Math Power 3

LIALMC06_0321227638.
QXP 2/26/04 10:41 AM Page 533
6
The Circular Functions
and Their Graphs
In August 2003, the planet Mars passed closer to Earth than it had in
almost 60,000 years. Like Earth, Mars rotates on its axis and thus has days
and nights. The photos here were taken by the Hubble telescope and show
two nearly opposite sides of Mars. (Source:
www.hubblesite.org) In Exercise 92 of
6.1 Radian Measure
Section 6.2, we examine the length of a
Martian day. 6.2 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions
Phenomena such as rotation of a planet
6.3 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine
on its axis, high and low tides, and chang-
Functions
ing of the seasons of the year are modeled
by periodic functions. In this chapter, we 6.4 Graphs of the Other Circular
see how the trigonometric functions of the Functions
previous chapter, introduced there in the Summary Exercises on Graphing Circular
context of ratios of the sides of a right tri- Functions
angle, can also be viewed from the perspec-
tive of motion around a circle. 6.5 Harmonic Motion
533
LIALMC06_0321227638.QXP 2/26/04 10:41 AM Page 534
534 CHAPTER 6 The Circular Functions and Their Graphs
6.1 Radian Measure

Radian Measure ■ Converting Between Degrees and Radians ■ Arc Length of a Circle ■ Area of a Sector
of a Circle
y
Radian Measure In most applications of trigonometry, angles are measured
in degrees. In more advanced work in mathematics, radian measure of angles is
preferred. Radian measure allows us to treat the trigonometric functions as func-
r tions with domains of real numbers, rather than angles.
x Figure 1 shows an angle in standard position along with a circle of
0 r
radius r. The vertex of is at the center of the circle. Because angle intercepts
an arc on the circle equal in length to the radius of the circle, we say that angle
has a measure of 1 radian.
␪ = 1 radian
Figure 1 Radian
An angle with its vertex at the center of a circle that intercepts an arc on the
TEACHING TIP Students may resist circle equal in length to the radius of the circle has a measure of 1 radian.
the idea of using radian measure.
Explain that radians have wide
applications in angular motion It follows that an angle of measure 2 radians intercepts an arc equal in
problems (seen in Section 6.2), as 1
length to twice the radius of the circle, an angle of measure 2 radian intercepts
well as engineering and science.
an arc equal in length to half the radius of the circle, and so on. In general, if is
a central angle of a circle of radius r and intercepts an arc of length s, then the
s
radian measure of is r .
Converting Between Degrees and Radians The circumference of a
circle— the distance around the circle—is given by C 2 r, where r is the ra-
dius of the circle. The formula C 2 r shows that the radius can be laid off 2
times around a circle. Therefore, an angle of 360°, which corresponds to a com-
plete circle, intercepts an arc equal in length to 2 times the radius of the circle.
Thus, an angle of 360° has a measure of 2 radians:
360 2 radians.
An angle of 180° is half the size of an angle of 360°, so an angle of 180° has
half the radian measure of an angle of 360°.
1
180 2 radians radians Degreeradian relationship
2
We can use the relationship 180 radians to develop a method for con-
verting between degrees and radians as follows.
180 radians
TEACHING TIP Emphasize the 180
1 radian Divide by 180. or 1 radian Divide by .
difference between an angle of 180
a degrees (written a°) and an
angle of a radians (written a r, ar ,
or a). Caution students that Converting Between Degrees and Radians
although radian measures are

often given exactly in terms of , 1. Multiply a degree measure by 180 radian and simplify to convert to radians.
they can also be approximated
using decimals. 2. Multiply a radian measure by 180
and simplify to convert to degrees.
6.1 Radian Measure 535
EXAMPLE 1 Converting Degrees to Radians

Convert each degree measure to radians.
(a) 45° (b) 249.8°
Solution

Some calculators (in radian
mode) have the capability to
convert directly between de-
(a) 45 45 radian radian Multiply by 180 radian.
180 4

cimal degrees and radians.
This screen shows the con-

versions for Example 1. Note (b) 249.8 249.8 radian 4.360 radians Nearest thousandth
that when exact values invol- 180
ving ␲ are required, such as
␲ in part (a), calculator ap-
4 Now try Exercises 1 and 13.
proximations are not accept-
able.
EXAMPLE 2 Converting Radians to Degrees
Convert each radian measure to degrees.
9
(a) (b) 4.25 (Give the answer in decimal degrees.)
4
Solution
This screen shows how a cal-

culator converts the radian
measures in Example 2 to de-
(a)
9 9 180
4

4
405 (b) 4.25 4.25
180

243.5
gree measures. Multiply by 180

. Use a calculator.
Now try Exercises 21 and 31.
y
If no unit of angle measure is specified, then radian measure is understood.
CAUTION Figure 2 shows angles measuring 30 radians and 30°. Be careful

not to confuse them.
x
0
The following table and Figure 3 on the next page give some equivalent
30 radians
angles measured in degrees and radians. Keep in mind that 180 radians.
y
Degrees Radians Degrees Radians
Exact Approximate Exact Approximate
30°
0
x 0° 0 0 90° 1.57
2
30 degrees
30° .52 180° 3.14
6
Figure 2 3
45° .79 270° 4.71
4 2

60° 1.05 360° 2 6.28
3
Looking Ahead to Calculus 90° = ␲

120° = 2␲ 2 60° = ␲
In calculus, radian measure is much 3 3
easier to work with than degree mea- 135° = 3␲ 45° = ␲
4 4
30° = ␲
sure. If x is measured in radians, then
150° = 5␲
the derivative of f x sin x is 6 6
f x cos x. 180° = ␲ 0° = 0
However, if x is measured in degrees,

210° = 7␲ 330° = 11␲
then the derivative of f x sin x is 6 6
225° = 5␲ 315° = 7␲
4 4
f x cos x. 240° = 4␲ 300° = 5␲
180 3 270° = 3␲ 3
2
Figure 3
We use radian measure to simplify certain formulas, two of which follow.

Each would be more complicated if expressed in degrees.
Arc Length of a Circle We use the first for- y
mula to find the length of an arc of a circle. This T Q

formula is derived from the fact (proven in geom-
etry) that the length of an arc is proportional to the s r
measure of its central angle. radians 1 radian x
In Figure 4, angle QOP has measure 1 radian R r O r P
and intercepts an arc of length r on the circle.
Angle ROT has measure radians and intercepts
an arc of length s on the circle. Since the lengths
of the arcs are proportional to the measures of Figure 4
their central angles,
s
.
r 1
Multiplying both sides by r gives the following result.
Arc Length
The length s of the arc intercepted on a circle of radius r by a central angle
of measure radians is given by the product of the radius and the radian
measure of the angle, or
TEACHING TIP To help students
appreciate radian measure, show s r, in radians.
them that in degrees the formula
for arc length is
r
s 2 r .
360 180
CAUTION When applying the formula s r, the value of must be
(See Exercise 54.) expressed in radians.
EXAMPLE 3 Finding Arc Length Using s r

A circle has radius 18.2 cm. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central
angle having each of the following measures.
3
(a) radians (b) 144°
8
Solution
(a) As shown in the figure, r 18.2 cm and 38 .

s s r Arc length formula

3
8 3
r = 18.2 cm
s 18.2 cm Substitute for r and .
8
54.6
s cm 21.4 cm
8
(b) The formula s r requires that be measured in radians. First, convert

to radians by multiplying 144° by 180 radian.
144 144
180

4
5
radians Convert from degrees to radians.
The length s is given by
s r 18.2
4
5

72.8
5
45.7 cm.
EXAMPLE 4 Using Latitudes to Find the Distance Between Two Cities

Reno, Nevada, is approximately due north of Los Angeles. The latitude of Reno
is 40° N, while that of Los Angeles is 34° N. (The N in 34° N means north of the
equator.) The radius of Earth is 6400 km. Find the north-south distance between
the two cities.
Solution Latitude gives the measure of a central angle with vertex at Earth’s
center whose initial side goes through the equator and whose terminal side goes
Reno
s through the given location. As shown in Figure 5, the central angle between
6° Los Angeles
Reno and Los Angeles is 40 34 6. The distance between the two cities
can be found by the formula s r, after 6° is first converted to radians.
34°
6400 km
40°
Equator
6 6
180

30
radian
The distance between the two cities is

Figure 5

s r 6400 670 km. Let r 6400 and 30 .
30
Now try Exercise 55.

EXAMPLE 5 Finding a Length Using s r

39.72°
A rope is being wound around a drum with radius .8725 ft. (See Figure 6.) How
.8725 ft
much rope will be wound around the drum if the drum is rotated through an
angle of 39.72°?
Solution The length of rope wound around the drum is the arc length for a cir-
cle of radius .8725 ft and a central angle of 39.72°. Use the formula s r, with
Figure 6
the angle converted to radian measure. The length of the rope wound around the
drum is approximately

s r .8725 39.72

180
.6049 ft.
Now try Exercise 61(a).
EXAMPLE 6 Finding an Angle Measure Using s r

Two gears are adjusted so that the smaller gear drives the larger one, as shown in
m Figure 7. If the smaller gear rotates through 225°, through how many degrees
2. 5c
will the larger gear rotate?
4.8
cm
Solution First find the radian measure of the angle, and then find the arc length
on the smaller gear that determines the motion of the larger gear. Since
5
225 4 radians, for the smaller gear,
Figure 7
s r 2.5 5
4

12.5 25
4

8
cm.
An arc with this length on the larger gear corresponds to an angle measure , in
radians, where
s r
25
4.8 Substitute 258 for s and 4.8 for r.
8
125 48 24
4.8 10 5 ; multiply
. 5
192 by 24 to solve for .
Converting back to degrees shows that the larger gear rotates through
192
125 180
117. Convert 125
192 to degrees.
The shaded Area of a Sector of a Circle A sector of a circle is the portion of the
region is a interior of a circle intercepted by a central angle. Think of it as a “piece of pie.”
sector of
the circle. See Figure 8. A complete circle can be thought of as an angle with measure 2
␪
radians. If a central angle for a sector has measure radians, then the sector
r
makes up the fraction 2 of a complete circle. The area of a complete circle with
radius r is A r . Therefore,
2
1
Figure 8 area of the sector r 2 r 2, in radians.
2 2
This discussion is summarized as follows.
Area of a Sector
The area of a sector of a circle of radius r and central angle is given by
1 2
A r , in radians.
2
CAUTION As in the formula for arc length, the value of must be in radi-
ans when using this formula for the area of a sector.
EXAMPLE 7 Finding the Area of a Sector-Shaped Field

Find the area of the sector-shaped field shown in Figure 9.
15°
m
Solution First, convert 15° to radians.

321
15 15

180

12
radian
Now use the formula to find the area of a sector of a circle with radius r 321.
Figure 9
A
1 2
2
1
r 3212
2

12
13,500 m2
6.1 Exercises
5 3 Convert each degree measure to radians. Leave answers as multiples of . See
1. 2. 3. 4.
3 2 6 2 Example 1(a).
7 8
5. 6. 7. 1. 60 2. 90 3. 150 4. 270
4 3 4
7 5. 315 6. 480 7. 45 8. 210
8. 9. .68 10. 1.29
6
11. 2.43 12. 3.05 13. 1.122 Convert each degree measure to radians. See Example 1(b).
14. 2.140 15. 1 16. 2 9. 39 10. 74 11. 139 10
12. 174 50 13. 64.29 14. 122.62
Concept Check In Exercises 15 –18, each angle is an integer when measured in

radians. Give the radian measure of the angle.
15. y 16. y
θ
θ
x x
0 0
17. 3 18. 1 21. 60 17. y 18. y

22. 480 23. 315 24. 120
25. 330 26. 675 27. 30
28. 63 29. 114.6 θ
30. 286.5 31. 99.7 32. 19.6 x x
33. 564.2 34. 198.9 0 0 θ

3
35. 1 36.
2 37.
3
1 1
38. 39. 1 40.
2 2 9 19. In your own words, explain how to convert

3
41. 42. 1 (a) degree measure to radian measure; (b) radian measure to degree measure.
2
9 20. Explain the difference between degree measure and radian measure.
Convert each radian measure to degrees. See Example 2(a).

8 7 2
21. 22. 23. 24.
3 3 4 3
11 15 7
25. 26. 27. 28.
6 4 6 20
Convert each radian measure to degrees. Give answers using decimal degrees to the
nearest tenth. See Example 2(b).
29. 2 30. 5 31. 1.74
32. .3417 33. 9.84763 34. 3.47189
Relating Concepts
For individual or collaborative investigation
(Exercises 35–42)
In anticipation of the material in the next section, we show how to find the trigonomet-
ric function values of radian-measured angles. Suppose we want to find sin 56 . One way
to do this is to convert 56 radians to 150°, and then use the methods of Chapter 5
to evaluate:
5 1
sin sin 150 sin 30 . (Section 5.3)
6 2
Sine is positive Reference angle

in quadrant II. for 150
Use this technique to find each function value. Give exact values.
2
35. tan 36. csc 37. cot 38. cos
4 4 3 3
39. sec 40. sin 7

6
41. cos
6
42. tan 9
4
43. 2 44. 4 45. 8 46. 6 Concept Check Find the exact length of each arc intercepted by the given central
47. 1 48. 1.5 49. 25.8 cm angle.
50. 3.08 cm 51. 5.05 m 43. 44.
52. 169 cm 53. The length is
r
doubled. 54. s 2 3
180 12
4
55. 3500 km 56. 1500 km
57. 5900 km 58. 8800 km
Concept Check Find the radius of each circle.

45. 6 46. 3

3 2
4
Concept Check Find the measure of each central angle (in radians).
47. 48.
3 6

3 4
Unless otherwise directed, give calculator approximations in your answers in the rest
of this exercise set.
Find the length of each arc intercepted by a central angle in a circle of radius r. See
Example 3.
2 11
49. r 12.3 cm, radians 50. r .892 cm, radians
3 10
51. r 4.82 m, 60 52. r 71.9 cm, 135
53. Concept Check If the radius of a circle is doubled, how is the length of the arc
intercepted by a fixed central angle changed?
54. Concept Check Radian measure simplifies many formulas, such as the formula for
arc length, s r . Give the corresponding formula when is measured in degrees
instead of radians.
Distance Between Cities Find the distance in kilometers between each pair of cities,
assuming they lie on the same north-south line. See Example 4.
55. Panama City, Panama, 9 N, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 40 N
56. Farmersville, California, 36 N, and Penticton, British Columbia, 49 N
57. New York City, New York, 41 N, and Lima, Peru, 12 S
58. Halifax, Nova Scotia, 45 N, and Buenos Aires, Argentina, 34 S
59. 44 N 60. 43 N 59. Latitude of Madison Madison, South Dakota, and Dallas, Texas, are 1200 km
61. (a) 11.6 in. (b) 37 5 apart and lie on the same north-south line. The latitude of Dallas is 33 N. What is
62. 12.7 cm 63. 38.5 the latitude of Madison?
64. 18.7 cm 65. 146 in. 60. Latitude of Toronto Charleston, South Carolina, and Toronto, Canada, are 1100 km
66. (a) 39,616 rotations
apart and lie on the same north-south line. The latitude of Charleston is 33 N. What
is the latitude of Toronto?
Work each problem. See Examples 5 and 6.

