i s p l a c e m e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i t h a d i s p l a c e m e n t of 2 . 5 i n c h e s producing 1000 p s i i n
t h e brake l i n e .
F i g u r e 3 . 2 i s a diagram of t h e b r a k e c o n t r o l system.

Brake

p e d a l f o r c e / d i s p l a c e m e n t was c o n t r o l l e d by s i x , quick-change,
n o n l i n e a r s p r i n g c a n i s t e r s through a h y d r a u l i c l i n e and master
c y l i n d e r s 1 and 2 .

C y l i n d e r 2 and t h e s p r i n g c a n i s t e r s were

l o c a t e d i n t h e r e a r of t h e c a r n e a r t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r and o n l y a
few seconds were r e q u i r e d t o change c a n i s t e r s . z e r o 1 p e d a l d i s placement was o b t a i n e d by m e c h a n i c a l l y l o c k i n g t h e push rod of
master c y l i n d e r 1 a t a p o i n t a f t e r t h e pedal force load c e l l .
D e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n c o n t r o l was o b t a i n e d by cont r o l l i n g b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e through a c l o s e d - l o o p e l e c t r o h y d r a u l i c servo.

The d i f f e r e n c e , o r e r r o r , between t h e b r a k e l i n e

p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r o u t p u t and t h e p r e s s u r e command s i g n a l from

t h e p e d a l f o r c e l o a d c e l l was a m p l i f i e d by t h e s e r v o a m p l i f i e r
and a p p l i e d t o t h e s e r v o v a l v e which c o n t r o l l e d t h e a c t i v a t i n g
c y l i n d e r and m a s t e r c y l i n d e r 3 , a s r e q u i r e d , t o minimize t h e
e r r o r , By a d j u s t i n g t h e e l e c t r o n i c a m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e p e d a l
force load c e l l output with t h e pedal force-gain potentiometer
t h e r a t i o of b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e / p e d a l f o r c e was v a r i a b l e from 0
Except f o r t h e h y d r a u l i c pump t h e h y d r a u l i c
p s i / l b t o 80 p s i / l b .
components were mounted on an aluminum p l a t e on t h e deck behind
t h e second s e a t . T h i s assembly a l s o i n c l u d e d l i n e s and v a l v e s ,
n o t shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 f o r s w i t c h i n g from s e r v o c o n t r o l l e d
b r a k e s t o normal b r a k e s .
The pump, mounted i n t h e e n g i n e compartment, was d r i v e n
through a magnetic c l u t c h and p u l l e y by t h e e n g i n e . ~ u r i n g
l ~ h e r ewere about 1/16 i n c h e s of p e d a l t r a v e l .

QUICK CHANGE S P R l:NG

CANISTER (PEDAL F'ORCE
DISPLACEMENT CON? 'ROL)

BRAKE
PEDAL

(1

PEDAL FORCE
N C O N

FA-0-, ,
h1

PRESSURE
BRAKE
lINE
TRANSDUCER (
FRONT DISK BRAKES

SERVO
VALVE

ACCUMULATOR

,
'

%5

f-7'

BRAKE F L U I D

BRAKE
PROPORTIONING

MASTER
CYLINDER # 3

ACTUATING
CYLINDER

REAR D I S K BRAKES

MAGNETIC
CLUTCH

CAR FOTOR

Figure 3 . 2 .

Brake c o n t r o l system.

t e s t r u n s t h e pump was d i s e n g a g e d t o u n l o a d t h e e n g i n e and t o

e l i m i n a t e e x c e s s i v e pump n o i s e t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h t h e h y d r a u l i c
l i n e s t o t h e i n s i d e of t h e c a r .
was 1500 p s i .

Peak h y d r a u l i c s u p p l y p r e s s u r e

During t e s t r u n s t h e s u p p l y p r e s s u r e was main-

t a i n e d a b o u t 1000 p s i by t h e a c c u m u l a t e d c h a r g e .

Brake l i n e

p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t i o n was a b o u t o n e p e r c e n t f o r a h y d r a u l i c s u p p l y
p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n from 1000 p s i t o 1500 p s i .
The t e s t v e h i c l e , a s o b t a i n e d from

Brake P r o p o r t i o n i n g .

t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r , was e q u i p p e d w i t h f r o n t wheel d i s c b r a k e s and

r e a r w h e e l drum b r a k e s .

I n o r d e r t o minimize b r a k e f a d e , and

t o p r o v i d e a more n e a r l y l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e d a l f o r c e
and d e c e l e r a t i o n , d i s c b r a k e s were i n s t a l l e d on t h e r e a r w h e e l s
which were i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e on t h e f r o n t w h e e l s .

This pro-

v i d e d e q u a l b r a k e f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y f r o n t a n d r e a r , which i s
generally n o t d e s i r a b l e i n a passenger c a r .

The b r a k i n g e f f i -

ciency diagram f o r t h e test v e h i c l e i s given i n F i g u r e 3.3.

B r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y i s a q u a n t i t a t i v e measure o f how w e l l
the vehicle u t i l i z e s the friction forces available a t the t i r e road i n t e r f a c e ,
coefficient.
as:

On t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s i s p l o t t e d t h e f r i c t i o n

The v e r t i c a l a x i s shows b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y d e f i n e d

t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e v e h i c l e on a g i v e n s u r -

f a c e w i t h o u t w h e e l l o c k u p d i v i d e d by t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f
t h a t surface.

Above t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e i n t h e f i g u r e , f r o n t

wheel l o c k u p o c c u r s f i r s t , w h i l e below t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e , r e a r
wheels lock f i r s t .
A s r e c e i v e d from t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r t h e v e h i c l e had d i s c

b r a k e s f r o n t and drum b r a k e s r e a r , w i t h a f r o n t t o r e a r b r a k e
f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n of 60:40, y i e l d i n g a b r a k e e f f i c i e n c y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , i n d i c a t e d i n t h e f i g u r e , which i s t y p i c a l f o r p a s s e n ger cars.

On low c o e f f i c i e n t s u r f a c e s , i c e and w e t pavement,

t h e f r o n t wheels lock f i r s t .
t h e r e a r wheels lock f i r s t .

On h i g h e r c o e f f i c i e n t s u r f a c e s ,
S i n c e r e a r wheel l o c k u p (on low

coefficient surfaces especially) generally renders t h e vehicle

@-EXPERIMENTAL

POINTS

@ = 2 BRAKE FORCE ON REAR WHEELS

WET P A I N T E D
SURFACE

....

WET ASPHALT

ABOVE T H I S L I N E , FRONT WHEELS OTiERBRAKE

BELOW T H I S L I N E , REAR WHEELS OVERBRAKE

Figure 3.3.

..

DRY ASPHALT

Braking e f f i c i e n c y of t h e t e s t v e h i c l e .

d i r e c t i o n a l l y u n s t a b l e , v e h i c l e s a r e d e s i g n e d s u c h t h a t t h e 100
p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y p o i n t (where a l l w h e e l s l o c k u p s i m u l t a n e o u s l y )
o c c u r s a t a b o u t 0.75 f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r normal v e h i c l e l o a d ing.

However, when d i s c b r a k e s , i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e on t h e f r o n t

w h e e l s , were i n s t a l l e d on t h e r e a r w h e e l s of t h e t e s t v e h i c l e ,
g i v i n g a f r o n t t o r e a r b r a k e f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f 50:50, t h e
b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y l i n e was moved downward.

Such p r o p o r t i o n i n g

would c a u s e d a n g e r o u s r e a r wheel l o c k u p t o o c c u r on low c o e f f i cient surfaces.

A v e h i c l e with i t s brake system s o proportioned

would n o t b e s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e i n t e n s i v e t e s t i n g of s u b j e c t s
r e q u i r e d by t h i s program.

T h e r e f o r e , a Kelsey-Hayes model D74801

p r o p o r t i o n i n g v a l v e , w i t h a " s p l i t - p o i n t " a t a b o u t 300 p s i , was

i n s t a l l e d i n t h e hydraulic f l u i d l i n e t o t h e r e a r brakes.

Up t o

a b o u t 300 p s i (280-320 p s i ) , f l o w o f b r a k e f l u i d t o t h e r e a r
b r a k e s i s n o t impeded, g i v i n g e q u a l p r e s s u r e f r o n t and r e a r .
However, a t t h e " s p l i t - p o i n t " and above f l o w t o t h e r e a r b r a k e s

i s r e s t r i c t e d , c a u s i n g t h e p r e s s u r e t o be i n c r e a s e d i n t h e r e a r
b r a k e s by o n l y 2 p s i f o r e v e r y 5 p s i i n c r e a s e i n f r o n t b r a k e
l i n e pressure.

A s shown i n t h e f i g u r e , t h e b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y

l i n e s f o r t h e system with t h e proportioning valve i n d i c a t e t h a t

r e a r wheel l o c k u p on low c o e f f i c i e n t s u r f a c e s i s p r e v e n t e d ,
S e v e r a l t e s t r u n s were made t o v e r i f y t h e a n a l y s i s , and
four experimental points a r e indicated i n t h e figure.

For t h e s e

r u n s t h e t e s t v e h i c l e was e q u i p p e d w i t h a d e c e l e r o m e t e r , and
t h e wheel l o c k u p i n d i c a t o r was u s e d , On t h e wet p a i n t e d s u r f a c e ,
f r o n t w h e e l s l o c k e d f i r s t , b u t on t h e w e t and d r y a s p h a l t t h e
r e a r s locked f i r s t ,

On a l l t h r e e s u r f a c e s , b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s

i n e x c e s s of 9 5 p e r c e n t were a c h i e v e d .
Brake System P a r a m e t e r s . Dynamic measurements of d e c e l e r a t i o n v s . b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e were made on t h e d r y b l a c k t o p a r e a
of t h e t e s t t r a c k .
a s l o p e of 0 . 8 8 3 x

The c u r v e showed a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

lom3

g/psi.

S t a t i c measurements were made of b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e v s .

p e d a l f o r c e and p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e s i x p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s
and t h e s i x corresponding s p r i n g c a n i s t e r s .

The s i x g a i n v a l u e s

u s e d a r e shown i n T a b l e 3.2 i n terms o f d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e

i n g / l b and t h e i n v e r s e , l b / g .

TABLE 3 . 2 .

PEDAL FORCE GAINS

Level

lb/g
-

15.5

g/lb
0.065

27.2

0.037

47.4

0.021

83.0

0.012

146.0

0.007

254.0

0.004

F i g u r e 3.4 shows t h e p e d a l f o r c e / p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t f o r e a c h
of t h e s i x s p r i n g c a n i s t e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s i x d e c e l e r a t i o n /
pedal force gains.

The wide r a n g e of f o r c e - d i s p l a c e m e n t c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c s i s r e a d i l y s e e n from t h e s e c u r v e s .

Ideally the s i x

s p r i n g c a n i s t e r s should provide a constant pedal displacement/

deceleration gain.

The r a n g e o f p e d a l displacement/deceleration

g a i n ( F i g u r e 3 . 5 ) t h a t was o b t a i n e d was c o n s i d e r e d r e a s o n a b l y
constant.

The means by which t h i s was a c c o m p l i s h e d i s d e s c r i b e d

i n Appendix I .
Speed C o n t r o l System.

On t h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e t e s t t r a c k

t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r pushed t h e " c o u n t e r c l e a r " s w i t c h , t h e r e b y

c l e a r i n g a l l c o u n t e r s and c l o c k s and s t a r t i n g t h e Brush r e c o r d e r
paper d r i v e .

Speed c o n t r o l l o c k - i n was i n d i c a t e d by a g r e e n

l i g h t i n f r o n t of t h e d r i v e r , s o t h a t h e could r e l e a s e t h e a c c e l e r ator.

Upon a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e b r a k e t h e s p e e d c o n t r o l was r e l e a s e d

a n d a l l c o u n t e r s and timers were e n a b l e d .

When t h e v e h i c l e v e l o -

Pedal ~ o r c e /
Deceleration Level

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

PEDAL DISPLACEMENT (inches)

Figure 3 . 4 .

Pedal f o r c e and displacement f o r each

-deceleration/pedal f o r c e l e v e l .

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

PEDAL DISPLACEMENT (inches)

Figure 3.5.

Deceleration/pedal displacement range.

62

c i t y dropped below 1 mph a l l c o u n t e r s and timers s t o p p e d ,

hold-

i n g t h e i r r e a d i n g s u n t i l t h e experimenter a g a i n a c t i v a t e d t h e
" c l e a r " switch.
Data C o l l e c t i o n I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n .

Data c o l l e c t i o n i n s t r u -

mentation was i n s t a l l e d ( ~ i g u r e3 . 6 ) t o provide a r e a d o u t o r

r e c o r d i n g of t h e f o l l o w i n g :
1.

Vehicle v e l o c i t y

2.

Vehicle d e c e l e r a t i o n

3.

Braking d i s t a n c e

4.

Braking time

5.

Wheel lockup count (each wheel and t o t a l a l l wheels)

6.

Wheel lockup time ( t o t a l time one o r more wheels locked)

7.
8.

Brake p e d a l f o r c e
Brake p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t

9.

Brake l i n e p r e s s u r e

10.

Brake pad t e m p e r a t u r e

Brake pad t e m p e r a t u r e was monitored d u r i n g t h e t e s t t o

determine t e s t r e p e t i t i o n r a t e s which would keep pad temperat u r e s low and minimize b r a k e f a d e .

A block diagram of t h e performance d a t a c o l l e c t i o n i n s t r u mentation i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 7 . Wheel lock e v e n t s f o r each

wheel were t o t a l e d on f o u r e l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l c o u n t e r s , and t h e
time one o r more wheels were locked was t o t a l e d on an e l e c t r o n i c
d i g i t a l timer i n 0.01 seconds. Wheel l o c k s were d e t e c t e d by
f o u r h y s t e r e s i s , t h r e s h o l d d e t e c t o r s o p e r a t i n g on t h e o u t p u t s
from a DC tachometer g e n e r a t o r l o c a t e d a t each wheel, The c r i t e r i o n f o r wheel lockup was wheel v e l o c i t y l e s s t h a n 0.5 mph
w h i l e t h e a c t u a l v e h i c l e v e l o c i t y was g r e a t e r than 1 mph. The
l a t t e r was d e t e c t e d by t h e t h r e s h o l d d e t e c t o r on t h e o u t p u t of
t h e f i f t h wheel tachometer. Thus, wheel l o c k c o u n t s were n o t
r e c o r d e d when t h e v e h i c l e a c t u a l l y s t o p p e d . H y s t e r e s i s of 2 mph
was d e s i g n e d i n t o t h e wheel lock t h r e s h o l d d e t e c t o r s t o p r e v e n t
r o t a t i o n a l v i b r a t i o n of t h e s l i d i n g wheel from c a u s i n g e x t r a c o u n t s .

Figure 3.6.

Performance recording displays in the test

vehicle.

1-1

Y-H

~2:

LEFT
FRONT

RIGHT
FRONT

WHEEL-LOCK
EVENT
COUNTERS

TmiHoLD
DETECTORS

INTERFACE
AND
CONTROL
CIRCUITS

WITH
HYSTERESIS

D I G I T A L CLOCK
WHEEL LOCK T I X E

5TH
WHEEL

TACH.

THRESHOLD
DETECTOR
WITH HYST.

D I G I T A L CLOCK
BRAKING TIME

E2

1 PULSE PER FOOT

D I G I T A L COUNTER
BRAKING DISTANCE

1 PULSE PER FOOT

1I

CLEAR

BRAKE +12V

PAPER
COUNTER
CLEAR
SWITCH

f
1 SEC TIME T I C S

FRONT BRAKE
ACCELEROXETER

ACCELERATION

-BRAKE

VELOCITY

PEDAL

35XPH REF.

RELEASE PULSE

SPEED CONTROL
LOCK-IN
COXPARATOR

LOCK-IN

BRAKE PAD

VEHICLE

TEMPERATURE

THERMOCOUPLES
I N BRAKE PADS

5 0 MPH REF.
INDICATOR

Figure 3.7.

DISPLACEMENT

RR

Performance data collection instrumentation

block 'diagram.

Braking time was measured i n 0.01 seconds on a d i g i t a l

t i m e r gated-on by t h e i n i t i a l brake a p p l i c a t i o n and gated-off
by t h e f i f t h wheel t h r e s h o l d d e t e c t o r o u t p u t when v e h i c l e veloc i t y dropped below 1.0 mph.

The f i f t h wheel c o n t a c t o r o u t p u t

p u l s e s (one p u l s e p e r f o o t ) were counted on an e l e c t r o n i c c o u n t e r ,

which was enabled d u r i n g t h e b r a k i n g t i m e , t o o b t a i n b r a k i n g d i s tance.

A t t h e end of each t e s t run t h e experimenter recorded

t h e r e a d o u t of t h e c o u n t e r and t i m e r s .
The i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a l s o i n c l u d e d a Brush s t r i p c h a r t
r e c o r d e r w i t h two e v e n t channels and two a n a l o g channels.

One

second time l a p s e s were recorded on t h e r i g h t e v e n t channel and

frequency of o c c u r r e n c e and d u r a t i o n of locked wheels were r e c o r ded on t h e l e f t e v e n t channel.

Any two of t h e f o l l o w i n g could

be s i m u l t a n e o u s l y recorded on t h e two analog channels f o r system

c a l i b r a t i o n and/or d a t a r e c o r d i n g :

v e l o c i t y , from t h e f i f t h

wheel tachometer; a c c e l e r a t i o n , from an a c c e l e r o m e t e r mounted on

t h e f o r e / a f t a x i s n e a r t h e v e h i c l e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ; f r o n t brake
l i n e p r e s s u r e and brake p e d a l f o r c e , from t h e brake c o n t r o l s y s tem p r e s s u r e and f o r c e t r a n s d u c e r s ; and brake p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t ,
from a l i n e a r p o t e n t i o m e t e r connected t o t h e b r a k e p e d a l arm.
During t h e b r a k i n g t e s t v e l o c i t y and p e d a l f o r c e were recorded.
TEST S I T E . A t a x i ramp a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan Willow
Run A i r p o r t was used a s a t e s t s i t e . An a s p h a l t s u r f a c e 100 f e e t
by 700 f e e t was l a i d f o r t h e s t u d y , and t h e a r e a was d i v i d e d
lengthwise i n t o t h r e e t e s t l a n e s 3 3 x 700 f e e t each.
Each l a n e provided a d i f f e r e n t road s u r f a c e . One l a n e
remained d r y , one was watered t o s i m u l a t e a road on a r a i n y day,
and t h e t h i r d was p a i n t e d w i t h yellow t r a f f i c p a i n t and watered
t o simulate a slippery surface.
Measurements were made of t h e s l i d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n of t h e s e s u r f a c e s on twelve days of t h e t e s t program by
r e d o r d i n g t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n of t h e t e s t v e h i c l e when a l l f o u r

w h e e l s were l o c k e d .

The d a t a were h i g h l y v a r i a b l e and t h e a v e r a g e

and s p r e a d o f t h e s e measurements a r e g i v e n i n F i g u r e 3.8 a s a

f u n c t i o n of s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y .

(These measurements were c o n f i r m e d

by t e s t s made w i t h t h e Highway S a f e t y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ' s mobile

t i r e tester and w i t h a p o r t a b l e f r i c t i o n - m e a s u r e m e n t d e v i c e . ) I t
should be observed t h a t t h e s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n l e v e l is v e l o c i t y
s e n s i t i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e w e t a s p h a l t and t h e w e t - p a i n t e d
asphalt.

C o n s e q u e n t l y it i s n o t t r u l y m e a n i n g f u l t o c h a r a c t e r -

i z e t h e s e s u r f a c e s by a s i n g l e numeric r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f r i c t i o n
c o u p l e produced a t t h e t i r e - r o a d i n t e r f a c e .

F u r t h e r , t h e peak

c o e f f i c i e n t s o f f r i c t i o n a s a c h i e v e d by a r o l l i n g t i r e on t h e s e
s u r f a c e s a r e a l s o v e l o c i t y dependent.

During t h e b r a k i n g e f f i -

c i e n c y t e s t s , peak c o e f f i c i e n t s o f 0 . 8 6 , 0 . 7 1 and 0.40 were

o b t a i n e d on t h e d r y , wet, and w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y

(see F i g u r e 3 . 3 ) .

These peak c o e f f i c i e n t s c a n b e t a k e n a s gen-

e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e f r i c t i o n l e v e l of t h e s u r f a c e s p r e p a r e d f o r t h i s program,

I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e wet-painted s u r f a c e

y i e l d s a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t when a t i r e
i s p a r t i a l l y s l i p p i n g t h a n when i t i s f u l l y l o o k e d .

Accordingly,

w e s h o u l d a n t i c i p a t e t h a t t h i s s u r f a c e would make t h e g r e a t e s t
demands on t e s t s u b j e c t s a s t h e y e n d e a v o r t o minimize t h e i r s t o p ping distance.
T r a f f i c c o n e s were u s e d t o d e l i n e a t e a 1 0 - f o o t wide d r i v i n g l a n e w i t h i n each of t h e t h r e e t e s t a r e a s .

Cones were p l a c e d

a t 1 5 - f o o t i n t e r v a l s f o r 300 f e e t on t h e d r y s u r f a c e , 400 f e e t
on t h e w e t s u r f a c e , and 700 f e e t on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e .
Each d r i v i n g l a n e was i n t h e form of a s h a l l o w c o s i n e wave (3f e e t peak-to-peak

a m p l i t u d e and 4 0 0 - f e e t w a v e l e n g t h )

so t h a t

some s t e e r i n g was n e c e s s a r y .
T h r e e lamps were p l a c e d a t 3 0 - f o o t i n t e r v a l s n e a r t h e end
of each t e s t l a n e ( F i g u r e 3 . 9 ) .

These lamps were u s e d a s s i g -

n a l s t o i n i t i a t e b r a k i n g and a s a p p r o x i m a t e s t o p p i n g p o i n t s .
O n s e t of t h e lamp was t r i g g e r e d by a t a p e s w i t c h o v e r which t h e

LOCKED WHEEL VELOCITY (mph)

Figure 3.8.

Deceleration a s a function of locked wheel

v e l o c i t y and s u r f a c e .

Figure 3.9.

T e s t c a r i n t h e t r a c k , showing l a n e marker

c o n e s and s t i m u l u s / g o a l lamps.

v e h i c l e passed b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e t e s t l a n e .

One e x p e r i m e n t e r

determined which lamp came on i n t h e t e s t l a n e and o p e r a t e d a

c o n t r o l box which c o n t r o l l e d t h e d e l a y between t a p e s w i t c h impulse
and o n s e t of t h e lamp. The d e l a y s , based on t r i a l s u b j e c t s , were
timed s o t h a t s u b j e c t s would s t o p beyond t h e l i g h t s approximately
75 p e r c e n t o f t h e time.

This was done s o t h a t t h e g o a l o f s t o p -

p i n g b e f o r e p a s s i n g t h e l i g h t , which was t o r e p r e s e n t a t r u c k
o r c h i l d i n t h e v e h i c l e ' s p a t h , was c h a l l e n g i n g and occasiona l l y feasible.

( T h i s was confirmed by t h e t e s t . )

The same

e x p e r i m e n t e r a l s o s h u t o f f t h e s p r i n k l e r s when a r u n was b e i n g
made i n t h e w e t t e d l a n e s .
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES,

studied:

F i v e independent v a r i a b l e s were

speed, d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e , p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t ,

t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , and d r i v e r p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r istics.
1.

Two s p e e d s , 35 and 50 mph, were used i n t h e t e s t .

The

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e s e s p e e d s was based on t h e d e s i r e t o have

a moderately low v e l o c i t y such a s would o c c u r i n suburban d r i v i n g , and a moderately h i g h v e l o c i t y such a s would o c c u r i n r u r a l
d r i v i n g . I n i t i a l l y 60 mph had been s e l e c t e d a s t h e l a t t e r s p e e d ,
b u t t r i a l r u n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s speed was p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous on t h e l o w e s t f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e .
2. S i x l i n e a r d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s were i n v e s t i g a t e d , shown i n Table 3 . 2 .
3 . The two p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t l e v e l s were e s s e n t i a l l y 0
i n c h e s and 2 . 5 i n c h e s a t 1000 p s i .
4 . Three r o a d s u r f a c e s were used w i t h s l i d i n g wheel coeff i c i e n t s of f r i c t i o n of a b o u t .82, .66, and .20, and r o l l i n g
wheel c o e f f i c i e n t s of f r i c t i o n of a b o u t .86, .71, and .40.
5. The s u b j e c t s were s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s e l e c t e d by s e x , a g e ,
and weight t o r e p r e s e n t a wide c r o s s s e c t i o n of d r i v e r s .

DEPENDENT VARIABLES.

A l l d a t a o u t p u t was d i s p l a y e d t o t h e

e x p e r i m e n t e r i n t h e back s e a t ( F i g u r e 3 . 6 ) .

The p e r f o r m a n c e

m e a s u r e s were:
1.

S t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e , measured t o t h e n e a r e s t 1 . 0 f o o t .

2.

Stopping t i m e , i n 0.01 seconds.

3.

T o t a l number of s u c c e s s i v e w h e e l l o c k u p s .

4.

T o t a l wheel l o c k u p time, t o t h e n e a r e s t 0 . 0 1 s e c o n d s .

5.

Number o f w h e e l l o c k u p s f o r e a c h w h e e l .

6.

Speed and p e d a l f o r c e t i m e h i s t o r y .

PROCEDURE:

PILOT STUDIES,

During t h e development o f t h e

b r a k i n g t e s t a c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t was d e v o t e d t o p i l o t t e s t i n g .
I n i t i a l t e s t s , b e f o r e t h e b r a k e t e s t c a r was a v a i l a b l e , were
c a r r i e d o u t using conventional vehicles.
One s u c h t e s t i n v o l v e d two Mercury Montego, 1968, two-door
s e d a n s h a v i n g d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e f u n c t i o n s shown i n F i g u r e
3.10.

A s i n e wave c o u r s e was l a i d o u t w i t h t r a f f i c c o n e s ,

f i f t h w h e e l was u s e d on e a c h c a r t o measure s p e e d and b r a k i n g

distance.

