Chapter 14

Airspace
Introduction
The two categories of airspace are: regulatory and
nonregulatory. Within these two categories there are four
types: controlled, uncontrolled, special use, and other
airspace. Figure 14-1 presents a prole view of the dimensions
of various classes of airspace. Also, there are excerpts from
sectional charts which are discussed in Chapter 15, Navigation,
that are used to illustrate how airspace is depicted.

14-1
 FL 600

Class A
18,000' MSL

Class B
14,500' MSL Class E
1,200' 1,200' Class C 1,200'
AGL AGL AGL Nontowered
Class G Nontowered 700' 700' 700' airport with
airport with
instrument
AGL AGL AGL Class D no instrument
approach
approach Class G Class G Class G

Figure 14-1. Airspace profile.

Controlled Airspace
Class C Airspace
Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers the
different classications of airspace and dened dimensions Class C airspace is generally airspace from the surface
within which air trafc control (ATC) service is provided to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation (charted in
in accordance with the airspace classication. Controlled MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational
airspace consists of: control tower, are serviced by a radar approach control,
and have a certain number of IFR operations or passenger
Class A enplanements. Although the conguration of each Class C
Class B area is individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of
a surface area with a ve NM radius, an outer circle with
Class C
a ten NM radius that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet
Class D above the airport elevation, and an outer area. Each aircraft
Class E must establish two-way radio communications with the
ATC facility providing air trafc services prior to entering
Class A Airspace the airspace and thereafter maintain those communications
Class A airspace is generally the airspace from 18,000 feet while within the airspace.
mean sea level (MSL) up to and including ight level (FL)
600, including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 Class D Airspace
nautical miles (NM) of the coast of the 48 contiguous states Class D airspace is generally airspace from the surface to
and Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, all operation in 2,500 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL)
Class A airspace is conducted under instrument ight rules surrounding those airports that have an operational control
(IFR). tower. The conguration of each Class D airspace area is
individually tailored and when instrument procedures are
Class B Airspace published, the airspace is normally designed to contain the
Class B airspace is generally airspace from the surface to procedures. Arrival extensions for instrument approach
10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nations busiest airports in procedures (IAPs) may be Class D or Class E airspace. Unless
terms of airport operations or passenger enplanements. The otherwise authorized, each aircraft must establish two-way
conguration of each Class B airspace area is individually radio communications with the ATC facility providing air
tailored, consists of a surface area and two or more layers trafc services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter
(some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding maintain those communications while in the airspace.
cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument
procedures once an aircraft enters the airspace. An ATC Class E Airspace
clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in the area, If the airspace is not Class A, B, C, or D, and is controlled
and all aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services airspace, then it is Class E airspace. Class E airspace extends
within the airspace. upward from either the surface or a designated altitude to the

14-2
overlying or adjacent controlled airspace. When designated charted as a P followed by a number (e.g., P-49). Examples
as a surface area, the airspace is congured to contain all of prohibited areas include Camp David and the National
instrument procedures. Also in this class are federal airways, Mall in Washington, D.C., where the White House and the
airspace beginning at either 700 or 1,200 feet above ground Congressional buildings are located. [Figure 14-2]
level (AGL) used to transition to and from the terminal or
en route environment, and en route domestic and offshore
airspace areas designated below 18,000 feet MSL. Unless
designated at a lower altitude, Class E airspace begins at
14,500 MSL over the United States, including that airspace
overlying the waters within 12 NM of the coast of the 48
contiguous states and Alaska, up to but not including 18,000
feet MSL, and the airspace above FL 600.