61. Pulley Raising a Weight
(a) How many inches will the weight in the figure rise if
the pulley is rotated through an angle of 71 50?
(b) Through what angle, to the nearest minute, must the 9.27 in.
pulley be rotated to raise the weight 6 in.?
62. Pulley Raising a Weight Find the radius of the pulley in

the figure if a rotation of 51.6 raises the weight 11.4 cm.
63. Rotating Wheels The rotation of the smaller

wheel in the figure causes the larger wheel to rotate.
Through how many degrees will the larger wheel
5.23 8 .1 6
rotate if the smaller one rotates through 60.0? cm cm
64. Rotating Wheels Find the radius of the larger

wheel in the figure if the smaller wheel rotates
80.0 when the larger wheel rotates 50.0.
11.7
cm r
65. Bicycle Chain Drive The figure

shows the chain drive of a bicycle.
1.38 in.
How far will the bicycle move if
the pedals are rotated through 4.72 in.
180? Assume the radius of the
bicycle wheel is 13.6 in.
66. Pickup Truck Speedometer The speedometer of Terry’s small pickup truck is
designed to be accurate with tires of radius 14 in.
(a) Find the number of rotations of a tire in 1 hr if the truck is driven at 55 mph.
66. (b) 62.9 mi; yes (b) Suppose that oversize tires of radius 16 in. are placed on the truck. If the truck is
67. .20 km 68. 850 ft now driven for 1 hr with the speedometer reading 55 mph, how far has the truck
69. 6 70. 16 71. 1.5 gone? If the speed limit is 55 mph, does Terry deserve a speeding ticket?
72. 1 73. 1116.1 m2
74. 3744.8 km2 75. 706.9 ft 2
76. 10,602.9 yd2 77. 114.0 cm2 If a central angle is very small, there is little differ- Arc length ≈ length of inscribed chord
78. 365.3 m2 79. 1885.0 mi2 ence in length between an arc and the inscribed
80. 19,085.2 km2 81. 3.6 chord. See the figure. Approximate each of the fol-
lowing lengths by finding the necessary arc length. Arc
82. 16 m
(Note: When a central angle intercepts an arc, the
Inscribed chord
arc is said to subtend the angle.)
67. Length of a Train A railroad track in the desert is 3.5 km away. A train on the
track subtends (horizontally) an angle of 3 20. Find the length of the train.
68. Distance to a Boat The mast of Brent Simon’s boat is 32 ft high. If it subtends an
angle of 2 10, how far away is it?
Concept Check Find the area of each sector.

69. 70. 4
2

6 8
Concept Check Find the measure (in radians) of each central angle. The number in-
side the sector is the area.
71. 72.
3 sq units 8 sq units
2 4
Find the area of a sector of a circle having radius r and central angle . See Example 7.
5 2
73. r 29.2 m, radians 74. r 59.8 km, radians
6 3
5
75. r 30.0 ft, radians 76. r 90.0 yd, radians
2 6
77. r 12.7 cm, 81 78. r 18.3 m, 125
79. r 40.0 mi, 135 80. r 90.0 km, 270
Work each problem.

81. Find the measure (in radians) of a central angle of a sector of area 16 in.2 in a circle
of radius 3.0 in.
82. Find the radius of a circle in which a central angle of 6 radian determines a sector of
area 64 m2.
1 2 83. Measures of a Structure The figure shows Medicine Wheel, a Native American
83. (a) 13 ; (b) 480 ft structure in northern Wyoming. This circular structure is perhaps 2500 yr old. There
3 27
160 are 27 aboriginal spokes in the wheel, all equally spaced.
(c) 17.8 ft
9
(d) approximately 672 ft 2
84. 75.4 in.2
85. (a) 140 ft (b) 102 ft
(c) 622 ft 2
86. (a) 550 m (b) 1800 m
87. 1900 yd2 88. 1.15 mi
(a) Find the measure of each central angle in degrees and in radians.
(b) If the radius of the wheel is 76 ft, find the circumference.
(c) Find the length of each arc intercepted by consecutive pairs of spokes.
(d) Find the area of each sector formed by consecutive spokes.
84. Area Cleaned by a Windshield Wiper The Ford
95°
Model A, built from 1928 to 1931, had a single 7i
.
in
windshield wiper on the driver’s side. The total n.
10
arm and blade was 10 in. long and rotated back
and forth through an angle of 95. The shaded
region in the figure is the portion of the wind-
shield cleaned by the 7-in. wiper blade. What is
the area of the region cleaned?
85. Circular Railroad Curves In the United States, circular railroad curves are
designated by the degree of curvature, the central angle subtended by a chord of
100 ft. Suppose a portion of track has curvature 42. (Source: Hay, W., Railroad
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, 1982.)
(a) What is the radius of the curve?
(b) What is the length of the arc determined by the 100-ft chord?
(c) What is the area of the portion of the circle bounded by the arc and the 100-ft
chord?
86. Land Required for a Solar-Power Plant A 300-megawatt solar-power plant
requires approximately 950,000 m2 of land area in order to collect the required
amount of energy from sunlight.
(a) If this land area is circular, what is its radius?
(b) If this land area is a 35 sector of a circle, what is its radius?
87. Area of a Lot A frequent problem in surveying
city lots and rural lands adjacent to curves of highways
and railways is that of finding the area when one or
more of the boundary lines is the arc of a circle. Find 40 yd
the area of the lot shown in the figure. (Source:
60°
Anderson, J. and E. Michael, Introduction to
Surveying, McGraw-Hill, 1985.) 30 yd
88. Nautical Miles Nautical miles are used by
ships and airplanes. They are different from
statute miles, which equal 5280 ft. A nautical
mile is defined to be the arc length along the O
equator intercepted by a central angle AOB of B
1 min, as illustrated in the figure. If the equato- A
rial radius of Earth is 3963 mi, use the arc
Nautical Not to scale
length formula to approximate the number of mile
statute miles in 1 nautical mile. Round your
answer to two decimal places.
6.2 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions 545
89. radius: 3947 mi; 89. Circumference of Earth The first accurate Sun's rays at noon
circumference: 24,800 mi estimate of the distance around Earth was
90. approximately 2156 mi done by the Greek astronomer Eratosthenes 7° 12'
91. The area is quadrupled. 496 mi
(276 –195 B.C.), who noted that the noontime
r 2 Shadow
position of the sun at the summer solstice dif- Syene
92. A
360 fered by 7 12 from the city of Syene to the Alexandria
city of Alexandria. (See the figure.) The dis-
tance between these two cities is 496 mi. Use 7° 12'
the arc length formula to estimate the radius of
Earth. Then find the circumference of Earth.
(Source: Zeilik, M., Introductory Astronomy
and Astrophysics, Third Edition, Saunders
College Publishers, 1992.)
90. Diameter of the Moon The distance to the moon is approximately 238,900 mi. Use
the arc length formula to estimate the diameter d of the moon if angle in the figure
is measured to be .517.
␪ d
Not to scale
91. Concept Check If the radius of a circle is doubled and the central angle of a sec-
tor is unchanged, how is the area of the sector changed?
92. Concept Check Give the corresponding formula for the area of a sector when the
angle is measured in degrees.
6.2 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions

Circular Functions ■ Finding Values of Circular Functions ■ Determining a Number with a Given Circular
Function Value ■ Angular and Linear Speed
In Section 5.2, we defined the six trigonometric functions in such a way that the
domain of each function was a set of angles in standard position. These angles
can be measured in degrees or in radians. In advanced courses, such as calculus,
y
x = cos s
Arc of length s
it is necessary to modify the trigonometric functions so that their domains con-
y = sin s sist of real numbers rather than angles. We do this by using the relationship
(0, 1)
(x, y) between an angle and an arc of length s on a circle.
␪
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
Circular Functions In Figure 10, we start at the point 1, 0 and measure an
0
x arc of length s along the circle. If s 0, then the arc is measured in a counter-
clockwise direction, and if s 0, then the direction is clockwise. (If s 0, then
no arc is measured.) Let the endpoint of this arc be at the point x, y. The circle
(0, –1) in Figure 10 is a unit circle— it has center at the origin and radius 1 unit (hence
Unit circle x2 + y2 = 1 the name unit circle). Recall from algebra that the equation of this circle is
Figure 10 x 2 y 2 1. (Section 2.1)
We saw in the previous section that the radian measure of is related to the
arc length s. In fact, for measured in radians, we know that s r. Here,
r 1, so s, which is measured in linear units such as inches or centimeters, is
numerically equal to , measured in radians. Thus, the trigonometric functions
of angle in radians found by choosing a point x, y on the unit circle can be
rewritten as functions of the arc length s, a real number. When interpreted this
way, they are called circular functions.
Looking Ahead to Calculus Circular Functions

If you plan to study calculus, you must
become very familiar with radian mea- y
sure. In calculus, the trigonometric or
sin s y cos s x tan s (x 0)
x
circular functions are always under-
1 1 x
stood to have real number domains. csc s ( y 0) sec s (x 0) cot s ( y 0)
y x y
Since x represents the cosine of s and y represents the sine of s, and because
of the discussion in Section 6.1 on converting between degrees and radians, we
can summarize a great deal of information in a concise manner, as seen in
Figure 11.*
y
TEACHING TIP Draw a unit circle

(– 12 , √32 ) ␲ (0, 1) ( 12 , √32 )
90° ␲
on the chalkboard and trace a (– √22 , √22 ) 3␲ 2␲3 120°2 60° 3 ␲ ( √22 , √22 )
point slowly counterclockwise, 45° 4
starting at 1, 0. Students should (– √32 , 12 ) 5␲ 4 135° √3 , 1
30° 6 ( 2 2 )
␲
see that the y-value (sine function) 6 150°

starts at 0, increases to 1 (at 2 (–1, 0) 180° 0° 0 (1, 0)
x
radians), decreases to 0 (at radi- ␲ 0 360° 2␲
ans), decreases again to 1 (at 32 7␲ 210° 330° 11␲
√3 , 1
– √3 , – 1 (2 )
6
radians), and returns to 0 after ( 2 2 )
5␲ 225° 315° 7␲
6 –
2
one full revolution (2 radians). 4 4␲ 240° 300° 5␲ 4 √2 , – √2
This type of analysis will help illus- ( – √2 ,
2
– √2
2 ) 3 3␲
270° 2
3 (
2 2 )
1 , √3
trate the range associated with the
( – 1,
2
– √3
2 ) (
(0, –1) 2 – 2 )
sine and cosine functions.
Unit circle x2 + y2 = 1
Figure 11
NOTE Since sin s y and cos s x, we can replace x and y in the equation
x 2 y 2 1 and obtain the Pythagorean identity
cos2 s sin2 s 1.
The ordered pair x, y represents a point on the unit circle, and therefore
1
x
1 and 1
y
1,
so 1
cos s
1 and 1
sin s
1.
*The authors thank Professor Marvel Townsend of the University of Florida for her suggestion to include
this figure.
For any value of s, both sin s and cos s exist, so the domain of these functions is
y
the set of all real numbers. For tan s, defined as x , x must not equal 0. The only
3 3
way x can equal 0 is when the arc length s is 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , and so on. To
avoid a 0 denominator, the domain of the tangent function must be restricted to
those values of s satisfying

s 2n 1 , n any integer.
2
The definition of secant also has x in the denominator, so the domain of secant is
the same as the domain of tangent. Both cotangent and cosecant are defined with
a denominator of y. To guarantee that y 0, the domain of these functions must
be the set of all values of s satisfying
s n , n any integer.
In summary, the domains of the circular functions are as follows.
Domains of the Circular Functions

Assume that n is any integer and s is a real number.
Sine and Cosine Functions: ( , )
Tangent and Secant Functions: s s (2n 1)

2
Cotangent and Cosecant Functions: {s s n}
y
(cos s, sin s) = (x, y) Finding Values of Circular Functions The circular functions (functions
(0, 1) of real numbers) are closely related to the trigonometric functions of angles
measured in radians. To see this, let us assume that angle is in standard posi-
s=␪ tion, superimposed on the unit circle, as shown in Figure 12. Suppose further
(–1, 0)
␪ that is the radian measure of this angle. Using the arc length formula s r
0
x
(1, 0) with r 1, we have s . Thus, the length of the intercepted arc is the real
number that corresponds to the radian measure of . Using the definitions of the
trigonometric functions, we have
(0, –1)
y y x x
x 2 + y2 =1 sin y sin s, and cos x cos s,
r 1 r 1
Figure 12
and so on. As shown here, the trigonometric functions and the circular functions
lead to the same function values, provided we think of the angles as being in ra-
dian measure. This leads to the following important result concerning evaluation
of circular functions.
Evaluating a Circular Function

Circular function values of real numbers are obtained in the same manner as
trigonometric function values of angles measured in radians. This applies
both to methods of finding exact values (such as reference angle analysis)
and to calculator approximations. Calculators must be in radian mode when
finding circular function values.
EXAMPLE 1 Finding Exact Circular Function Values

Find the exact values of sin 32 , cos 32 , and tan 32 .
Evaluating a circular function at the real number 32 is equivalent to
y
Solution
(0, 1)
evaluating it at 32 radians. An angle of 32 radians intersects the unit circle at the
point 0, 1, as shown in Figure 13. Since
␪ = 3␲
2 y
(–1, 0)
x sin s y, cos s x, and tan s ,
0 (1, 0) x
it follows that
(0, –1) 3 3 3
sin 1, cos 0, and tan is undefined.
2 2 2
Figure 13
Now try Exercise 1.
EXAMPLE 2 Finding Exact Circular Function Values
TEACHING TIP Point out the impor- (a) Use Figure 11 to find the exact values of cos 74 and sin 74 .
tance of being able to sketch the
unit circle as in Figure 13. This will (b) Use Figure 11 to find the exact value of tan 53 .
enable students to more easily
determine function values of mul-
(c) Use reference angles and degree/radian conversion to find the exact value of
tiples of

.
cos 23 .
2
Solution
7
(a) In Figure 11, we see that the terminal side of 4 radians intersects the unit
circle at 2 , 2 . Thus,

2
2
7
2 7
2
cos and sin .
4 2 4 2
(b) Angles of 53 radians and
3 radians are coterminal. Their terminal sides
intersect the unit circle at 1
3

2 , 2 , so

tan
5
3
tan

3

3
2
1
2

3.
(c) An angle of 23 radians corresponds to an angle of 120°. In standard posi-

tion, 120° lies in quadrant II with a reference angle of 60°, so
Cosine is negative in quadrant II.
2 1
cos cos 120° cos 60 .
3 2
Reference angle (Section 5.3)
Now try Exercises 7, 17, and 21.
NOTE Examples 1 and 2 illustrate that there are several methods of finding
exact circular function values.
EXAMPLE 3 Approximating Circular Function Values

Find a calculator approximation to four decimal places for each circular func-
tion value.
(a) cos 1.85 (b) cos .5149 (c) cot 1.3209 ( d ) sec2.9234
Solution
(a) With a calculator in radian mode, we find cos 1.85 .2756.