The s u r f a c e was u s e d d r y and wet.

from 6 0 mph.

S t o p s were made

The r e s u l t s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e s 3.3-3.5

i n terms

of b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e , mean d e c e l e r a t i o n and t i m e t o r e d u c e s p e e d
by 10 mph, and show t h a t t h e power b r a k e p r o v i d e s b e t t e r p e r f o r mance on t h e d r y and t h e manual on t h e wet s u r f a c e .

From T a b l e

3 . 4 and F i g u r e 3.10 i t would b e i n f e r r e d t h a t p e d a l f o r c e l e v e l s

s h o u l d b e n o t l e s s t h a n 30 l b s n o r more t h a n 80 l b s a t a b o u t 2 0
ft/sec2,
A l a r g e n u h e r o f s h a k e down t e s t s were c o n d u c t e d w i t h t h e

b r a k e t e s t v e h i c l e by which t h e p r o c e d u r e was r e f i n e d and v e h i c l e

and t e s t s i t e problems i d e n t i f i e d and r e m e d i e d .

During t h i s

p e r i o d a b o u t 5 0 0 t e s t r u n s were made.
Hydroplaning.

During t h e p i l o t t e s t s t h e c r i t i c a l impor-

t a n c e o f t i r e t r e a d d e p t h i n a f f e c t i n g d i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y of
t h e c a r d u r i n g b r a k i n g i n t h e w e t was c o n f i r m e d .

I n hard brak-

i n g on low c o e f f i c i e n t s of f r i c t i o n i t was a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o

M e r c u r y Montego, 2 Dr. S e d a n , 1 9 6 8
7.75 x 1 4 T i r e s
T i r e P r e s s u r e : 2 4 F , 26R.

10

20

30

40

Figure 3.10.

50
60
PEDAL FORCE ( l b s )

70

80

Deceleration/pedal force for pilot test cars.

TABLE 3 . 3 .

PILOT TEST: MEAN BRAKING DISTANCE (FEET)

ON DRY AND WET FOR POWER AND MANUAL BRAKE
Power

Manual

Dry
Wet

169.98

207.11

228.39

211.86

Mean

199.19

209.49

TABLE 3 . 4 .

PILOT TEST : MEAN DECELERATION (ft/sec2)

ON DRY AND WET FOR POWER AND MANUAL BRAKE

Power

Manual

Dry

23.38

20.44

Wet

19.34

19.74

Mean

21.36

20.09

TABLE 3 . 5 .

PILOT TEST: MEAN TIME (SECONDS) TO DECREASE

SPEED BY 1 0 MPH FROM START OF BRAKING ON DRY
AND WET FOR POWER AND MANUAL BRAKE

Power

Manual

Dry

1.03

1.31

Wet

1.50

1.41

Mean

1.27

1.36

73

keep t h e v e h i c l e w i t h i n t h e t e n - f o o t wide t e s t s t r i p .

I t was

n o t e d t h a t t h e t r e a d d e p t h f o r t h e f r o n t t i r e s was about 40 perc e n t and t h e r e a r t i r e s a b o u t 30 p e r c e n t of new t i r e d e p t h .

When new t i r e s were p l a c e d on t h e f r o n t wheels of t h e v e h i c l e
t h e r e was a g r e a t improvement i n c o n t r o l . p l a c i n g new t i r e s on
t h e r e a r wheels a l s o improved c o n t r o l , b u t t h e increment was
small.

A s a r e s u l t , t r e a d d e p t h was checked d a i l y , and t i r e s

were changed whenever t r e a d d e p t h became less t h a n 50 p e r c e n t

of new t i r e d e p t h (11/32 i n c h e s ) .

T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e d changing

t i r e s a f t e r approximately each 5 s u b j e c t s d u r i n g t h e b r a k e t e s t .
PROCEDURE:

BRAKING TEST.

Before each r u n t r e a d d e p t h and

a i r p r e s s u r e i n each t i r e were measured ( t i r e p r e s s u r e was based

on SAE minimum recommendations based on t h e w e i g h t on each w h e e l ) .
A n i t r o g e n accumulator, which was p a r t of t h e b r a k i n g system,

was a l s o checked f o r p r o p e r p r e s s u r e .
c o l l e c t e d on each s u b j e c t .

Anthropometric d a t a were

This information included t o t a l

w e i g h t , f o o t l e n g t h , l e g w e i g h t , l e g h e i g h t , and maximum f o o t
f o r c e w i t h t h e r i g h t and t h e l e f t f o o t under "normal" and "induced"
m o t i v a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s u s i n g t h e f o o t f o r c e measuring d e v i c e
shown i n F i g u r e 2.2.
The s u b j e c t , e x p e r i m e n t e r s , and t e s t v e h i c l e were t h e n
driven t o the test s i t e ,

The b r a k i n g system was c a l i b r a t e d and

i n s t r u c t i o n s were given t o t h e s u b j e c t .

The s u b j e c t was t o l d

t h a t t h e purpose of t h e s t u d y was t o l e a r n of h i s a b i l i t y t o
bring the car t o a safe stop i n as short a distance as possible
a f t e r i n i t i a t i n g braking.

A s a f e s t o p was one i n which none o f

t h e t r a f f i c cones were knocked down.

I n s t r u c t i o n s on t h e opera-

t i o n of t h e v e h i c l e and t h e l a y o u t o f t h e t e s t l a n e s were g i v e n .
The s u b j e c t was t h e n t o l d t o b r i n g t h e c a r up t o a speed u n t i l
t h e s p e e d - c o n t r o l d e v i c e was a c t u a t e d and t h e n t o keep h i s f o o t
r e s t i n g l i g h t l y on t h e a c c e l e r a t o r u n t i l one of t h e t h r e e lamps
n e a r t h e end of t h e t e s t l a n e was t u r n e d on.

T h i s was t h e s i g -

n a l t o b e g i n b r a k i n g and a l s o a c t e d a s a r e f e r e n c e mark f o r t h e
s u b j e c t who was t o l d t o t r y t o s t o p b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e lamp.
The s u b j e c t was s e a t e d i n t h e v e h i c l e and a t t a c h e d t h e
s h o u l d e r h a r n e s s and s e a t b e l t ,
back s e a t t o r e c o r d t h e d a t a .

The e x p e r i m e n t e r r o d e i n t h e
After t e s t i n g the brakes f o r

f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n , t h e d r i v e r was g i v e n a minimum of two p r a c t i c e

r u n s on e a c h o f t h e t h r e e s u r f a c e s .

P r a c t i c e r u n s were u s e d t o

f a m i l i a r i z e t h e d r i v e r w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e , t h e a u t o m o b i l e and
the test lanes.

Because t h e d a t a g a t h e r i n g r u n s were made a t

35 and 50 mph, s u b j e c t s p r a c t i c e d u n t i l t h e y were a b l e t o b r a k e

a t t h e s e s p e e d s i n r e a s o n a b l e d i s t a n c e s w i t h o u t k n o c k i n g down
t r a f f i c cones.

Minor t o e x t e n s i v e p r a c t i c e was n e c e s s a r y t o

p e r f o r m t h e t a s k a t 50 mph, p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r face.

When t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r i n t h e v e h i c l e f e l t t h a t t h e sub-

j e c t was c a p a b l e o f p e r f o r m i n g t h e t a s k s u c c e s s f u l l y t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s were summarized a g a i n .

T h i s time t h e v e r y b e s t , s a f e

b r a k i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s u b j e c t was emphasized.
I f any c o n e s were knocked down t h i s was n o t e d ; t h e r u n was
c o n s i d e r e d i n v a l i d , and was r e p e a t e d .

When n e c e s s a r y , a d d i -

t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n s were g i v e n on how t o c o n t r o l and b r a k e t h e

vehicle i n a skid.
Performance And S u b j e c t i v e Data R e c o r d i n g .

A f t e r e a c h suc-

c e s s f u l r u n , t h e d a t a were r e c o r d e d by t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r , and t h e
s u b j e c t was t o l d h i s s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e i n f e e t .

A f t e r t h e com-

p l e t i o n of the s i x runs f o r a p a r t i c u l a r force gain t h e subject

was a s k e d two q u e s t i o n s :
1.

" D i s r e g a r d i n g your s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e s , how would you

r a t e t h e b r a k i n g s y s t e m you have j u s t u s e d i n t e r m s o f y o u r
a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e c a r during braking?"

The r e s p o n s e was

made on a f i v e - p o i n t r a t i n g s c a l e which r a n g e d from " v e r y p o o r "

to

" v e r y good. "

2.

"Was t h e f o r c e l e v e l you had t o e x e r t on t h e b r a k e p e d a l

t o s t o p t h e c a r t o o low, somewhat low, j u s t r i g h t , somewhat h i g h ,

o r t o o high?"
75

A f t e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s were answered t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l
f o r c e g a i n was changed, t h e new b r a k i n g system was t r i e d by t h e
s u b j e c t , and t h e n e x t runs were made.
S u b j e c t s u s u a l l y had t o d r i v e f o r a t o t a l of f o u r t o s i x
hours i n a day.

A lunch break was given approximately midway

through t h e experiment, and s h o r t r e s t b r e a k s were taken i n t h e

morning and a f t e r n o o n .
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN.

E i t h e r t h e 0 o r t h e 2.5 i n c h p e d a l

displacement c o n d i t i o n was s e l e c t e d t o be used f i r s t .

Then,

w i t h i n a displacement c o n d i t i o n , t h e s i x d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n l e v e l s were randomly o r d e r e d , For a given d e c e l e r a t i o n /
p e d a l f o r c e g a i n a run was made a t 35 rnph followed by one a t 50
rnph on t h e d r y s u r f a c e , then a t 35 rnph and 50 rnph on t h e wet
s u r f a c e , and f i n a l l y a t 35 rnph and 50 rnph on t h e wet-painted s u r face.

The procedure was r e p e a t e d f o r t h e o t h e r displacement.

The d e s i g n was a complete f a c t o r i a l w i t h t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n /

pedal f o r c e g a i n randomly o r d e r e d i n t h e pedal displacement

f a c t o r , and with speed and road s u r f a c e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o r d e r e d
i n each d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n c o n d i t i o n .
RESULTS
A sample d a t a s h e e t f o r one s u b j e c t i s shown i n Appendix 11.

The r e s u l t s f o r each dependent v a r i a b l e a r e c o n s i d e r e d below.

BRAKING DISTANCE. Table 3.6 and F i g u r e 3.11 show t h e mean
d i s t a n c e t o s t o p a s a f u n c t i o n of speed, d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l
f o r c e g a i n and s u r f a c e .

O v e r a l l means due t o d e c e l e r a t i o n /
pedal f o r c e g a i n and s u r f a c e a r e a l s o shown. The speed and
s u r f a c e s had an obvious e f f e c t on b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e . W i t h i n ' e a c h
surface-speed combination t h e r e a r e n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s
of up t o about 2 0 p e r c e n t b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e between l e v e l s of
t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e f a c t o r . The e f f e c t of pedal d i s placement i s shown i n F i g u r e 3.12. Mean b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e s f o r
both displacement l e v e l s on each s u r f a c e a r e very s i m i l a r .

TABLE 3 . 6 .

MEAN BRAKING DISTANCE (FEET) AS A

FUNCTION OF DECELERATIONIPEDAL FORCE
G A I N , SURFACE AND SPEED
(q/lb)
,007
.004

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN

Road
Surface

.065

,037

.021

,012

------

Mean
-

247.2
554.6

233.9
521.3

221.5
511.9

211.1
492.2

211.9
503.7

220.6
492.2

338,7

Mean 183.2

176.7

173.0

174.6

183.9

196.6

Speed

Wet
Wet
Painted

35
50

DECELERATION,

Each b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e was c o n v e r t e d t o an

e q u i v a l e n t a v e r a g e d e c e l e r a t i o n computed from:

where

x/ 9

= mean d e c e l e r a t i o n i n g u n i t s

= i n i t i a l velocity i n ft/sec

= braking distance t o s t o p i n f e e t

The mean d e c e l e r a t i o n v a l u e s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d t o l o g e

t o n o r m a l i z e t h e d a t a a n d were t r e a t e d by a n a n a l y s i s

df v a r i -

a n c e , shown i n T a b l e 3 . 7 .

1)

The main e f f e c t s of s p e e d , d e c e l e r -

a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n a n d s u r f a c e f r i c t i o n were s t a t i s t i c a l l y
significant.

The e f f e c t o f p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t and i t s i n t e r -

a c t i o n s w i t h t h e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e
0.01 l e v e l .

The mean d e c e l e r a t i o n v a l u e s f o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n t

[3,

\.

'
'z

--

4---

-+--

'El 50 Wet-Painted

35 Wet-Painted

P
50 Dry

Figure 3.11.

Mean braking distance as a function of deceleration/

pedal force gain, speed and surface.

IzzI

2.5

inch displacement

inch displacement

"

DRY

WET

WET-PAINTED

SURFACE

Figure 3.12.

Mean braking distance as a function of surface

and pedal displacement.

[%I

TABLE 3 . 7 . ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF DECELERATION

PERFOrnNCE

Source of Variation
Speed (S)

0.1103

Decel./Pedal Force Gain (F)

S x F
Pedal Displacement (D)
S x D
F x D
S x F x D
Surface (y)
SxIJ
F x p
S x F x p
DxlJ
S x D x p
F x D x y
S x F x D x p
Subjects (E)
S x E
F x E
S x F x E
D x E
S x D x E
F x D x E
S x F x D x E
V X E
S x p x E
F x p x E
S x F x u x E
D x p x E
S x D x p x E
F x D x p x E
S x F x D x p x E

5
5

0.0674
0.0012

TOTAL

2015

t h r e e f a c t o r i n t e r a c t i o n between s p e e d , d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l
f o r c e g a i n and s u r f a c e i s

TABLE 3 . 8 ,

Road
Surface

shown i n T a b l e 3.8 a n d F i g u r e 3.13.

GEOMETRIC MEAN DECELERATION I I N g t FOR THE

INTERACTION OF SPEED, DECELERATION/PEDAL
FORCE G A I N AND SURFACE

.065

.037

,021

.012

,007

(g/lb)
.004

Me an

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN

Speed

- - - - -

Wet

35
50

.420
.379

.447
.378

,440
,400

.424
.384

,402
.353

.353
.332

-39

Wet
Painted

35
50

,168
,151

.175
.I61

,186
.I64

.I97
.171

,194
.166

.186
.I71

.17

.35

,36

.37

.36

.34

.32

Mean

The f i g u r e shows t h a t on t h e d r y s u r f a c e somewhat g r e a t e r mean

d e c e l e r a t i o n s were o b t a i n e d a t 50 mph t h a n 35 rnph, w h e r e a s t h e
r e v e r s e was t r u e on t h e w e t and w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e .

The t r e n d s

a c r o s s t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s a r e c o n c a v e showing
t h a t t h e r e a r e b a n d w i d t h s o f t h i s v a r i a b l e which p r o v i d e d good
p e r f o r m a n c e which was d e g r a d e d a t h i g h e r o r l o w e r g a i n s .
T a b l e 3.9 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f a Newman K e u l s t e s t which
compares t h e mean d e c e l e r a t i o n s a c h i e v e d w i t h t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n /
p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s i n e a c h s u r f a c e and speed c o n d i t i o n .

For

e x a m p l e , on t h e d r y a t 35 mph, s u b j e c t s p e r f o r m e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
p o o r e r w i t h g a i n 6 ( . 004 g / l b ) t h a n o t h e r s .
e s t , f o l l o w e d by 4 and 1.
others.

Gain 5 was n e x t poor-

L e v e l s 2 and 3 were s u p e r i o r t o t h e

A t 50 mph t h e f i n d i n g s were s i m i l a r .

T a b l e 3.10 shows t h e l e v e l s o f d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n (PFG) r a n k o r d e r e d a c c o r d i n g t o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

0 35 mph
50 mph

Wet

----- ---- - -- - - -----+- -'

Wet-Painted

w-

DECELERATION/PEDAL

Figure 3 . 1 3 .

FORCE G A I N ( g / l b )

Geometric mean d e c e l e r a t i o n a s a
f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n , speed and s u r f a c e .

82

TABLE 3 . 9 .

Surf ace

NEWMAN-KEULS TEST OF MEAN DECELERATION FOR

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAINS AT EACH
SURFACE AND SPEED

Speed

Leve 1s

Have S i g n i f i c a n t l y *
Higher Mean Decele r a t i o n Than

PF Gain
Levels

Dry

Wet

Wet

WetPainted

WetPainted

i n mean d e c e l e r a t i o n .

Those l e v e l s t h a t a r e i n b r a c k e t s a r e o n e s

w i t h which s u b j e c t s a c h i e v e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r d e c e l e r a t i o n
i n a s u r f a c e - s p e e d c o n d i t i o n compared t o n o n - b r a c k e t e d g a i n
levels.

F o r example, on t h e d r y a t 35 mph, PFG l e v e l s 2 and 3

p r o d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n o t h e r g a i n s , and
a r e r a n k e d e q u a l l y and b r a c k e t e d .

L e v e l 1 was s i g n i f i c a n t l y

s u p e r i o r t o 4 , 5 and 6 and h e n c e , h a s a r a n k o f 3 ; l e v e l 4 was

significantly superior to 5 and 6 and has a rank of 4; level 5

was significantly superior to 6 and is ranked 5; and level
6 is ranked 6--the poorest configuration for that surface-speed
combination.
The sum of the ranks across the surface-speed conditions is
shown in Table 3.10. A low rank denotes good performance. Thus,

TABLE 3.10. RANK ORDER OF DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAINS

DIFFERING SIGNIFICANTLY IN DRIVER VEHICLE
BRAKING DECELERATION

Level
(1)

PFG
(g/lb)
0.065

DRY
35

MPH

50
MPH
4

WET
35
MPH
3.5

50
MPH
3

WET-PAINTED
35
50
MPH
MPH
6
6

RANK

SUM

25.5

[Those values blocked off indicate the pedal force gains

providing significantly greatest mean deceleration under
each surface-speed condition].

overall, PFG levels 3 and 4 were most conducive to effective

modulation by drivers in their attempts to achieve a maximum
deceleration.
BRAKING TIME. Braking time was measured from the onset
of braking. The results were quite similar to those reported
for braking distance and are, therefore, not shown.
84

FORTY PERCENT DECREASE I N SPEED.

The v e l o c i t y d u r i n g b r a k -

i n g , r e c o r d e d on a c h a r t r e c o r d e r , was examined t o d e r i v e t h e
time r e q u i r e d t o r e d u c e s p e e d by 40 p e r c e n t , The 40 p e r c e n t
d e c r e a s e i n s p e e d was a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t e d and r e s u l t s i n v e l o -

c i t i e s of 2 1 and 30 mph, r e s p e c t i v e l y , from i n i t i a l v e l o c i t i e s

of 35 and 50 mph. T a b l e 3.11 shows t h e mean time t o s t o p and

TABLE 3.11. MEAN TIME TO REDUCE SPEED BY 4 0 PERCENT

FOR M A I N EFFECTS OF SPEED, PFG AND SURFACE

Stopping
Time

40% D e c r e a s e
i n Speed
[c=B/A]

Speed (mph)

Surf ace
Dry

3.28

1.32

40.3

Wet
Paint

4.09

1.85

45.2

9.45

4.25

45.0

t o d e c r e a s e speed by 40 p e r c e n t f o r t h e main e f f e c t s of speed,

PFG and s u r f a c e ,

The time t o d e c r e a s e speed by 40 p e r c e n t i s

more t h a n 40 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l s t o p p i n g time, Hence, d e c e l e r a t i o n was less i n i t i a l l y t h a n l a t e r on d u r i n g b r a k i n g . F i g u r e

3.14 shows mean time f o r a 40 p e r c e n t d e c r e a s e i n speed a s a
f u n c t i o n of s p e e d , s u r f a c e , and d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n .
The t i m e r e q u i r e d i s g r e a t e s t f o r l e v e l s 1 and 2 on t h e l o w e s t
c o e f f i c i e n t s u r f a c e , whereas l e v e l s 5 and 6 g i v e p o o r e s t p e r f o r mance on t h e wet and d r y a s p h a l t .

WHEEL LOCKUP FREQUENCY.

A s q u a r e r o o t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was

c a r r i e d o u t on t h e wheel lockup frequency d a t a p r i o r t o t h e

a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e .

The a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e ( n o t shown h e r e )

i n d i c a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t ( p -< . 0 1 ) d i f f e r e n c e s due t o speed, d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , d i s p l a c e m e n t , PFG x d i s p l a c e m e n t , s u r f a c e , speed x s u r f a c e , and PFG x s u r f a c e .

Table 3.12 shows t h e

mean wheel lockup frequency f o r t h e main e f f e c t s . The frequency
of wheel lockups d e c r e a s e d w i t h d e c r e a s i n g s p e e d , d e c r e a s i n g
v a l u e s of PFG, i n c r e a s i n g p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t and i n c r e a s i n g
friction coefficient.
The i n t e r a c t i o n of speed and p e d a l f o r c e g a i n ( F i g u r e 3.15)
shows t h a t t h e number of wheel lockups d e c r e a s e d a s t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n was reduced a t each s p e e d , b u t t h e d i f f e r ence between t h e two speeds was reduced a t low PFG v a l u e s c a u s i n g
t h e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n . There were minor e f f e c t s due t o
p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t a c r o s s PFG, b u t t h e z e r o d i s p l a c e m e n t p e d a l
was p o o r e r o v e r a l l ( F i g u r e 3 . 1 6 ) .

F i g u r e 3.17 shows t h e i n t e r -

a c t i o n of s u r f a c e and PFG upon wheel lockup frequency.

High

d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s r e s u l t e d i n h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s of
wheel lockup p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e wet-painted s u r f a c e .
WHEEL LOCKUP DURATION,
The t o t a l t i m e ( T ) d u r i n g which
one o r more wheels were locked up was r e c o r d e d on each t r i a l .
The d a t a were t r a n s f o r m e d t o loge ( T + l ) and t r e a t e d by an

l!iet

,
,
Wet-Painted

50 ~ . c h

3"J.nh

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN ( g / ' l h )

Figure 3.14.

Vean time to reduce speed by 409 as a function

of deceleration/pedal force gain, speed and
surface.

MEAN NUMBER OF WHEEL L O C K U P S

r o -

-a

ul

C)

M
I5

$
gz

EL- -

- w4

0
h

WO-,
-kl

?l
0

T:

0
A b
b
o

-I--h)

GL

-04

0
h

a 0- 0

0 in. disp.

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN (g/lb)

Figure 3.16.

Mean number of wheel lockups as a function

of deceleration/pedal force gain and
displacement.

VetPainted

5
rn

Pi

z
u
0

4-

J
W

\
\

Cr-l

3-

K
Cr-l

a
z

Wet

5
2

2
B

2-Dr

1-

0.065
(1)

0.037
(2)

0.021
(3

I l l

0.012
(4)

0.007
(5)

1
0.004
(6)

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN (g/lb)

Fisure 3.17.

Mean number of wheel lockups as a function of

deceleration/pedal force gain and surface.

TABLE 3 . 1 2 . MEAN NUMBER OF WHEEL LOCK-UPS

PER TRIAL FOR MAIN EFFECTS

Mean
Number
1)

Speed (mph)

2)

PFG ( l b / g )

a ) 15.5
b ) 27.2

c ) 47.4
d ) 83.0

e ) 146.0
f ) 254.0

3)

Displacement ( i n c h e s )

0
2.5

4)

Surface
Dry
Wet
Wet-Painted

a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e .

Significant (p

5 .01) d i f f e r e n c e s i n w h e e l

l o c k u p d u r a t i o n w e r e due t o s p e e d , PFG, p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t , s u r f a c e , s p e e d x s u r f a c e , and PFG x s u r f a c e .

The mean l o c k u p d u r a -

t i o n s f o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s a r e shown i n T a b l e 3.13
The mean l o c k u p time was s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r , o v e r a l l , f o r t h e
zero displacement pedal.

The s p e e d x s u r f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n ( F i g u r e

3 . 1 8 ) shows t h e s m a l l e f f e c t of s p e e d on t h e d r y s u r f a c e w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g e f f e c t s on t h e w e t and w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e s .

Lockup

3 5 mph

5 0 mph

DRY

WET

WET-PAINTED

SURFACE

Figure 3.18.

Mean w h e e l l o c k u p time as a f u n c t i o n of s p e e d
and s u r f a c e .

TABLE 3,130 MEAN WHEEL LOCK-UP TIME PER

TRIAL FOR MAIN EFFECTS

Mean (Sec)

1) Speed (mph)
35
50

3)

Displacement ( i n c h e s )

0
2.5

4) S u r f a c e
Dry
Wet
Wet-Painted

time was n o t a f f e c t e d a d v e r s e l y a t 35 mph on t h e wet s u r f a c e , b u t

t h e r e was an i n c r e a s e a t 50 mph, compared t o t h e d r y c o n d i t i o n .
The i n t e r a c t i o n of PFG and s u r f a c e i s shown i n F i g u r e 3.19.
The c o n s i s t e n t r e d u c t i o n of locked-wheel time a c r o s s PFG i s e v i d e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e .

The n e g l i g i b l e

d i f f e r e n c e s between d r y and w e t s u r f a c e p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h PFG's

4 , 5 , and 6 w i l l b e n o t e d .

Figure 3.19.

Mean wheel lockup time as a function of

deceleration/pedal force gain and surface.

PROPORTION OF WHEEL LOCKUP TIME TO TOTAL BRAKING TIME.

The

wheel l o c k u p t i m e was d i v i d e d by t h e t o t a l b r a k i n g time i n a

t r i a l t o o b t a i n t h e p e r c e n t of locked-wheel t i m e / b r a k i n g time.
Since pedal displacement d i d n o t i n t e r a c t with o t h e r f a c t o r s
a f f e c t i n g l o c k u p time, it would n o t do s o i n t h i s a n a l y s i s .