Uncontrolled Airspace
Class G Airspace
Uncontrolled airspace or Class G airspace is the portion of
the airspace that has not been designated as Class A, B, C,
D, or E. It is therefore designated uncontrolled airspace. Figure 14-2. An example of a prohibited area is Crawford, Texas.
Class G airspace extends from the surface to the base of the
overlying Class E airspace. Although ATC has no authority Restricted Areas
or responsibility to control air trafc, pilots should remember Restricted areas are areas where operations are hazardous to
there are visual ight rules (VFR) minimums which apply nonparticipating aircraft and contain airspace within which
to Class G airspace. the ight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject
to restrictions. Activities within these areas must be conned
Special Use Airspace because of their nature, or limitations may be imposed upon
Special use airspace or special area of operation (SAO) aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities, or
is the designation for airspace in which certain activities both. Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual, often
must be conned, or where limitations may be imposed invisible, hazards to aircraft (e.g., artillery ring, aerial
on aircraft operations that are not part of those activities. gunnery, or guided missiles). IFR ights may be authorized
Certain special use airspace areas can create limitations on to transit the airspace and are routed accordingly. Penetration
the mixed use of airspace. The special use airspace depicted of restricted areas without authorization from the using
on instrument charts includes the area name or number, or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to the
effective altitude, time and weather conditions of operation, aircraft and its occupants. ATC facilities apply the following
the controlling agency, and the chart panel location. On procedures when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance
National Aeronautical Charting Group (NACG) en route (including those cleared by ATC to maintain VFR on top) via
charts, this information is available on one of the end panels. a route which lies within joint-use restricted airspace:
Special use airspace usually consists of: 1. If the restricted area is not active and has been released
Prohibited areas to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the
ATC facility allows the aircraft to operate in the
Restricted areas
restricted airspace without issuing specic clearance
Warning areas for it to do so.
Military operation areas (MOAs) 2. If the restricted area is active and has not been released
Alert areas to the FAA, the ATC facility issues a clearance which
ensures the aircraft avoids the restricted airspace.
Controlled ring areas (CFAs)

Prohibited Areas
Prohibited areas contain airspace of dened dimensions
within which the ight of aircraft is prohibited. Such areas
are established for security or other reasons associated with
the national welfare. These areas are published in the Federal
Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts. The area is

14-3
Restricted areas are charted with an R followed by a military training activities from IFR trafc. Whenever an
number (e.g., R-4401) and are depicted on the en route MOA is being used, nonparticipating IFR trafc may be
chart appropriate for use at the altitude or FL being own. cleared through an MOA if IFR separation can be provided by
[Figure 14-3] Restricted area information can be obtained ATC. Otherwise, ATC reroutes or restricts nonparticipating
on the back of the chart. IFR trafc. MOAs are depicted on sectional, VFR terminal
area, and en route low altitude charts and are not numbered
(e.g., Camden Ridge MOA). [Figure 14-5] However, the
MOA is also further dened on the back of the sectional
charts with times of operation, altitudes affected, and the
controlling agency.

Alert Areas
Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical charts with an A
followed by a number (e.g., A-211) to inform nonparticipating
pilots of areas that may contain a high volume of pilot training
or an unusual type of aerial activity. Pilots should exercise
caution in alert areas. All activity within an alert area shall
be conducted in accordance with regulations, without waiver,
and pilots of participating aircraft, as well as pilots transiting
the area, shall be equally responsible for collision avoidance.
[Figure 14-6]

Figure 14-3. Restricted areas on a sectional chart. Controlled Firing Areas (CFAs)
CFAs contain activities, which, if not conducted in a controlled
Warning Areas environment, could be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft.
Warning areas are similar in nature to restricted areas; The difference between CFAs and other special use airspace
however, the United States government does not have sole is that activities must be suspended when a spotter aircraft,
jurisdiction over the airspace. A warning area is airspace of radar, or ground lookout position indicates an aircraft might
dened dimensions, extending from 12 NM outward from be approaching the area. There is no need to chart CFAs
the coast of the United States, containing activity that may since they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to change
be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose of its ightpath.
such areas is to warn nonparticipating pilots of the potential
danger. A warning area may be located over domestic or Other Airspace Areas
international waters or both. The airspace is designated with Other airspace areas is a general term referring to the
a W followed by a number (e.g., W-237). [Figure 14-4] majority of the remaining airspace. It includes:
Local airport advisory
Military Operation Areas (MOAs)
MOAs consist of airspace with dened vertical and lateral Military training route (MTR)
limits established for the purpose of separating certain Temporary ight restriction (TFR)
Parachute jump aircraft operations
Published VFR routes
Terminal radar service area (TRSA)
National security area (NSA)