(b) cos .5149 .8703 Use a calculator in radian mode.
(c) As before, to find cotangent, secant, and cosecant function values, we
Radian mode must use the appropriate reciprocal functions. To find cot 1.3209, first find
This is how a calculator dis- tan 1.3209 and then find the reciprocal.
plays the result of Example
1
3(a), correct to four decimal cot 1.3209 .2552
digits. tan 1.3209
TEACHING TIP Remind students 1

1 1
(d) sec2.9234 1.0243
not to use the sin , cos , and cos2.9234
tan1, keys when evaluating recip-
rocal functions with a calculator.
Now try Exercises 23, 29, and 33.
CAUTION A common error in trigonometry is using calculators in degree

mode when radian mode should be used. Remember, if you are finding a circu-
lar function value of a real number, the calculator must be in radian mode.
Determining a Number with a Given Circular Function Value Recall

from Section 5.3 how we used a calculator to determine an angle measure, given
a trigonometric function value of the angle.
EXAMPLE 4 Finding a Number Given Its Circular Function Value

(a) Approximate the value of s in the interval 0, 2 , if cos s .9685.
(b) Find the exact value of s in the interval , 32 , if tan s 1.
Solution
The calculator is set to show
four decimal digits in the (a) Since we are given a cosine value and want to determine the real number in
answer.
0, 2 having this cosine value, we use the inverse cosine function of a cal-
Figure 14 culator. With the calculator in radian mode, we find
cos1.9685 .2517. (Section 5.3)
See Figure 14. (Refer to your owner’s manual to determine how to evaluate
the sin1, cos1, and tan1 functions with your calculator.)
(b) Recall that tan 4 1, and in quadrant III tan s is positive. Therefore,
This screen supports the result

of Example 4(b). The calcula-

tan

4 tan
5
4
1,
and s 54 . Figure 15 supports this result.

tor is in radian mode.
Figure 15

CONNECTIONS A convenient way to see the sine, cosine, and tan-

gent trigonometric ratios geometrically is shown in Figure 16 for in quad-
rants I and II. The circle shown is the unit circle, which has radius 1. By
remembering this figure and the segments that represent the sine, cosine,
and tangent functions, you can quickly recall properties of the trigonometric
functions. Horizontal line segments to the left of the origin and vertical line
segments below the x-axis represent negative values. Note that the tangent
line must be tangent to the circle at 1, 0, for any quadrant in which lies.
y y
sin
sin
1 tan 1
(1, 0)

x x
cos cos
(1, 0) tan
␪ in quadrant I ␪ in quadrant II
Figure 16
For Discussion or Writing

B
See Figure 17. Use the definition of the trigono-
y
PQ y sin ; metric functions and similar triangles to show that P(x, y)
1
PQ sin , OQ cos , and AB tan .
x 1 y
OQ x cos ;
1
AB AB y x A(1, 0)
AB O Q
1 AO x
(by similar triangles) tan Figure 17
Angular and Linear Speed The human joint that can be flexed the fastest

is the wrist, which can rotate through 90°, or 2 radians, in .045 sec while holding
a tennis racket. Angular speed (omega) measures the speed of rotation and is
defined by

,
t
where is the angle of rotation in radians and t is time. The angular speed of a
human wrist swinging a tennis racket is

2 35 radians per sec.
t .045
The linear speed v at which the tip of the racket travels as a result of flexing
the wrist is given by
v r,
where r is the radius (distance) from the tip of the racket to the wrist joint. If
r 2 ft, then the speed at the tip of the racket is
v r 235 70 ft per sec, or about 48 mph.
In a tennis serve the arm rotates at the shoulder, so the final speed of the racket is
considerably faster. (Source: Cooper, J. and R. Glassow, Kinesiology, Second
Edition, C.V. Mosby, 1968.)
EXAMPLE 5 Finding Angular Speed of a Pulley and Linear Speed of a Belt

A belt runs a pulley of radius 6 cm at 80 revolutions per min.
(a) Find the angular speed of the pulley in radians per second.
(b) Find the linear speed of the belt in centimeters per second.
Solution
(a) In 1 min, the pulley makes 80 revolutions. Each revolution is 2 radians, for
TEACHING TIP Mention that, while a total of
problems involving linear and
angular speed can be solved using 802 160 radians per min.
the formula for circumference, the
formulas presented in this section Since there are 60 sec in 1 min, we find , the angular speed in radians per
are much more efficient. second, by dividing 160 by 60.
160 8
radians per sec
60 3
(b) The linear speed of the belt will be the same as that of a point on the cir-
cumference of the pulley. Thus,
v r 6 8
3
16 50.3 cm per sec.
Suppose that an object is moving at a constant speed. If it travels a distance

s in time t, then its linear speed v is given by
s
v .
t
If the object is traveling in a circle, then s r, where r is the radius of the
circle and is the angle of rotation. Thus, we can write
r
v .
t
The formulas for angular and linear speed are summarized in the table.
Angular Speed Linear Speed

s

v
t t
r
( in radians per unit time, v
t
in radians)
v r
EXAMPLE 6 Finding Linear Speed and Distance Traveled by a Satellite
1600 A satellite traveling in a circular orbit 1600 km above the surface of Earth takes
km Satellite 2 hr to make an orbit. The radius of Earth is 6400 km. See Figure 18.
6400 (a) Find the linear speed of the satellite.
km
(b) Find the distance the satellite travels in 4.5 hr.
Solution
Earth
(a) The distance of the satellite from the center of Earth is
Not to scale
r 1600 6400 8000 km.
Figure 18 For one orbit, 2, and

s r 80002 km. (Section 6.1)
Since it takes 2 hr to complete an orbit, the linear speed is
s 80002
v 8000 25,000 km per hr.
t 2
(b) s vt 8000 4.5 36,000 110,000 km
6.2 Exercises
1. (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) undefined For each value of , find (a) sin , (b) cos , and (c) tan . See Example 1.
2. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 0

3. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 0 1. 2. 3. 2
4. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 0 2
5. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 0 3
6. (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) undefined 4. 3 5. 6.
2
1 1
7. 8. 9. 1 10. 2
2 2 Find the exact circular function value for each of the following. See Example 2.
1
11. 2 12.
3 13. 7 5 3 2
2 7. sin 8. cos 9. tan 10. sec

2 6 3 4 3

14.
3 15. 16.
2
2 11 5 4 17

3 1 2
3 11. csc 12. cot 13. cos 14. tan
17. 18. 19. 6 6 3 3

2 2 3
2
3
3
2 7 5 4 5
20. 21. 22. 15. cos 16. sec 17. sin 18. sin
3 3 2 4 4 3 6
23. .5736 24. .7314 25. .4068 23 13 5 3
26. .5397 27. 1.2065 19. sec 20. csc 21. tan 22. cos
6 3 6 4
28. .1944 29. 14.3338
30. 1.0170 31. 1.0460
Find a calculator approximation for each circular function value. See Example 3.
32. 2.1291 33. 3.8665
34. 1.1848 23. sin .6109 24. sin .8203 25. cos1.1519
26. cos5.2825 27. tan 4.0203 28. tan 6.4752
29. csc9.4946 30. csc 1.3875 31. sec 2.8440
32. sec8.3429 33. cot 6.0301 34. cot 3.8426
35. .7 36. .75 37. 4 Concept Check The figure displays a unit y
38. 4.4 39. negative circle and an angle of 1 radian. The tick 2
40. negative 41. negative marks on the circle are spaced at every .8 .8 radian
42. positive 43. positive two-tenths radian. Use the figure to estimate .6 .6 radian
44. negative each value. .4 .4 radian

2
2 .2 .2 radian
45. sin ; cos ; 35. cos .8 3 1 radian
2 2 x
.2 .4 .6 .8
tan 1; cot 1; 36. sin 4
6
sec
2; csc
2 37. an angle whose cosine is .65
8 15
46. sin ; cos ; 38. an angle whose sine is .95 4
17 17
8 15 5
tan ; cot ;
15 8
17 17 Concept Check Without using a calculator, decide whether each function value is posi-
sec ; csc
15 8 tive or negative. (Hint: Consider the radian measures of the quadrantal angles.)
12 5
47. sin ; cos ; 39. cos 2 40. sin1 41. sin 5
13 13
12 5 42. cos 6 43. tan 6.29 44. tan6.29
tan ; cot ;
5 12
13 13 Concept Check Each figure in Exercises 45 –48 shows angle in standard position
sec ; csc
5 12 with its terminal side intersecting the unit circle. Evaluate the six circular function val-
1
3 ues of .
48. sin ; cos ;
2 2 y
45. y 46.
tan

3
; cot
3; ( √22 , √22 ) ( – 15 , 8 )
3 1 17 17 1
2
3
sec ; csc 2
3 ␪
49. .2095 50. .6720 ␪ x
x 0
51. 1.4426 52. 1.2799 0 1 1
53. .3887 54. 1.3634
5 2
55. 56.
6 3
47. y 48. y
1 1
x 0 x
0 1
␪ 1
␪
(135 , – 1213 )
(– √23 , – 12 )
Find the value of s in the interval 0, 2 that makes each statement true. See Example 4(a).
49. tan s .2126 50. cos s .7826 51. sin s .9918
52. cot s .2994 53. sec s 1.0806 54. csc s 1.0219
Find the exact value of s in the given interval that has the given circular function value.
Do not use a calculator. See Example 4(b).
55.

2
, ; sin s
1
2
56.
2
, ; cos s
1
2
57.
4
3
58.
7
6
59.
7
4
57.
,
3
2
; tan s
3 58.
,
3
2
; sin s
1
2

11
60. 61. .8011, .5985 3 3
3
6 59. , 2 ; tan s 1 60. , 2 ; cos s
62. .9668, .2555 2 2 2
63. .4385, .8987
64. .7259, .6878 Suppose an arc of length s lies on the unit circle x 2 y 2 1, starting at the point 1, 0
65. I 66. IV 67. II 68. III and terminating at the point x, y. (See Figure 10.) Use a calculator to find the approxi-
3 mate coordinates for x, y. (Hint: x cos s and y sin s.)
69. radian per sec
32 61. s 2.5 62. s 3.4 63. s 7.4 64. s 3.9

70. radian per sec
25 Concept Check For each value of s, use a calculator to find sin s and cos s and then
6 use the results to decide in which quadrant an angle of s radians lies.
71. min 72. 9 min
5
73. .180311 radian per sec 65. s 51 66. s 49 67. s 65 68. s 79
74. 10.768 radians
9 Use the formula t to find the value of the missing variable.
75. radians per sec
5 3 2
76. 6 radians per sec 69. radians, t 8 sec 70. radians, t 10 sec
77. 1.83333 radians per sec
4 5
78. 9.29755 cm per sec 2 5
71. radian, radian per min
216 9 27
79. 18 cm 80. yd
5 3
81. 12 sec 72. radians, radian per min
8 24
3
82.
32
radian per sec 73. 3.871142 radians, t 21.4693 sec
74. .90674 radian per min, t 11.876 min
83. radian per hr
6
84. 600 radians per min Use the formula v r to find the value of the missing variable.
7
85. cm per min 75. v 9 m per sec, r 5 m 76. v 18 ft per sec, r 3 ft
30
77. v 107.692 m per sec, r 58.7413 m
78. r 24.93215 cm, .372914 radian per sec
The formula t can be rewritten as t. Using t for changes s r to

s r t. Use the formula s r t to find the value of the missing variable.

79. r 6 cm, radians per sec, t 9 sec
3
2
80. r 9 yd, radians per sec, t 12 sec
5

81. s 6 cm, r 2 cm, radian per sec
4
3
82. s km, r 2 km, t 4 sec
4
Find for each of the following.

83. the hour hand of a clock
84. a line from the center to the edge of a CD revolving 300 times per min
Find v for each of the following.