The

e f f e c t of s p e e d and s u r f a c e i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 0 , i n d i c a t i n g
l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e a t 35 and 50 mph on t h e d r y s u r f a c e , w i t h an
improvement a t 35 mph o v e r 50 mph on t h e wet which i s r e v e r s e d
on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e .

One o r more w h e e l s were l o c k e d up

from 20 t o 55 p e r c e n t of t h e b r a k i n g time ( F i g u r e 3 . 2 0 ) when

a v e r a g e d o v e r PFG l e v e l s .
F i g u r e 3 . 2 1 shows t h e p e r c e n t o f b r a k i n g t i m e f o r which
w h e e l s were l o c k e d up a c r o s s PFG l e v e l s and s u r f a c e s .

It w i l l

b e n o t e d t h a t d r y and w e t s u r f a c e r e s u l t s a r e a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l ,
w h i l e t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r face.

On t h e d r y and w e t s u r f a c e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e was

a l a r g e r e d u c t i o n i n p e r c e n t of wheel l o c k u p t i m e t o t o t a l b r a k i n g time a s t h e p e d a l s e n s i t i v i t y d e c r e a s e d .
I t w i l l a l s o b e n o t e d t h a t , w i t h t h e most s e n s i t i v e p e d a l s

(high deceleration/pedal force g a i n ) , d r i v e r s incurred close

t o t h e same p e r c e n t o f wheel l o c k u p time on a 1 1 t h r e e s u r f a c e s .
LOSS OF LATERAL CONTROL.

Those t r i a l s i n which t h e d r i v e r

l o s t s t e e r i n g c o n t r o l of t h e v e h i c l e , d e f i n e d a s t o u c h i n g one
o r more t r a f f i c p y l o n s marking t h e l a n e , were r e p e a t e d .

The

p e r c e n t of t r i a l s i n which t h e d r i v e r l o s t c o n t r o l , i n e a c h t e s t
c o n d i t i o n , were r e c o r d e d and a r e shown .i.n T a b l e 3.14 f o r a l l 28
subjects.

These d a t a a r e shown i n F i g u r e 3.22 f o r t h e z e r o d i s -

placement p e d a l ana i n F i g u r e 3.23 f o r t h e 2 . 5 i n c h displacement

pedal.

I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t s u b j e c t s l o s t c o n t r o l of t h e t e s t

v e h i c l e f r e q u e n t l y when t h e y b r a k e d from an i n i t i a l s p e e d o f
50 mph on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e . The w o r s t c o n d i t i o n was t h e
h i g h e s t s e t t i n g of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n w i t h l o s s of
c o n t r o l o c c u r r i n g i n 48 and 39 p e r c e n t o f t h e r u n s , w i t h t h e
95

3 5 mph

5 0 mph

DRS!

WET

WET-PAINTED

SURFACE
Figure 3.20.

P e r c e n t wheel lockup t i m e / t o t a l b r a k i n g t i m e
as a f u n c t i o n o f s u r f a c e and s p e e d .

Figure 3.21.

Percent wheel lockup time/total braking time

as a function of deceleration/pedal force gain
and surface.

Dry

-0
0

Wet
Wet-Painted
50 nph
35 mph

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN (g/lbs)

Figure 3.22.

Percent of trials involving loss of lateral

control as a function of deceleration/pedal
force gain, surface and speed: 0 inch
displacement.

Dry

-0

Wet
Wet-Painted
50 mph
35 mph

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN (g/lbS)

Figure 3.23.

Percent of trials involving loss of lateral

control as a function of deceleration/pedal
force gain, surface and speed: 2.5 inches
displacement.

TABLE 3.14.

Pedal
Displacement

PERCENT^ OF TRIALS INVOLVING LOSS OF LATERAL

CONTROL AS A FUNCTION OF BRAKE SYSTEM, SPEED
AND SURFACE
DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN

Surface

--

Wet

35
50

3
12

0
9

0
3

28

0
3

WetPainted

35
50

16
48

0
22

6
25

0
21

0
10

0
6

Wet

35
50

12
17

12
6

3
0

12
6

35
50

12
39

i2

26

28

12
17

3
24

20

19.0

9.2

9.7

8.0

5.1

3.7

WetPainted

MEAN
'percent =

0.004
-- -

MPH
- 0.065 0.037 0 , 0 2 1 0.012 0.007

0
0

Loss of C o n t r o l T r i a l s i n a T e s t C o n d i t i o n
x 100
T o t a l ( S u c c e s s f u l & Loss of C o n t r o l ) T r i a l s i n
a T e s t Condition

0 and 2.5 i n c h d i s p l a c e m e n t p e d a l , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Other than a t

50 mph on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e , l o s s of c o n t r o l w i t h PFG l e v e l

1 o c c u r r e d i n l e s s t h a n 1 0 p e r c e n t of t h e r u n s .

RATINGS OF CONTROLLABILITY.

The f l c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y " r a t i n g s ,

a v e r a g e d o v e r a l l s u b j e c t s , a r e shown i n F i g u r e 3.24 a s a f u n c t i o n
of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t l e v e l .

The

i n f l u e n c e of p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t l e v e l on t h e " c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y "
r a t i n g i s seen t o be q u i t e small.

It i s clear that the highest

l e v e l of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n i s r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r
than t h e other gain l e v e l s .

Gain l e v e l s 3 and 4 a r e p r e f e r r e d above

a l l other gain settings.

RATINGS OF PEDAL FORCE.

Subjective ratings as t o the level

of p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o b r a k e a r e shown i n F i g u r e 3.25, a v e r Again it a p p e a r s t h a t p e d a l d i s p l a c e ment l e v e l h a s a minor i n f l u e n c e on d r i v e r o p i n i o n o f t h e l e v e l

aged o ve r a l l s u b j e c t s .
of r e q u i r e d f o r c e .

Drivers judged d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n

l e v e l s 1 and 2 r e q u i r e f o r c e l e v e l s t h a t a r e t o o low, l e v e l s

5 and 5 a s r e q u i r i n g f o r c e l e v e l s t h a t a r e t o o h i g h , and l e v e l s
3 and 4 a s r e q u i r i n g f o r c e s t h a t a r e " j u s t r i g h t " .
BETWEEN-SUBJECT PERFORMANCE COMPARISON.

The two s u b j e c t s

p r o d u c i n g t h e h i g h e s t and l o w e s t mean d e c e l e r a t i o n ( o v e r a l l

t e s t c o n d i t i o n s ) a r e compared w i t h e a c h o t h e r and w i t h t h e mean

It i s clear t h a t
p e r f o r m a n c e o f a l l s u b j e c t s i n F i g u r e 3.26.
t h e i n f l u e n c e of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , a s d e r i v e d f o r
a l l s u b j e c t s , h o l d s , i n g e n e r a l , f o r t h e two e x t r e m e c a s e s .

It

i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t t h e r e were d i f f e r e n c e s i n b r a k i n g m o d u l a t i o n
s k i l l among s u b j e c t s , t h a t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s were c o n s i s t e n t o v e r
a l l t h r e e t e s t s u r f a c e s , and t h a t b e t w e e n - s u b j e c t p e r f o r m a n c e
d i s p e r s i o n was l e a s t on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e .

Sample time

h i s t o r i e s o f p e d a l f o r c e a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e t e s t a r e shown i n
Appendix I1 ( F i g u r e

A.11.

1-3).

CORRELATION BETWEEN MAXIMUM PEDAL FORCES MEASURED I N THE

VEHICLE AND THE BUCK.

The h i g h e s t v a l u e s o f p e d a l f o r c e pro-

duced by s u b j e c t s d u r i n g b r a k i n g r u n s on t h e d r y s u r f a c e a t t h e
l o w e s t d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s e t t i n g was measured and
r e c o r d e d on a s t r i p - c h a r t r e c o r d e r .

S i n c e 260 pounds c o n s t i t u -

t e d t h e u p p e r l i m i t on t h e r e a d - o u t i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , t h e d a t a
were c l a s s i f i e d i n terms o f p e d a l f o r c e s b e i n g above o r below 260
pounds.

T a b l e 3.15 shows t h a t 1 4 s u b j e c t s e x e r t e d more t h a n

260 pounds b o t h i n t h e v e h i c l e and on t h e s t a t i c buck.

Of t h e

1 4 s u b j e c t s who had less t h a n a 260 pound maximum p e d a l f o r c e

c a p a b i l i t y , a s measured on t h e s t a t i c buck, two e x e r t e d g r e a t e r
t h a n 260 pounds i n t h e t e s t v e h i c l e .

I t was a l s o o b s e r v e d t h a t

10 of t h e 1 4 s u b j e c t s , r a t e d by t h e s t a t i c buck a s n o t b e i n g
a b l e t o p r o d u c e 260 pounds o f p e d a l f o r c e , d i d , i n f a c t , a p p l y
a g r e a t e r force i n the test vehicle.

T h e r e were f o u r s u b j e c t s

who produced t h e same p e d a l f o r c e on t h e buck and i n t h e t e s t

v e h i c l e . By a r b i t r a r i l y a s s i g n i n g a maximum f o r c e o f 260 pounds
100

VERY

GO33

5r

;
*

FAIR

t.

3
m

5
g

P3OR

8
5

,E,Y
P30S

0
111

Ii!

'4)

(5)

:61

3EC3LEIPTI?U/PTJAL FORCC G A I N ' a / l b )

Figure 3.24.

Figure 3.25.

Mean controllability rating for 28 subjects

as a function of deceleration/pedal force
gain and pedal displacement.

Mean rating of force required for 28 subjects

as a function of deceleration/pedal force gain
and displacement.

- *---/*
--*------==--

/ec----

-*

---

Dry
Wet
Wet-Painted

- - -------- --@ Best

I
- - - - /

I
+

Subject
Mean
A Worst Subject

--c-+

, I

l l l l l .

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE GAIN (g/lb)

Figure 3 . 2 6 .

Braking performance of the best subject,

group mean and poorest subject as a function
of deceleration/pedal force gain and surface.

TABLE 3.15- MAXIMUM PEDAL FORCES I N THE S T A T I C TEST AND

I N THE TEST VEHICLE.
CELL VALUES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SUBJECTS

PEDAL FORCE I N TEST VEHICLE

-<260

-< 2 6 0

lbs

STATIC
PEDAL FORCE

1260
TOTAL

lbs

1260 l b s

TOTAL

12

14

14

14

12

16

28

t o s u b j e c t s who exceeded t h i s v a l u e i n e i t h e r t e s t , a P e a r s o n
Product-Moment c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of r s B v= 0 . 7 8 was obt a i n e d between t h e maximum p e d a l f o r c e produced on t h e s t a t i c
buck and i n t h e t e s t v e h i c l e .

SUBJECT AGE AND WHIGHT. A complete m a t r i x of age and w e i g h t

c a t e g o r i e s e x i s t e d o n l y f o r t h e male s u b j e c t s ( s e e T a b l e 3 . 1 )

An a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e f o r b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e and wheel lockup

f r e q u e n c y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s
a t t r i b u t a b l e t o e i t h e r age o r w e i g h t of t h e s u b j e c t s .

There was,

however, a s i g n i f i c a n t f o u r - f a c t o r i n t e r a c t i o n of wheel lockup

d u r a t i o n invol.ving s p e e d , d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , p e d a l
d i s p l a c e m e n t l e v e l , and d r i v e r a g e .

S i n c e such a h i g h - o r d e r

i n t e r a c t i o n h a s l i t t l e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e a n a l y s i s was
not carried further.
DISCUSSION
DECELERATION MEASURES.

The s t u d y h a s shown t h a t d e c e l e r -

ation/pedal f o r c e gain influences driver-vehicle braking performance and t h a t t h i s i n f l u e n c e i s , i n t u r n , a f f e c t e d by t h e

f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r o a d s u r f a c e . The mean d e c e l e r a t i o n
a c h i e v e d by t h e 2 8 s u b j e c t s a l s o proved t o be dependent upon

t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e r o a d s u r f a c e was wet.

S i n c e t h e mean d e c e l e r a t i o n s a c h i e v e d i n 35 mph s t o p s was g r e a t e r ,
when b r a k i n g on t h e wet and w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e , t h a n a t 50 mph

i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e b r a k i n g t a s k i s less d i f f i c u l t a t t h e l o w e r
s p e e d when f r i c t i o n l e v e l s a r e r e d u c e d from d r y - r o a d v a l u e s
( F i g u r e 3.13)

P e d a l - d i s p l a c e m e n t l e v e l ( 0 and 2 . 5 i n c h e s ) d i d n o t h a v e a
s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e upon mean d e c e l e r a t i o n , which r e s u l t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e b r a k e i s modulated l a r g e l y by f o r c e f e e d b a c k ,
r a t h e r t h a n by d i s p l a c e m e n t .
T a b l e 3.7 shows t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t were found
i n p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h i n a g i v e n c o m b i n a t i o n of s p e e d and t i r e - r o a d
friction level.

I t i s seen t h a t deceleration/pedal force gain

needs t o be reduced t o o p t i m i z e performance a s f r i c t i o n l e v e l s

a r e reduced.

The f i n d i n g s show t h a t t h e r a n g e o f d e c e l e r a t i o n /

p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s employed i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t was s u f f i c i e n t t o
show t h o s e v a l u e s t h a t l e a d t o peak man-machine p e r f o r m a n c e .
When a v e r a g e s a r e t a k e n a c r o s s a l l v a r i a b l e s o t h e r t h a n d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , i t i s found t h a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e g a i n s
( l e v e l s 3 and 4 ) produced t h e s h o r t e s t b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e s , i . e , ,
t h e g r e a t e s t mean d e c e l e r a t i o n s .

LOSS OF CONTROL MEASURES.

The f r e q u e n c y and d u r a t i o n o f

wheel l o c k u p s c o n s t i t u t e d a t a t h a t i n d i c a t e t h e e x t e n t t o which
t h e d r i v e r - s u b j e c t s a r e a b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e p a t h of t h e v e h i c l e .
Front-wheel l o c k u p r e s u l t s i n t h e v e h i c l e n o t r e s p o n d i n g t o steeri n g i n p u t s w h i l e r e a r - w h e e l l o c k u p c o n s t i t u t e s an u n s t a b l e cond i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y on low f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s .

The t e s t r e s u l t s

show t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y of wheel l o c k u p was less when t h e p e d a l

had a f i n i t e d i s p l a c e m e n t , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two
d i s p l a c e m e n t levels b e i n g s m a l l a t most d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
gains (Figure 3.16).

A s e x p e c t e d , t h e r e were more l o c k u p s i n

s t o p s made from 50 mph.

A c o n s i s t e n t d e c r e a s e i n f r e q u e n c y of

wheel l o c k u p i s o b t a i n e d a s d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n was

reduced.

F i g u r e 3.17 shows t h a t wheel-lockup f r e q u e n c y i s much

g r e a t e r on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e t h a n on t h e w e t o r d r y s u r f a c e w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n b e i n g
v e r y marked.

The d a t a show q u i t e c l e a r l y t h a t t h e h i g h e s t

l e v e l of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n used i n t h e s e t e s t s
c a u s e s h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s of wheel l o c k u p .
Lockup d u r a t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o n g e r f o r t h e zerod i s p l a c e m e n t p e d a l , b u t t h e mean d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two
d i s p l a c e m e n t l e v e l s was less t h a n 0 . 2 seconds ( T a b l e 3.13)

T h i s r e s u l t i s minor compared t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e o t h e r
independent v a r i a b l e s .

A s d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n was

r e d u c e d , t h e r e was a c o n s i s t e n t d e c r e a s e i n lockup d u r a t i o n .
D e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n l e v e l s 1 and 2 produced s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o n g e r d u r a t i o n s of wheel l o c k u p t h a n l e v e l s 4 , 5 and 6
on a l l s u r f a c e s .

When measured d u r a t i o n s were r a t i o e d t o t h e

t o t a l b r a k i n g t i m e s a c h i e v e d a t e a c h g a i n l e v e l , i t was found
( s e e F i g u r e 3.19) t h a t t h e wheels were l o c k e d up on t h e d r y and
wet s u r f a c e s t h e same p e r c e n t a g e of time.

A c o n s i s t e n t reduc-

t i o n o c c u r r e d i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e of time t h e wheels were l o c k e d

up a s d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n was d e c r e a s e d , though t h i s
t r e n d was less marked on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e , i n which c a s e
t h e wheel l o c k u p t i m e was h i g h (35% - 60% of t o t a l b r a k i n g t i m e ) .
Although wheel-lockup f r e q u e n c y and d u r a t i o n can be t a k e n
a s i n d i c a t o r s of p o t e n t i a l ( o r a c t u a l momentary) l o s s of c o n t r o l ,
l o s s of c o n t r o l e v e n t s d i d o c c u r ( d e f i n e d a s t h e i n a b i l i t y t o
h o l d t h e c a r w i t h i n a 1 0 f o o t wide l a n e ) i n t h e t e s t program.
Note t h a t a l l of t h e performance measures c o n s i d e r e d t h u s f a r
were t a k e n on r u n s i n which t h e c a r was h e l d i n t h e l a n e a n d ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h e l o s s of c o n t r o l i n d i c a t o r s (wheel lockup requency and d u r a t i o n ) a r e c o n s e r v a t i v e p r e d i c t o r s .

T a b l e 3.14

shows t h e p e r c e n t a g e of r u n s t e r m i n a t e d b e c a u s e t h e d r i v e r
l e f t t h e l a n e . I t i s seen t h a t t h e s e r e s u l t s are r e l a t e d t o
t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n a manner s i m i l a r t o t h a t observed f o r

wheel l o c k u p f r e q u e n c y and d u r a t i o n ,

Consequently, t h e l a t t e r

measures a p p e a r t o be good p r e d i c t o r s of p o s s i b l e l o s s o f control.

Note t h a t l o s s o f c o n t r o l o c c u r r e d most f r e q u e n t l y w i t h

t h e h i g h e s t d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n 50
mph r u n s .
SUBJECTIVE MEASURES,

Before c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s

of t h e f i n d i n g s w i t h r e s p e c t t o o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e s o f p e r f o r mance, t h e s u b j e c t i v e r a t i n g s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d .

Driver r a t -

i n g s o f b r a k e s y s t e m c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y showed t h a t t h e h i g h e s t
d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n was viewed a s n o t p r o v i d i n g
adequate c o n t r o l .

L e v e l s 3-6 were c l e a r l y p r e f e r r e d .

Driver

r a t i n g s o f t h e f o r c e l e v e l s r e q u i r e d by e a c h b r a k e c o n f i g u r a t i o n
showed t h a t g a i n l e v e l s 1 and 2 were viewed a s t o o s e n s i t i v e

( i . e . , n o t r e q u i r i n g enough f o r c e ) w h i l e l e v e l s 5 and 6 were

viewed a s r e q u i r i n g t o o much f o r c e .

I n t h e a g g r e g a t e , t h e sub-

j e c t i v e d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t g a i n l e v e l s 3 and 4 were p r e f e r r e d
by t h e 2 8 d r i v e r s u b j e c t s .

F u r t h e r , t h e r a t i n g s produced by

t h e s e s u b j e c t s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d by p e d a l d i s placement l e v e l .

In general, t h e subjective r a t i n g s support

t h e o b j e c t i v e performance measures r a t h e r well.

DRIVER-VEHICLE BRAKING EFFICIENCY.

The a b i l i t y of a

d r i v e r t o modulate h i s b r a k e s t o a c h i e v e minimum s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e s w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g a d e q u a t e d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l i s measured,

i n p a r t , by t h e b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y a t t a i n e d by t h e d r i v e r - v e h i c l e
system.

F o r t h i s r e a s o n , it a p p e a r e d l o g i c a l t o examine t h e

d r i v e r - v e h i c l e b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s a c h i e v e d i n t h e t e s t program.
To compute t h i s e f f i c i e n c y , i t i s f i r s t n e c e s s a r y t o know
o r determine the braking e f f i c i e n c y designed i n t o t h e vehicle.

With t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e e f f i c i e n c y
w i t h which t h e d r i v e r u t i l i z e s t h e a v a i l a b l e r o a d f r i c t i o n i n
stopping without losing d i r e c t i o n a l control as:

'?d-v - ax'g

driver-vehicle

where

ax'g

d r i v e r - v e h i c l e = mean d e c e l e r a t i o n p r o d u c e d by a s u b j e c t i n a given t r i a l
'?v

= vehicle braking efficiency

p = f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t produced a t t h e

t i r e road i n t e r f a c e
I n a p p l y i n g t h e above f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e r e i s a q u e s t i o n a s
t o t h e numeric t h a t s h o u l d be used t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e f r i c t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t , y , o f t h e roadway.

I t can be argued t h a t b r a k i n g

e f f i c i e n c y c a l c u l a t i o n s s h o u l d be b a s e d on t h e peak v a l u e o f
f r i c t i o n t h a t c a n b e a t t a i n e d by a r o l l i n g t i r e on t h e g r o u n d s
t h a t t h i s i s t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n t h a t t h e v e h i c l e would a t t a i n i f
t h e d r i v e r were a b l e t o p e r f o r m a s an i d e a l c o n t r o l l e r .

Accord-.

i n g l y , b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s h a v e been computed u s i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s
of peak f r i c t i o n t h a t were e s t a b l i s h e d f o r e a c h o f t h e t h r e e

t e s t s u r f a c e s (Xote t h a t a s i n g l e numeric h a s been used t o desc r i b e e a c h o f t h e t e s t s u r f a c e s e v e n t h o u g h it i s r e a l i z e d t h a t

f r i c t i m c o e f f i c i e n t s are v e l o c i t y dependent)

The b r a k i n g

e f f i c i e n c y , q , of t h e t e s t v e h i c l e was o b t a i n e d i n t e s t s d e s cribed e a r l i e r

(See Figure 3.3)

A s a r e s u l t of t h e s e t e s t s and measurements made w i t h HSRI's

on-the-road

t i r e t e s t d e v i c e , t h e peak f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s e s -

t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e w e t - p a i n t e d , w e t , and d r y s u r f a c e s were 0 . 4 0 ,
0.71,

and 0 . 8 6 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Using t h e s e numbers and t h e e f -

f i c i e n c y d a t a p r o d u c e d i n a c t u a l t e s t s w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t e d veh i c l e , t h e combined d r i v e r - v e h i c l e e f f i c i e n c i e s p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e
3 . 2 7 were o b t a i n e d .

I t i s s e e n t h a t t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e s of com-

b i n e d e f f i c i e n c y w e r e a t t a i n e d when d r i v e r s b r a k e d on t h e d r y

'\\

Figure 3 . 2 7 .

0 35

mph
5 0 mph

--

Dry
Wet
Wet-Painted

Mean braking efficiency as a function of

deceleration/pedal force gain, speed and
surface.

s u r f a c e , where l~ = 0.86.

B r a k i n g on t h e wet and w e t - p a i n t e d

s u r f a c e s r e s u l t e d i n lower v a l u e s o f e f f i c i e n c y .

On t h e s e

l a t t e r s u r f a c e s , e f f i c i e n c y was f u r t h e r r e d u c e d when t h e i n i t i a l
v e l o c i t y was 50 mph compared t o 35 mph.
These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t d r i v e r s , by and l a r g e , a r e p o o r
m o d u l a t o r s of b r a k e s y s t e m s when t h e y a t t e m p t t o make minimum
d i s t a n c e s t o p s and h o l d t h e v e h i c l e w i t h i n a s l i g h t l y c u r v e d
lane.
I t i s n o t known w h e t h e r t h i s poor m o d u l a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e

should be a t t r i b u t e d p r i m a r i l y t o a l a c k of d r i v e r s k i l l o r t r a i n i n g o r whether t h i s decrement i n c l o s e d - l o o p performance can be

a t t r i b u t e d , i n p a r t , t o t h e dynamics of t h e b r a k e - t i r e s y s t e m .
S i n c e b r a k i n g e f f i c i e n c y i s l o w e s t on t h e s u r f a c e w i t h minimum
f r i c t i o n , i t m i g h t a p p e a r t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r improvement
by d r i v e r t r a i n i n g i s g r e a t e s t f o r t h i s o p e r a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n .
However, t h e c o m p a r i s o n made e a r l i e r between t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of
t h e b e s t and p o o r e s t d r i v e r s ( F i g u r e 3 . 2 6 ) on t h e l o w e s t f r i c t i o n surface suggest t h a t t h e task i s s u f f i c i e n t l y d i f f i c u l t
t h a t d r i v e r t r a i n i n g and/or s k i l l i s of l i t t l e a v a i l .

Driver

s k i l l d o e s seem t o make a d i f f e r e n c e , h o w e v e r , a s t h e t a s k b e comes l e s s demanding, t h a t i s , a s t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s

i n c r e a s e d above t h a t p r o d u c e d by t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e .
DERIVATION OF THE PFG ENVELOPE.

The r e s u l t s of t h e b r a k i n g

t e s t c a n b e u s e d t o s u g g e s t bounds on PFG.
o b j e c t i v e of t h i s r e s e a r c h .

T h i s was t h e m a j o r

The r a t i o n a l e i s t o c o n s i d e r t h o s e

PFG l e v e l s w i t h i n e a c h of t h e s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s which r e s u l t e d
i n impaired performance.

F o r e x a m p l e , T a b l e 3 . i 0 shows t h a t when

a t t e m p t i n g t o a c h i e v e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n on t h e d r y s u r f a c e
= 0 . 8 6 ) p e r f o r m a n c e f e l l o f f a t PFG g r e a t e r t h a n l e v e l
ak
2 , namely a t PFG l e v e l 1 ( . 0 6 5 g / l b ) , a t b o t h t e s t s p e e d s . There-

f o r e , naximum PFG when b r a k i n g on a r o a d h a v i n g a s u r f a c e - t i r e

f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t t h e same a s t h e d r y a s p h a l t s h o u i d be l e s s
t h a n 0.065 g / l b .

T h i s g a i n v a l u e c a n b e t a k e n a s a boundary c o n d i -

t i o n , and i s shown a s p o i n t A' i n F i g u r e 3.28.