Local Airport Advisory (LAA)

A service provided by facilities, which are located on the
landing airport, have a discrete ground-to-air communication
frequency or the tower frequency when the tower is closed,
automated weather reporting with voice broadcasting, and
a continuous ASOS/AWOS data display, other continuous
direct reading instruments, or manual observations available
Figure 14-4. Requirements for airspace operations.
to the specialist.

14-4
Figure 14-5. Camden Ridge MOA is an example of a military operations area.

Figure 14-6. Alert area (A-211).

14-5
Military Training Routes (MTRs) Protect declared national disasters for humanitarian
MTRs are routes used by military aircraft to maintain reasons in the State of Hawaii.
proficiency in tactical flying. These routes are usually Protect the President, Vice President, or other public
established below 10,000 feet MSL for operations at speeds gures.
in excess of 250 knots. Some route segments may be dened
at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity. Routes are Provide a safe environment for space agency
identied as IFR (IR), and VFR (VR), followed by a number. operations.
[Figure 14-7] MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet
AGL are identied by four number characters (e.g., IR1206, Since the events of September 11, 2001, the use of TFRs has
VR1207). MTRs that include one or more segments above become much more common. There have been a number
1,500 feet AGL are identied by three number characters of incidents of aircraft incursions into TFRs, which have
(e.g., IR206, VR207). IFR low altitude en route charts resulted in pilots undergoing security investigations and
depict all IR routes and all VR routes that accommodate certicate suspensions. It is a pilots responsibility to be
operations above 1,500 feet AGL. IR routes are conducted aware of TFRs in their proposed area of ight. One way to
in accordance with IFR regardless of weather conditions. check is to visit the FAA website, www.tfr.faa.gov, and verify
VFR sectional charts depict military training activities such that there is not a TFR in the area.
as IR, VR, MOA, restricted area, warning area, and alert
area information. Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations
Parachute jump aircraft operations are published in the
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). Sites that are used
frequently are depicted on sectional charts.

Published VFR Routes

Published VFR routes are for transitioning around, under, or
through some complex airspace. Terms such as VFR yway,
VFR corridor, Class B airspace VFR transition route, and
terminal area VFR route have been applied to such routes.
These routes are generally found on VFR terminal area
planning charts.

Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSAs)

TRSAs are areas where participating pilots can receive
Figure 14-7. Military training route (MTR) chart symbols.
additional radar services. The purpose of the service is
to provide separation between all IFR operations and
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) participating VFR aircraft.
A ight data center (FDC) Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)
is issued to designate a TFR. The NOTAM begins with The primary airport(s) within the TRSA become(s) Class D
the phrase FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS followed by the airspace. The remaining portion of the TRSA overlies other
location of the temporary restriction, effective time period, controlled airspace, which is normally Class E airspace
area dened in statute miles, and altitudes affected. The beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet and established to transition to/
NOTAM also contains the FAA coordination facility and from the en route/terminal environment. TRSAs are depicted
telephone number, the reason for the restriction, and any other on VFR sectional charts and terminal area charts with a solid
information deemed appropriate. The pilot should check the black line and altitudes for each segment. The Class D portion
NOTAMs as part of ight planning. is charted with a blue segmented line. Participation in TRSA
services is voluntary; however, pilots operating under VFR
Some of the purposes for establishing a TFR are: are encouraged to contact the radar approach control and take
Protect persons and property in the air or on the surface advantage of TRSA service.
from an existing or imminent hazard.
National Security Areas (NSAs)
Provide a safe environment for the operation of
disaster relief aircraft. NSAs consist of airspace of dened vertical and lateral
dimensions established at locations where there is a
Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft requirement for increased security and safety of ground
above an incident or event, which may generate a high facilities. Flight in NSAs may be temporarily prohibited by
degree of public interest.