85. the tip of the minute hand of a clock, if the hand is 7 cm long
86. 1260 cm per min 86. a point on the tread of a tire of radius 18 cm, rotating 35 times per min
87. 1500 m per min 87. the tip of an airplane propeller 3 m long, rotating 500 times per min (Hint:
88. 112,880 cm per min r 1.5 m.)
89. 2 sec
91. 15.5 mph 92. 24.62 hr 88. a point on the edge of a gyroscope of radius 83 cm, rotating 680 times per min
2 89. Concept Check If a point moves around the circumference of the unit circle at
93. (a) radian
365 the speed of 1 unit per sec, how long will it take for the point to move around the
entire circle?
(b) radian per hr
4380 9 90. What is the difference between linear velocity and angular velocity?
(c) 66,700 mph
94. (a) 2 radians per day; Solve each problem. See Examples 5 and 6.
91. Speed of a Bicycle The tires of a bicycle have
radian per hr (b) 0
12 radius 13 in. and are turning at the rate of 200 revo-
(c) 12,800 km per day or about lutions per min. See the figure. How fast is the bicycle
533 km per hr traveling in miles per hour? (Hint: 5280 ft 1 mi.) 13 in.
(d) about 28,000 km per day or
about 1200 km per hr
95. (a) .24 radian per sec
(b) 3.11 cm per sec
96. larger pulley: 92. Hours in a Martian Day Mars
25 rotates on its axis at the rate of about
radians per sec; .2552 radian per hr. Approximately
18
smaller pulley: how many hours are in a Martian
125 day? (Source: Wright, John W.
radians per sec (General Editor), The Universal
48
Almanac, Andrews and McMeel,
1997.)
93. Angular and Linear Speeds of Earth Earth travels about the sun in an orbit that
is almost circular. Assume that the orbit is a circle with radius 93,000,000 mi. Its
angular and linear speeds are used in designing solar-power facilities.
(a) Assume that a year is 365 days, and find the angle formed by Earth’s movement
in one day.
(b) Give the angular speed in radians per hour.
(c) Find the linear speed of Earth in miles per hour.
94. Angular and Linear Speeds of Earth Earth revolves on its axis once every 24 hr.
Assuming that Earth’s radius is 6400 km, find the following.
(a) angular speed of Earth in radians per day and radians per hour
(b) linear speed at the North Pole or South Pole
(c) linear speed at Quito, Ecuador, a city on the equator
(d) linear speed at Salem, Oregon (halfway from the equator to the North Pole)
95. Speeds of a Pulley and a Belt The pulley shown
has a radius of 12.96 cm. Suppose it takes 18 sec 12.96
for 56 cm of belt to go around the pulley. cm
(a) Find the angular speed of the pulley in radians

per second.
(b) Find the linear speed of the belt in centimeters
per second.
96. Angular Speed of Pulleys The two pulleys in the
figure have radii of 15 cm and 8 cm, respectively. 15 cm
8 cm
The larger pulley rotates 25 times in 36 sec. Find the
angular speed of each pulley in radians per second.
97. 3.73 cm 97. Radius of a Spool of Thread A thread is being pulled off a spool at the rate of
98. about 29 sec 59.4 cm per sec. Find the radius of the spool if it makes 152 revolutions per min.
99. 523.6 radians per sec 98. Time to Move Along a Railroad Track A railroad track is laid along the arc of a
100. 125 ft per sec
circle of radius 1800 ft. The circular part of the track subtends a central angle of
40. How long (in seconds) will it take a point on the front of a train traveling
30 mph to go around this portion of the track?
99. Angular Speed of a Motor Propeller A 90-horsepower outboard motor at full
throttle will rotate its propeller at 5000 revolutions per min. Find the angular speed
of the propeller in radians per second.
100. Linear Speed of a Golf Club The shoulder joint can rotate at about 25 radians per
sec. If a golfer’s arm is straight and the distance from the shoulder to the club head
is 5 ft, estimate the linear speed of the club head from shoulder rotation. (Source:
Cooper, J. and R. Glassow, Kinesiology, Second Edition, C.V. Mosby, 1968.)
6.3 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions

Periodic Functions ■ Graph of the Sine Function ■ Graph of the Cosine Function ■ Graphing Techniques,
Amplitude, and Period ■ Translations ■ Combinations of Translations ■ Determining a Trigonometric
Model Using Curve Fitting
Periodic Functions Many things in daily life repeat with a predictable pat-
tern: in warm areas electricity use goes up in summer and down in winter, the
price of fresh fruit goes down in summer and up in winter, and attendance at
amusement parks increases in spring and declines in autumn. Because the sine
and cosine functions repeat their values in a regular pattern, they are periodic
functions. Figure 19 shows a sine graph that represents a normal heartbeat.
Figure 19
Looking Ahead to Calculus Periodic Function

Periodic functions are used throughout
A periodic function is a function f such that
calculus, so you will need to know
their characteristics. One use of these f(x) f(x np),
functions is to describe the location of
for every real number x in the domain of f, every integer n, and some posi-
a point in the plane using polar coordi-
nates, an alternative to rectangular co-
tive real number p. The smallest possible positive value of p is the period
ordinates. (See Chapter 8).
of the function.
The circumference of the unit circle is 2, so the smallest value of p for
which the sine and cosine functions repeat is 2. Therefore, the sine and cosine
functions are periodic functions with period 2.
6.3 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions 557
y
Graph of the Sine Function In Section 6.1 we saw that for a real number
(0, 1) (cos s, sin s) s, the point on the unit circle corresponding to s has coordinates (cos s, sin s).
s See Figure 20. Trace along the circle to verify the results shown in the table.
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
x As s Increases from sin s cos s
0

0 to 2 Increases from 0 to 1 Decreases from 1 to 0
Unit circle
(0, –1)
x 2 + y2 = 1 2 to Decreases from 1 to 0 Decreases from 0 to 1
Figure 20 to 32 Decreases from 0 to 1 Increases from 1 to 0

3
2 to 2 Increases from 1 to 0 Increases from 0 to 1
To avoid confusion when graphing the sine function, we use x rather than s;
this corresponds to the letters in the xy-coordinate system. Selecting key values
of x and finding the corresponding values of sin x leads to the table in Figure 21.
To obtain the traditional graph in Figure 21, we plot the points from the table,
use symmetry, and join them with a smooth curve. Since y sin x is periodic
with period 2 and has domain , , the graph continues in the same pattern
in both directions. This graph is called a sine wave or sinusoid.
SINE FUNCTION f(x) sin x

Domain: , Range: 1, 1
x y y
0 0 2
f(x) = sin x, –2 ≤ x ≤ 2
1
6 2 –␲ 1 3␲

2 2 2
x
4 2 0 ␲
–2␲ – 3␲ –␲ ␲ 2␲

3 –1 2
2
3 2
–2
2 1
0 f (x) = sin x
3
2 1 4
2 0
–2␲ 2␲
–4
Figure 21
• The graph is continuous over its entire domain, , .

• Its x-intercepts are of the form n, where n is an integer.
• Its period is 2.
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, so the function is an
odd function. For all x in the domain, sinx sin x.
Looking Ahead to Calculus Graph of the Cosine Function We find the graph of y cos x in much
The discussion of the derivative of a the same way as the graph of y sin x. In the table of values shown with
function in calculus shows that for the Figure 22 for y cos x, we use the same values for x as we did for the graph of
sine function, the slope of the tangent y sin x. Notice that the graph of y cos x in Figure 22 has the same shape as
line at any point x is given by cos x. the graph of y sin x. It is, in fact, the graph of the sine function shifted, or
For example, look at the graph of
translated, 2 units to the left.
y sin x and notice that a tangent line
3 5
at x , , , . . . will be
2 2 2
horizontal and thus have slope 0. Now COSINE FUNCTION f(x) cos x
look at the graph of y cos x and see
that for these values, cos x 0. Domain: , Range: 1, 1
y
x y
0 1 2
f(x) = cos x, –2 ≤ x ≤ 2

3 1
6 2

2 0
x
4 2 –2␲ – 3␲ –␲ –␲ ␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲
1 2 2 –1 2 2
3 2
–2
2 0
1
3 f (x) = cos x
2 0
4
2 1
–2␲ 2␲
–4
Figure 22
• The graph is continuous over its entire domain, , .

• Its x-intercepts are of the form 2n 1 2 , where n is an integer.
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, so the function is an
even function. For all x in the domain, cosx cos x.
Notice that the calculator graphs of fx sin x in Figure 21 and

fx cos x in Figure 22 are graphed in the window 2, 2 by 4, 4,

with Xscl 2 and Yscl 1. This is called the trig viewing window. (Your
model may use a different “standard” trigonometric viewing window. Consult
your owner’s manual.) ■
Graphing Techniques, Amplitude, and Period The examples that fol-

low show graphs that are “stretched” or “compressed” either vertically, horizon-
tally, or both when compared with the graphs of y sin x or y cos x.
EXAMPLE 1 Graphing y a sin x

Graph y 2 sin x, and compare to the graph of y sin x.
Solution For a given value of x, the value of y is twice as large as it would be
for y sin x, as shown in the table of values. The only change in the graph is
the range, which becomes 2, 2. See Figure 23, which includes a graph of
y sin x for comparison.
3
x 0 2 2 2
sin x 0 1 0 1 0
4
2 sin x 0 2 0 2 0
y
–2␲ 2␲ Period: 2␲ y = 2 sin x
2
y = sin x
–␲ 1 3␲
2 2 2␲
–4 x
0 ␲ ␲
The thick graph style repre-
–2␲ – 3␲ –␲
–1 2
2
sents the function in Example 1.
–2
Figure 23
The amplitude of a periodic function is half the difference between the

maximum and minimum values. Thus, for both the basic sine and cosine func-
tions, the amplitude is
1 1
1 1 2 1.
2 2
Generalizing from Example 1 gives the following.
Amplitude
The graph of y a sin x or y a cos x, with a 0, will have the same
shape as the graph of y sin x or y cos x, respectively, except with range
a , a . The amplitude is a.
Now try Exercise 7.
No matter what the value of the amplitude, the periods of y a sin x and
TEACHING TIP Students may think y a cos x are still 2. Consider y sin 2x. We can complete a table of values
that the period of y sin 2x is 4.
Explain that a factor of 2 causes
for the interval 0, 2.
values of the argument to increase 3 5 3 7
twice as fast, thereby shortening
x 0 4 2 4 4 2 4 2
the length of a period. sin 2x 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Note that one complete cycle occurs in units, not 2 units. Therefore, the pe-
riod here is , which equals 22 . Now consider y sin 4x. Look at the next table.
3 5 3 7
x 0 8 4 8 2 8 4 8
sin 4x 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
2
These values suggest that a complete cycle is achieved in 2 or 4 units, which is
reasonable since

sin 4

2
sin 2 0.
In general, the graph of a function of the form y sin bx or y cos bx, for
b 0, will have a period different from 2 when b 1. To see why this is so,
remember that the values of sin bx or cos bx will take on all possible values as
bx ranges from 0 to 2. Therefore, to find the period of either of these functions,
we must solve the three-part inequality
0
bx
2 (Section 1.7)
2
0
x
. Divide by the positive number b.
b
Thus, the period is b . By dividing the interval 0, b into four equal parts,
2 2
we obtain the values for which sin bx or cos bx is 1, 0, or 1. These values will
give minimum points, x-intercepts, and maximum points on the graph. Once
these points are determined, we can sketch the graph by joining the points with a
smooth sinusoidal curve. (If a function has b 0, then the identities of the next
chapter can be used to rewrite the function so that b 0.)
NOTE One method to divide an interval into four equal parts is as follows.
Step 1 Find the midpoint of the interval by adding the x-values of the endpoints
and dividing by 2.
Step 2 Find the midpoints of the two intervals found in Step 1, using the same
procedure.
EXAMPLE 2 Graphing y sin bx

Graph y sin 2x, and compare to the graph of y sin x.
2
Solution In this function the coefficient of x is 2, so the period is 2 .
Therefore, the graph will complete one period over the interval 0, .
The endpoints are 0 and , and the three middle points are
1 1 3
0 , 0 , and 0 ,
4 2 4
which give the following x-values.
3
0, , , ,
4 2 4
Left First-quarter Midpoint Third-quarter Right

endpoint point point endpoint
We plot the points from the table of values given on page 559, and join them
with a smooth sinusoidal curve. More of the graph can be sketched by repeating
this cycle, as shown in Figure 24. The amplitude is not changed. The graph of
y sin x is included for comparison.
y = sin x
1
.5
x
0
– 3␲ –␲ –␲ –.5 ␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲
2 2 2 2
–1
y = sin 2x
Figure 24
Generalizing from Example 2 leads to the following result.
Period
For b 0, the graph of y sin bx will resemble that of y sin x, but with
2
period b . Also, the graph of y cos bx will resemble that of y cos x,
2
but with period b .
EXAMPLE 3 Graphing y cos bx

2
Graph y cos x over one period.
3
2
Solution The period is 2 3. We divide the interval 0, 3 into four equal
3
parts to get the following x-values that yield minimum points, maximum points,
and x-intercepts.
3 3 9
0, , , , 3
y 4 2 4
y = cos 2 x We use these values to obtain a table of key points for one period.
2 3␲ 3
1 2
3 3 9
0
x x 0 4 2 4 3
–1 3␲ 9␲ 3␲
–2 4 4
2 3
3x 0 2 2 2
Figure 25
cos 23 x 1 0 1 0 1
2 The amplitude is 1 because the maximum value is 1, the minimum value is 1,
and half of 1 1 is 12 2 1. We plot these points and join them with a
smooth curve. The graph is shown in Figure 25.
0 3␲
–2
This screen shows a graph of NOTE Look at the middle row of the table in Example 3. The method of
dividing the interval 0, b into four equal parts will always give the values 0,
2
the function in Example 3. By
choosing Xscl = 3␲ , the 3
4 2 , , 2 , and 2 for this row, resulting in values of 1, 0, or 1 for the circular
x-intercepts, maxima, and function. These lead to key points on the graph, which can then be easily
minima coincide with tick sketched.
marks on the x-axis.
The method used in Examples 1–3 is summarized as follows.
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of Sine and Cosine

Functions
To graph y a sin bx or y a cos bx, with b 0, follow these steps.
2
Step 1 Find the period, b . Start at 0 on the x-axis, and lay off a distance of
2
b .
Step 2 Divide the interval into four equal parts. (See the Note preceding
Example 2.)
Step 3 Evaluate the function for each of the five x-values resulting from
Step 2. The points will be maximum points, minimum points, and
x-intercepts.
Step 4 Plot the points found in Step 3, and join them with a sinusoidal
curve having amplitude a.
Step 5 Draw the graph over additional periods, to the right and to the left,
as needed.
The function in Example 4 has both amplitude and period affected by the
values of a and b.
EXAMPLE 4 Graphing y a sin bx

Graph y 2 sin 3x over one period using the preceding guidelines.
Solution
2
Step 1 For this function, b 3, so the period is 3 . The function will be
graphed over the interval 0, 23 .
Step 2 Divide the interval 0, 23 into four equal parts to get the x-values 0,
2
6 , 3 , 2 , and 3 .
y
Step 3 Make a table of values determined by the x-values from Step 2.
2
2 x 0 6 3 2 3
3
1
3x 0 2 2 2
x
0 ␲ ␲ ␲ 2␲ sin 3x 0 1 0 1 0
–1 6 3 2 3
2 sin 3x 0 2 0 2 0
–2 y = –2 sin 3x
Step 4 Plot the points 0, 0, 6 , 2 , 3 , 0 , 2 , 2 , and 23 , 0 , and join them
Figure 26 with a sinusoidal curve with amplitude 2. See Figure 26.
Step 5 The graph can be extended by repeating the cycle.
Notice that when a is negative, the graph of y a sin bx is the reflection
across the x-axis of the graph of y a sin bx.

y
y = f(x + 3) y = f(x) y = f (x – 4) Translations In general, the graph of the function defined by y f x d is
translated horizontally when compared to the graph of y fx. The translation
is d units to the right if d 0 and d units to the left if d 0. See Figure 27.
x With trigonometric functions, a horizontal translation is called a phase shift. In
0
–3 4 the function y fx d, the expression x d is called the argument.
In Example 5, we give two methods that can be used to sketch the graph of a
circular function involving a phase shift.
Horizontal translations
of y = f (x)
Figure 27 EXAMPLE 5 Graphing y sinx d

Graph y sin x

3
.