S i m i l a r l y , PFG

l e v e l 3 p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r mean d e c e l e r a t i o n t h a n
l e v e l 2 , a t 50 mph on t h e wet s u r f a c e ,

T h e r e f o r e , PFG l e v e l

2 (0.037 g / l b ) c a n be t a k e n a s a boundary c o n d i t i o n f o r t h a t s u r f a c e (lJpeak = 0 . 7 1 ) , and i s shown a s p o i n t B i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 7 .

I n an a n a l o g o u s manner PFG l e v e l 3 ( 0 . 0 2 1 g / l b ) i s t h e boundary
g a i n c o n d i t i o n f o r b r a k i n g on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e (ppeak
0 . 4 0 ) , and i s shown a s p o i n t C i n F i g u r e 3.27.

These p o i n t s have

been d e r i v e d o n l y from t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n performance d a t a t o s e l e c t

maximum PFG l e v e l s .

The measurement of wheel l o c k u p f r e q u e n c y

and d u r a t i o n , and t h e l o s s o f c o n t r o l measures s t r o n g l y a r g u e

a g a i n s t t h e u s e of t h e h i g h e s t PFG u s e d i n t h i s t e s t .

PFG l e v e l

1 had s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c y and d u r a t i o n of wheel

lockups t h a n o t h e r l e v e l s .

T h e r e f o r e , it is proposed t h a t , f o r

t h e d r y pavement c a s e (ppeak = 0 . 8 6 ) , t h e maximum PFG s h o u l d b e

l e v e l 2 (0.037 g / l b )

, which

a c t u a l l y produced s l i g h t l y b e t t e r

d e c e l e r a t i o n performance t h a n l e v e l 1, and c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement i n l o s s of c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e c u t - o f f max-

imum PFG f o r b r a k i n g a t a b o u t 0.86 g i s shown a s A i n F i g u r e 3.28.

T h i s s t r a t e g y i s a l s o s u p p o r t e d by t h e s u b j e c t i v e " c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y "
and " f o r c e " r a t i n g s ( F i g u r e s 3 . 2 4 , 3 . 2 5 ) .
P o i n t s A , B and C d e f i n e maximum g a i n v a l u e s a t t h e i n d i c a t e d
deceleration values.
T a b l e 3.10 can a l s o be used t o s e t minimum PFG l e v e l s i n

terms of d e c e l e r a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e . For example, l e v e l 4 i s

a c u t - o f f p o i n t f o r t h e d r y and t h e wet pavement, and l e v e l 5 f o r
t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e . These c u t - o f f v a l u e s a r e shown a s p o i n t s

D, E and F i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 8 .

They d e f i n e minimum PFG l e v e l s t o

maximize d r i v e r b r a k i n g performance a t t h e r e s p e c t i v e d e c e l e r a t i o n
values.

Thus, PFG v a l u e s between t h e maximum and minimum c u t - o f f

p o i n t s a t each d e c e l e r a t i o n d e f i n e d e s i r a b l e brake c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Based on t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , it c o u l d be recommended t h a t
PFG v a l u e s be l i m i t e d by t h e b o u n d a r i e s s e t a t A , B , C , D , E , and

PEDAL FORCE ( I b s )

Figure 3.28.

Cut-off PFG values for satisfactory

driver-vehicle braking performance.

F.

T h i s means t h a t :

1.

PFG v a l u e s s h o u l d n o t exceed t h o s e found a t A , B and

C f o r the indicated vehicle deceleration levels, i . e . ,

t h e s l o p e s of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e s h o u l d n o t exceed 0.037 g / l b a t 0.86 g and 0 . 7 1 g , and 0.021 g / l b

a t 0.40 g.
2.

P e d a l f o r c e v a l u e s s h o u l d n o t be l e s s t h a n t h o s e a t A ,

B and C t o o b t a i n t h e i n d i c a t e d v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n
levels.
3.

PFG v a l u e s s h o u l d n o t be l e s s t h a n t h o s e found a t D , E
and F f o r t h e i n d i c a t e d v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l s .

4.

P e d a l f o r c e s h o u l d n o t exceed 85 l b s a t 0 . 7 5 g ( b a s e d
upon an approximate maximum v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n of
0.75 g and f e m a l e , 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e , p e d a l f o r c e d a t a
o b t a i n e d i n Task 2 ) .

DEVELOPMENT OF A REVISION TO MVSS-105.

Using t h e d a t a

shown i n F i g u r e 3.28 it i s p o s s i b l e t o d e v e l o p a m o d i f i c a t i o n of
t h i s F i g u r e t h a t more a p t l y can be used t o d e s c r i b e a r e v i s i o n
t o MVSS-105.

Such a r e v i s i o n s h o u l d be p r a c t i c a b l e , and meaning-

f u l with respect t o s a f e t y objectives.

I n order t o provide a brake c o n t r o l t h a t allows e f f i c i e n t
modulation of v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n on low f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s , t o
minimize s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e , p e d a l f o r c e s h o u l d n o t be t o o low
and t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s h o u l d n o t be t o o h i g h .
T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s f u l f i l l e d a t p o i n t C i n F i g u r e 3.28, where t h e
s l o p e of t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n i s 0 . 0 2 1 g / l b .

Higher

deceleration/pedal f o r c e gains did n o t provide s i g n i f i c a n t l y i m proved performance i n any t e s t c o n d i t i o n compared t o 0.021 g / l b ;

b u t t h e y r e s u l t e d i n r e l a t i v e l y i m p a i r e d performance a s measured
by a number of t h e dependent v a r i a b l e s .

Therefore, a decelera-

t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n of 0 . 0 2 1 g / l b can be t a k e n a s t h e maximum
g a i n , and a l i n e of t h i s s l o p e , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r i g i n i n

t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n - p e d a l f o r c e s p a c e shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 9 , d e f i n e s
t h e maximum gain-minimum p e d a l f o r c e boundary.

Gain
g/lb:

.065

.037

.021

.012

,007

/Existing

Std.

( 3 0 mph s t o p )

PEDAL FORCE ( l b s )

Figure 3.29.

The recommended d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e s p a c e .

F i g u r e 3.28 showed t h a t a t h i g h d e c e l e r a t i o n s t h e minimum

g a i n s h o u l d b e 0.012 g / l b ,

and t h i s minimum a l s o gave r i s e t o

good p e r f o r m a n c e a t low d e c e l e r a t i o n s .

I n a d d i t i o n , a t 0.75 g

p e d a l f o r c e s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 85 l b s .
T h e r e f o r e , a l i n e o f slope 0.012 g/lb passing t h r o u g h t h e
p o i n t 0.75 g:

85 l b s d e f i n e s t h e minimum g a i n boundary.
113

4,

DRIVER BRAKING PRACTICE

INTRODUCTION

An e v a l u a t i o n of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of p a r t i a l f a i l u r e i n
a b r a k e s y s t e m , i n terms o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s imposed on t h e
f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l s y s t e m , c o n s t i t u t e s a s e c o n d a r y o b j e c t i v e of
t h i s study.

T h i s e v a l u a t i o n r e q u i r e s , however, s u b s t a n t i v e

i n f o r m a t i o n on how d r i v e r s t y p i c a l l y b r a k e t h e i r v e h i c l e s on
o u r s t r e e t and highway network.
I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f b r a k i n g performed by

d r i v e r s d o e s n o t i n v o l v e t r a f f i c c o n f l i c t s o f an emergency n a t u r e .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r o u t i n e b r a k i n g a c t i v i t y can d e v e l o p i n t o
an emergency i f a l o s s of b r a k i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s o c c u r s due t o a
p a r t i a l f a i l u r e i n t h e s e r v i c e brake.

For example, t h e s t o p t h a t

c o u l d r e a d i l y b e performed by a woman w i t h l i m i t e d p e d a l f o r c e
c a p a b i l i t y may p r o v e t o b e a d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l t h a t s h e c a n n o t
achieve w i t h a p a r t i a l l y f a i l e d system.

Some s t a t i s t i c s on

b r a k i n g p r a c t i c e a r e o b v i o u s l y needed t o draw f i r m c o n c l u s i o n s
r e l e v a n t t o t h e s a f e t y consequences of p a r t i a l f a i l u r e .
An e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e l i t e r a t u r e showed t h a t a few a t t e m p t s
have been made t o r e c o r d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f b r a k e a p p l i c a t i o n s and
deceleration levels.

C a r p e n t e r (1955) found t h a t t h e a v e r a g e

d u r a t i o n of brake a p p l i c a t i o n s decreased w i t h i n c r e a s e d speed of

travel.

He a l s o found t h a t t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number

of brake a p p l i c a t i o n s with i n c r e a s i n g speed, with t o t a l braking

t i m e p e r m i l e b e i n g i n d e p e n d e n t of s p e e d . During 1400 m i l e s of
d r i v i n g i n h i l l y c o u n t r y , a t o t a l o f 2800 b r a k e a p p l i c a t i o n s were
recorded,

Only 5 p e r c e n t of a l l b r a k e a p p l i c a t i o n s i n v o l v e d

d e c e l e r a t i o n s e x c e e d i n g 0.30 g , and 30 p e r c e n t i n v o l v e d a c c e l e r a t i o n s e x c e e d i n g 0.17 g.

On o n l y 20 a p p l i c a t i o n s was a d e c e l -

e r a t i o n o f 0.40 g e x c e e d e d .
A n o t h e r s t u d y showed t h a t on a random c o u r s e t h r o u g h a
b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 0.15 g was u s e d most r e q u e n t l y a l t h o u g h d e c e l e r a t i o n s up t o 0 . 4 0 g d i d o c c u r (Kummer and

Meyer, 1967)

I t was o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n a n d , h e n c e ,

t h e f r i c t i o n a l requirements f o r preventing a s k i d , usually

i n c r e a s e d toward t h e e n d o f a s t o p .
On a 276 m i l e c r o s s - c o u n t r y t r i p , b r a k i n g t o o k p l a c e 122
t i m e s (0.42 a p p l i c a t i o n s / m i l e ) a l t h o u g h t h e p e d a l was s l i g h t l y
d e p r e s s e d 2 8 8 times (1 a p p l i c a t i o n / m i l e ) .

I n s i x o f t h e s e 122

a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e t r a f f i c s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e d d e c e l e r a t i o n s of
0 . 4 0 g o r above.

Two of t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s r e s u l t e d from d r i v e r

i n a t t e n t i o n , and f o u r from u n e x p e c t e d a c t s by o t h e r t r a f f i c .
Speeds were below 20 mph i n e v e r y c a s e (Kumrner and Meyer, 1 9 6 7 ) .
One major drawback of t h e s t u d i e s c i t e d c o n s i s t e d of d r i v e r
a w a r e n e s s of t h e s t u d y p u r p o s e .

T h i s d e f i c i e n c y was e l i m i n a t e d

i n t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n program c o n d u c t e d f o r t h i s p r o j e c t .
D r i v e r s were o n l y aware t h a t t h e v e h i c l e was on a t e s t of some
k i n d , s i n c e t h e y were a s k e d t o f i l l o u t a t r i p s h e e t .

Otherwise,

t h e y were n o t i n v o l v e d a n d , t h e r e f o r e , c o u l d b e and were e x p e c t e d

t o d r i v e i n a normal manner.
METHOD

APPARATUS.

A 1968 Plymouth s e d a n was e q u i p p e d w i t h i n s t r u -

m e n t a t i o n t o r e c o r d t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n of t h e v e h i c l e whenever t h e
b r a k e p e d a l was d e p r e s s e d .

E x c e p t f o r a t a c h o m e t e r and a

b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r , t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n package was
located i n t h e trunk (Figure 4 . 1 ) .

A c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n of

t h e a p p a r a t u s , c a l i b r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e , and sample d a t a i s g i v e n i n
Appendix 111.
I n t h e f i r s t p h a s e of t h e s t u d y , t h e v e h i c l e was e q u i p p e d
with standard brakes.

For t h e s e c o n d p h a s e , t h e s t a n d a r d b r a k e s

were c o n v e r t e d t o power b r a k e s , u s i n g a c o n v e r s i o n k i t o b t a i n e d
from t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r .

I n t h i s manner i t was p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n

d a t a on b r a k i n g p r a c t i c e a s i n f l u e n c e d o n l y by changes i n b r a k e
f o r c e / d e c e l e r a t i o n g a i n ( F i g u r e 4 . 2 b displacement/deceleration
g a i n , and p e d a l l o c a t i o n .

F i g u r e s 4 . 3 and 4 . 4 show t h e p e d a l

Figure 4.1.

Data recording instrumentation in trunk of

test car.

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

PEDAL FORCE (lbs)

Figure 4.2.

D e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e f o r manual and
power b r a k e mode. 1 9 6 8 Plymouth 4 door sedan.

Figure 4 . 3 .

Longitudinal l o c a t i o n of manual and power brake

pedals and a c c e l e r a t o r .

VIEW AA

P O S I T I O N OF
MANUAL BRAKE PEDAL

P O S I T I O N OF
POWER BRAKE PEDA

5 3/8"

Figure 4 . 4 .

Height and l o c a t i o n of power and manual b r a k e

p e d a l and a c c e l e r a t o r .

c o n f i g u r a t i o n e x i s t i n g i n t h e manual and power-brake mode.

PROCEDURE.

The t e s t v e h i c l e was a s s i g n e d a s a p o o l c a r t o

t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan T r a n s p o r a t i o n Department.

T h i s pro-

c e d u r e a s s u r e d a v a r i e t y of d r i v e r s and d r i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
D r i v e r s who o b t a i n e d t h i s v e h i c l e were a s k e d t o r e c o r d on a l o g :
name; d a t e of t r i p ; a p p r o x i m a t e m i l e s d r i v e n i n c i t y , c o u n t r y ,
and expressway c o n d i t i o n s ; odometer r e a d i n g s a t s t a r t and end of
t r i p ; a p p r o x i m a t e times of s t a r t and end o f t r i p ; and f o o t u s e d
f o r braking.

The s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t were g i v e n a p p e a r

i n Appendix 111.

SUBJECTS.

F o r t y - f o u r s u b j e c t s , a l l U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan

employees, d r o v e t h e i n s t r u m e n t e d v e h i c l e .

Twenty-eight p e o p l e

d r o v e t h e v e h i c l e w i t h s t a n d a r d b r a k e s and 16 p e o p l e d r o v e t h e
v e h i c l e w i t h power b r a k e s i n s t a l l e d .
RESULTS
A t o t a l of 6255 miles were l o g g e d d u r i n g which 8934 b r a k e

a p p l i c a t i o n s were made.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n s of measured peak

d e c e l e r a t i o n s a r e shown i n T a b l e s 4 . 1 and 4.2 a s o b t a i n e d

w i t h s t a n d a r d b r a k e s and power b r a k e s r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The cumula-

t i v e p e r c e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s of peak d e c e l e r a t i o n a r e shown i n
F i g u r e 4.5 f o r b o t h b r a k e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .
have a s i m i l a r s h a p e and o v e r l a p .

Note t h a t t h e c u r v e s

With e i t h e r b r a k e c o n f i g u r a -

t i o n , a 0 . 3 g d e c e l e r a t i o n , o r g r e a t e r , o c c u r r e d a b o u t 3.80
p e r c e n t of t h e time; a 0 . 4 g d e c e l e r a t i o n , o r g r e a t e r , o c c u r r e d
0.57 p e r c e n t o f t h e time, and a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 0 . 5 g , o r g r e a t e r ,
o c c u r r e d a b o u t 0.10 p e r c e n t of t h e t i m e .

Approximately 80 p e r c e n t

o f t h e d r i v i n g ( m i l e s ) was done on e x p r e s s w a y s , 16 p e r c e n t i n
t h e c i t y and a b o u t 3 p e r c e n t on r u r a l r o a d s .
These r e s u l t s a g r e e q u i t e w e l l w i t h t h o s e found b o t h by
C a r p e n t e r (1955) and by Kummer and Meyer ( 1 9 6 7 ) .

Whereas t h e

l a t t e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s found t h e b r a k e t o be d e p r e s s e d a b o u t once
p e r mile on a 2 7 6 m i l e c r o s s - c o u n t r y t r i p , t h e s e d a t a a s

DECELERATION ( 9 )

F i g u r e 4.5.

C u m u l a t i v e percent of d e c e l e r a t i o n s f o r
manual and power b r a k e s .
1 21

TABLE 4.1- CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF

PEAK DECELERATIONS (MANUAL BRAKES)

Interval (g)
.60 - .64
.55

.59

Frequency
1
4
3

Percent
.016
.063
.047
.095
.347
.725
3.183
7.832
16.294
21.982
24.330
19.776
5.310

City Driving (40 MPH - )

X-Way Driving
Country Driving (40 MPH +

100Cumulative
Percent

Cumulative
Percent

.o

Miles

Percent

3,332

14.88
78.33

4,254

100.00

TABLE 4.2.

I n t e r v a l (g)

.40

.35

.55
.50
.45

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF

PEAK DECELERATIONS (POWER BRAKES)

Frequency

.59

.0 3 9

.54

.I16

.49

.039

.44

10

.386

.39

20

.773

.34

70

2.705

.29

1 40

5.409

.24

297

11.476

.19

451

17.427
24.266

.15

.10

,14

628

.05

-09

665

.oo -

.04

30 2

.oo

N=2,588

.30
.25
.20

Percent

Cumulative
Percent

100Cumulative
Percent

100.000

.o

Miles
C i t y D r i v i n g ( 4 0 MPH

17.96

1,650

X-Way D r i v i n g
C o u n t r y D r i v i n g ( 4 0 MPH

Percent

82.04

0
2,011

100.00

accumulated from a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f d r i v e r s show 1 . 4 d e p r e s s i o n s

o f t h e p e d a l p e r mile.

DISCUSSION
Notwithstanding t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n deceleration/
pedal f o r c e g a i n , t h e frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s of d e c e l e r a t i o n s
o b t a i n e d f o r t h e two b r a k e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l .
This r e s u l t suggests t h a t d r i v e r s adapt very w e l l t o d i f f e r e n t
b r a k i n g s y s t e m s and t h a t b r a k i n g l e v e l s a d o p t e d by d r i v e r s a r e
i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s of t h e b r a k e system.
I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r which a c a r

from t h e motor p o o l i s r e q u e s t e d a f f e c t t h e c h o i c e of r o a d s
traveled.

Most o f t h e m i l e s p u t on p o o l c a r s r e p r e s e n t b u s i n e s s

t r i p s t o o t h e r c i t i e s i n Michigan and a d j o i n i n g s t a t e s .

This

usage r e s u l t s i n more freew ay d r i v i n g t h a n i s p r o b a b l y done w i t h

t h e normal f a m i l y c a r .

I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t i n

c i t y d r i v i n g t h e r e would be a g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c y o f h i g h d e c e l e r a t i o n s and more b r a k e a p p l i c a t i o n s p e r mile.

I n view o f t h e i r c o n s i s t e n c y , t h e s e d a t a w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d
t o b e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e peak b r a k i n g d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l s t h a t
can b e e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r i n t h e d r i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d i n
t h e survey.

Accordingly, it appears reasonable t o u t i l i z e t h e

c u r v e s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 4.5 i n t h e F a i l u r e A n a l y s i s phase of
t h i s study.

5.

FAILURE ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

The p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o d e c e l e r a t e a motor v e h i c l e a t
a g i v e n r a t e i s a f u n c t i o n of a number of d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s
whose f i n a l s e l e c t i o n and implementation a r e governed by a
v a r i e t y of d e s i g n compromises.

I t i s n o t o u r purpose h e r e t o

r e v i e w t h e p r o c e s s by which t h e s e compromises a r e r e a c h e d b u t
r a t h e r t o c o n s i d e r how t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e b r a k e s y s t e m
( i . e . , t h e deceleration/pedal f o r c e r e l a t i o n s h i p ) i s modified
i f a p a r t i a l f a i l u r e s h o u l d o c c u r w i t h i n t h e system.
Three c a t e g o r i e s of f a i l u r e s a r e considered i n t h i s f a i l u r e
analysis :
1.

Loss of l i n e p r e s s u r e i n one-half o f a s p l i t o r d u a l
b r a k i n g system.

2.

Loss of vacuum b o o s t i n a power b o o s t e l e m e n t .

3.

Loss of e f f e c t i v e n e s s e x h i b i t e d by an o v e r h e a t e d

brake (fade)
Each of t h e s e p a r t i a l f a i l u r e modes a r e c o n s i d e r e d and e v a l u a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on v e h i c l e b r a k i n g p e r f o r mance and w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r e s u l t i n g consequences f o r s a f e t y ,
namely t h e a b i l i t y of d r i v e r s t o a c h i e v e t h e i r d e s i r e d l e v e l s
of d e c e l e r a t i o n .
FAILURE MODES
L I N E PRESSURE FAILURE.

A standard d u a l braking system.

w i t h o r w i t h o u t power b o o s t , s h a l l b e a n a l y z e d .

A tandem o r

d u a l m a s t e r c y l i n d e r w i t h a f r o n t - and r e a r - a x l e s p l i t ( i n
conformance w i t h MVSS 105) i s assumed.
Given a l o s s of p r e s s u r e i n e i t h e r t h e f r o n t - b r a k e l i n e
o r i n t h e r e a r l i n e , t h e mechanics of t h e b r a k i n g p r o c e s s
yields that

where
PFR = p e d a l f o r c e w i t h r e a r system o n l y o p e r a t i v e
PFF = p e d a l f o r c e w i t h f r o n t system o n l y o p e r a t i v e
@

= r e a r a x l e b r a k e f o r c e d i v i d e d by t o t a l b r a k e

f o r c e f o r b o t h f r o n t and r e a r systems o p e r a tional

a

= deceleration, g units

PFo = p e d a l f o r c e / d e c e l e r a t i o n r a t i o f o r t h e unloaded
v e h i c l e condition (curb weight plus d r i v e r )

a.
W

.a

= l o a d e d t o unloaded v e h i c l e w e i g h t r a t i o

A t y p i c a l v a l u e f o r t h e r a t i o o f PFo /ao f o r c a r s w i t h o u t

vacuum a s s i s t i s 1 3 4 , ( S t r i e n , 1968) w h i l e W/Wo f o r d o m e s t i c

c a r s r a n g e s from 1 . 1 3 t o 1.18 (Automotive I n d u s t r i e s , 1 9 6 9 ) .
The b r a k e - f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n r a n g e s from 0 = 0.30
L i n c o l n ) t o @ = 0.55 ( e . g.

t h e Corvair)

(e.g., the

However, more t h a n

9 0 p e r c e n t of American c a r s have a b r a k e - f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
@ = 0.40

(Automotive I n d u s t r i e s , 1 9 6 9 ) .

Table 5 . 1 summarizes

t h e p e d a l f o r c e t o d e c e l e r a t i o n r a t i o s computed f o r v a r i o u s
l o a d i n g and f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n s u s i n g t h e s e t y p i c a l v a l u e s .

The

h i g h e s t v a l u e s of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r a t i o o b t a i n when t h e
f r o n t h y d r a u l i c l i n e f a i l s i n t h e loaded v e h i c l e .

A typical

r e s u l t i s p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 5 . 1 , showing t h e l a r g e i n f l u e n c e of
b r a k e - f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e
a g i v e n d e c e l e r a t i o n when t h e f r o n t b r a k e s a r e i n o p e r a t i v e .

PEDAL FORCE

Figure 5.1.

(lbs)

Deceleration/pedal force for a loaded passenger

car without vacuum assist: front brakes
operative and inoperative.

TABLE 5 . 1

TYPICAL DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE RATIOS

HYDRAULIC LINE FAILURES FOR V3HICLES
WITHOUT POWER BOOST

No F a i l u r e
PF/a

Loading
Condition

134

Loaded

154

Rear L i n e F a i l u r e
PFF/a

lbs/g
lbs/q
M I N I M U M AVERAGE MAXIMUM M I N I M U M AVERAGE MAXIMUM

lbs/g
AVERAGE

Unloaded
(Curb
Weight and
Driver)

Front Line F a i l u r e
PFR/a

PF = P e d a l f o r c e , l b s , f r o n t and r e a r system o p e r a t i o n a l
a

= Deceleration, g-units

PFR= P e d a l f o r c e , l b s , r e a r s y s t e m o n l y o p e r a t i o n a l
PF = P e d a l f o r c e , l b s , f r o n t s y s t e m o n l y o p e r a t i o n a l
F

For b r a k e systems c o n t a i n i n g a power bo s t e l e m e n t , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e d a l f o r c e and d e c e l e r a t i o n can be approximated

by two s t r a i g h t l i n e s , one f o r t h e p e d a l f o r c e s developed below
t h e s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t of t h e b o o s t e r and a second f o r t h e p e d a l
f o r c e s t h a t a r e developed above t h e s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t .

As before,

t h e braking process y i e l d s t h a t
PFR = a PFo

PFR = a

PFo

a0

assist

w 1
wo 5

assist

Aam PF

a0

manual

%T

a>

PFF -

rS

assist W

(PP)

Tm
1

a s s i s t t Aam r ~ ) m a n u a ' ] W

a >

where
a

= deceleration a t the saturation point

= i n c r e a s e i n d e c e l e r a t i o n above t h e s a t u r a t i o n

point
For c a r s w i t h vacuum a s s i s t , PFo / a.
1968).

64 lbs/g (Strien,

When t h e b o o s t e r i s completely i n o p e r a t i v e , PFo / a.

= 460

l b s / g , a g a i n t h a t i s much lower t h a n t h a t e x h i b i t e d by c a r s t h a t
a r e n o t equipped w i t h power a s s i s t . T h i s r e s u l t , i n l a r g e measure,

stems from t h e lower p e d a l l e v e r r a t i o t h a t i s used i n v e h i c l e s

equipped w i t h vacuum a s s i s t .

Table 5.2 summarizes t h e r e s u l t s

given by t h e above e x p r e s s i o n s , on assuming t h a t ( P F . / a ) a s s i s t

0

(PFO /ao) manual

460, and t h a t t h e b o o s t e r s a t u r a t e s a t
PF = 50 l b ( a v a l u e computed on t h e b a s i s of a v a i l a b l e t e c h n i c a l
64,

data).