14-6
regulation under the provisions of Title 14 of the Code of 1. The controller within whose area of jurisdiction the
Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 99, and prohibitions are control instructions are issued.
disseminated via NOTAM. Pilots are requested to voluntarily 2. The controller receiving the transfer of control.
avoid ying through these depicted areas.
3. Any intervening controller(s) through whose area of
Air Trafc Control and the National jurisdiction the aircraft will pass.
Airspace System
If ATC issues control instructions to an aircraft through a
The primary purpose of the ATC system is to prevent a
source other than another controller (e.g., Aeronautical Radio,
collision between aircraft operating in the system and to
Incorporated (ARINC), Automated Flight Service Station/
organize and expedite the ow of trafc. In addition to
Flight Service Station (AFSS/FSS), another pilot) they ensure
its primary function, the ATC system has the capability to
that the necessary coordination has been accomplished with
provide (with certain limitations) additional services. The
any controllers listed above, whose area of jurisdiction is
ability to provide additional services is limited by many
affected by those instructions unless otherwise specied by
factors, such as the volume of trafc, frequency congestion,
a letter of agreement or a facility directive.
quality of radar, controller workload, higher priority duties,
and the pure physical inability to scan and detect those
Operating in the Various Types of Airspace
situations that fall in this category. It is recognized that these
It is important that pilots be familiar with the operational
services cannot be provided in cases in which the provision
requirements for each of the various types or classes of
of services is precluded by the above factors.
airspace. Subsequent sections cover each class in sufcient
detail to facilitate understanding with regard to weather, type
Consistent with the aforementioned conditions, controllers
of pilot certicate held, as well as equipment required.
shall provide additional service procedures to the extent
permitted by higher priority duties and other circumstances.
Basic VFR Weather Minimums
The provision of additional services is not optional on the
part of the controller, but rather is required when the work No pilot may operate an aircraft under basic VFR when the
situation permits. Provide ATC service in accordance with ight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is
the procedures and minima in this order except when: less, than that prescribed for the corresponding altitude and
class of airspace. [Figure 14-9] Except as provided in 14
1. A deviation is necessary to conform with ICAO CFR Section 91.157, Special VFR Weather Minimums, no
Documents, National Rules of the Air, or special person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under
agreements where the United States provides ATC VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace
service in airspace outside the country and its designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is
possessions or: less than 1,000 feet. Additional information can be found in
2. Other procedures/minima are prescribed in a letter of 14 CFR section 91.155(c).
agreement, FAA directive, or a military document,
or: Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements
3. A deviation is necessary to assist an aircraft when an The safety of ight is a top priority of all pilots and the
emergency has been declared. responsibilities associated with operating an aircraft
should always be taken seriously. The air trafc system
Coordinating the Use of Airspace maintains a high degree of safety and efciency with strict
ATC is responsible for ensuring that the necessary regulatory oversight of the FAA. Pilots y in accordance
coordination has been accomplished before allowing an with regulations that have served the United States well, as
aircraft under their control to enter another controllers area evidenced by the fact that the country has the safest aviation
of jurisdiction. system in the world.

Before issuing control instructions directly or relaying All aircraft operating in todays National Airspace System
through another source to an aircraft which is within (NAS) has complied with the CFR governing its certication
another controllers area of jurisdiction that will change that and maintenance; all pilots operating today have completed
aircrafts heading, route, speed, or altitude, ATC ensures rigorous pilot certication training and testing. Of equal
that coordination has been accomplished with each of the importance is the proper execution of preight planning,
controllers listed below whose area of jurisdiction is affected aeronautical decision-making (ADM) and risk management.
by those instructions unless otherwise specied by a letter ADM involves a systematic approach to risk assessment
of agreement or a facility directive: and stress management in aviation, illustrates how personal