Solution Method 1 For the argument x 3 to result in all possible values
throughout one period, it must take on all values between 0 and 2, inclusive.
Therefore, to find an interval of one period, we solve the three-part inequality

0
x
2
3
7

x
. Add 3 to each part.
3 3
Divide the interval 3 , into four equal parts to get the following x-values.
7
3
5 4 11 7
, , , ,
3 6 3 6 3
A table of values using these x-values follows.
y 5 4 11 7
x 3 6 3 6 3
y = sin x y = sin x –
( )
x 3
3 3
1
4␲ 11␲ 0 2 2 2
␲ 3 6
sinx 3
x
0 ␲ 0 1 0 1 0
–␲ 5␲ 2␲ 7␲
6 3 6 3
–1
We join the corresponding points to get the graph shown in Figure 28. The
Figure 28 period is 2, and the amplitude is 1.
Method 2 We can also graph y sin x 3 using a horizontal transla-

tion. The argument x 3 indicates that the graph will be translated 3 units to
the right (the phase shift) as compared to the graph of y sin x. In Figure 28 we
show the graph of y sin x as a dashed curve, and the graph of y sin x 3

as a solid curve. Therefore, to graph a function using this method, first graph the
basic circular function, and then graph the desired function by using the appro-
priate translation.
The graph can be extended through additional periods by repeating this por-
tion of the graph over and over, as necessary.

The graph of a function of the form y c fx is translated vertically as

compared with the graph of y fx. See Figure 29. The translation is c units up
if c 0 and c units down if c 0.
y
y = 3 + f (x)
6
3
y = f (x)
x
0
–4 y = –5 + f (x)
Vertical translations of y = f (x)
Figure 29
EXAMPLE 6 Graphing y c a cos bx

Graph y 3 2 cos 3x.
Solution The values of y will be 3 greater than the corresponding values of y in
TEACHING TIP Students may find it y 2 cos 3x. This means that the graph of y 3 2 cos 3x is the same as
easiest to sketch y c f x by
setting up a “temporary axis” at the graph of y 2 cos 3x, vertically translated 3 units up. Since the period of
y c. See Figure 30, for example. y 2 cos 3x is 23 , the key points have x-values
2
0, , , , .
6 3 2 3
Use these x-values to make a table of points.
2
x 0 6 3 2 3
cos 3x 1 0 1 0 1
2 cos 3x 2 0 2 0 2
3 2 cos 3x 1 3 5 3 1
The key points are shown on the graph in Figure 30, along with more of the
graph, sketched using the fact that the function is periodic.
7 y
5
–2␲ 2␲
4
c=3
–7
The function in Example 6 is 1
shown using the thick graph y = 3 – 2 cos 3x
style. Notice also the thin x
–␲ – 2␲ – ␲ 0 ␲ ␲ ␲ 2␲ ␲
graph style for y = –2 cos 3x. 3 3 6 3 2 3
Figure 30

Combinations of Translations A function of the form

y c a sin bx d or y c a cos bx d, b 0,
can be graphed according to the following guidelines.
TEACHING TIP Give several ex- Further Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of Sine and
amples of sinusoidal graphs, and Cosine Functions
ask students to determine their
corresponding equations. Point out Method 1 Follow these steps.
that any given graph may have 2
several different corresponding Step 1 Find an interval whose length is one period b by solving the three-
equations, all of which are valid. part inequality 0
bx d
2.
Many computer graphing
utilities have animation features Step 2 Divide the interval into four equal parts.
that allow you to incrementally
change the values of a, b, c, and d Step 3 Evaluate the function for each of the five x-values resulting from
in the sinusoidal graphs of Step 2. The points will be maximum points, minimum points, and
y c a sin bx d points that intersect the line y c (“middle” points of the wave).
and y c a cos bx d . Step 4 Plot the points found in Step 3, and join them with a sinusoidal
This provides an excellent visual curve having amplitude a .
image as to how these parameters
affect sinusoidal graphs. Step 5 Draw the graph over additional periods, to the right and to the left,
as needed.
Method 2 First graph the basic circular function. The amplitude of the
2
function is a , and the period is b . Then use translations to graph the de-
sired function. The vertical translation is c units up if c 0 and c units
down if c 0. The horizontal translation (phase shift) is d units to the right
if d 0 and d units to the left if d 0.
EXAMPLE 7 Graphing y c a sin bx d

Graph y 1 2 sin4x .
Solution We use Method 1. First write the expression in the form
c a sin bx d by rewriting 4x as 4 x 4 :

y 1 2 sin 4 x

4
. Rewrite 4x as 4 x

4 .
Step 1 Find an interval whose length is one period.
0
4 x
4

2

0
x
Divide by 4.
4 2

x
Subtract 4 .
4 4
Step 2 Divide the interval 4 , 4 into four equal parts to get the x-values

, , 0, , .
4 8 8 4
Step 3 Make a table of values.
4 8
y
x 0 8 4
1
–␲ –␲ ␲ ␲
x 4 3
2 4 4 2 0 8 4 8 2
x
0␲
– 3␲ –␲ 3␲
4 x 4 3
8 8
–1
8 8 c = –1 0 2 2 2
–2 sin 4 x 4 0 1 0 1 0
–3
2 sin 4 x 4 0 2 0 2 0
y = –1 + 2 sin(4x + )
Figure 31 1 2 sin(4x ) 1 1 1 3 1
Steps 4 and 5 Plot the points found in the table and join them with a sinu-
soidal curve. Figure 31 shows the graph, extended to the right and left
to include two full periods.
Determining a Trigonometric Model Using Curve Fitting A sinu-

soidal function is often a good approximation of a set of real data points.
EXAMPLE 8 Modeling Temperature with a Sine Function

The maximum average monthly temperature in New Orleans is 82°F and the
minimum is 54°F. The table shows the average monthly temperatures. The scat-
ter diagram for a 2-year interval in Figure 32 strongly suggests that the tempera-
tures can be modeled with a sine curve.
Month F Month F
Jan 54 July 82
85
Feb 55 Aug 81
Mar 61 Sept 77
Apr 69 Oct 71
May 73 Nov 59
June 79 Dec 55 1 25
50
Source: Miller, A., J. Thompson, and R. Figure 32

Peterson, Elements of Meteorology, 4th
Edition, Charles E. Merrill Publishing
Co., 1983.
(a) Using only the maximum and minimum temperatures, determine a function
of the form fx a sinbx d c, where a, b, c, and d are constants,
that models the average monthly temperature in New Orleans. Let x repre-
sent the month, with January corresponding to x 1.
(b) On the same coordinate axes, graph f for a two-year period together with the
actual data values found in the table.
(c) Use the sine regression feature of a graphing calculator to determine a sec-
ond model for these data.
Solution
(a) We use the maximum and minimum average monthly temperatures to find
the amplitude a.
82 54
a 14
2
The average of the maximum and minimum temperatures is a good choice
for c. The average is
82 54
68.
2
Since the coldest month is January, when x 1, and the hottest month is
July, when x 7, we should choose d to be about 4. We experiment with
values just greater than 4 to find d. Trial and error using a calculator leads to
d 4.2. Since temperatures repeat every 12 months, b is 212 6 . Thus,
fx a sinbx d c 14 sin

6
x 4.2 68.

(b) Figure 33 shows the data points and the graph of y 14 sin 6 x 68 for
comparison. The horizontal translation of the model is fairly obvious here.
90 90
1 25 1 25
50 50
Values are rounded to the
nearest hundredth.
(a) (b)
Figure 33 Figure 34
(c) We used the given data for a two-year period to produce the model de-
scribed in Figure 34(a). Figure 34(b) shows its graph along with the data
points.

6.3 Exercises
1. D 2. C 3. A 4. B Concept Check In Exercises 1–4, match each function with its graph.
5. 2 6. 3
y y 1. y sin x A. y B. y
1 2
y = 2 cos x y = 3 sin x
3
– 2 0 2
x x
–2 –2 0 x x
2 –2 –
–3 2. y cos x 0 ␲ ␲ 0 ␲ 2␲
2
–1
2 3 –2
7. 8.
3 4 3. y sin 2x C. y D. y
y y
y = 2 sin x y = 3 cos x
3 4 1 1
– 0 1 – 1
x x x x
0
–2 –1 2 –2 –1 0 2 4. y 2 cos x 0 ␲ 2␲ –1
␲ 2␲
–1
9. 1 10. 1
y y
Graph each function over the interval 2, 2. Give the amplitude. See Example 1.
y = –cos x y = –sin x 2
–2 2
5. y 2 cos x 6. y 3 sin x 7. y sin x
0 1 x
– 1
x 3
– –2 –1 2 3
8. y cos x 9. y cos x 10. y sin x
4
11. 2 12. 3 11. y 2 sin x 12. y 3 cos x
y y
Graph each function over a two-period interval. Give the period and amplitude. See
y = –2 sin x
3
y = –3 cos x Examples 2–4.
–2 – 2 –2 2
x x
0 2 – 0 1 2
–2 –3 13. y sin x 14. y sin x 15. y cos 2x
2 3
13. 4 ; 1 14. 3 ; 1 3 1
16. y cos x 17. y 2 sin x 18. y 3 sin 2x
y y 4 4
y = sin 1 x 19. y 2 cos 3x 20. y 5 cos 2x
2 y = sin 2 x
3
1 2
1
–4 –2 0–1 4
x
–3 – 3 0 3 3
x Concept Check In Exercises 21 and 22, give the equation of a sine function having the
2 2
given graph.
21. 5
8
15. ; 1 16. ;1
3
y y
–20 20
y = cos 2x
y = cos 3 x
4
– 1

– 4 4
2 2 3 1 3
x x
– 0 0
–1 – 8 8
3 3
–5
22. .5
17. 8 ; 2 18. ; 3
y y
y = 3 sin 2x
3
y = 2 sin 1 x
4 –6 6
2
x x
–8 –4 0 4 8 – – 0
2 2
–3
–.5
2 Concept Check Match each function in Column I with the appropriate description in
19. ;2 20. ; 5
3 Column II.
y y
y = –5 cos 2x
I II
2
y = –2 cos 3x 5 3
1 23. y 3 sin2x 4 A. amplitude 2, period , phase shift
0 x
2 4
x
0 – –
– 2 – 2
2 2 24. y 2 sin3x 4 B. amplitude 3, period , phase shift 2
3 3 3 3
–2 –5
2 2
25. y 4 sin3x 2 C. amplitude 4, period , phase shift
There are other correct answers in 3 3
Exercises 21 and 22.
2 4
1 26. y 2 sin4x 3 D. amplitude 2, period , phase shift
21. y 4 sin x 3 3
2
1 Concept Check Match each function with its graph.
22. y sin x

4 2
23. B 24. D 25. C 26. A A. y B. y
27. y sin x
27. D 28. C 29. B 30. A 4 1 2

31. 2; 2 ; none; to the right 0
x 1
2 –1 ␲ 2␲ x
32. ; 2 ; none; to the left 28. y sin x –1
0 ␲ 2␲
3 2 4 –2
33. 4; 4 ; none; to the left
1
34. ; 4 ; none; 2 to the left 29. y 1 sin x C. y D. y
2
2 1
35. 1; ; up 2; to the right 1
3 15 x
1 3 30. y 1 sin x x
0 ␲ 5␲ 9␲
–1
36. ; ; down 1; to the right 0 4 4 4
2 2 –␲ –1
3␲ 7␲
4 4 4
37. 38.
y y
Find the amplitude, the period, any vertical translation, and any phase shift of the graph
of each function. See Examples 5 – 7.

9
1 1
4
0
–1 5
x
0
x
2
31. y 2 sinx
13 17 7 13
4 4 4 4 –1 3 3 3 32. y sin x
y = sin x – y = cos x – 3 2
( ) ( )

4 3
39. 40. x 1 x
33. y 4 cos 34. y sin
y y 2 2 2 2
2
0
4
3
7
10
3
13
x
3
–3
0 3 7 11
x
35. y 2 sin 3x
5 36. y 1
1
2
cos2x 3
–2 3 3 3 2 2 2
y = 2 cos x – ( ) y = 3 sin x – 3 ( ) Graph each function over a two-period interval. See Example 5.

3 2
41. 42.
37. y sin x 38. y cos x
y y 4 3

4
3 3
39. y 2 cos x 40. y 3 sin x
0
x 3 2
3
2 2
x Graph each function over a one-period interval.
–
–4 0
y = –4 sin (2x – ) 4 4
41. y 4 sin2x 42. y 3 cos4x
43. y
–3
y = 3 cos (4x + ) 43. y
1
2
cos
1
2x

4 44. y
1
4
sin
3
4
x

8
1
Graph each function over a two-period interval. See Example 6.
x
0
5 9 2 3
–1 2
2 2 45. y 1 2 cos 5x 46. y 1 sin x
y = 1 cos 1 x –
3 4
2 2 4 ( )
44. y 1 1
47. y 1 2 cos x 48. y 3 3 sin x
1 y = – 1 sin 3 x + 2 2
4 4 8 ( )
0 x
– 7 5 Graph each function over a one-period interval. See Example 7.

6 6 2
–1

45. y 49. y 3 2 sin x 50. y 4 3 cosx
2

y = –1 – 2 cos 5x
– 2 1 2 1 5
5 0 5
x
51. y sin 2 x 52. y cos 3 x
2 4 2 6
–3
Concept Check In Exercises 53 and 54, find the equation of a sine function having the
46. y
given graph.
53. Note: Xscl 4 .
1
x
0
– 8 – 4 4 8
3 3 3 3
2
y=1– sin 3 x 5
3 4
47. y
y = 1 – 2 cos 1 x
2
–4
3
4
–5 5
1
x
–3 – 3
y –5
48.
y = –3 + 3 sin 1 x
2
54. (Note: Yscl .)
–4 – 4
x 5
0
–3
–6
49. 50.
–3 3
y y
– 2 y = 4 – 3 cos (x – )
0 x 7
–1 9
4
2 2 –5
–3 1
x
0 2 3
–5
y = –3 + 2 sin x + (Modeling) Solve each problem.
2 ( )
51. y 55. Average Annual Temperature Scientists believe that the average annual tempera-
ture in a given location is periodic. The average temperature at a given place during
y = 1 + sin 2 x + ( )
2 2 4 a given season fluctuates as time goes on, from colder to warmer, and back to cold-
1
– – 0
x er. The graph shows an idealized description of the temperature (in F) for the last
2
–2 2 few thousand years of a location at the same latitude as Anchorage, Alaska.
Average Annual Temperature (Idealized)
52. y
5
6 6
x 80°
0
100,000
–5
2
y = – 5 + cos 3 x – 65° °F
–4
( )
150,000
50,000
2 6
There are other correct answers in

Exercises 53 and 54. 50°
53. y 3 sin 2 x

4 Years ago
54. y sin x .5 (a) Find the highest and lowest temperatures recorded.
55. (a) 80; 50 (b) 15 (b) Use these two numbers to find the amplitude.
(c) about 35,000 yr (d) downward (c) Find the period of the function.
(d) What is the trend of the temperature now?
56. (a) 20 (b) 75 56. Blood Pressure Variation The graph gives the variation in blood pressure for a
57. (a) about 2 hr (b) 1 yr typical person. Systolic and diastolic pressures are the upper and lower limits of the
1 4 t 3 periodic changes in pressure that produce the pulse. The length of time between
58. (a) y sin (b) sec
3 3 2 peaks is called the period of the pulse.
Blood Pressure Variation
Pressure (in mm mercury)

Systolic Period =.8 sec
pressure
120
80
Diastolic
pressure
40
0 .8 1.6
Time (in seconds)
(a) Find the amplitude of the graph.