A s was t r u e f o r t h e non-powered system, t h e l a r g e s t v a l u e s

o f p e d a l f o r c e a r e r e q u i r e d when t h e f r o n t b r a k e l i n e s f a i l i n
loaded v e h i c l e .

A t y p i c a l r e s u l t i s diagrammed i n F i g u r e 5.2.

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of l i n e - p r e s s u r e f a i l u r e s on
thedeceleration/pedal force relationship, there are additional
i m p l i c a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o p e d a l t r a v e l r e q u i r e d and p e d a l
t r a v e l a v a i l a b l e . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e b r a k e p e d a l a c t s
through a l i n k a g e t o move t h e p i s t o n s i n t h e m a s t e r c y l i n d e r ,
which i n t u r n f o r c e h y d r a u l i c f l u i d through t h e l i n e s t o t h e
i n d i v i d u a l wheel c y l i n d e r s t o a c t u a t e t h e b r a k e s .

Individual

p i s t o n t r a v e l h a s t o be d e s i g n e d such a s t o meet t h e f l u i d volume

r e q u i r e m e n t s a t t h e f r o n t - and r e a r - a x l e wheel c y l i n d e r s .

TABLE 5.2.

TYPICAL DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE CHARACTERISTICS.

HYDRAULIC L I N E FAILURE FOR
VEHICLE WITH POWER BOOST (ASSUME POWER
BOOST SATURATED AT P F = 50 L B S )

Loading
Condition

No F a i l u r e

F r o n t Line F a i l u r e

Rear Line F a i l u r e

P F ~

PFF
lbs

PF
lbs

lbs

p
p
p

&

Unloaded
(Curb
Weight and
Driver)

00

u m h

$ 8 $51

'

ZdSg

00

"2 ", 1

E$Sg

0 4 m a

= 1.15

Unloaded
(Curb
Weight and
Driver)

p:

AVERAGE

MAXIMUM

MINIMUM

64a

116a

160a

214a

92a

107a

142a

74a

134a

L84a

245a

105a

123a

163a

460a-309

770a-286 1155a-311 1540a-310

656a-306

770a-310 1025a-311

530a-308

970a-312 1330a-312 1760a-309

760a-312

920a-324 1184a-313

loaded
wo

= 1.15

PF
a

MAXIMUM

MINIMUM

Loaded

o m m P , wo
M

AVERAGE

AVERAGE

= Pedal f o r c e , l b s , f r o n t and r e a r o p e r a t i o n a l
= Deceleration, g-units

PFR = Pedal f o r c e , l b s , r e a r system only o p e r a t i o n a l

PFF = Pedal f o r c e , l b s , f r o n t system only o p e r a t i o n a l

No F a i l u r e

PEDAL FORCE ( l b s )
Figure 5.2.

D e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e f o r a loaded
passenger c a r with vacuum a s s i s t : f r o n t
brakes o p e r a t i v e and i n o p e r a t i v e .

With t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e wheel c y l i n d e r s determined by t h e

t o r q u e d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e f l u i d volume r e q u i r e m e n t becomes a
f u n c t i o n of t h e b r a k e shoe o r pad d i s p l a c e m e n t n e c e s s a r y t o
a c c o u n t f o r h y s t e r e s i s , l i n i n g compression, l i n i n g w e a r , and
drum e x p a n s i o n .
For example, c o n s i d e r a c a r w i t h a m a s t e r - c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r
of 3/4 i n c h .

I t h a s d i s c b r a k e s on t h e f r o n t wheels w i t h a

wheel c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r of 1 3/4 i n c h e s .

The r e a r wheels have

10 i n c h drum b r a k e s w i t h a wheel c y l i n d e r of 5/8 i n c h d i a m e t e r .

A p i s t o n d i s p l a c e m e n t of 0.026 i n c h e s i s c o n s i d e r e d a d e q u a t e

f o r t h e f r o n t d i s c b r a k e s (Teves, 1 9 6 0 ) .

The m a s t e r - c y l i n d e r

p i s t o n t r a v e l corresponding t o t h e p i s t o n t r a v e l a t t h e ( f o u r )
f r o n t a x l e wheel c y l i n d e r s i s :

= 0.565 i n .

where
VF = volume of f l u i d
A~~

= a r e a of m a s t e r c y l i n d e r

An a d d i t i o n a l p i s t o n t r a v e l of 0.08 i n c h e s i s r e q u i r e d t o cover
t h e p o r t c o n n e c t i n g t h e m a s t e r c y l i n d e r and t h e r e s e r v o i r (Teves,.
1960).

Thus t h e m a s t e r - c y l i n d e r p i s t o n t r a v e l r e q u i r e d t o a c t u a t e

t h e f r o n t b r a k e s t o t a l s 0,645 i n c h e s .
The w h e e l - c y l i n d e r p i s t o n t r a v e l r e q u i r e d f o r drum b r a k e s
can be approximated by t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p (Teves, 1 9 6 0 ) :
dwc = 0 . 1
Theref o r e ,

0.003 x drum d i a . ( i n . )

and t h e m a s t e r - c y l i n d e r p i s t o n t r a v e l n e c e s s a r y t o a c t u a t e t h e
r e a r b r a k e s i s given by:

- 4 x 0.307

x 0.13 = 0.36 i n .

0,441

The t o t a l t r a v e l a t t h e m a s t e r c y l i n d e r i s :
d = d

t dR = 0.925 i n .

With a p e d a l l e v e r r a t i o of 3 . 2 , t h i s p i s t o n t r a v e l c o r r e s p o n d s
t o a p e d a l t r a v e l of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 . 0 i n c h e s .

I n t h e c a s e of a

f r o n t axle f a i l u r e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l pedal t r a v e l required p r i o r

"0

b u i l d i n g up p r e s s u r e i n t h e r e a r c i r c u i t becomes:

which d i s t a n c e i s approximately 61 p e r c e n t of t h e maximum t r a v e l .

The d a t a employed i n t h e i l l u s t r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n c o r r e s pond t o c o n d i t i o n s of e x c e l l e n t b r a k e a d j u s t m e n t (Teves, 1 9 6 0 ) .
S i n c e t h e m a j o r i t y of U.S.

v e h i c l e s incorporate automatic brake

a d j u s t m e n t , t h i s i s a r e a l i s t i c assumption.

For p o o r e r b r a k e

shoe a d j u s t m e n t s , however, t h e p e d a l t r a v e l r e q u i r e d t o p r e s s u r i z e t h e r e a r b r a k e s might well approach i n t o l e r a b l e dimensions

o r may even t a k e up t h e e n t i r e p e d a l t r a v e l a v a i l a b l e . These
r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e wisdom of t h e s t a n d a r d s p l i t ( i . e . ,
separate l i n e s t o the f r o n t t o r e a r axle) i s questionable i n
the case of a f a i l u r e i n t h e f r o n t brake l i n e s .

More e f f e c t i v e

s p l i t s ( d i a g o n a l , h o r i z o n t a l , e t c . ) have been s u g g e s t e d by
V a l l i n (1968)

POWER BOOST FAILURE.

An a n a l y s i s s h a l l be made of systems

t h a t employ mechanical c o n t r o l of t h e vacuum a s s i s t s i n c e

mechanically c o n t r o l l e d b o o s t e r s a r e more widely used.

C o n s t r a i n t s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d e s i g n of h y d r a u l i c b r a k e s
y i e l d t h e f o l l o w i n g approximate e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e work i n t o
a master c y l i n d e r when a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 0.85 i s r e q u i r e d (Teves,
1960) :

where
ph

= hydraulic pressure ( p s i )

= maximum f l u i d volume d i s p l a c e d by t h e
master c y l i n d e r p i s t o n ( i n )

= v e h i c l e weight ( l b )

The h y d r a u l i c work i n t o t h e master c y l i n d e r i s t h e sum of t h e

work done by t h e b o o s t e r and t h e p e d a l .
phV = FBx

Thus:

PFy

where
F~
PF

= Effective booster force ( l b )

Pedal force ( l b )

= Pedal T r a v e l ( i n )

E f f e c t i v e Master c y l i n d e r t r a v e l ( i n )

I n t h e c a s e of a b o o s t e r f a i l u r e , t h e f i r s t term i n t h e e q u a t i o n ,
FBx, i s e q u a l t o z e r o and o n l y t h e work i n p u t of t h e d r i v e r . PFy,

produces a v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n . On a n a l y z i n g an 8-inch, s i n g l e diaphram vacuum b o o s t e r , t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n Figure 5 . 3 a r e

obtained.
I n t h i s f i g u r e , b o o s t e r - e x i t f o r c e i n t o t h e master c y l i n d e r
i s p l o t t e d v e r s u s p e d a l f o r c e times p e d a l - l e v e r r a t i o , F x i p .
P

Figure 5 . 3 .

Power boost c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
135

A s can be s e e n from t h e diagram, maximum b o o s t a s s i s t a n c e i s

o b t a i n e d a t 791 l b .

For d e c e l e r a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g h i g h e r b r a k e

e f f o r t s , t h e a d d i t i o n a l work i n p u t h a s t o come from t h e d r i v e r .

The diagram a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i n f l u e n c e of p a r t i a l vacuum
and z e r o b o o s t .
I n o r d e r t o show t h e i n f l u e n c e of t o t a l - o r p a r t i a l - b o o s t
f a i l u r e on t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r e l a t i o n s h i p , F i g u r e 5.4
was p r e p a r e d .

T y p i c a l dimensions were assumed f o r t h e e l e m e n t s

i n a b r a k e system.

The f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s can be made w i t h

r e s p e c t t o v a r i o u s l e v e l s of power b o o s t f a i l u r e :

1.

No b o o s t - - t o

produce a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 90 p e r c e n t g , a

p e d a l f o r c e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 270 l b i s r e q u i r e d .

d e c e l e r a t i o n of o n l y 0.32 g i s produced by a p e d a l f o r c e
of 1 0 0 l b .
2.

Thirty-two percent boost--the

d e c e l e r a t i o n produced by

a p e d a l f o r c e of 1 0 0 l b i s 0.52 g .

A deceleration

of 0 . 9 0 g r e q u i r e s a p e d a l f o r c e of a b o u t 215 l b .

3.

Sixty percent boost--the

d e c e l e r a t i o n produced by a

1 0 0 l b p e d a l f o r c e i s 0.76 g .

A d e c e l e r a t i o n of 0.90 g

r e q u i r e s a p e d a l f o r c e of a b o u t 150 l b .
BRAKE FADE.

I f a v e h i c l e i s s u b j e c t e d t o a s e r i e s of s e v e r e

s t o p s i n r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n , i t w i l l be observed t h a t f o r each successive s t o p a higher pedal force i s necessary t o maintain

a s p e c i f i e d d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l (SAE, 1 9 6 7 ) .
c a l l e d fade.

T h i s phenomenon i s

The phenomenon can be a n a l y z e d and p r e d i c t i o n s of

t h e i n c r e a s e i n p e d a l f o r c e can be made ( S t r i e n , 1949) p r o v i d e d

t h a t t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e b r a k e f a c t o r (BF) a s a f u n c t i o n o f
t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e l i n i n g i s known and t h a t t h e v a r i a t i o n of f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h v e l o c i t y , p r e s s u r e , t e m p e r a t u r e
i s known (Kruegel

&

Weber, 1964; Newcomb, 1960; Dorner, 1963)

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e d a l f o r c e (PF) and b r a k e f a c t o r

i s g i v e n by t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p on assuming a b r a k e system
w i t h o u t vacuum a s s i s t :

100
Design Point
PF = 100 l b
p a = 1000 psi
a = 900 g

PEDAL FORCE ( l b s )

&TASTER CYL. PRESSURE

(psi)

800

Figure 5.4.

Braking performance diagram.

where
PF = p e d a l f o r c e

AMc= m a s t e r c y l i n d e r a r e a
i

h
Ph

= pedal lever r a t i o
= hydraulic efficiency
= hydraulic l i n e pressure

W a R

and

AWC= wheel c y l i n d e r a r e a
a

= deceleration i n g units

BF = b r a k e f a c t o r , d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o o f t h e
summation of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c i a l f o r c e s
on t h e f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e d i v i d e d by t h e
a c t u a t i n g f o r c e i n t h e wheel c y l i n d e r .

= effective tire radius

= e f f e c t i v e drum o r d i s c r a d i u s

To i l l u s t r a t e t h e change i n b r a k e e f f e c t i v e n e s s due t o f a d e ,
L i m p e r t and P l a n c k (1964) made t h r e e s u c c e s s i v e h i g h s p e e d 0 . 8 g
s t o p s with an instrumented vehicle.

The v e h i c l e was e q u i p p e d

w i t h d i s c b r a k e s on t h e f r o n t and r e a r a x l e (W = 2000 l b , Awc

F i g u r e 5 . 5 shows t h e h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e s and t h e p e d a l f o r c e s
measured i n t h e non-faded c o n d i t i o n and i n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e h i g h
speed s t o p s .

The v a r i a t i o n s i n b r a k e f a c t o r a s e x h i b i t e d by t h e

change i n s l o p e o f l i n e p r e s s u r e v e r s u s d e c e l e r a t i o n i s due t o

DECELERATION ( % g )

PEDAL FORCE (lbs)

a1

10

20

30

40

I
I

50
I
I

60
I

70

80

100

90

I
I

650F
650elst s t o p
F, Original
Cold

on

-DISC
-DRUM
Temperatures Indicated Were
Measured After Each Stop

F i g u r e 5.5,

Fade-effectiveness diagram.

2nd S t o p

1100F

1100

3rd s t o p

t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e which ranged from 212 d e g r e e s t o 1100 d e g r e e s

F a s measured on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e f r o n t d i s c s .

Examination of

F i g u r e 5.5 shows t h a t t h e p e d a l f o r c e d e c r e a s e s a f t e r making t h e

c o l d s t o p a s a r e s u l t of an i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e a r d i s c b r a k e f a c tor,

I n t h e s u c c e s s i v e h i g h speed s t o p s , t h e p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d
f o r an 0.8 g s t o p i n c r e a s e s t o 125 l b a s compared t o t h e 80 l b

t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d when t h e b r a k e s a r e c o l d .
When t h e same v e h i c l e was equipped w i t h drum b r a k e s

t h e f a d e e f f e c t s were g r e a t e r , a s i s shown i n F i g u r e 5.5.

The

p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d f o r an 0.8 g s t o p i n c r e a s e d from 80 l b t o
165 l b a f t e r completing t h r e e h i g h speed s t o p s .
D e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l Eorce g a i n d a t a o b t a i n e d i n compliance
t e s t s (1968 models) a r e summarized i n F i g u r e s 5 . 6 ,
Tables 5 . 3 and 5.4.

5 . 7 , 5.8 and

The p l o t t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n s of d e c e l e r a t i o n /

p e d a l - f o r c e g a i n a r e d e r i v e d from t e s t s on 4 3 v e h i c l e s , 2 4 of
which had power a s s i s t e d b r a k e s .

A s would be e x p e c t e d , t h e

d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n f o r c a r s w i t h power b r a k e s i s cons i d e r a b l y higher than t h a t f o r those without.

Further, the

power braked v e h i c l e s have g a i n s t h a t a r e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e comp a r e d t o t h e g a i n s b u i l t i n t o v e h i c l e s w i t h manual b r a k e s .

Note

t h a t i n t h e faded c o n d i t i o n , t h e g a i n on t h e power braked c a r s

was h i g h e r t h a n t h a t e x h i b i t e d by manually braked v e h i c l e s i n
an unfaded c o n d i t i o n .

I t s h o u l d a l s o be noted t h a t t h e f a d e

induced i n a s i n g l e s t o p from 80 mph produces a d e c r e a s e i n

p e d a l f o r c e g a i n n e a r l y a s g r e a t a s t h a t r e s u l t i n g from t h e s t a n d a r d SAE f a d e t e s t p r o c e d u r e .
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PARTIAL FAILURE OF BRAKE SYSTEMS.
Data showing t h e frequency of b r a k e system component f a i l ure i s nonexistent.

I n view of t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n gap, i t a p p e a r s

TABLE 5.3. COMPLIANCE TESTS, MVSS-105 FOR

VEHICLES WITH NON-POWER BRAKES
Average V a l u e s
From E f f e c t i v e n e s s T e s t s
30 MPH
VEHICLE NO.

BRAKE
TYPE*

Plymouth
1968 V a l i a n t

Ford
1968 Mustang

Plymouth
1968 B e l v e d e r e

Pontiac
1968 Tempest S a f a r i

Checker
1968 Marathon

American
1968 Rebel 550

Plymouth
1968 Suburban

Plymouth
1968 S a t e l l i t e

Datson
1968 SRL 311

Plymouth
1968 S p o r t Fury

MGB
1968 Mark I1 Rd.

Chevy I1
1968 Nova

Ford
1968 F a i r l a n e 500

Ford
1968 G a l a x i e 500

Chevelle
1968 Malibu

Ford F a l c o n
1968 S t a t i o n Wagon

Chevrolet
1968 Impala

Buick
1968 S k y l a r k
Buick
1968 S p e c i a l

*1

F r o n t Drum
Rear Drum
Front Disc
Rear Drum
Front Disc
Rear D i s c

60 MPH

FIRST
FADE TEST

TABLE 5.4.

VEHICLE NO.

Average Values
From Effectiveness Tests
30 MPH
60 MPH
80 MPH
BRAKE
1 P.F.
I P.F.
I P.F.
TYPE* P.F. GAIN P.F. GAIN
P.F. GAIN

+++

Lincoln
1968 Continental
Mercury
1968 Colony Park
Plymouth
1968 Road Runner
Rover
1968 2000 TC
Mercury
1968 Cyclone
Buick
1968 Riviera
Pontiac
1968 Grand Prix
Dodge
1968 Polara
Chrysler
1968 Imperial
Oldsmobile
1968 Delta
Buick
1968 Le Sabra
Oldsmobile
1968 Delmont 88
AMC
1968 Rebel 770
Volvo
1968 1445
Plymouth
1968 Fury I1
Dodge
1968 Charger
Ambassador
1968 SST
Chrysler
1968 300
Pontiac
1968 LeMans
Ford
1968 Galaxie
Ford
1968 Thunderbird
Oldsmobile
1968 Cutlass
Ford
1968 XL
Mercury
1968 Montclair
*1

Front Drum
Rear Drum

COMPLIANCE TESTS, MVSS-105 FOR

VEHICLES WITH POWER BRAKES

- Rear
Front Disc
Drum

142

Front Disc
Rear Disc

FIRST
FADE TEST

MANUAL BRAKES

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE (ft/sec2/lb)

F i g u r e 5.6.

Cumulative p e r c e n t of v e h i c l e s w i t h lower
g a i n : Manual brakes,

POWER BRAKES

3 0 mph

22

40-

B
20

.1

.2

.3

.4

.5

.6

.7

.8

.9

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE ( f t/sec2/lb)

F i g u r e 5.7.

Cumulative p e r c e n t of v e h i c l e s w i t h lower
g a i n : Power b r a k e s ,

1.0

DECELERATION/PEDAL FORCE (ft/sec2/lb)

Figure

5.8.

Cumulative p e r c e n t of v e h i c l e s w i t h lower
gain: 30 mph.

a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n s i d e r and d i s c u s s t h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s which
presumably i n f l u e n c e t h e o c c u r r e n c e of a p a r t i a l f a i l u r e i n a
b r a k e system.

Note t h a t d e g r a d a t i o n of b r a k e performance due

t o t h e r m a l e f f e c t s i s an o p e r a t i o n a l problem, namely t h i s p a r t i a l f a i l u r e i s v e r y much dependent on b r a k e system usage. Under

non-faded c o n d i t i o n s , b r a k e s y s t e m f a i l u r e i s l i k e l y t o o c c u r
only i f :
1.

P a r t s a r e d e f e c t i v e (on e i t . h e r new o r used v e h i c l e s ) .

2.

P a r t s become degraded due t o wear o r c o r r o s i o n .

Under normal d r i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , i t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t new comp o n e n t s w i l l f a i l . I t i s c l e a r t h a t l i n i n g s and drums t h a t have

been i n u s e o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d of time a r e more l i k e l y t o f a i l
t h a n new o n e s . The same c o n c l u s i o n can b e drawn w i t h r e s p e c t t o
m a s t e r and w h e e l - c y l i n d e r h o u s i n g s , p i s t o n s and cups.

Since

wear i n t h e s e components may produce a d e c r e a s e i n b r a k e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r a complete l o s s of b r a k i n g c a p a b i l i t y , m a n u f a c t u r e r s

g e n e r a l l y w i l l s p e c i f y t o l e r a n c e s on t h e wear dimensions of
c y l i n d e r s and drums.
I t can be s p e c u l a t e d t h a t i n c r e a s e s i n t r a f f i c d e n s i t y w i l l ,

o v e r time, c a u s e i n c r e a s e d wear i n m a s t e r c y l i n d e r s .

I t appears

l o g i c a l t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y of l i g h t b r a k e a p p l i c a t i o n s w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c .

These l i g h t

b r a k e a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e v e r y l i t t l e movement of t h e b r a k e
p e d a l . Consequently t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e m a s t e r c y l i n d e r
p i s t o n i s s m a l l , e i t h e r c a u s i n g t h e m a s t e r c y l i n d e r cup t o s l i d e
frequently over t h e p o r t connecting t h e brake-fluid r e s e r v o i r
w i t h t h e m a s t e r c y l i n d e r , o r c a u s i n g t h e cup t o o p e r a t e r i g h t
a t t h e p o r t during l i g h t brake applications. This s i t u a t i o n
can c a u s e e x c e s s i v e wear and g r o o v i n g of t h e cup, r e s u l t i n g i n
i n t e r n a l l e a k a g e w i t h i n t h e b r a k e system.
I t i s c l e a r t h a t d e g r a d a t i o n of b r a k e components r e s u l t i n g
from c o r r o s i o n o r a g i n g can b e a f a c t o r i n c a u s i n g b r a k e f a i l u r e s .
When t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e i n v o l v e d , one would e x p e c t b r a k e system

f a i l u r e s t o occur during severe brake application, i . e . ,

during

d r i v i n g maneuvers r e q u i r i n g l a r g e p e d a l f o r c e s t h a t s e v e r e l y
s t r e s s t h e e n t i r e b r a k e system. I n g e n e r a l , it seems r e a s o n a b l e
t o conclude t h a t f a i l u r e due t o e x c e s s i v e wear i s most l i k e l y t o
occur a t p o i n t s of s l i d i n g motion such a s e x i s t s a t t h e b r a k e s ,
m a s t e r c y l i n d e r , wheel c y l i n d e r s , and vacuum b o o s t e r r e a c t i o n
u n i t . F a i l u r e due t o c o r r o s i o n and a g i n g i s l i k e l y t o i n v o l v e
b r a k e l i n e s , b r a k e l i n e h o s e s , and hoses c o n n e c t i n g t h e vacuum
b o o s t e r w i t h t h e i n t a k e manifold,
CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE
EFFECTS ON VEHICLE PERFORMANCE.

The major e f f e c t of t h e

t h r e e f a i l u r e modes ( l i n e f a i l u r e , b o o s t e r f a i l u r e , brake f a d e )
on b r a k i n g performance i s t h e r e s u l t i n g d e p a r t u r e of t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r a t i o from t h e d e s i g n p o i n t .

Accordingly,

l o n g e r s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e s may r e s u l t i f t h e d r i v e r i s n o t a b l e
t o produce t h e i n c r e a s e d p e d a l f o r c e s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s primary e f f e c t t h e r e a r e o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s a t work t h a t have consequences f o r s a f e t y .

For example,

i f a l i n e f a i l u r e occurs i n a vehicle with t h e standard f r o n t

t o r e a r s p l i t , t h e b r a k e s which a r e s t i l l o p e r a t i o n a l have t o
c o n v e r t t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e v e h i c l e i n t o thermal energy
r e s u l t i n g i n an e x c e s s i v e t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e i n t h e o p e r a t i n g
brake.

The d e c r e a s e i n b r a k e e f f e c t i v e n e s s due t o h e a t i n g w i l l

f u r t h e r compound t h e change i n t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f n r c e
ratio.

I f should a l s o be noted t h a t t h e a x l e w i t h t h e brake

o p e r a t i o n a l i s l i k e l y t o be overbraked, e s p e c i a l l y on road s u r f a c e s w i t h a d e c r e a s e d c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e ,
one may l o s e s t e e r i n g o r s t a b i l i t y , depending on whether t h e f r o n t
o r r e a r brakes a r e f a i l e d .
I t should be noted t h a t f a d i n g may a l s o i n f l u e n c e t h e d i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y of t h e v e h i c l e i n a d d i t i o n t o c a u s i n g a d e c r e a s e
i n t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n . For example, d i f f e r e n t i a l

changes i n b r a k e e f f e c t i v e n e s s may o c c u r on t h e l e f t and r i g h t

b r a k e s of a v e h i c l e .