14-7
attitudes can inuence decision-making, and how those received prior to entering the airspace. Unless otherwise
attitudes can be modied to enhance safety in the ight authorized by ATC, each aircraft operating in Class A
deck. More detailed information regarding ADM and airspace must be equipped with a two-way radio capable of
risk mitigation can be found in Chapter 17, Aeronautical communicating with ATC on a frequency assigned by ATC.
Decision-Making. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all aircraft within Class
A airspace must be equipped with the appropriate transponder
Pilots also comply with very strict FAA general operating equipment meeting all applicable specications found in 14
and ight rules as outlined in the CFR, including the FAAs CFR section 91.215.
important see and avoid mandate. These regulations
provide the historical foundation of the FAA regulations Class B
governing the aviation system and the individual classes of All pilots operating an aircraft within a Class B airspace area
airspace. Figure 14-10 lists the operational and equipment must receive an ATC clearance from the ATC facility having
requirements for these various classes of airspace. It will jurisdiction for that area. The pilot in command (PIC) may
be helpful to refer to this gure as the specic classes are not take off or land an aircraft at an airport within a Class
discussed in greater detail. B airspace unless he or she has met one of the following
requirements:
Class A
1. A private pilot certicate.
Pilots operating an aircraft in Class A airspace must conduct
that operation under IFR and only under an ATC clearance 2. A recreational pilot certicate and all requirements
contained
Basic VFR Weather Minimums within 14 CFR section 61.101(d), or the

Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds

Class A Not applicable Not applicable

Class B 3 statute miles Clear of clouds

Class C 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

500 feet below
2,000 feet horizontal

Class D 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

500 feet below
2,000 feet horizontal

Class E 5 statute miles 1,000 feet above

At or above
1,000 feet below
10,000 feet MSL
1 statute mile horizontal

Less than 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

10,000 feet MSL 500 feet below
2,000 feet horizontal

Class G Day, except as provided in section 91.155(b) 1 statute mile Clear of clouds
1,200 feet or less
above the surface
Night, except as provided in section 91.155(b) 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above
(regardless of
500 feet below
MSL altitude).
2,000 feet horizontal

Day 1 statute mile 1,000 feet above

More than 1,200 500 feet below
feet above the 2,000 feet horizontal
surface but less
than 10,000 feet Night 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above
MSL. 500 feet below
2,000 feet horizontal

More than 1,200 feet 5 statute miles 1,000 feet above

above the surface 1,000 feet below
and at or above 1 statute mile horizontal
10,000 feet MSL.

Figure 14-9. Visual flight rule weather minimums.

14-8
 requirements for a student pilot seeking a recreational and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC
pilot certicate in 14 CFR section 61.94. facility having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace area as
3. A sport pilot certicate and all requirements contained soon as practicable after departing.
within 14 CFR section 61.325, or the requirements for
a student pilot seeking a recreational pilot certicate Unless otherwise authorized by the ATC having jurisdiction
in 14 CFR section 61.94, or the aircraft is operated over the Class C airspace area, all aircraft within Class C
by a student pilot who has met the requirements of 14 airspace must be equipped with the appropriate transponder
CFR sections 61.94 and 61.95, as applicable. equipment meeting all applicable specications found in 14
CFR section 91.215.
Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all aircraft within Class
B airspace must be equipped with the applicable operating Class D
transponder and automatic altitude reporting equipment No pilot may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite airport
specified in 14 CFR section 91.215(a) and an operable within a Class D airspace area except in compliance with
two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on FAA arrival and departure trafc patterns. A pilot departing
appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace area. from the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating
control tower must establish and maintain two-way radio
Class C communications with the control tower, and thereafter as
For the purpose of this section, the primary airport is the instructed by ATC while operating in the Class D airspace
airport for which the Class C airspace area is designated. A area. If departing from a satellite airport without an operating
satellite airport is any other airport within the Class C airspace control tower, the pilot must establish and maintain two-
area. No pilot may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite way radio communications with the ATC facility having
airport within a Class C airspace area except in compliance jurisdiction over the Class D airspace area as soon as
with FAA arrival and departure trafc patterns. practicable after departing.