(b) Find the pulse rate (the number of pulse beats in 1 min) for this person.
57. Activity of a Nocturnal Animal Many of the activities of living organisms are
periodic. For example, the graph below shows the time that a certain nocturnal ani-
mal begins its evening activity.
Activity of a Nocturnal Animal
8:00
7:30
7:00
Time P.M.
6:30
5:30 Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr

5:00
4:30
4:00
Month
(a) Find the amplitude of this graph. (b) Find the period.
58. Position of a Moving Arm The figure shows schematic diagrams of a rhythmically
moving arm. The upper arm RO rotates back and forth about the point R; the position
of the arm is measured by the angle y between the actual position and the downward
vertical position. (Source: De Sapio, Rodolfo, Calculus for the Life Sciences.
Copyright © 1978 by W. H. Freeman and Company. Reprinted by permission.)
y
R
R R R R R
O
y O O O O
O
y
R
_1
Angle of arm, y
t
0 _3
O 2
– _1
3 Time, in seconds, t
y
This graph shows the relationship
between angle y and time t in seconds.
(a) Find an equation of the form y a sin kt for the graph shown.
(b) How long does it take for a complete movement of the arm?
59. 24 hr Tides for Kahului Harbor The chart shows the tides for Kahului Harbor (on the island
2.6 .2 of Maui, Hawaii). To identify high and low tides and times for other Maui areas, the fol-
60. approximately 1.2
2 lowing adjustments must be made.
61. approximately 6:00 P.M.;
approximately .2 ft
Hana: High, 40 min, .1 ft; Makena: High, 1:21, .5 ft;
62. approximately 7:19 P.M.; Low, 18 min, .2 ft Low, 1:09, .2 ft
approximately 0 ft Maalaea: High, 1:52, .1 ft; Lahaina: High, 1:18, .2 ft;
63. approximately 2:00 A.M.; Low, 1:19, .2 ft Low, 1:01, .1 ft
approximately 2.6 ft
64. approximately 3:18 A.M.; JANUARY
approximately 2.4 ft
4 19 20 21 22
65. 1; 240 or 6 Noon 6 6 Noon 6 6 Noon 6 6 Noon 6
3 am pm am pm am pm am pm
2 3 3
66. 1; 120 or
3 2 2
Feet
Feet
1
67. (a) 5; (b) 60 1 1
60
(c) 5; 1.545; 4.045; 4.045; 0 0
1.545 (d) E
5
Source: Maui News. Original chart prepared by
Edward K. Noda and Associates.
.0083 .025
t
0 .0167 .033
Use the graph to work Exercises 59 –64.
–5 59. The graph is an example of a periodic function. What is the period (in hours)?
E = 5 cos 120t
60. What is the amplitude?
61. At what time on January 20 was low tide at Kahului? What was the height?
62. Repeat Exercise 61 for Maalaea.
63. At what time on January 22 was high tide at Kahului? What was the height?
64. Repeat Exercise 63 for Lahaina.
Musical Sound Waves Pure sounds produce single sine waves on an oscilloscope.
Find the amplitude and period of each sine wave graph in Exercises 65 and 66. On the
vertical scale, each square represents .5; on the horizontal scale, each square represents
30 or 6 .
65. 66.
(Modeling) Solve each problem.

67. Voltage of an Electrical Circuit The voltage E in an electrical circuit is modeled by
E 5 cos 120 t,
where t is time measured in seconds.
(a) Find the amplitude and the period.
(b) How many cycles are completed in 1 sec? (The number of cycles (periods)
completed in 1 sec is the frequency of the function.)
(c) Find E when t 0, .03, .06, .09, .12.
1
(d) Graph E for 0
t
30 .
1 68. Voltage of an Electrical Circuit For another electrical circuit, the voltage E is
68. (a) 3.8; (b) 20
20 modeled by
(c) 3.074; 1.174; 3.074; E 3.8 cos 40 t,
3.074; 1.174
where t is time measured in seconds.
(d) E
3.8
(a) Find the amplitude and the period.
(b) Find the frequency. See Exercise 67(b).
0 .025 .05
t (c) Find E when t .02, .04, .08, .12, .14.
–3.8
(d) Graph one period of E.
E = 3.8 cos 40t 69. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide At
69. (a) Mauna Loa, Hawaii, atmospheric carbon
dioxide levels in parts per million (ppm)
L(x) = .022x 2 + .55x + 316
have been measured regularly since 1958.
+ 3.5 sin(2␲x)
365 The function defined by
Lx .022x 2 .55x 316 3.5 sin2 x
can be used to model these levels, where
x is in years and x 0 corresponds to
1960. (Source: Nilsson, A., Greenhouse
15 35
325 Earth, John Wiley & Sons, 1992.)
1 5 (a) Graph L in the window 15, 35 by 325, 365.
(b) maximums: x , ,
4 4 (b) When do the seasonal maximum and minimum carbon dioxide levels occur?
9 3 7
, . . . ; minimums: x , ,
9 (c) L is the sum of a quadratic function and a sine function. What is the significance
4 4 4 of each of these functions? Discuss what physical phenomena may be responsible
11 for each function.
,...
4 70. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Refer to Exercise 69. The carbon dioxide content in
70. (a) the atmosphere at Barrow, Alaska, in parts per million (ppm) can be modeled using
C(x) = .04x 2 + .6x + 330 the function defined by
+ 7.5 sin(2␲x)
380
Cx .04x 2 .6x 330 7.5 sin2 x,
where x 0 corresponds to 1970. (Source: Zeilik, M. and S. Gregory, Introductory
Astronomy and Astrophysics, Brooks/Cole, 1998.)
(a) Graph C in the window 5, 25 by 320, 380.
5 25 9 (b) Discuss possible reasons why the amplitude of the oscillations in the graph of C
is larger than the amplitude of the oscillations in the graph of L in Exercise 69,
320
which models Hawaii.
(c) Cx .04x 19702
(c) Define a new function C that is valid if x represents the actual year, where
.6x 1970 330
7.5 sin2 x 1970 1970
x
1995.
71. (a) 1 (b) 19 (c) 53 (d) 58 71. Temperature in Fairbanks The temperature in Fairbanks is modeled by

(e) 48 (f) 12
2
Tx 37 sin x 101 25,
365
where Tx is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit on day x, with x 1 corre-
sponding to January 1 and x 365 corresponding to December 31. Use a calculator
to estimate the temperature on the following days. (Source: Lando, B. and C. Lando,
“Is the Graph of Temperature Variation a Sine Curve?”, The Mathematics Teacher,
70, September 1977.)
(a) March 1 (day 60) (b) April 1 (day 91) (c) Day 150
(d) June 15 (e) September 1 (f) October 31
72. Fluctuation in the Solar Constant The solar constant S is the amount of energy
per unit area that reaches Earth’s atmosphere from the sun. It is equal to 1367 watts
72. (a) 1.998 watts per m2 per square meter but varies slightly throughout the seasons. This fluctuation S in S
(b) 46.461 watts per m2 can be calculated using the formula
(c) 46.478 watts per m2
(d) Answers may vary. A possible
answer is N 82.5. (Since N
S .034S sin
2 82.5 N
365.25
.
represents a day number, which In this formula, N is the day number covering a four-year period, where N 1 cor-
should be a natural number, we responds to January 1 of a leap year and N 1461 corresponds to December 31 of
might interpret day 82.5 as noon the fourth year. (Source: Winter, C., R. Sizmann, and Vant-Hunt (Editors), Solar
on the 82nd day.) Power Plants, Springer-Verlag, 1991.)
Answer graphs for Exercises 73(a), (a) Calculate S for N 80, which is the spring equinox in the first year.
(b), and (e) are included on page (b) Calculate S for N 1268, which is the summer solstice in the fourth year.
A-38 of the answer section at the (c) What is the maximum value of S?
back of the text. (d) Find a value for N where S is equal to 0.
73. (a) yes (b) It represents the
average yearly temperature. (Modeling) Solve each problem. See Example 8.
(c) 14; 12; 4.2
(d) f x
73. Average Monthly Temperature The average

Month F Month F
monthly temperature (in F) in Vancouver,
14 sin x 4.2 50 Canada, is shown in the table. Jan 36 July 64
6
(e) The function gives an excellent (a) Plot the average monthly temperature Feb 39 Aug 63
model for the given data. over a two-year period letting x 1
(f) correspond to the month of January Mar 43 Sept 57
during the first year. Do the data seem Apr 48 Oct 50
to indicate a translated sine graph?
(b) The highest average monthly temperature May 55 Nov 43
is 64F in July, and the lowest average
June 59 Dec 39
monthly temperature is 36F in January.
TI-83 Plus fixed to the
nearest hundredth. Their average is 50F. Graph the data
Source: Miller, A. and J. Thompson,
74. (a) 70.4 together with the line y 50. What Elements of Meteorology, 4th Edition,
(b) See the graph in part (d). does this line represent with regard to Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1983.
(c) f x temperature in Vancouver?
19.5 cos

6
x 7.2 70.5 (c) Approximate the amplitude, period, and phase shift of the translated sine wave.
(d) Determine a function of the form f x a sin bx d c, where a, b, c, and
d are constants, that models the data.
(d) The function gives an
excellent model for the data. (e) Graph f together with the data on the same coordinate axes. How well does f
model the given data?
f(x) = 19.5 cos ␲ (x – 7.2) + 70.5
[ ]
95
6 (f) Use the sine regression capability of a graphing calculator to find the equation of
a sine curve that fits these data.
74. Average Monthly Temperature The aver-
Month F Month F
age monthly temperature (in F) in Phoenix,
Arizona, is shown in the table. Jan 51 July 90
1 25 (a) Predict the average yearly temperature Feb 55 Aug 90
45 and compare it to the actual value of 70F.
(e) (b) Plot the average monthly temperature Mar 63 Sept 84
over a two-year period by letting x 1
Apr 67 Oct 71
correspond to January of the first year.
(c) Determine a function of the form f x May 77 Nov 59
a cos bx d c, where a, b, c, and d
June 86 Dec 52
TI-83 Plus fixed to the are constants, that models the data.
nearest hundredth. (d) Graph f together with the data on the
Source: Miller, A. and J. Thompson,
same coordinate axes. How well does f Elements of Meteorology, 4th Edition,
model the data? Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1983.
(e) Use the sine regression capability of a
graphing calculator to find the equation of
a sine curve that fits these data.
6.4 Graphs of the Other Circular Functions 575
6.4 Graphs of the Other Circular Functions

Graphs of the Cosecant and Secant Functions ■ Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions ■ Addition
of Ordinates
Graphs of the Cosecant and Secant Functions Since cosecant values

are reciprocals of the corresponding sine values, the period of the function
y csc x is 2, the same as for y sin x. When sin x 1, the value of csc x is
also 1, and when 0 sin x 1, then csc x 1. Also, if 1 sin x 0, then
csc x 1. (Verify these statements.) As x approaches 0, sin x approaches
0, and csc x gets larger and larger. The graph of y csc x approaches the ver-
tical line x 0 but never touches it, so the line x 0 is a vertical asymptote. In
fact, the lines x n, where n is any integer, are all vertical asymptotes.
Using this information and plotting a few points shows that the graph takes
the shape of the solid curve shown in Figure 35. To show how the two graphs are
related, the graph of y sin x is shown as a dashed curve.
y y
1 1
y = sin x y = cos x
–␲ ␲
x x
0 0
–2␲ –␲ ␲ 2␲ –2␲ 2␲
–1 –1
y = csc x Period: 2␲ y = sec x Period: 2␲
Figure 35 Figure 36
Y1 = sin X Y2 = csc X A similar analysis for the secant leads to the solid curve shown in Figure 36.
4 The dashed curve, y cos x, is shown so that the relationship between these
two reciprocal functions can be seen.
–2␲ 2␲
Typically, calculators do not have keys for the cosecant and secant func-
tions. To graph y csc x with a graphing calculator, use the fact that
1
csc x .
Trig window; connected mode sin x
Figure 37 The graphs of Y1 sin X and Y2 csc X are shown in Figure 37. The calcula-
tor is in split screen and connected modes. Similarly, the secant function is
Y1 = cos X Y2 = sec X
4
graphed by using the identity
1
–2␲ 2␲ sec x ,
cos x
as shown in Figure 38.
Using dot mode for graphing will eliminate the vertical lines that appear in
Figures 37 and 38. While they suggest asymptotes and are sometimes called
Trig window; connected mode
pseudo-asymptotes, they are not actually parts of the graphs. See Figure 39 on
Figure 38 the next page, for example. ■
COSECANT FUNCTION f(x) csc x

Domain: x x n, where n is an integer Range: , 1 1,
x y
f(x) = csc x
0 undefined 4

6 2
2
3
3 3 1
–2␲ 2␲
2 1 x
0
2 2
3 –2␲ –␲ ␲ 2␲
–1
3 3
undefined
3
2 1 –4
Dot mode
2 undefined
f (x) = csc x
Figure 39
• The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form x n and has ver-

tical asymptotes at these values.
• There are no x-intercepts.
• Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no maximum or minimum values.
odd function. For all x in the domain, cscx csc x.
SECANT FUNCTION f(x) sec x

Domain: x x 2n 1 2 , Range: , 1 1,
where n is an integer
f(x) = sec x
x y 4
2 undefined
4
1

2
x –2␲ 2␲
0 1 0
–2␲ –␲ ␲ 2␲
–1
4
2

2 undefined
–4
Dot mode
f(x) = sec x
Figure 40
(continued)
• The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form x 2n 1 2 and

has vertical asymptotes at these values.
• There are no x-intercepts.
• Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no maximum or minimum values.
• The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, so the function is an
even function. For all x in the domain, secx sec x.
In the previous section, we gave guidelines for sketching graphs of sine and
cosine functions. We now present similar guidelines for graphing cosecant and
secant functions.
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of Cosecant and