If t h i s s i t u a t i o n s h o u l d o c c u r , a yawing

moment w i l l be produced a s a r e s u l t of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n b r a k e
f o r c e produced on t h e r i g h t and l e f t s i d e o f t h e v e h i c l e
(Mitschke, 1 9 6 7 ) . A d i f f e r e n c e i n b r a k i n g f o r c e s a t t h e l e f t
and r i g h t f r o n t wheels, can a l s o c a u s e a s t e e r i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t
o f t h e f r o n t w h e e l s , T h i s s t e e r i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t w i l l , of c o u r s e ,
be a f u n c t i o n o f t h e compliance of t h e s t e e r i n g l i n k a g e and a
function of t h e kingpin o f f s e t e x i s t i n g i n t h e f r o n t suspension.
INFLUENCE OF PARTIAL FAILURES ON DRIVER-VEHICLE BRAKING
PERFORMANCE. The o c c u r r e n c e of a b r a k e system f a i l u r e , p l u s a
d r i v e r ' s l i m i t e d p e d a l f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y , can o b v i o u s l y g i v e

r i s e t o a s i t u a t i o n i n which a d r i v e r i s n o t c a p a b l e of t h e p e d a l
f o r c e necessary t o achieve t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n he d e s i r e s . I t is
r e l e v a n t t o examine whether i t i s p o s s i b l e t o compute t h e proba b i l i t y t h a t a d r i v e r may n o t be a b l e t o d e c e l e r a t e a t a d e s i r e d
l e v e l g i v e n t h a t a p a r t i a l f a i l u r e e x i s t s . Obviously, i t would
be even more p e r t i n e n t t o p r e d i c t t h e o v e r a l l p r o b a b i l i t y f o r
such a s i t u a t i o n t o a r i s e , b u t t h i s c a n n o t be done w i t h o u t d a t a
on t h e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r f a i l u r e .
The d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l s e n c o u n t e r e d d u r i n g normal b r a k i n g
and t h e maximum p e d a l f o r c e c a p a b i l i t i e s of male and female
d r i v e r s , a s measured i n t h i s p r o j e c t , a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y normally
d i s t r i b u t e d . When t h e measured d a t a a r e p l o t t e d on p r o b a b i l i t y
graph p a p e r , t h e y produce t h e approximate s t r a i g h t l i n e s shown
i n F i g u r e 5 . 9 and F i g u r e 5 . 0 . The peak d e c e l e r a t i o n d a t a i n
F i g u r e 5 . 9 may be mapped o n t o any one o f t h e f a i l u r e a n a l y s i s
c u r v e s , F i g u r e s 5 . 1 t o 5 . 4 , t o o b t a i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e q u i r e d
p e d a l f o r c e s . T h i s i s accomplished by s e l e c t i n g a s e r i e s o f
d e c e l e r a t i o n v a l u e s , i . e . , .05 g t o . 4 g , and t a b u l a t i n g t h e
c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n v a l u e s from F i g u r e 5 . 9 , a l o n g w i t h t h e
p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e t h a t d e c e l e r a t i o n . The l a t t e r
can r e p r e s e n t "normal" o r " f a i l e d " b r a k e system performance.

@ S t a n d a r d Brakes

X Fower Brakes

Figure

5.9.

Peak deceleration-cumulative distribution of

all data.

PEDAL FORCE (lbs)

F i g u r e 5.10.

Pedal f o r c e c a p a b i l i t i e s of male and female

d r i v e r s u s i n g r i g h t f o o t w i t h induced
motivation.

T a b l e 5 . 5 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s of mapping t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n
d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t o F i g u r e 5.1.

Thus t h e peak d e c e l e r a t i o n d a t a

h a s been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e q u i r e d p e d a l f o r c e s .
When t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n d a t a maps o n t o a l i n e a r d e c e l eration/pedal force l i n e , t h e required-pedal-force

distribution

a l s o a p p e a r s a s a s t r a i g h t l i n e on p r o b a b i l i t y p a p e r .

When t h i s

d i s t r i b u t i o n i s p l o t t e d along with t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e representing

t h e d r i v e r ' s p e d a l f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y , i t becomes c o n v e n i e n t t o
determine t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e d r i v e r w i l l be unable t o
achieve t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n s t h a t he normally c a r r i e s o u t during
h i s driving task.
F i g u r e s 5 . 1 1 and 5.12 i l l u s t r a t e t h e c a s e o f f r o n t b r a k e
c i r c u i t f a i l u r e s f o r manual-and p o w e r - a s s i s t e d b r a k e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , w h i l e F i g u r e 5 . 1 3 r e p r e s e n t s a power b o o s t f a i l u r e .
The u s e o f t h e s e g r a p h s i s b e s t shown b y an example.

Let us

assume t h a t i t i s d e s i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a
5 t h p e r c e n t i l e f e m a l e , d r i v i n g a m a n u a l l y b r a k e d v e h i c l e (whose
t o r q u e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s g i v e n by @ = . 4 0 )

f a i l s t o achieve her

d e s i r e d deceleration during t h e s t o p following a front-brake

circuit failure.

Using t h e r i g h t hand s c a l e o f F i g u r e 5 . 1 1 ,

t h e 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e l i n e i n t e r s e c t s t h e female c a p a b i l i t y l i n e
a t "A",

Proceeding v e r t i c a l l y t o t h e 0 = 40%

l i n e , p o i n t "B",

and t h e n a g a i n h o r i z o n t a l l y back t o t h e r i g h t hand s c a l e , we

f i n d t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of our 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e d r i v e r f a i l i n g
t o achieve h e r d e s i r e d deceleration l e v e l i s 8 percent, i . e . ,
t h i s i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a given s t o p r e q u i r i n g higher pedal
f o r c e s than she i s capable of applying.
s u c h a s t h o s e shown i n T a b l e 5 . 6 ,

Additional r e s u l t s ,

are readily obtained i n a

s i m i l a r manner.
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , it i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t s o f
v a r i o u s b r a k e s y s t e m f a i l u r e s on t h e b r a k i n g p e r f o r m a n c e y i e l d e d
by many c o m b i n a t i o n s o f v e h i c l e s and d r i v e r s .

P r i o r t o perform-

F i g u r e 5.11.

Cumulative p e d a l f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r
f r o n t axle brake c i r c u i t f a i l u r e i n a
l o a d e d s e d a n w i t h manual b r a k e s .

90

120

l5C

180

21C

24C

PEDAL ?83?.CE ( 15s )

F i g u r e 5.12.

Cumulative p e d a l f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r
f r o n t a x l e brake c i r c u i t f a i l u r e i n a loaded
s e d a n w i t h power b r a k e s .

2 73

Figure 5.13.

Cumulative p e d a l f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r
power a s s i s t f a i l u r e i n a loaded s e d a n .

TABLE 5 . 5

TABLUATION OF REQUIRED PEDAL FORCES FOR

FRONT BRAKE CIRCUIT FAILURES IN LOADED,
MANUALLY BRAKED SEDAN
Required Pedal Force (lb)
No
1-CDF Failure

Decel
.05

.1
2

.3

.4

16

11

1I

80
16.2
99.7

20

32

3*8

48
64.

.3

*Cumulative Distribution Function

TABLE 5.6

PROBABILITY OF FRONT BRAKE CIRCUIT

FAILURE RESULTING IN VEHICLE DECELERATION LOWER THAN DESIRED
Probability of Failing to
Achieve Desired Decel ( % )

Brakes
Manual

5% tile
Driver
--.

Female
Male

-...-

4' 1

@ = 55% @ = 40% @ = 30%

---

1.1
.002

- - 24.0

8.0

.03

1.3

Power

Female
Male

8.5
.006

4.2

i n g t h i s t a s k , however, a d e c i s i o n s h o u l d be made as t o what i s

an a c c e p t a b l e , s a f e , c o s t - e f f e c t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a d r i v e r i s
i n c a p a b l e of a p p l y i n g a r e q u i r e d p e d a l f o r c e . Such a decision
r e q u i r e s much more u n d e r s t a n d i n g and knowledge t h a n i s a v a i l a b l e
a t p r e s e n t . When t h i s knowledge and u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s o b t a i n e d
such a s t o p e r m i t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a c r i t e r i o n , it appears
t h a t it w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o develop performance g u i d e l i n e s
f o r f a i l e d b r a k e systems w i t h t h e a i d of t h e approach o u t l i n e d

herein.

GENERAL DISCUSS I ON
The f o c u s of t h i s s t u d y was upon t h e dynamic d r i v e r - v e h i c l e
braking t e s t . However, i t was a l s o important t o o b t a i n i n f o r mation of t h e s t a t i c i n t e r f a c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e d r i v e r
and t h e brake c o n t r o l . These d a t a were needed i n o r d e r t o s e t
a l i m i t upon t h e maximum f o r c e which d r i v e r s should have t o
e x e r t on t h e brake pedal t o o b t a i n high d e c e l e r a t i o n from t h e
v e h i c l e . The measurements of t h e maximum pedal f o r c e of d r i v e r s
r e v e a l e d t h a t pedal f o r c e s t h a t can be achieved by t h e weaker
segments of t h e population a r e c l e a r l y below 1 0 0 pounds. I t
was a l s o e v i d e n t t h a t s u b t l e f a c t o r s , which were e i t h e r
p r a c t i c e o r motivation e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s
given t h e s u b j e c t s , c o n s i d e r a b l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e s e v a l u e s . The
5 t h p e r c e n t i l e female achieved about 70 pounds and 1 0 0 pounds,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n t h e two t r i a l s or m o t i v a t i o n a l s e t s t h a t were
used. The information o b t a i n e d from t h e t e s t showed t h a t l e f t
and r i g h t f o o t maximum f o r c e i s h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d . Maximum
f o r c e was n o t found t o be r e l a t e d t o o v e r a l l body weight, t h e
weight of t h e l e g i t s e l f , o r t o t h e d r i v e r ' s age. Therefore,
t h e f i n d i n g s could n o t be a t t r i b u t e d t o sampling b i a s i n t h e s e
variables.
I t was expected t h a t males would produce h i g h e r f o o t f o r c e s
t h a n females and t h i s was borne o u t by t h e r e s u l t s . V i r t u a l l y
none of t h e male d r i v e r s were i n c a p a b l e of producing a f o o t
f o r c e e q u a l t o t h a t of t h e 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e female. The number
of female d r i v e r s i s i n c r e a s i n g s t e a d i l y and now c o n s t i t u t e s
about 4 2 p e r c e n t of t h e d r i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n . For t h i s r e a s o n ,
requirements of female d r i v e r s should be given c l o s e considera t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , it seems r e a s o n a b l e t o t a k e t h e female 5th
p e r c e n t i l e maximum f o o t f o r c e v a l u e , o r a lower v a l u e , a s an

upper boundary of brake p e d a l f o r c e t o o b t a i n c l o s e t o peak

braking d e c e l e r a t i o n from a v e h i c l e on a h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t of
f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e . On t h e b a s i s of t h i s work and t h a t of Stoudt
e t . a l . (1969) it was concluded t h a t a maximum pedal f o r c e of
85 pounds would be a reasonable cut-off v a l u e . S i n c e t h e h i g h e s t
l e v e l of d e c e l e r a t i o n which may be r e q u i r e d and i s reasonably
a t t a i n a b l e on a d r y pavement i s 0.75 g it i s suggested t h a t n o t
more than a f o r c e of 85 pounds a p p l i e d t o t h e brake pedal should
be needed t o o b t a i n t h i s l e v e l of d e c e l e r a t i o n .
Having determined a maximum f o o t f o r c e l e v e l i t was of
i n t e r e s t t o c o n s i d e r t h e requirements f o r brake f o r c e l e v e l s f o r
v e h i c l e s equipped w i t h manual and power brakes i n both a normal
o p e r a t i n g mode and i n a f a i l e d c o n d i t i o n . For t h e s e reasons an
a n a l y s i s of f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n s was c a r r i e d o u t using t y p i c a l
v e h i c l e d a t a . The e f f e c t s of f a i l u r e s i n t h e brake b o o s t e r , and
f r o n t and r e a r brake l i n e c i r c u i t s have been d e s c r i b e d . These
a n a l y s e s were c a r r i e d o u t t o show t h e e f f e c t s of each of t h e
f a i l u r e s upon t h e p e d a l f o r c e l e v e l s t h a t would be r e q u i r e d t o
a t t a i n a given l e v e l of d e c e l e r a t i o n .
I n o r d e r t o a s s e s s t h e consequences of a f a i l u r e a s w e l l
a s t o l e a r n of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r which brakes a r e
used, a v e h i c l e was instrumented by which t h e peak d e c e l e r a t i o n
l e v e l reached on each brake a p p l i c a t i o n was measured. Decelera t i o n s a s high a s 0 . 3 g were used l e s s than 4 p e r c e n t of t h e
time. The r e s u l t s a r e shown i n terms of cumulative percentage
deceleration values.
These d a t a a r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e f a i l u r e a n a l y s i s . T h i s i s
because it i s important t o a s s e s s t h e consequences of a braking
f a i l u r e i n terms of t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r d e c e l e r a t i o n
may be r e q u i r e d , when t h e f a i l u r e o c c u r s , by a d r i v e r capable of

a p a r t i c u l a r pedal force.

A d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l of 0.3 g , i f

used a s a c r i t e r i o n f o r performance of f a i l e d b r a k e s y s t e m s ,
when r e q u i r e d by a 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e f o o t f o r c e f e m a l e , would have
t o be p r o v i d e d by 85 pounds of f o r c e a p p l i e d on t h e b r a k e
pedal.

The u s e of a c u t - o f f v a l u e of 0.3 g would e n s u r e t h a t

i n about 96 p e r c e n t of such o c c u r e n c e s , assuming t h a t b r a k e

f a i l u r e s o c c u r randomly i n b r a k e a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e d r i v e r would
be a b l e t o a c h i e v e t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n t h a t he p e r c e i v e s t o be
needed.

The c o s t of accomplishing a 0.3 g d e c e l e r a t i o n , and

p r o v i d i n g f o r e s t i m a t e d p r o t e c t i o n i n 96 p e r c e n t of b r a k e
a p p l i c a t i o n , can be computed. Any p r o t e c t i o n l e v e l r e q u i r e d
can b e s e l e c t e d and t h e r e s p e c t i v e d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l d e r i v e d
from F i g u r e 4 . 5 .

T h i s d e c e l e r a t i o n v a l u e can t h e n form t h e

c r i t e r i o n t o which t h e b r a k e must perform i n t h e f a i l e d cond i t i o n . The p e d a l f o r c e d a t a can be used i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n

t o s e l e c t p e r c e n t a g e l e v e l s of p e d a l f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y i n t h e
d r i v i n g population a s another c r i t e r i o n value f o r brake performance.

S i n c e b r a k e performance can be s t i p u l a t e d i n terms

of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t o a c h i e v e a p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l of d e c e l e r a t i o n
f o r a g i v e n p e d a l f o r c e t h e s e two d i s t r i b u t i o n s can be used
together t o define s u i t a b l e requirements.

The f a i l u r e a n a l y s i s

shows t h a t t h e v a r i o u s f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t
p e d a l f o r c e s t o a c h i e v e t h e same d e c e l e r a t i o n and, t h e r e f o r e ,
i f t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of f a i l u r e s were known
t h e y could be used t o d e f i n e t h e p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e m e n t s i n

terms of c o l l i s i o n s ( o r d e s i r e d d e c e l e r a t i o n ) l i k e l i h o o d . I n
t h i s s t u d y we have shown a p r o c e d u r e by which a b r a k e performance
s t a n d a r d could be developed f o r b r a k e system f a i l u r e modes.
The major t h r u s t of t h i s r e s e a r c h e f f o r t was concerned w i t h
t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e b r a k e system when i t i s i n a normal o p e r a t i n g ,
n o n - f a i l e d c o n d i t i o n . The r e s u l t s of t h e dynamic b r a k i n g t e s t

q u i t e c l e a r l y showed t h a t d r i v e r performance was a f f e c t e d by t h e

g a i n of t h e b r a k e c o n t r o l .

The g e n e r a l n a t u r e of t h e r e s u l t s

were a s p r e d i c t e d , i n t h a t h i g h d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n
p r o v i d e d b e t t e r s t o p p i n g performance on t h e d r y and i n t e r m e d i a t e
f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s compared t o lower g a i n c o n t r o l s , and t h a t t h i s
However, i t could n o t
have been p r e d i c t e d which s p e c i f i c g a i n l e v e l s t h a t were used i n

was r e v e r s e d on t h e wet-painted s u r f a c e .

t h e t e s t would have provided s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t performance

on each of t h e s u r f a c e s used.

The d a t a showed t h a t t h e h i g h e s t

g a i n (0.065 g / l b ) produced lower mean d e c e l e r a t i o n and l o n g e r

s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e s compared t o some lower g a i n l e v e l s .

On t h e

wet-painted s u r f a c e t h e most e f f e c t i v e performance was o b t a i n e d

w i t h g a i n l e v e l 4 (0.012 g / l b ) .

Therefore, both t h e h i g h e s t

and l o w e s t g a i n s were found t o b e u n d e s i r a b l e i n terms of maximizing d e c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e b r a k i n g t a s k .

These d a t a a l o n e would

b e a d e q u a t e t o s e t boundary c o n d i t i o n s on p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e m e n t s
and d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n f o r a b r a k i n g s t a n d a r d . However,
because of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and t h e s u r f a c e
c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n t h e s e l i m i t s can b e l e g i t i m a t e l y narrowed.
The s u b o p t i m a l b r a k i n g performance t h a t was achieved w i t h
t h e h i g h e s t g a i n c o n d i t i o n was a l s o shown by measures of wheel
l o c k u p , wheel lockup d u r a t i o n , l o s s of c o n t r o l r u n s and t h e subj e c t i v e d a t a . The importance of r e d u c i n g t h e p e d a l f o r c e g a i n a t
low p e d a l f o r c e l e v e l s was c l e a r l y demonstrated i n t h i s s t u d y . A
combination of h i g h d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n w i t h a low
a b s o l u t e f o r c e l e v e l l e a d s t o a d i f f i c u l t b r a k e modulation t a s k
f o r t h e d r i v e r , s i n c e he i s c o n t r o l l i n g a h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e
b r a k e a t a l o w p e d a l f o r c e l e v e l , a t which h i s own s e n s i t i v i t y
i s low.
The c u t - o f f t h a t h a s been s e l e c t e d f o r maximum g a i n (0.021 g / l b )

( F i g u r e 3 . 2 9 ) w i l l e n s u r e t h a t about 20 pounds of p e d a l f o r c e i s
t h e minimum f o r d e c e l e r a t i o n of 0 . 4 g.

T h i s boundary i n t h e

d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e e n v e l o p e i s of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e , i n
view of t h e h i g h frequency w i t h which d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l s below
0.4 g a r e used by d r i v e r s , t o p r o v i d e c o m f o r t a b l e and good
b r a k e modulation i n normal, non-panic b r a k i n g a s w e l l a s t o
minimize s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e when t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s
low.

I t w i l l a l s o e n s u r e t h a t d r i v e r s can b e t t e r a t t a i n a

maximum l o n g i t u d i n a l d e c e l e r a t i o n w h i l e r e t a i n i n g c o n t r o l
o v e r t h e p a t h of t h e v e h i c l e .
The boundary upon minimum g a i n w i l l p r o v i d e good b r a k e
modulation on low and h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s
and e n s u r e s t h a t t h e p e d a l f o r c e l e v e l s needed a t h i g h d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l s can be a t t a i n e d by most d r i v e r s .
The SAE b r a k e e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t which i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o
MVSS-105 c a l l s f o r a minimum p e d a l f o r c e of 15 pounds and a
maximum of 100 pounds, a t a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 20 f t / s e c / s e c
30 mph.

from

These l i m i t s l i e o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r i e s t h a t a r e

recommended on t h e b a s i s of t h i s s t u d y ( F i g u r e 3 . 2 9 ) , which
r e q u i r e s a minimum b r a k e p e d a l f o r c e of a b o u t 30 pounds and a
maximum of a b o u t 75 pounds a t t h i s d e c e l e r a t i o n .

T h i r t e e n of

t h e 2 4 power b r a k e c a r s , f o r which b r a k e compliance t e s t r e s u l t s

a r e shown i n Table 5 . 4 , and one of t h e 19 manual b r a k e c a r s ( T a b l e
5 . 3 ) have g a i n s t h a t exceed t h e maximum g a i n boundary.

Two of

t h e 19 manual b r a k e c a r s have l e s s t h a n t h e minimum g a i n .

Thus,

most U.S. p a s s e n g e r c a r s w i t h e i t h e r manual o r power b r a k e s a p p e a r

t o have p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e m e n t s , i n t h e 30 mph t e s t , t h a t f a l l
w i t h i n t h e d e f i n e d s p a c e i n t h e recommended d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l
f o r c e envelope.

RECOMMENDATI ONS
Based upon t h e a n a l y t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h
conducted i n t h i s s t u d y

some recommendations f o r a b r a k e

f o r c e s t a n d a r d and o b j e c t i v e t e s t and compliance p r o c e d u r e s

can be made:

(1) S t a n d a r d s h o u l d be w r i t t e n such a s t o i n s u r e t h a t
t h e p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d a t some s p e c i f i e d d e c e l e r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n
can be a c h i e v e d by a s p e c i f i c p e r c e n t i l e of t h e female d r i v ing population.
Recommendation:

The p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o d e c e l e r a t e

a f u l l y loaded v e h i c l e a t 0.75 g s h a l l n o t exceed 85 pounds

f o r b r a k e s o p e r a t i n g under nondegraded c o n d i t i o n s i n a s t o p
i n i t i a t e d a t 30 mph.

(2)

S t a n d a r d s h o u l d be w r i t t e n such a s t o i n s u r e t h a t

d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and p e d a l f o r c e l e v e l f a c i l i t a t e
good b r a k i n g modulation on s u r f a c e s of reduced f r i c t i o n coefficient.
Recommendation:

The d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p a s measured on a h i g h f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e ( s k i d number 0.75)

w i t h a l i g h t l y loaded v e h i c l e s h o u l d f a l l t o t h e r i g h t of t h e
maximum g a i n

minimum f o r c e boundary i n d i c a t e d on F i g u r e

3 . 2 9 , f o r b r a k e s i n a nondegraded c o n d i t i o n and f o r s t o p s i n i t i a t e d a t 30 mph.

(3)

S t a n d a r d s h o u l d be w r i t t e n such a s t o i n s u r e t h a t

low d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and/or h i g h p e d a l f o r c e do
n o t unduly degrade d r i v e r - v e h i c l e b r a k i n g performance on mode r a t e and h i g h f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s .
Recommendation:

The d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p a s measured on a h i g h f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e ( s k i d number 0.75)

w i t h a f u l l y loaded v e h i c l e s h o u l d n o t be l e s s t h a n t h e g a i n
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e minimum g a i n boundary on t h e r i g h t s i d e of

t h e recommended d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e s p a c e , n o r s h o u l d t h e
p e d a l f o r c e s f a l l t o t h e r i g h t of t h e boundary i n d i c a t e d i n
F i g u r e 3 . 2 9 when t h e b r a k e s a r e i n a nondegraded c o n d i t i o n and
t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y i s 30 mph.
( 4 ) S t a n d a r d s h o u l d be w r i t t e n s u c h a s t o i n s u r e t h a t
b r a k e s have s u f f i c i e n t e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y such t h a t
s t o p s i n i t i a t e d a t t h e t o p speed c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e v e h i c l e s h a l l
n o t unduly i n c r e a s e t h e r e q u i r e d p e d a l f o r c e s .
Recommendation:

The d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e l i m i t s

imposed f o r nondegraded b r a k e s i n making a s t o p from 30 mph

s h a l l be i n c r e a s e d p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i n c r e m e n t i n k i n e t i c
e n e r g y (above 30 rnph ) t h a t p r e v a i l s when making a s t o p a t i n i t i a l s p e e d s h i g h e r t h a n 30 mph.

The l i m i t s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d

by 2 0 p e r c e n t f o r a f o u r - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n k i n e t i c e n e r g y .

( 5 ) Compliance w i t h t h e recommended s t a n d a r d on b r a k e
p e d a l f o r c e and d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s h a l l be measured
by o b t a i n i n g v a l u e s f o r e a c h v e h i c l e of d e c e l e r a t i o n and p e d a l
f o r c e a t a number of d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l s and comparing t h e
f i n d i n g s w i t h t h e recommended s t a n d a r d .

The t e s t p r o c e d u r e

s h a l l be t h e same a s t h a t d e s c r i b e d i n SAE Recommended P r a c t i c e

J- 843.

APPENDIX I
DERIVATION OF CONSTANT PEDAL
DISPLACEMENT/DECELERATION CHARACTERISTIC

The o r i g i n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t v e r s u s
brake l i n e pressure r e l a t i o n s h i p c a l l e d f o r brake l i n e pressure
t o i n c r e a s e l i n e a r l y w i t h d i s p l a c e m e n t up t o 400 p s i a t 1 1 / 2
i n c h e s d i s p l a c e m e n t , t h e n t o i n c r e a s e l i n e a r l y a t an augmented
r a t e u n t i l i t r e a c h e d 1200 p s i a t 2 1/2 i n c h e s d i s p l a c e m e n t .
Using t h i s s p e c i f i c a t i o n and t h e d e s i r e d v a l u e s f o r d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , t h e s p r i n g c a n i s t e r s were c o n s t r u c t e d .
Because of t h e l i m i t e d number of d i f f e r e n t s p r i n g c o n s t a n t s
a v a i l a b l e , and t h e r a t h e r l a r g e d e v i a t i o n s from c a t a l o g s p e c i f i c a t i o n s which were found i n i n d i v i d u a l s p r i n g s , t h e d e g r e e of
mismatch between t h e b r a k e l i n e p r e s s u r e v e r s u s p e d a l d i s p l a c e ment f u n c t i o n s of t h e v a r i o u s c a n i s t e r s was found u n a c c e p t a b l e ,
A computer program was t h e r e f o r e w r i t t e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

a p p r o p r i a t e g a i n l e v e l t o match e a c h c a n i s t e r a s c l o s e l y a s
p o s s i b l e t o t h e d e s i r e d pressure-displacement function, using
t h e e m p i r i c a l l y determined pedal force/displacement function a s
input.