Two-way radio communications must be established and Two-way radio communications must be established and
maintained with the ATC facility providing air trafc services maintained with the ATC facility providing air trafc services
prior to entering the airspace and thereafter maintained while prior to entering the airspace and thereafter maintained while
within the airspace. within the airspace.

A pilot departing from the primary airport or satellite airport If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot
with an operating control tower must establish and maintain should continue the ight by the route assigned in the last
two-way radio communications with the control tower, ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the
and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in the direct route from the point of radio failure to the x, route,
Class C airspace area. If departing from a satellite airport or airway specied in the vector clearance. In the absence
without an operating control tower, the pilot must establish of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route

Class
Airspace Entry Requirements Equipment Minimum Pilot Certificate

A ATC clearance IFR equipped Instrument rating

B ATC clearance Two-way radio, transponder Private(However, a student or

with altitude reporting capability recreational pilot may operate at
other than the primary airport if
seeking private pilot certication and
if regulatory requirements are met.)

C Two-way radio communications Two-way radio, transponder No specific requirement

prior to entry with altitude reporting capability

D Two-way radio communications Two-way radio No specific requirement

prior to entry

E None for VFR No specific requirement No specific requirement

G None No specific requirement No specific requirement

Figure 14-10. Requirements for airspace operations.

14-9
that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person
or, if a route had not been advised, by the route led in the may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport
ight plan. having an operational control tower unless two-way radio
communications are maintained between that aircraft and the
If the aircraft radio fails in ight under VFR, the PIC may control tower. Communications must be established prior to
operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500
above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in ight, the
tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received. pilot in command may operate that aircraft and land if weather
conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums,
Class E visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance
Unless otherwise required by 14 CFR part 93 or unless to land is received.
otherwise authorized or required by the ATC facility having
jurisdiction over the Class E airspace area, each pilot If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot
operating an aircraft on or in the vicinity of an airport in a should continue the ight by the route assigned in the last
Class E airspace area must comply with the requirements of ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the
Class G airspace. Each pilot must also comply with any trafc direct route from the point of radio failure to the x, route,
patterns established for that airport in 14 CFR part 93. or airway specied in the vector clearance. In the absence
of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route
Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance;
may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport or, if a route had not been advised, by the route led in the
having an operational control tower unless two-way radio ight plan.
communications are maintained between that aircraft and
the control tower. Communications must be established prior Ultralight Vehicles
to four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including No person may operate an ultralight vehicle within Class A,
2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace or within the lateral
ight, the PIC may operate that aircraft and land if weather boundaries of the surface area of Class E airspace designated
conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, for an airport unless that person has prior authorization from
visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that airspace. (See
to land is received. 14 CFR part 103.)

If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot Unmanned Free Balloons
should continue the ight by the route assigned in the last Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate
ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the an unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the surface
direct route from the point of radio failure to the x, route, within the lateral boundaries of Class B, Class C, Class D,
or airway specied in the vector clearance. In the absence or Class E airspace designated for an airport. (See 14 CFR
of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route part 101.)
that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance;
or, if a route had not been advised, by the route led in the Parachute Jumps
ight plan.
No person may make a parachute jump, and no PIC may
allow a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft, in or
Class G
into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace without,
When approaching to land at an airport without an operating or in violation of, the terms of an ATC authorization issued
control tower in Class G airspace: by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the airspace.
1. Each pilot of an airplane must make all turns of that (See 14 CFR part 105.)
airplane to the left unless the airport displays approved
light signals or visual markings indicating that turns Chapter Summary
should be made to the right, in which case the pilot
This chapter introduces the various classications of airspace
must make all turns to the right.
and provides information on the requirements to operate in
2. Each pilot of a helicopter or a powered parachute must such airspace. For further information, consult the AIM and
avoid the ow of xed-wing aircraft. 14 CFR parts 71, 73, and 91.

14-10