Secant Functions
To graph y a csc bx or y a sec bx, with b 0, follow these steps.
Step 1 Graph the corresponding reciprocal function as a guide, using a
dashed curve.
To Graph Use as a Guide

y a csc bx y a sin bx
y a sec bx y a cos bx
Step 2 Sketch the vertical asymptotes. They will have equations of the
form x k, were k is an x-intercept of the graph of the guide
function.
Step 3 Sketch the graph of the desired function by drawing the typical
U-shaped branches between the adjacent asymptotes. The branches
will be above the graph of the guide function when the guide func-
tion values are positive and below the graph of the guide function
when the guide function values are negative. The graph will re-
semble those in Figures 39 and 40 in the function boxes on the pre-
vious page.
Like graphs of the sine and cosine functions, graphs of the secant and cose-
cant functions may be translated vertically and horizontally. The period of both
basic functions is 2.
EXAMPLE 1 Graphing y a sec bx

1
Graph y 2 sec x.
2
Solution
Step 1 This function involves the secant, so the corresponding reciprocal

function will involve the cosine. The guide function to graph is
1
y 2 cos x.
2
Using the guidelines of Section 6.3, we find that this guide function
has amplitude 2 and one period of the graph lies along the interval that
satisfies the inequality
1
0
x
2, or 0, 4. (Section 1.7)
2
Dividing this interval into four equal parts gives the key points
0, 2, , 0, 2, 2, 3, 0, 4, 2,
which are joined with a smooth dashed curve to indicate that this
graph is only a guide. An additional period is graphed as seen in
Figure 41(a).
y y
y = 2 sec 12 x
1
y = 2 cos 2
x
is used as a guide.
2 2
x x
0 0
–4␲ –3␲ –2␲ –␲ ␲ 2␲ 3␲ 4␲ –4␲ –3␲ –2␲ –␲ ␲ 2␲ 3␲ 4␲
–2 –2
(a) (b)
Figure 41
6 Step 2 Sketch the vertical asymptotes. These occur at x-values for which the
guide function equals 0, such as
–4␲ 4␲ x 3, x , x , x 3.
See Figure 41(a).

1
–6 Step 3 Sketch the graph of y 2 sec 2 x by drawing the typical U-shaped
Dot mode branches, approaching the asymptotes. See Figure 41(b).
This is a calculator graph of
the function in Example 1.
Now try Exercise 7.
EXAMPLE 2 Graphing y a cscx d
Graph y
3
2
csc x

2
.
Solution
Step 1 Use the guidelines of Section 6.3 to graph the corresponding recipro-

cal function
3
y sin x ,
2 2
shown as a red dashed curve in Figure 42.
Step 2 Sketch the vertical asymptotes through the x-intercepts of the graph of
y 2 sin x 2 . These have the form x 2n 1 2 , where n is an
3
integer. See the black dashed lines in Figure 42.

Step 3 Sketch the graph of y 32 csc x 2 by drawing the typical
U-shaped branches between adjacent asymptotes. See the solid blue
graph in Figure 42.
4 y
y = 3 csc x –
( )
2 2
2
–2␲ 2␲
1
x
0
– 3␲ –␲ –␲ –1
␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲ 5␲
–4 2 2 2 2 2
Dot mode y = 3 sin x –
( )
2 2
This is a calculator graph of
the function in Example 2.
Figure 42
Now try Exercise 9.
Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions Unlike the four

functions whose graphs we studied previously, the tangent function has period
sin x
. Because tan x cos x , tangent values are 0 when sine values are 0, and un-
defined when cosine values are 0. As x-values go from 2 to 2 , tangent values
go from to and increase throughout the interval. Those same values are
repeated as x goes from 2 to 32 , 32 to 52 , and so on. The graph of y tan x from
to 32 is shown in Figure 43.
y
–␲
4
x
0␲ ␲
–␲ –␲ ␲ 3␲
2 4 2 2
–2
y = tan x Period: ␲
Figure 43
y
The cotangent function also has period . Cotangent values are 0 when co-
sine values are 0, and undefined when sine values are 0. (Verify this also.) As
x-values go from 0 to , cotangent values go from to and decrease
throughout the interval. Those same values are repeated as x goes from to 2,
1 2 to 3, and so on. The graph of y cot x from to is shown in Figure 44.
x
–␲ ␲ ␲
–␲ 0
2 2
TANGENT FUNCTION f(x) tan x

Domain: x x 2n 1 2 , where n is an integer
y = cot x Period: ␲
Range: ,
Figure 44
y
f(x) = tan x
4
x y 2
2 undefined –␲
1
4 1 4
x
0 ␲ –2␲ 2␲
0 0 –␲ ␲
2 4 2
4 1

2 undefined –2
–4
f(x) = tan x, – < x < Dot mode
2 2
Figure 45
• The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form x 2n 1 2 and

has vertical asymptotes at these values.
• Its x-intercepts are of the form x n.
• Its period is .
• Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no minimum or maximum values.
odd function. For all x in the domain, tanx tan x.
COTANGENT FUNCTION f(x) cot x

Domain: x x n, where n is an integer Range: ,
y
f(x) = cot x
4
x y
0 undefined 1

4 1 x –2␲ 2␲
0 ␲ ␲ ␲
2 0 –1 4 2
3
4 1
undefined
–4
f(x) = cot x, 0 < x < Dot mode
Figure 46
(continued)
• The graph is discontinuous at values of x of the form x n and has ver-

tical asymptotes at these values.
• Its x-intercepts are of the form x 2n 12 .
• Its period is .
• Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no minimum or maximum
values.
odd function. For all x in the domain, cotx cot x.
The tangent function can be graphed directly with a graphing calculator,

using the tangent key. To graph the cotangent function, however, we must use
one of the identities cot x tan1 x or cot x cos x
sin x since graphing calculators gen-
erally do not have cotangent keys. ■
Guidelines for Sketching Graphs of Tangent and

Cotangent Functions
TEACHING TIP Emphasize to stu- To graph y a tan bx or y a cot bx, with b 0, follow these steps.
dents that the period of the tan-
gent and cotangent functions is Step 1 Determine the period, b . To locate two adjacent vertical asymptotes,
2 solve the following equations for x:
, not .
b b

For y a tan bx: bx and bx .
2 2
For y a cot bx: bx 0 and bx .
Step 2 Sketch the two vertical asymptotes found in Step 1.
Step 3 Divide the interval formed by the vertical asymptotes into four
equal parts.
Step 4 Evaluate the function for the first-quarter point, midpoint, and third-
quarter point, using the x-values found in Step 3.
Step 5 Join the points with a smooth curve, approaching the vertical
asymptotes. Indicate additional asymptotes and periods of the graph
as necessary.
EXAMPLE 3 Graphing y tan bx

Graph y tan 2x.
Solution
Step 1 The period of this function is 2 . To locate two adjacent vertical

asymptotes, solve 2x 2 and 2x 2 (since this is a tangent func-

tion). The two asymptotes have equations x 4 and x 4 .

Step 2 Sketch the two vertical asymptotes x 4 , as shown in Figure 47 on
the next page.
Step 3 Divide the interval 4 , 4 into four equal parts. This gives the fol-

lowing key x-values.

y
first-quarter value: , middle value: 0, third-quarter value:
8 8
Step 4 Evaluate the function for the x-values found in Step 3.
1
8
x 0 8
x
0␲ ␲
–␲ –␲ –␲ ␲
2x 4 0

2 4 8 8 4 2 4
–1 tan 2x 1 0 1
y = tan 2x Period: ␲
Step 5 Join these points with a smooth curve, approaching the vertical
2 asymptotes. See Figure 47. Another period has been graphed, one half
Figure 47 period to the left and one half period to the right.
EXAMPLE 4 Graphing y a tan bx

1
Graph y 3 tan x.
2

Solution The period is 1 2. Adjacent asymptotes are at x and
y 2
x . Dividing the interval x into four equal parts gives key

1
y = –3 tan 2 x x-values of 2 , 0, and 2 . Evaluating the function at these x-values gives the key
3 Period: 2␲ points.
–␲ – ␲ 0
2
␲
2
␲
x

2
,3 , 0, 0,

2
, 3
–3
By plotting these points and joining them with a smooth curve, we obtain the
graph shown in Figure 48. Because the coefficient 3 is negative, the graph is
1
Figure 48 reflected across the x-axis compared to the graph of y 3 tan 2 x.
1
NOTE The function defined by y 3 tan 2 x in Example 4, graphed in
Figure 48, has a graph that compares to the graph of y tan x as follows.
1 1
1. The period is larger because b 2 , and 2 1.
2. The graph is “stretched” because a 3, and 3 1.
3. Each branch of the graph goes down from left to right (that is, the function
decreases) between each pair of adjacent asymptotes because a 3 0.
When a 0, the graph is reflected across the x-axis compared to the graph
of y a tan bx.
EXAMPLE 5 Graphing y a cot bx

1
Graph y cot 2x.
2
y
Solution Because this function involves the cotangent, we can locate two adja-
y = 1 cot 2x
2 cent asymptotes by solving the equations 2x 0 and 2x . The lines x 0
1 Period: ␲ (the y-axis) and x 2 are two such asymptotes. Divide the interval 0, 2 into

2
3
3␲ four equal parts, getting key x-values of 8 , 4 , and 8 . Evaluating the function at
8
x these x-values gives the following key points.

0 ␲ ␲ ␲
8 4 2
1 3 1
–1 , , ,0 , ,
8 2 4 8 2
Joining these points with a smooth curve approaching the asymptotes gives the
Figure 49 graph shown in Figure 49.
Like the other circular functions, the graphs of the tangent and cotangent
functions may be translated horizontally and vertically.
EXAMPLE 6 Graphing a Tangent Function with a Vertical Translation

Graph y 2 tan x.
Analytic Solution Graphing Calculator Solution

Every value of y for this function will be 2 units more To see the vertical translation, observe the coordinates
than the corresponding value of y in y tan x, caus- displayed at the bottoms of the screens in Figures 51

ing the graph of y 2 tan x to be translated 2 units and 52. For X 4 .78539816,
up compared with the graph of y tan x. See
Figure 50. Y1 tan X 1,
y while for the same X-value,
Y2 2 tan X 2 1 3.
4 4
–␲ ␲ –␲ ␲
1
x 2 2 2 2
0
– 3␲ –␲ –␲ –1
␲ ␲ 3␲
2 2 2 2
–2
–4 –4
y = 2 + tan x Dot mode Dot mode
Figure 50 Figure 51 Figure 52

EXAMPLE 7 Graphing a Cotangent Function with Vertical and Horizontal

Translations
Graph y 2 cot x
4
.
Solution Here b 1, so the period is . The graph will be translated down

2 units (because c 2), reflected across the x-axis (because of the negative
sign in front of the cotangent), and will have a phase shift (horizontal transla-
tion) 4 unit to the right because of the argument x 4 . To locate adjacent

asymptotes, since this function involves the cotangent, we solve the following
equations:
y
5
x 0, so x and x , so x .
–␲ 1 4 4 4 4
2 ␲
5
0
x Dividing the interval 4 x 4 into four equal parts and evaluating the func-
– 3␲ –␲ ␲ ␲ 3␲ 5␲
4 4 4 2 4 4 tion at the three key x-values within the interval gives these points.

c = –2
3
–3 , 3 , , 2 , , 1
2 4
y = –2 – cot x – ( )
4 Join these points with a smooth curve. This period of the graph, along with the
one in the domain interval 4 , 4 , is shown in Figure 53.
3
Figure 53
Addition of Ordinates New functions can be formed by adding or subtract-

ing other functions. A function formed by combining two other functions, such as
y cos x sin x,
has historically been graphed using a method known as addition of ordinates.
(The x-value of a point is sometimes called its abscissa, while its y-value is
called its ordinate.) To apply this method to this function, we graph the func-
tions y cos x and y sin x. Then, for selected values of x, we add cos x and
sin x, and plot the points x, cos x sin x. Joining the resulting points with a
sinusoidal curve gives the graph of the desired function. While this method
illustrates some valuable concepts involving the arithmetic of functions, it is
time-consuming.
With graphing calculators, this technique is easily illustrated. Let Y1
cos X, Y2 sin X, and Y3 Y1 Y2. Figure 54 shows the result when Y1 and
Y2 are graphed in thin graph style, and Y3 cos X sin X is graphed in thick

graph style. Notice that for X 6 .52359878, Y1 Y2 Y3.
2 2 2
–2␲ 2␲ –2␲ 2␲ –2␲ 2␲
–2 –2 –2
Figure 54

6.4 Exercises
1. B 2. C 3. E 4. A 5. D Concept Check In Exercises 1–6, match each function with its graph from choices A–F.
6. F
1. y csc x 2. y sec x 3. y tan x

7. y 8. y
y = 3 sec 1 x
4
4. y cot x 5. y tan x 6. y cot x
3 4 2 2 4 4
x x
–2 0 2 6 – 0 3 A. y B. y C. y
–3
y = –2 sec 1 x
2
1 1
9. y
10. y 0
x x x
␲ 0 0 ␲
–1 ␲ 2␲ – ␲–1
2 2
1 1
0 x 0 x
D. y E. y F. y
– 3 – 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
y = – 1 csc x + ( ) y = 1 csc x – ( )
2 2 2 2
x x x
0 ␲
–␲
0 0
11. 12. ␲
–␲ 3␲ 5␲
y y
4 4 2 2 4 4

1 0 1 4
x
0 3 5 7 x Graph each function over a one-period interval. See Examples 1 and 2.