The e r r o r f u n c t i o n t o be minimized was t h e sum of t h e

squared percentage e r r o r s i n pressure f o r successive .25 inch

i n c r e m e n t s i n d i s p l a c e m e n t o v e r t h e r a n g e of 0.25 t o 2 . 5 i n c h e s .
While t h i s p r o c e d u r e produced much improved u n i f o r m i t y of p r e s s u r e - d i s p l a c e m e n t f u n c t i o n s , i t was a p p a r e n t from a g r a p h i c
p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s t h a t s t i l l more improvement c o u l d be
a c h i e v e d by changing s e v e r a l of t h e s p r i n g s . A t t h e same t i m e ,
t h e s e changes of s p r i n g s c o u l d be employed t o make t h e r a t i o s
between d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s , f o r s u c c e s s i v e c a n i s t e r s
i n t h e s e r i e s , s u b s t a n t i a l l y equal.
I t was a l s o d i s c o v e r e d t h a t p a r t of t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n matchi n g t h e p r e s s u r e - d i s p l a c e m e n t f u n c t i o n s was due t o t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e f o r c e - d i s p l a c e m e n t f u n c t i o n s which were u s e d a s i n p u t were

nonlinear at the low displacements. This was attributable to

friction in the pedal linkage and master and slave cylinders, and
to the small degree of pedal travel required to take up slack in
the system and close the port in the master cylinder. Because
of the erratic nature of these residual effects, data for 0.25
and 0.5 inch displacements were excluded from further analyses.
Extrapolation of the linear portions of the force-displacement
curves yielded an origin at 0.375 inch displacement and three
pounds pedal force. It was therefore decided to offset the zero
setting on the force transducer so that zero output corresponded
to three pounds of pedal force.
After the above modifications were made, the computer program was rerun using the new force-displacement functions and
the new origin. An excellent fit was obtained between the
pressure-displacement functions for the various canisters. The
force gain levels found were approximately equally spaced
logarithmically (each one was approximately a constant multiple
of the next lower one) but the range covered was not satisfactory
in that the highest gain was somewhat higher than necessary and
the lowest was not as low as was desired.
Thefore, all gains were multiplied by a constant to obtain
the desired range. The obtained values wsre then further adjusted to obtain precisely equal logarithmic steps.
The resulting pressure-displacement curves differed somewhat from those originally desired, in that 2.5 inches displacement
yielded approximately 1000 psi rather than the 1200 originally
envisioned. However, the highest and lowest pressures obtained
with the canisters at a given displacement differed by less than
10 percent, which was considered to be acceptable.

APPENDIX II
INSTRUCTION TO TEST SUBJECTS
INSTRUCTIONS-PRACTICE RUN
I n t h i s experiment I am i n t e r e s t e d i n l e a r n i n g of your
a b i l i t y t o bring the car t o a safe stop i n as short

distance

a s p o s s i b l e a f t e r i n i t i a t i n g b r a k i n g , I n o r d e r f o r you t o
become f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e t e s t l a n e s and t h e automobile I want
you t o make s e v e r a l p r a c t i c e r u n s t o d a y ,

Before making t h e
r u n s , however, l e t m e t e l l you more a b o u t t h e t e s t l a n e s and
automobile.
Three t e s t l a n e s w i l l be u s e d ; t h e s e a r e o u t l i n e d by
orange t r a f f i c cones.
cones)

(Show s u b j e c t t h e l a n e s o u t l i n e d by

The l e f t l a n e i s t h e normal, d r y a s p h a l t l a n e , t h e

c e n t e r l a n e h a s a s p h a l t t h a t h a s been w a t e r e d t o s i m u l a t e a
r a i n y day, and t h e r i g h t l a n e h a s a y e l l o w , p a i n t e d a s p h a l t
s u r f a c e which h a s been w a t e r e d t o s i m u l a t e a s l i p p e r y s u r f a c e
such a s i c e .

You w i l l n o t i c e t h a t n e a r t h e f a r end o f each

l a n e t h e r e a r e t h r e e lamps ( p o i n t them o u t and make s u r e t h e

Soon a f t e r you e n t e r a t e s t l a n e one of
t h e lamps i n t h a t t e s t l a n e w i l l come on. When you s e e t h e lamp
come on you a r e t o b e g i n b r a k i n g w i t h your r i g h t f o o t . Bring
s u b j e c t s e e s them).

the car t o a gradual, safe stop.

By a s a f e s t o p I mean t h a t you

a r e t o a v o i d knocking down any t r a f f i c cones.

During t h e s e t r i a l r u n s I am n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n how r a p i d l y
you can s a f e l y s t o p t h e c a r , b u t r a t h e r i n g i v i n g you c o n f i dence t h a t you can s t o p t h e c a r s a f e l y . You s h o u l d r e a l i z e
t h a t i f you l o c k t h e b r a k e s t h e c a r may s k i d . I f you f e e l t h e
c a r b e g i n n i n g t o s k i d , l e t up on t h e b r a k e s t o p e r m i t t h e wheels
t o t u r n a g a i n and t h e n apply t h e b r a k e s s o t h a t t h e y j u s t a v o i d
locking.

Do you have any q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e t e s t l a n e s ?

T h i s c a r h a s a wheel a t t a c h e d t o t h e r e a r bumper.

To

p r e v e n t damaging t h e w h e e l , t h e e n g i n e s t o p s whenever t h e c a r i s
put i n reverse.

T h e r e f o r e , when you s h i f t from p a r k t o d r i v e ,

move t h r o u g h r e v e r s e r a p i d l y .
The b r a k i n g s y s t e m i s powered by a pump which must b e
o p e r a t e d between r u n s t o m a i n t a i n p r o p e r p r e s s u r e .

Although

i t may b e n o i s y , do n o t l e t i t b o t h e r you.
This experiment i s designed t o study s e v e r a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d
t o emergency s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e s .

The f a c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d a r e

(1) t h e d i s t a n c e t h e b r a k e p e d a l t r a v e l s from r e s t i n g p o i n t t o
t h e t o t a l l y d e p r e s s e d p o s i t i o n , and ( 2 ) b r a k e p e d a l f o r c e , t h a t

i s , t h e amount of p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o d e p r e s s t h e p e d a l and
b r i n g t h e c a r t o a c o m p l e t e s t o p . By v a r y i n g t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t
and p e d a l f o r c e , w e c a n s i m u l a t e a v a r i e t y of b r a k i n g s y s t e m s
p r e s e n t l y i n u s e i n most p r o d u c t i o n c a r s .

You w i l l b e g i v e n an

o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r a c t i c e w i t h e a c h b r a k e s y s t e m b e f o r e u s i n g it
i n the t e s t runs.
You w i l l n o t i c e a f l o o r p e d a l t o t h e l e f t of t h e b r a k e p e d a l .
T h i s i s an emergency b r a k i n g p e d a l .

I n an emergency you may u s e

t h i s pedal, b u t otherwise it should n o t be used.

The s p e e d o f t h e c a r w i l l b e a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d a t
35 mph o r 50 mph.

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of e a c h r u n , I w i l l i n f o r m

you o f t h e s p e e d .

I t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y f o r you t o a c c e l e r a t e

u n t i l t h e c a r i s g o i n g t h r e e o r f o u r m i l e s p e r h o u r above t h e
d e s i r e d s p e e d , u n t i l t h e l i g h t on t h e d a s h comes on.

You s h o u l d

t h e n r e l e a s e t h e a c c e l e r a t o r , b u t keep your f o o t r e s t i n g l i g h t l y
on i t u n t i l you r e c e i v e t h e s i g n a l t o b r a k e ,

Do you h a v e any

q u e s t i o n s regarding t h e automobile o r t h e procedure?

I want you t o g e t i n t h e d r i v e r ' s s e a t now and a t t a c h t h e

s e a t b e l t and s h o u l d e r h a r n e s s .
P l e a s e d r i v e o u t toward t h e p a r k e d p l a n e .

Brake t h e c a r

s e v e r a l t i m e s s o you w i l l b e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e b r a k e s y s t e m .
I w i l l t e l l you when we a r e o u t f a r enough.

You s h o u l d t h e n

t u r n a r o u n d and l i n e up w i t h t h e d r y t e s t l a n e .

I am going t o pump up t h e system a s you approach t h e t e s t

lane.

The speed f o r t h i s run i s 35 mph.

A c c e l e r a t e u n t i l you

a r e going 35 mph and m a i n t a i n t h i s speed u n t i l you s e e one of

t h e lamps come on.

Are you ready?

The n e x t r u n w i l l be made a t 50 mph.

A c c e l e r a t e u n t i l you

a r e going j u s t above t h e d e s i r e d s p e e d , t h e n l e t your f o o t rest

l i g h t l y on t h e a c c e l e r a t o r a s t h e speed c o n t r o l t a k e s o v e r .
Brake when you s e e one of t h e lamps come on.
We a r e now going t o do t h e same t h i n g on t h e wet a s p h a l t
lane.

The w a t e r s p r i n k l e r s w i l l be t u r n e d o f f whenever you e n t e r

a wet l a n e .

Remember t h a t i f you f e e l t h e c a r b e g i n n i n g t o s k i d ,

l e t up on t h e b r a k e s t o p e r m i t t h e wheels t o t u r n a g a i n and t h e n

apply t h e brakes s o t h a t they j u s t avoid locking.

Now we a r e going t o do t h e same t h i n g on t h e wet p a i n t e d
a s p h a l t s u r f a c e . Remember t h a t i f you f e e l t h e c a r b e g i n n i n g
t o s k i d , l e t up on t h e b r a k e s t o p e r m i t t h e wheels t o t u r n a g a i n
and t h e n a p p l y t h e b r a k e s s o t h a t t h e y j u s t a v o i d l o c k i n g .
INSTRUCTIONS-OFFICIAL RUI'i
We w i l l now be making o f f i c i a l r u n s .

I n t h i s p a r t of t h e

experiment we a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n your emergency b r a k i n g a b i l i t y .

L e t t h e o n s e t of t h e l i g h t r e p r e s e n t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a c h i l d i n
your p a t h .

Try t o b r i n g t h e c a r t o a s t o p a s q u i c k l y a s p o s s i b l e

and i n a s s h o r t a d i s t a n c e a s p o s s i b l e .

I f you can s t o p b e f o r e

r e a c h i n g t h e l i g h t , you s h o u l d do s o a s f a r i n f r o n t of i t a s
possible.

I n s t o p p i n g t h e c a r , however, t r y t o a v o i d knocking
down any t r a f f i c cones o r l o s i n g c o n t r o l of t h e c a r . Other t h a n
t h e emergency b r a k i n g a s p e c t of t h e s e r u n s , t h e t e s t procedure
w i l l be t h e same a s b e f o r e .
To summarize t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s
of t h e p r o c e d u r e , remember t h a t t h e speed of t h e c a r w i l l be
a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d , and you w i l l have t o b r i n g t h e c a r up t o
j u s t above t h e d e s i r e d speed and t h e n l e t your f o o t r e s t l i g h t l y on
t h e a c c e l e r a t o r . When you s e e t h e lamp come o n , apply t h e b r a k e w i t h

your right foot.

Remember that in the following runs I am interested in
your emergency braking ability; that is, your very best safe
braking performance. Your best braking performance will occur
just before lockup of your wheels, so if you can just keep the
wheels from locking, stopping distance and time to stop will
be at a minimum. If you lock the wheels, stopping distance and
time to stop will be auch greater and you may lose control of
the car. Do you have any questions?

BEST SUBJECT
I

DRY ASPHALT

a
-

WET- PAINTED ASPHALT

WET ASPHALT
WORST SUBJECT
n

--

C,.
W

Figure A.II.l.

Sample of speed, pedal force and wheel

lockup time histories for the best and
worst subject: deceleration/pedal force
ratio = 0.065 g/lb.

DRY ASPHALT

WET ASPHALT

WET- PAINTED ASPHALT

BEST SUBJECT

t
'
Wheel Lockup

me-*/

/tlsec

DRY ASPHALT

WET ASPHALT

WET-PAINTED ASPHALT

WORST SUBJECT

e2::b
[f l
-

W
0

E
er

~ i r n e d /elsec

DRY ASPHALT

Figure A.II.2.

WET ASPHALT

WET-PAINTED ASPHALT

Sample of speed, pedal force and wheel

lockup time histories for the best and
worst subject: deceleration/pedal force
ratio = 0.004 g/lb.

BEST SUBJECT
Wheel L'ockup

IooE

':I /O

Timed

klrec

DRY ASPHALT

WET ASPHALT
WET-PAINTED ASPHALT
WORST SUBJECT
n

100
13

100
W

8W
L

Ifl
- -

l bO T l r n e r (

plsec

DRY ASPHALT

Figure A. 11.3.

WET ASPHALT

WET- PAINTED ASPHALT

Sample of speed, pedal force and wheel

lockup time histories for the best and
worst subject: deceleration/pedal force
ratio = 0.012 g/lb.

TABLE A.11.

BRAKE FORCE MODULATION STUDY

DATA COLLECTION SHEET - OFFICIAL RUNS

Subject: PG
Date:
11/7/69

Sex:

35 MILES PER HOUR

50 MILES PER HOUR

TABLE A . 1 1 ,

BRAKE FORCE MODULATION STUDY

DATA COLLECTION SHEET
O F F I C I A L RUNS

Subject: PG
Date :
11/7/69
35 MILES PER HOUR

Sex: F

APPENDIX 111
VEHICLE INSTRUMENTATION FOR DECELERATION RECORDING
The deceleration magnitude instrumentation package, shown
in block diagram form in Figure A-111.1, provides a strip chart
pen recording of vehicle decleration and front brake line pressure
during the time the brakes are applied. With the exception of
the tachometer and pressure transducer, the instrumentation package was mounted in the trunk of a University of Michigan car pool
vehicle. Power is supplied to the circuits when the vehicle
ignition is on, thus permitting unattended operation of the system.
In order to record only data of interest (while brakes are applied)
and thus minimize the length of the data charts, the paper drive
is turned on through a relay actuated from the brake light switch.
The deceleration and pressure signals are switched through independent contacts on the same relay so that no pen deflection
occurs except when the paper drive is on thus preventing ink
smears.
Deceleration Measurement
The deceleration signal was obtained by differentiating a
velocity signal from a DC tachometer. This method was used rather
than a standard accelerometer since the latter could have significant errors due to road slope and vehicle pitch. The velocity
derivative is in error only if the wheels lock or slip excessively
as in very hard stops.
The tachometer (Servo Tek Model SA-757A-2) was mounted at
the transmission on one arm of a mechanical drive-tee driven by
the speedometer pinion. The other arm of the tee carried the
speedometer cable. In order to damp out tachometer commutator
ripple and drive train vibrations which, unfiltered, would have

TACHOMETER SHAFT
DRIVEN FROM

DIFFERENTIATOR

AT TRANSMISSION
ACCELERATION

RECORDER
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER MOUNTED
I N FRONT BRAKE
LINE

--PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
0-1500 p s i
"

CAL. CHECK

1 1 5 VAC 60INVERTER

POWER ON/OFF
-CONTROL
FROM
I G N I T I O N SWITCH

1 2 VDC
VEHICLE BATTERY

A.III.1.

D e c e l e r a t i o n magnitude i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n .

swamped the desired derivative signal, it was necessary to heavily

filter the signal. This required a compromise between ripple
remaining on the filtered signal and system response to sudden
changes in acceleration. The response of the final circuit to a
0.5 G step in acceleration (16.1 ft/sec ramp in velocity) was
about 0.75 seconds as shown in Figure A-111.2. Figure A-111.3
shows the measured frequency response curve of the low pass filterdifferentiator circuit.
Deceleration Calibration
Calibration of the velocity-derivative accelerometer was
carried out as follows. Using a fifth wheel to measure vehicle
velocity and the strip chart recorder as a voltmeter, the tachometer output was calibrated in volts/feet/second (E = 0.0818
1
V/fps). From this the rate of change or slope of the tachometer
output voltage at a deceleration of 0.5 G, 16.1 ft/sec/sec, was
calculated (0.5 G = 1.317 V/sec). The CAL CHECK VOLTAGE ADJ.
potentiometer (Figure A-111.1) was then adjusted to give a ramp
of voltage wit11 this slope at the input to the low pass filter
through the Operate/CAL. CHECK switch. Finally, the ACCELERATION
CALIBRATE potentiometer at the output of the differentiator was
set to obtain 1/2 of full scale deflection, i.e., 0.5 G on the
recorder. The calibration ramp voltage and corresponding acceleration signal are shown in Figure A-111.4, The flat portion at the
top of the ramp is due to recorder saturation and not to change in
slope of the ramp.
The ramp generator (integrator) was made an integral part
of the equipment and was used to make a daily calibration check.
During the data collection period the largest deviation from 0.5
G reading on calibration check was 0.02 G (one small division 2 percent of full scale) and this was principally due to DC
drift only requiring adjustment of the zero deflection (0.0 G)
pen position. Accuracy of the deceleration data is estimated to
be 3 percent of full scale (0.03 G) or better.
177

-1.OG
1

TIME: 1 . 0 sec/div.

A.III.2.

1 1 ; 1 : : 1 4

Top: Accelerometer c a l i b r a t i o n check voltage.

Bottom: Acceleration check and accelerometer
s t e p response.

FREQUENCY

(Hz)

A.III.~. Velocity - d e r i v a t i v e accelerometer low pass

f i l t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t o r frequency response.

TIME: 5 sec/div.-

PSIG

A.III.4.

Top: Brake l i n e p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t i o n check.

B o t t o n : D e c e l e r a t i o n c a l i b r a t i o n check.

Brake Line Pressure

Brake line pressure signal was obtained from a Bourns Type
304 (0-1500 psig) pressure transducer mounted in the front brake
line.
Brake Line Pressure Calibration
Initial calibration of the brake line pressure channel was
made with a 0-1500 psig test gauge mounted in the brake line along
with the pressure transducer. A pressure of 1000 psig was applied
through the brake pedal and the PRESSURE CALIBRATE potentiometer
was adjusted to obtain full scale deflection on the recorder. Then
the CAL CHECK VOLTAGE ADJ. potentiometer output was switched in
through the Operate/CAL CHECK switch and this potentiometer was
set to give full scale deflection on the pressure channel. The
test gauge was removed, A daily check of the pressure channel
calibration was made using the calibration check voltage corresponding to 1000 psig. A sample of this calibration check is
shown in Figure A-111.4. The 20 to 30 psig pressure recorded with
the brakes released is the residual pressure in the brake line due
to the check valve in the master cylinder.
During the data collection period the largest deviation
from 100 psig reading on calibration check was about 20 psi
(1 small division - 2 percent of full scale) and this was principally
due to DR drift of the zero deflection pen position on the recorder.
Accuracy of the brake line pressure data obtained is estimated to
be 3 percent of full scale (30 psig) or better.
--

---

Sample Data
Figure A-111.5 gives a sample of the brake line pressure and
deceleration data records obtained with the deceleration magnitude
instrumentation package.

BRAKE
LINE
PRESS.
PSIG.
-

500

DECELERATION

1
1

1
'

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

TIME: 5 sec ./div

A.III.5.

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
,

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

Brake l i n e p r e s s u r e and d e c e l e r a t i o n d a t a sample.

1
1

INSTRUCTIONS TO DRIVER
1.

T h i s c a r i s on a s p e c i a l t e s t which r e q u i r e s t h e u s e of some
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n t h a t h a s been p l a c e d i n t h e t r u n k .
Please do n o t leave t h i s v e h i c l e without f i r s t locking it,
and you s h o u l d n o t s u r r e n d e r t h e keys t o any o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l ,
i.e., parking l o t attendants.

2.

When d r i v i n g t h i s c a r p l e a s e be s u r e n o t t o r i d e t h e b r a k e
pedal.

3.

P l e a s e F I L L OUT THE ATTACHED TRIP SHEET BEFORE AND AFTER

EACH T R I P .

Thank you

T R I P SHEET

- 7

--v

Trip
No.

N a m e of
Driver

l o d o m e t e r T i m e at
a t Start Start
of T r i p of T r i ~

O d o m e tel
a t End
of T r i p

Do You
Normally
r t End B r a k e W i t 1
>f T r i ~R i g h t (R)

rime

or
Left
Foot

(L)
7

Use this
Space f o r
Comments

REFERENCES

Allbert, B.J.:
1968.

Tires and Hydroplaning.

SAE Paper No. 680140,

Anderson, A.E.; Gratch, S.; and Haynes, H.P.: A New Laboratory

Friction and Wear Test for the Characterization of Brake
Linings. SAE Report No. 670079, January 1967.
Aoki, K.: Human Factors in Braking and Fade Phenomena for Heavy
Applications--Problems to Improve Brake Performance.
Bull. Japan Soc. Mech. Eng., 3, 12, (1960) 587-94.
Aoki, K.: Operational Characteristics of Human Being at Brake
control, J. Soc. Auto. Eng. Japan, 18, 3, arch 1964)
196-201.
ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 326: Symposium on Skid
Resistance. 65th Annual Meeting Papers, 29 June 1962.
ASTM Special Technical Publication. No.
-366: Measuring Road
Surface Slipperiness. January 1965.
Australian Army Operational Research Group: Anthropometric
Survey of Male Members of the Australian Army; Part IClothing Survey. Report 3/58, June 1958.
Autocar:

Lockheed Anti-Lock.

(14 September 1962) 423.

Autocar: Testing Disc Brake Pad Materials.

1965) 715-16.

123, 3634, (8 October

Automobile Engineer: Bi-Metallic Integral Wheel-Brake Drum.

49, (April 1959) 158-62.
Automobile Engineer:
1962) 386-89.

The Lockheed Anti-Locking Device.

Automobile Manufacturers Association:

1968.

(October

Automobile Facts/Figures.

Automotive Industries: Engineering Specifications and Statistical

Issue. 138, 6, (15 March 1968).

Automotive Industries: ~ngineeringSpecifications and Statistical

Pennsylvania,
Issue. Chilton Publishing Co., ~hiladelphia,
15 March 1969,
Automotive News: Human Factor Eliminated in Chevrolet Brake
Tests. 43, (29 January 1968) 73.
Ayoub, M.M, and Trombley, D.J.:
Optimal Foot Pedal Design.
1967) 550-63.

Experimental Determination of an
J. Indus. Eng. 18, 9, (September

Bannister, F.K.: Transient Temperatures in Racing Car Brake

Drums: Analysis of a Heat Transfer Problem. Engineering,
183, 4748, (8 March 1957) 304-08.
Barnes, R.M.; Hardaway, H,; and Podolsky, 0.: Which Pedal is
Best? Factory Management and Maintenance Magazine, McGraw
Hill, January 1942.
Brigham, F.R.: A Human Factors Study of Vehicle Braking
Systems. University of Birmingham, MS Thesis, 1968.
Brown, A.P.: A Design and Development Summary of the Corvette
Disc Brake System. General Motors Eng,, 12, 3, (1965)
10-17.
Bulmer, C.: Safe Motoring.
1962) 586-89.
Burke, C.E. et al.:
Status Report.

The Motor, 122, 3155, (7 November

Disc Brakes on U,S. Passenger Cars...A

SAE Journal, 173, 10, (October 1965) 73-76.

Burke, C.E. and Prather, E,E.: The American Motors ~ i s cBrake.

SAE Paper No. 1004A, 1965.
Burkman, J. and Hiqhley, F.H.:

Laboratory

Carpenter, N.: Some Measurements of Brake Usage in a HighSpeed Saloon Car. Ferodo Let., Stockport, England,
18 October 1955, 241-64.
Carpenter, N. and Lees, A.P.: Automobile Brake Usage Under
Practical Conditions. Proceedings of the Sixth International
Congress of the Institute of the Motor Industry, Rome,
1956, 1-13.
Chandler, K,N.: Theoretical Studies in Braking. Proceedings
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, 1960,
147-63.

Chase, T.P.: Passenger-Car Brake Performance--Limitations and

Future ~e~uirements.SAE Trans. 3, 1, (January 1949)
26-39.
Clayton Manufacturing Company: The Development of a Realistic
Device and Techniques for Testing and Diagnosing Wheeled
Vehicle Brakes. Dynamometer Division, Engineering Department, El Monte, California, 21 August 1967.
Collier, G.H.: Two Methods of Aircraft Skid Control, SAE Paper
NO. 8BI 1958.
Compliance Tests, Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard-105:
Federal Clearing House, National Bureau of Standards,
Springfield Virginia, Nos. PB-186-588 to 591, PB-186-596
to 607, PB-187-313 to 317, PB-187-321 to 325, PB-187-334
to 335, PB-187-341 to 343, PB-187-347, PB-187-356 thru
365, PB-187-518.
Csathy, T.J.: Skidding and Skid Resistance. Report No. 46,
Department of Highways, Ontario, Canada, March 1964.
Crouse, W.H.:
1965.

Automotive Mechanics.

5th ed., ~c~raw- ill,

Davisson, J . A . :
Basic Test Methods for Evaluating Tire Traction.
SAE Paper No. 680136, 1968.
Damon, O.A.; Stoudt, H O W * ;and McFarland, R.: The Human Body
in Equipment Design. Harvard University Press, 1966.
Design News: Flywheel Inertia Controls Brake Pressure in AntiSkid System. (9 November 1959) 15.
Design News:
--vember

Flywheel Overrun Senses Deceleration to Open Brake.

1957) 32-33.

DeVinney, W.E.: Factors Affecting Tire Traction.

670461, 1967.

SAE Paper No.

Domer, H.: Fundamental Principles for Calculation of the Braking

Potential of Motor Vehicle Brakes During Continuous and
f
ferschury
Intermittant Application. Deutshsche ~ r a f tahnt
and Strassenverherstechnik, 165, 1963.
Drillis, R. and Contini, : Body Seyrnent Parameters. School of
Engineering and Science, New York University, New York,
Contract No. R886, prepared for Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Vocational Rehabilitation,
Washington, D.C., Technical Report No. 1166.03, September
1966.

Duplis, H,: Arbeitsphysiologische Verhaltnisse im Fahrerhaus

(Biomechanics and the Driver's Area). VDI-Berichte,
25, (1957) 1-15.
Easton, A.H.: Influence of Tires and Their Variables on
Passenger Car Skidding. SAE Paper No. 205B, 1960.
Eaton, W.C. and Schreur, I.J.: Brake Proportioning Valve.
SAE Report No. 660400, June 1966.
elations ship Between Leg Strength, Leg Endurance
Elbel, E.R.:
, (1949)
and Other Body Measurements. J. - A ~ P ~ h.~ s i o l ;2,
197-207.

Ellis, J.R.: The Dynamics of Vehicles during Braking.

Proceedings of-the Symposium on Control of vehicles
during Braking and Cornerinq, Automobile Division,
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, June 1963.
Engineering: Anti-Skid Device Controlled by Suspension Movement.
(7 February 1964) 216.
Engineering: Brake Fade Reduced with combination Drums.
188, 4886, (11 December 1959) 612.
Ensdorf, J.: An Optimal Design for a Foot Activated Lever
Mechanism. Master's thesis, Texas Technological College,
May 1964.
Farobin, Y.E.: The Stability of Vehicle Brakes. English
abstracts of article in Avtom. Prom., No. 1, (January
1968 14-16, and ~utomobileAbstracts (March 1968) 16-17.
Fazekas, A.G.: Temperature Gradients and Heat Stresses in
Brake Drums. SAE Trans., 61, (1953) 279-308.
Federal Specification HH-L-361b: Linings, Brake (Automotive
Use). General Services Administration, Washinston, D.C.,
21 November 1952.

Federal S~ecificationKKK-L-370c: Lininu, Friction (Clutch

and brake; Metallic, Metal-Ceramic and semi-Metallic).
washington, D.C., 26 September 1961.
Federal Specification W-B-680a: Brake Fluid, Automotive.
General Services Administration, Washington, D.C.,
18 October 1967.
Federal Standard No. 515/9: Dual Operation of Brake System for
Automotive Vehicles. General Services Administration,
Washington, D.C., June 1965.

Fleet Owner: Brake Fade...Still a Hot Problem.

1966) 96-98.

61, (January

Francia, G.: Vehicle Accelerations--the Horizontal Forces that

Act Between the Road and the Vehicle During Acceleration
., Parts 1 and 2, (August and
and Braking.
and 407-12.
September 1963
Frood, A.D.M.; Mackenzie, D.K.; and Newcomb, T.P.: Measurement
of Skid Resistance. ASTM Special Technical Publication,
No. 326, 1962, 3-28,
Furia, A.; Schachter, S.; and Gancel, P.:
Techniques of the European Vehicles.
1967.

Trends in Braking
SAE Paper No. 670505,

Garg, D.P. and Rabins, H.J.: Effects of Temperature on Molded

Friction Materials. J. Inst. Mech. Eng. 37, (March 1965)
83-86.
Giles, C.G.: Some Recent Developments in Work on Skidding
Problems at the Road Research Laboratory. Highway Research
Record, 46, (1963) 43-49.
Glasenapp, R.K. and Gaffney, W.C.: Failure Analysis Model 737
brake and Anti-Skid Systems. Boeing Document No. D6-14074,
Commerical Airplane Division, Boeing Airplane Company,
Renton, Washingington, February 1967.
Goodenow, G.L.; Kolhoff, T . R . ; and Fraser, D.S.: Tire Road
Friction Measuring System--A Second Generation. S A
No. 630137, January 1968.

E P ~

Goodwin, W.A. and Whitehurst, E.A.: The Minimization of Variables

in Equipment and Techniques for Performing Skid Trailer
Tests. ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 326, 1962,
29-49.
Grime, G.: The Importance of Loss of Directional Control in
Car Accidents. Presented at Symposium on Control of Vehicles
during Braking and Cornering, Automobile Division, Institution
of ~echanicalEngineers, London, 11 June 1963.
Grime, G. and Giles, C.G.: The Skid-Resisting Properties of
Roads and Tires. Proceedings of Automobile Division,
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Paper No. 1, 1954-55,
Hanson, D. and Coryell, S.W.: Brake Fluid and Proper Brake Maintenance. Proceedings of the Chemical specialties Manufacturers Association, Paper 47A, (December 1960) 90-99.

H a r d i n g , P. R. J. : D e c e l e r a t i o n Measurement.
(May 1 9 6 1 ) 172-79.

Auto. Eng.

51, 5 ,

Herring, J.M.:
Mechanism o f Brake Fade i n O r g a n i c B r a k e L i n i n g s .
SAE R e p o r t No, 670146, J a n u a r y 1967.
HSRI.

B a s i c Vehicle Handling P r o p e r t i e s , Phase I. F i n a l Report

C o n t r a c t FH-11-6528, U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,
Hwy. S a f . Res. I n s t . , Univ. o f Mich. , 1967.

H i n d e l , T.; Edwards, E , ; and K i r k , S . :

Motorcar Design and
D r i v i n g S k i l l . D e s i g n , 1 8 9 , (1964) 61-65.
A i r p l a n e S t o p p i n g C a p a b i l i t y on Wet a n d Dry Runway
H o e f s , K.W.:
S u r f a c e s . R e p o r t No. D6-7442, T r a n s p o r t D i v i s i o n , B o e i n g
A i r p l a n e Company, Renton, Washington, 16 J u n e 1961.
H o f e l t , C.:
E f f e c t o f S p e e d , Load D i s t r i b u t i o n s , a n d I n f l a t i o n
Pressure. Presented a t F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Skid Prevention
C o n f e r e n c e , V i r g i n i a C o u n c i l o f Highway I n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d
R e s e a r c h , U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a , 1959.
The E f f e c t o f Limb P o s i t i o n i n S e a t e d S u b j e c t s
Hugh-Jones, P . :
on T h e i r A b i l i t y t o U t i l i z e t h e Maximum C o n t r a c t i l e F o r c e
o f t h e Limb Muscles. J. P h y s i o l . , 1 0 5 , ( 1 9 4 7 ) 332-344.
W h a t ' s Coming i n D i s c B r a k e s .
H u n t i n g t o n , R.:
(November 1 9 6 4 ) 90-95.

Motor T r e n d ,

Mark I1 GT S p o r t s C a r D i s c
I h n a c i k , J . , J r . , and Meek, J . F . :
Brake System. SAE P a p e r No. 670070, p r e s e n t e d a t Automot i v e E n g i n e e r i n g C o n g r e s s , D e t r o i t , M i c h i g a n , 9-13 J a n u a r y
1967,
Snecification No. HH-L-003d:
L i n i n u , F r i c t i o n , and
General
L i n i n g Material, F r i c t i o n ( B r a k e ) (Automotive-Use).
S e r v i c e s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1 J u n e 1965.

T n t e r i m Fedpya1

J a c k o , M.G. e t a l . :
Thermal S t a b i l i t y a n d Fade C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f F r i c t i o n M a t e r i a l s . SAE P a p e r No. 690417, May 1968.
J o n e s , G.:
The S k i d d i n g B e h a v i o r o f Motor V e h i c l e s . P r o c e e d i n g s
of t h e Automobile D i v i s i o n , I n s t i t u t i o n o f M e c h a n i c a l
E n g i n e e r s , P a p e r No. 1, (1962-63) 65-73.
T r e a d Design o f T i r e A f f e c t s
K e l l e y , J . D . , Jr., and A l b e r t , B . J . :
Wet T r a c t i o n Most. SAE J o u r n a l , 7 6 , 9 , ( S e p t e m b e r 1 9 6 8 ) 55-66.
S t o p p i n g from 1 0 0 MPH--Performance o f a C a r Equipped
Kemp, R . N . :
with D i s c B r a k e s . Auto. Enq., ( F e b r u a r y 1961) 48-49.

Ker, A.: Brake Fluids with Low Moisture Avidity.

680006, 1968.

SAE Paper No.

Kinchin, J.W.: Disc Brake Development and Anti-Skid Braking

Devices. SAE Paper No. 304B, 1961.
King, F.R.B.:
Brakes--Disc Brakes Now on the Front Wheels of
Several American Cars; Wider Use of Single Piston Calipers;
Another Device for the Prevention of Wheel-Locking. Auto.
Eng., 58, (10 May 1968) 232-36.
Koffman, J.L.:
277-80.

Ventilated Disc Brake.

Auto, Eng,, ( ~ u l y1956)

Konz, S. and Daccarett, J,: Controls for Automotive Brakes.

Highway Research Record, 195, (1967) 75-82.
Konz, S.; Koe, B.; and Kalra, G.: Human Engineering Design of
a Combined Brake-Accelerator Pedal. 9th Annual Symposium,
Human Factors in Electronics, May 1968 (Summary Only).
Konz, S.; Wadhera, N.; Sathaye, S.; and Chawla, S,: Human
Factors Considerations for a Combined Brake Accelerator
Pedal. IEEE-ERS International Symposium on Man-Machine
Syste~ns, Cambridge (England), 1969.
Kroemer, K . H . E . :
Neglect of Biomechanics in Car Design as
an Accident Cause. ATZ,
- 68, No. 11, (1966) 380-385.
Kruegel, M. and Weber, H.: The Brake Factor of Wheel Brakes as
Dependent Upon Speed. Deutsche Kroftfahrtfirschurg und
Strassenverkehrstechnik, 169, 1964.
Kulberq, G.: Method and Equipment for Continuous Measuring of
the Coefficient of ~rictionat Incipient Skid. Highway
Research Board Bulletin 348, (1962) 1-35.
Rummer, H.W. and Meyer, W.E.: Skid or Skip ~esistance. Paper
No. 93, presented at Fifth pacific Area National Meeting
of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM),
1965.
Krummer, H.W. and Meyer, W.E.: Tentative Skid-Resistance Requirements for Main Rural ~ighways. National Cooperative
Highway Research Program, Report No. 37, ~ighwayResearch
Board, 1967,
Lange, R.W.: Brake Failure Due to Drum Difficulties Can Be
Reduced. SAE Journal, 69, (Janu,ary1961) 83.

Leah, V.: Control of Brake Performance Tests.

54, 3, (March) 178-81.

Auto Eng.,

Lederer, H.G.: Trends in Legislation Governing the Sale of Heavy

Duty Brake Fluid. Proceedings of the Chemical Specialties
Manufacturers Association,-Paper No. 42A, (December 1955)
95-99.

Leland, T.J. and Taylor, G.R.: Effects of Tread Wear on the Wet
Runway Braking Effectiveness of Aircraft Tires. American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Paper No, 64-346,
June 1964.
Limpert, R. and Plarck, H e : Variation of Brake Force Distribution
Due to Fade. Engineering Report, Teves K.G., Frankfurk/
Main, Germany, 1964.
Lister, R.D.: Brake Performance Measurement.
(July 1959).

Auto. Eng., 49, 7,

Lister, R.D.: Retention of Directional Control When Braking.

SAE Paper No. 963A, January 1965.
Lister, R.D.: Some Problems of Emergency Braking in Road Vehicles.
Presented at Symposium on Control of Vehicles during Braking
and cornering,-~btomobileDivision, Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, London, 6 November 1963.
Lister, R.D. and Kemp, R.N.: Crash Stop--Which Way is Best.
The Autocar, (8 December 1961) 962-64.
Lister, R.D. and Kemp, R.N.:
1958) 382-91.

Skid Prevention. Auto. Enq., (October

Livsey, A.E.: Research into Brake Usage in Passenger Cars.

Proceedings of the Automobile Division, Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Paper No. 1, (1960-61) 211-20.
Livsey, A.E.; Prestidge, A.F.; and Woor, D.F.: A Test Schedule
for Passenger-Car Brakes. Proceedings of the ~utomobile
Division, Institution of ~echanical~ngineers,Paper No. 7,
(1960-61) 221-35,
Lueck, F.E.:
1965.

Why Disc Brakes?

SAE Paper No. 650172 (1004B),

Machine Design: Brakes with a Brain will Stop New Jet Liner.
(26 November 1959) 12.

~ackenzie,D.K.; Newcomb, T.P.; and Watton, B.: A European

Proving Trial--Observations on Brake Usage and on the
Performance of Disc Brake Pads during 3000 Miles Motoring
on the Continent. Auto. Eng. (January 1966).
Mackenzie, D.K.; Newcomb, T.P.; and Watton, B.: Car Brake Usage
and Test Schedules, Proceedings of the Automobile ~ivision,
~nstitutionof Mechanical Engineers, Paper No, 1, (-1962-63).
Mahone, D.C.: Variation in Highway Slipperiness Characteristics
with Location. ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 326,
(1962) 75-101.
Maycock, G.: Studies on the Skidding Resistance of Passenger
Car Tires on Wet Surfaces. Proceedings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, 180, Part 2A, (1965-66) 122-41.
Markey, F.J.: The Importance of Heavy Duty Brake ~ l u i dto Safe
Motoring. Proceedings of the Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association, Paper No. 43A, (~ecember1956) 84-89.
McFarland, R.A.: Human Engineering: A New Approach to Driver
Efficiency and Transport Safety. SAE ~ouinal,62, (1954)
335-45.
McFarland, R.A. and Domey, R.G.: Bio-Technical Aspects of Driver
Safety and Comfort. SAE Trans. 66, (1958) 630-48.
McFarland, R.A.; Damon, A,; and Stoudt, I3.W.
Anthropometry in
the Design of the Drivers Workspace. Am. J. Phys. Anthr.",
1 6 1, (March 1958)
~echanicalEngineering:
49.

Road Tire Interaction.

90, (May 1968)

Mitschke, M.: Directional Stability and Friction Utilization

During Braking. Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, 69,
3, (1967) 73-80.
Motor Vehicle Research Inc.: Single Brake and Accelerator Control
and Anti-Skid Device. 9. 1. (19591.
Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 105: Hydraulic Service Brake,
Emergency Brake, and Parking Brake Systems - Passenger
Cars. Federal Register, 33, 250, (25 December 1968).
Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 106: Hydraulic Brake Hoses Passenger Cars and Multipurpose Passenger Vehicles. Federal
Register, 33, 250, (25 December 19G8).

Motoring Which?:

Six Luxury Saloons.

Motoring Which?:

Sports Cars.

(April 1968) 42-71.

(January 1968) 1-29.

Mulvogue, R.E.: The Difference Can Be Deadly; High Quality

Brake Linings Are Best. Motor News, 481 12,- (July 1966)
21.
Newcornb, T.P.: ~eterminationof the Area of Friction Surfaces
of Automotive Vehicles. J. Mech. Eng. Sci., 4, (December
1960) 312-24.
Newcomb, T.P.: Temperatures Reached in Disc ~rakes. J. Mech.
Eng. Sci., 3, 3, (September 1960) 167-77.
Newcomb, T.P.: Thermal Aspects of Vehicle Braking.
50, 7, (July 1960) and 8, (August 1960).

Auto. Enq.,

Newcomb, T.P.: Transient Temperatures Attained in Disc Brakes.

Brit. J. Appl. Phys., 10, ( ~ u l y1959) 339-40,
Newcomb, T.P.: Transient Temperatures in Brake Drums and ~inings.
Proceedings of the ~utomobileDivision, Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, (1958-59) 227-44.
Newcomb, T.P.: Work Done By Brakes.
1964) 98-100.

Auto. Eng.

54, 3, (March

Newcomb, T.P. and Spurr, R.T.: Braking of Road Vehicles.

Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, 1967.
Newcomb, T.P. and Millner, N.: Cooling Rates of Brake Drums
and Discs. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, 180, Part 2A, (1965-66).
Niehaus, W.R. and Shiffler, R.W.: Storage and Handling of Brake
Fluids. Presented at SAE Hydraulic Systems Actuating
Committee Meeting, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 26-27
October 1966.
Noon, W.D.; Smith, G.L.; and Boching, P.A.: A Digital Computer
Technique for Evaluating Commercial Vehicle Brake Systems.
General Motors Eng. J., 4th Qt., (1964).
Normann, O.K.:
Braking Distances of Vehicles from High Speed
and Tests of Friction Coefficients. Public Road, 27, 8,
(June 1953) 159-69.
NSC:
-

Passenger Car and Friction Trailer Tests. Final Report,

Committee on Winter Driving Hazards, ~atconalSafety Council,
Stevens Point, Wisconsin, 1966.
194

NSC:
-

Winter Test Program. Committee on Winter Driving Hazards,

National Safety Council, Chicago, Illinois, May 1962.

Obertop, D.H.: Decrease of Skid Resisting Properties of Wet

Road Surfaces at High Speeds, ASTM Special Technical
Publication No. 326, (1962) 102-12,
Odier, J.: Contribution to the Study of the Braking Instability
of ~utomobiles. Ing, de 1'~uto,, 33, 8, (~ctober1960)

Parker, R.C.: Automobile Braking.

March 1960) 498-501.

The Engineer, 209, (25

Parker R.C. and Newcomb, T.P.: The Performance and Characteristics

of Disc Brakes. SAE Pager No. 836A, Agril 1964.
Percy, J.N.B.: Brake Fade, A Brake Lining Testing Machine,
and Some Preliminary Results. Report No, 1951/10, The
Motor Industry Research ~ssociation,1951.
Percy, J.N.B.: Brake Fade. Report No. 1952/4, The Motor Industry
Research Association, December 1952.
Petrof, R.C.: Transient Temperatures in Brakes. Report No. AR
65-14, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan, May 1965.
Product Engineering: New Data Should Help Fit People Better
Machines. 38, (September 1967) 172-74.

to

Rabinowicz, E.: Equations Give Quick Estimate of Friction

Temperatures. Product Eng., 35, 7, (30 March 1964) 97-99.
The Dynamic Frictional CharacterRabins, M.J. and Harker, R . J . :
istics of Molded Friction Material. ASME Paper 60-WA-35,
1960,
Radt, H.S. and Milliken, W.F.: Motions of Skidding Automobiles.
Paper No. 205A, presented at SAE Summer Meeting, Chicago,
Illinois, June 1960.
Rejis, J.H.: Human Body Size and Capabilities in the Design of
Vehicular Equipment. Harvard School of public Health,
Boston, Massachusetts, 1953.
Richards, K.M.: The Legislative Problems of Hydraulic Brake
Fluid. Proceedings of the Chemical Specialties Manufacturers
Association, Paper No. 41A, (December 1954) 48-55.
Richardson, P.D. and Saunders, O.A.: Studies of Heat Transfer
Associated with a Rotating Disc. J. Mech. Eng. Sci., 5
4, (1963) 336-42.

Rizenbergs, R.L. and Ward, H.A.:

Skid Testing with an Automobile.
Highway Research Record, 189, (1967) 115-37.
Robson, G.: Significance of ~esignFeatures. Autocar, 127,
(16 November 1967) 38-40.
SAE:

Service Brake System Performance Requirements for Automotive

Vehicle, SP-299, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.,
New York, New York, 1967.

SAE Journal: What It Takes to Adapt Caliper ~ i s cBrakes to

American Cars. (June 1963) 33-41,
SAE J40d: Automotive Brake Hoses. 1968 SAE Handbook, Society
of Automotive Engineers, New York, New York, (1968) 260-64.
SAE J60: Rubber Cups for Hydraulic Actuating Cylinders. 1968
SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, New ~ o r k ,
New York, (1968) 267-75.
SAE J65: Rubber Boots for Use on Hydraulic
Brake Actuatina
Cylinders. 1968 SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive
~ngineers,New York, (1968) 275-77.
4

SAE J70b: Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid. 1968 SAE Handbook,

Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, New York, (1968)
285-92.
SAE J75: Hydraulic Brake Fluid Container Compatibility. 1968 SAE
Handbook, Society of Automotive ~ n ~ i n e e r sNew
, ~ o r k ,New
-968)
290-99.
SAE J660: Brake Linings. 1968 SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, New York, T1968) 865.
SAE J661a: Brake Lining Quality Control Test Procedure. 1968
SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, New ~ o r k ,
New York, (1968) 867-69.
SAE J664: Brake Spider Mounting. 1968 SAE Handbook, Society of
~utomotiveEngineers, New York, New York, (1968), 877.
SAE J656c: Automotive Brake ~efinitionsand Nomenclature.
1968 SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, New
York, New York, (1968a) 862-86.
SAE J657a:

Definitions for Braking Terminology and Brake Operation

Terminology, 1968 SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive
Engineers, New York, New York, (1968) 863-64.

SAE 5667: Brake Test Code--Inertia Dynamometer. 1968 SAE

Handbook, Society of ~utomotiveEngineers, New York,
New York, (1968) 877-80.
SAE J840a: Test Procedures for Brake Shoe and Linins Adhesives
and Bonds. 1968 SAE Handbook, Society of ~utomotive
Engineers, New York, New York, (1968) 870-76.
SAE J843a: Brake System Test Code--Passenger Car. 1968 SAE
Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, New York,
New York, (1968b).
SAE J937: Service Brake System Performance Requirements-Passenger Car. 1968 SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive
Engineers, New York, New York, 11968) 887-88.
SAE J971: Brake Rating Test Code--Commercial Vehicle Interia
Dynamometer. 1968 SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive
Engineers, New York, New York, (1968).
SAE Publication SP-299: Service Brake System Performance Requirements for Automotive Vehicles. (November 1967).
Sapp, T,: Ice and Snow Tire Traction.
(1968).

SAE Paper No. 680139,

Scafer, T.S. and Howard, D.W.: Desiqn and Performance Considera; ~nti-skidSystems. SAE Paper No.
tions for ~ a s s e n ~ e Car
680458, (1968)

Schulze, K.11. and Beckman, L.: Friction Properties of Pavements

at Different Speeds. ASTM Special Technical Publication
No. 326, (1962) 42-49.
Sharrard, G.F. and Hanson, D.H.: Effect of Water in Automotive
rake Systems. proceedings of the Chemical Specialties
Manufacturers ~ssociation,Paper 43A, (~ecember1956) 80-83.
Shaw, A.R.: The Development of a Caliper Disc Brake.
Motors Ens. J., 12, 3, (1965) 2-7.

General

Shiffler, H.W.: Brake Fluid Container Report. Presented at

SAE Hydraulic Brake System Actuating Committee Meeting,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 26-27 October 1966.
Shiffler, R.W. et al.: A Look at New Types of Brake Fluids.
SAE Paper No. 680007, 1968.
Shigley, J.E.:
1963.

Mechanical Engineering Design. McGraw-Hill,

Spurr, R.T.: Subjective Assessment of Braking Performance.

Auto. Eng., (1965) 55.
Spurr, R.T.: Subjective Assessment of Brake Performance-Skilled Drivers Can Assess Deceleration on a Systematic
and Reproducible Basis. Auto. Eng., 55, 10, (September
1965).
Starks, H.J.H.:
Loss of Directional Control in Accidents Involving
Commercial Vehicles. Presented at Symposium on Control of
Vehicles during Braking and Cornering, Automobile Division,
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, 11 June 1963.
Steeds, W.: Brake Geometry, Theory of Internal Expanding Shoe
Types. Auto. Eng., 50, 6, (June 1960) 261-62.
Stoudt, H.W.; Crowley, T.J.; Cruber, B.; and McFarland, R.A.:
Vehicle Handling: Force Capabilities for Braking and
Steering. Harvard School of Public Health, 1969.
Stoudt, H.W.; Damon, A.; McFarland, R.A.; and Roberts, J.:
National Health Survey, Weight, Height, and Selected Body
Dimensions of Adults, United States, 1960-62. U.S.
Public Health Service, 1965.
Strien, H.: Brake Force Distribution on Passenger Cars.
~utomobiltechnischeZeitschrift, 67, 8, 1965.
Strien, H.: Calculation and ~estingof Vehicle ~rictionBrakes.
Doctoral Dissertation, Institute for Automotive Engineering
of the Institute of Technology, Braunschiveig, Germany,
1349.
Strien, H.: Dual Brake Systems. Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift,
70, 10, (October 1968) 339-43.
Strien, H.: Trends in the Development of Vehicle Brakes and
Anti-Skid Braking Devices in Europe. SAE Paper No. 304C,
(January 1961)

Stroh, G.B.; Lawrence, M.H.; and Deibel, W.T.: Effects of Shoe

on,Hea,wDutv.. Internal Shoe Brake ~erformance.
Force Geometrv
+
SAE Paper No. 680432, presented at SAE Midyear Meeting,
Detroit, Michigan, May 1968.

Taborek, J.J.: Mechanics of Vehicles. Bound Series from

Machine Design, May-December 1957.
Teves, A.K.G.:
1960.

ATE Brake Handbook.

Frankfurt-Main, Germany,

Texas Transportation Institute: Measuring' Skid Resistance,

Bibliography. PB175-786, 1962.
The Bendix Corp.: Series 'El Caliper Disc Brake.
WXA-56297, South Bend, Ind., 1964.

Form No.

Thomas, T.H.: Disc Brakes "Two Years After." SAE Preprint

No. 670197, 1967.
Tignor, S.C.: Braking Performance of Motor Vehicles.
Roads, 34, 4, (October 1966) 69-83.

Public

Traffic Institute, Northwestern University: Charts and Tables

for Stopping Distances of Motor Vehicles. Evanston,
Illinois, 1960.
Trumbo, D. and Schneider, M.: Operation Time as a Function of
Foot Pedal Design. J. Eng. Psychol., 4, (1963) 139-143.
Vallin, E.G.: Legislative Effect on Brake Design. SAE Paper
680017, Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit, Michigan
(8-12 January 1968)

Vallin, E.G.: Legislative Effects on Brake Design.

No. 680409, May 1968.

SAE Paper

Vansteenkiste, R.H.: Design of Disc Brakes for American

Automobiles. SAE Paper No. 659A, presented at ~ational
~utomobileMeeting, ~etroit,Michigan, March 1963.
Vehicle Equipment
Safety Commission: Minimum Reuuirements and
- Uniform Test ~roceiuresfor Motor Vehicle ~ G a k eLinings.
Regulation V-3, Washington, D.C., (17 September 1966).
Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research: First
International Skid Prevention Conference. Proceedings,
Parts 1 and 2 , Charlottesville, Virginia, August 1959.
Weintraub, M.H. and Bernard, J.P.: Chemical and ~unctional
Response to Brake Lining Curve Variation. SAE Report No.
680416, 1968.
White, A.J.: Brake Dynamics, Motor Vehicle Research of New
Hampshire, Lee, N.H., 1963.
Whitehurst, E.A.: Pavement Skid Testing--Recent Developments
and Present Status. SAE Paper No, 970B, January 1965.
Willer, P.G.: Brake Drums Designed for Compatibility.
Report No. 670500, May 1967.

SAE

Wilson, A.J. et al.: Scaled Vehicle Brake Installations for

~iictionMaterial Assessment. Lucas Eng. Rev. , 4, (January
1968) 14-25.
Winge, J.L.: Disc Brakes for American Automobiles.
630125, 1963.

SAE Paper No.

Winae, J.L.: Instrumentation and Methods for the Evaluation of

Variables in Passenger Car Brakes. SAE Paper No. 361B,
presented at SAE Summer Meeting, 1961.
d

Wright, J.H.: The Development of Hydraulic Brake Fluid Specifications for SAE Standard J70b and Public Law 87-637. Proceedings of the Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association.
Paper No. 52A, (December 1965) 114-16.