–1 5 9
– –1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
1 1 1
y = csc x –
7. y 3 sec x 8. y 2 sec x 9. y csc x
4 ( ) y = sec x + 3 ( ) 4 2 2 2

4
13. 14. 1 3
y y 10. y csc x 11. y csc x 12. y sec x
2 2 4 4
1
–10
4
5 7 9
3
x
1
0
–1 2
6
5
7
x 13. y sec x
4
14. y csc x
3
15. y sec 1
2
x

3

4 4 4 4
–
3 6 3 3
1
y = sec x + ( ) y = csc x + ( ) 16. y csc x 17. y 2 3 sec2x
4 3 2 4
15.
y
16.
y

18. y 1 2 csc x

2
19. y 1
1
2
csc x
3
4

4 7
1 3 1 2 1 1
–10 7 10 13
x 0
–1 3 5 9
x 20. y 2 sec x
3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 2
y = sec 1 x + ( ) y = csc 1 x –
Graph each function over a one-period interval. See Examples 3 –5.
2 3 2 4 ( )
1
17.
y
18.
y
21. y tan 4x 22. y tan x 23. y 2 tan x
2
5 1 1
3 24. y 2 cot x 25. y 2 tan x 26. y cot x
2 3 5 4 2
1
0 4 4 4 x
x
– –1
0 3 1 1
–1 2 2 2 27. y cot 3x 28. y cot x 29. y 2 tan x
2 4
y = 2 + 3 sec (2x – ) y = 1 – 2 csc x + ( )
2
1 1 1
30. y 3 tan x 31. y cot 4x 32. y cot 2x
2 2 2
Graph each function over a two-period interval. See Examples 6 and 7.
33. y tan2x 34. y tan x

2
35. y cot 3x
4
19.
y
20.
y

36. y cot 2x
3
2 37. y 1 tan x 38. y 1 tan x
2
39. y 1 cot x 40. y 2 cot x
3 7 11 2
1 4 4 4
x x 1
0
2
3 2 5
2 2
– 0 2 3 41. y 1 2 tan x 42. y 3 tan x
2
y = 1 – 1 csc x – 3 ( ) y = 2 + 1 sec 1 x –
4 ( 2 ) 1
2 4
43. y 1 cot2x 3 44. y 2 3 tan4x
2

21. y
y = tan 4x
22. y
y = tan 1
x
2
2 3
45. y 1 2 cot 2 x 46. y tan x 2
–
16 0
1 –
2 1
2 3 4
x x
– – –1
8 –1 16 8 2
Concept Check In Exercises 47–52, tell whether each statement is true or false. If
23. y 24. y false, tell why.
47. The smallest positive number k for which x k is an asymptote for the tangent func-
2
0

2
2 tion is 2 .
x x
0
– 48. The smallest positive number k for which x k is an asymptote for the cotangent
2 –2 –2 2
function is 2 .
y = 2 tan x y = 2 cot x
49. The tangent and secant functions are undefined for the same values.
25. y 26. y
50. The secant and cosecant functions are undefined for the same values.
51. The graph of y tan x in Figure 45 suggests that tanx tan x for all x in the
– 0 2 1
x x domain of tan x.
–2 –2 2 –10
2
52. The graph of y sec x in Figure 40 suggests that secx sec x for all x in the
domain of sec x.
y = 2 tan 1 x y = 1 cot x
4 2
53. Concept Check If c is any number, then how many solutions does the equation
27.
y
28.
y
c tan x have in the interval 2, 2?
54. Concept Check If c is any number such that 1 c 1, then how many solu-
1 tions does the equation c sec x have over the entire domain of the secant function?
1
0
x
–1 0 2
x
55. Consider the function defined by f x 4 tan2x . What is the domain of f?
6 3
–1 What is its range?
y = cot 3x y = –cot 1 x
2
56. Consider the function defined by gx 2 csc4x . What is the domain of g?
What is its range?
29. y 30. y
3
2 (Modeling) Solve each problem.
x 0 x
–2 0 2 –
–2
57. Distance of a Rotating Beacon A rotating beacon is located at point A next to a
–3
long wall. (See the figure.) The beacon is 4 m from the wall. The distance d is
y = –2 tan 1 x y = 3 tan 1 x given by
4 2
31.
y
32.
y
d 4 tan 2 t,
2 2
where t is time measured in seconds since the beacon started rotating. (When t 0,
the beacon is aimed at point R. When the beacon is aimed to the right of R, the
x x
0 0 value of d is positive; d is negative if the beacon is aimed to the left of R.) Find d
8 4 4 2
–2 –2 for each time.
y = 1 cot 4x
2
y = – 1 cot 2x
2
(a) t0 d
(b) t .4 R
Answer graphs for odd-numbered
Exercises 33–45 are included on (c) t .8
page A-39 of the answer section (d) t 1.2 4m
a
at the back of the text. (e) Why is .25 a meaningless value
for t?
A
34. 36. 58. Distance of a Rotating Beacon In the figure for Exercise 57, the distance a is
y y
given by
a 4 sec 2 t .
1 x 1
0 2 3
–
0 5
x Find a for each time.
–1 4 2 4
(a) t 0 (b) t .86 (c) t 1.24
(
y = tan x +
2 )
59. Simultaneously graph y tan x and y x in the window 1, 1 by 1, 1 with a
(
y = cot 2x – 3 )
2
9 graphing calculator. Write a sentence or two describing the relationship of tan x and
x for small x-values.
38. 40.
y
9 60.
y
Between each pair of successive asymptotes, a portion of the graph of y sec x or
– –
2
0
2
x y csc x resembles a parabola. Can each of these portions actually be a parabola?
1
x –2 Explain.
0 3
–
2 2 2
y = 1 – tan x
y = –2 – cot x
Use a graphing calculator to graph Y1, Y2, and Y1 Y2 on the same screen. Evaluate
42. 44.
each of the three functions at X 6 , and verify that Y1 6 Y2 6 Y1 Y2 6 .
y y
See the discussion on addition of ordinates.
0 x
– 3 –
8 8
61. Y1 sin X, Y2 sin 2X 62. Y1 cos X, Y2 sec X
8
3 –1
–
2
3 –2
2 2
x
0
y = 3 + 1 tan x
2
Relating Concepts
y = –2 + 3 tan (4x + )
For individual or collaborative investigation
46.
y (Exercises 63–68)
Consider the function defined by y 2 cot x from Example 7. Work these

2 4 8 10 4
2 3 3 3 3
0 2
x exercises in order.
–2
63. What is the smallest positive number for which y cot x is undefined?
64. Let k represent the number you found in Exercise 63. Set x 4 equal to k, and solve
3 (
y = 2 tan 3 x – – 2
4 ) to find the smallest positive number for which cot x 4 is undefined.
47. true 48. false; The smallest 65. Based on your answer in Exercise 64 and the fact that the cotangent function has
such k is . 49. true 50. false;
period , give the general form of the equations of the asymptotes of the graph of
y 2 cot x 4 . Let n represent any integer.
Secant values are undefined when

x n, while cosecant 66. Use the capabilities of your calculator to find the smallest positive x-intercept of the
2
values are undefined when graph of this function.
x n. 51. false; 67. Use the fact that the period of this function is to find the next positive x-intercept.
tanx tan x for all x in the 68. Give the solution set of the equation 2 cot x 4 0 over all real numbers.
domain. 52. true 53. four Let n represent any integer.
54. none
55. domain: x x 2n 1

4 n

, where n is an integer ; range: , 56. domain: x x , where n is an integer ;
4

range: , 2 2, 57. (a) 0 m (b) 2.9 m (c) 12.3 m (d) 12.3 m (e) It leads to tan , which is undefined.
2

58. (a) 4 m (b) 6.3 m (c) 63.7 m In Exercises 61 and 62, we show the display for Y1 Y2 at X .
6
5 5
61. 3 62. 4 63. 64. 65. y n
4 4
66. approximately .3217505544
–2␲ 2␲ –2␲ 2␲ 67. approximately 3.463343208
68. x x .3217505544 n
–3 –4
Summary Exercises on Graphing Circular Functions
Answer graphs for the Summary These summary exercises provide practice with the various graphing techniques pre-
Exercises are given on page A-39 sented in this chapter. Graph each function over a one-period interval.
of the answer section at the back
of the text.
1. y 2 sin x 2. y 4 cos 1.5x
x
3. y 2 .5 cos x 1 4. y 3 sec
4 2
5. y 4 csc .5x 6. y 3 tan

x
2
Graph each function over a two-period interval.
7. y 5 sin
x
3
8. y 10 cos x
4

2
9. y 3 4 sin2.5x 10. y 2 sec x 3
6.5 Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion ■ Damped Oscillatory Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion In part A of Figure 55, a spring with a weight

attached to its free end is in equilibrium (or rest) position. If the weight is pulled
down a units and released (part B of the figure), the spring’s elasticity causes the
weight to rise a units a 0 above the equilibrium position, as seen in part C,
and then oscillate about the equilibrium position. If friction is neglected, this os-
cillatory motion is described mathematically by a sinusoid. Other applications
of this type of motion include sound, electric current, and electromagnetic waves.
y
a
0
–a
A. B. C.
Figure 55
y
To develop a general equation for such motion, consider Figure 56. Suppose
(0, a) the point Px, y moves around the circle counterclockwise at a uniform angular
Q(0, y)
P(x, y) speed . Assume that at time t 0, P is at a, 0. The angle swept out by ray OP
y at time t is given by t. The coordinates of point P at time t are
␪ x
(–a, 0) O R(x, 0) (a, 0)
x
x a cos a cos t and y a sin a sin t.
As P moves around the circle from the point a, 0, the point Q0, y oscil-
lates back and forth along the y-axis between the points 0, a and 0, a.
(0, –a)
Similarly, the point Rx, 0 oscillates back and forth between a, 0 and a, 0.
Figure 56 This oscillatory motion is called simple harmonic motion.
6.5 Harmonic Motion 589
2
The amplitude of the motion is a, and the period is . The moving points
P and Q or P and R complete one oscillation or cycle per period. The number of

cycles per unit of time, called the frequency, is the reciprocal of the period, 2 ,
where 0.
Simple Harmonic Motion

TEACHING TIP Mention that simple The position of a point oscillating about an equilibrium position at time t is
harmonic motion is an important modeled by either
topic for students majoring in
engineering or physics. s(t) a cos
t or s(t) a sin
t,
where a and are constants, with 0. The amplitude of the motion is
a , the period is 2 , and the frequency is 2 .
EXAMPLE 1 Modeling the Motion of a Spring

Suppose that an object is attached to a coiled spring such as the one in
Figure 55. It is pulled down a distance of 5 in. from its equilibrium position, and
then released. The time for one complete oscillation is 4 sec.
(a) Give an equation that models the position of the object at time t.
(b) Determine the position at t 1.5 sec.
(c) Find the frequency.
Solution
(a) When the object is released at t 0, the distance of the object from the
equilibrium position is 5 in. below equilibrium. If st is to model the mo-
tion, then s0 must equal 5. We use
st a cos t,
with a 5. We choose the cosine function because cos 0
cos 0 1, and 5 1 5. (Had we chosen the sine function, a phase
shift would have been required.) The period is 4, so
2
4, or . Solve for . (Section 1.1)
2
Thus, the motion is modeled by

st 5 cos t.
2
(b) After 1.5 sec, the position is
s1.5 5 cos
2
1.5 3.54 in.
Since 3.54 0, the object is above the equilibrium position.

(c) The frequency is the reciprocal of the period, or 14 .
Now try Exercise 9.

EXAMPLE 2 Analyzing Harmonic Motion

Suppose that an object oscillates according to the model
st 8 sin 3t,
where t is in seconds and st is in feet. Analyze the motion.
Solution The motion is harmonic because the model is of the form st
a sin t. Because a 8, the object oscillates 8 ft in either direction from its
2
starting point. The period 3 2.1 is the time, in seconds, it takes for one com-
plete oscillation. The frequency is the reciprocal of the period, so the object
3
completes 2 .48 oscillation per sec.
Damped Oscillatory Motion In the example of the stretched spring, we

disregard the effect of friction. Friction causes the amplitude of the motion to di-
minish gradually until the weight comes to rest. In this situation, we say that the
y3 = e –x sin x y1 = e –x motion has been damped by the force of friction. Most oscillatory motions are
.5
damped, and the decrease in amplitude follows the pattern of exponential decay.
A typical example of damped oscillatory motion is provided by the function
defined by
0 2␲ st et sin t.
Figure 57 shows how the graph of y3 ex sin x is bounded above by the
–.2
graph of y1 ex and below by the graph of y2 ex. The damped motion
y2 = –e –x
curve dips below the x-axis at x but stays above the graph of y2. Figure 58
Figure 57 shows a traditional graph of st et sin t, along with the graph of y sin t.
1
y = sin t
y= e– t
s(t) = e – tsin t
t
␲ 2␲
–1
y = –e – t
Figure 58
Shock absorbers are put on an automobile in order to damp oscillatory mo-

tion. Instead of oscillating up and down for a long while after hitting a bump or
pothole, the oscillations of the car are quickly damped out for a smoother ride.
6.5 Harmonic Motion 591
6.5 Exercises
1. (a) st 2 cos 4 t (Modeling) Springs Suppose that a weight on a spring has initial position s0 and
(b) s1 2; The weight is neither period P.
moving upward nor downward. At (a) Find a function s given by st a cos t that models the displacement of the
t 1, the motion of the weight is weight.
changing from up to down.
(b) Evaluate s1. Is the weight moving upward, downward, or neither when t 1?
4
2. (a) st 5 cos t Support your results graphically or numerically.
3
(b) s1 2.5; upward 1. s0 2 in.; P .5 sec 2. s0 5 in.; P 1.5 sec
3. (a) st 3 cos 2.5 t 3. s0 3 in.; P .8 sec 4. s0 4 in.; P 1.2 sec
(b) s1 0; upward
5 (Modeling) Music A note on the piano has given frequency F. Suppose the maximum
4. (a) st 4 cos t
3 displacement at the center of the piano wire is given by s0. Find constants a and so
(b) s1 2; downward that the equation st a cos t models this displacement. Graph s in the viewing win-
5. st .21 cos 55 t dow 0, .05 by .3, .3.
.3
5. F 27.5; s0 .21 6. F 110; s0 .11
7. F 55; s0 .14 8. F 220; s0 .06
0 .05
(Modeling) Solve each problem. See Examples 1 and 2.
9. Spring An object is attached to a coiled spring, as in Figure 55. It is pulled down
–.3
a distance of 4 units from its equilibrium position, and then released. The time for
6. st .11 cos 220 t one complete oscillation is 3 sec.
.3
(a) Give an equation that models the position of the object at time t.
(b) Determine the position at t 1.25 sec.
(c) Find the frequency.
0 .05
10. Spring Repeat Exercise 9, but assume that the object is pulled down 6 units and
the time for one complete oscillation is 4 sec.
–.3 11. Particle Movement Write the equation and then determine the amplitude, period,
7. st .14 cos 110 t and frequency of the simple harmonic motion of a particle moving uniformly around
.3 a circle of radius 2 units, with angular speed
(a) 2 radians per sec (b) 4 radians per sec.
12. Pendulum What are the period P and frequency T of oscillation of a pendulum of
0 .05
length 12 ft? Hint: P 2
32
L
, where L is the length of the pendulum in feet and P
is in seconds.
–.3
13. Pendulum In Exercise 12, how long should the pendulum be to have period 1 sec?
8. st .06 cos 440 t
14. Spring The formula for the up and down motion of a weight on a spring is
.3
given by
0 .05
st a sin
m
k
t.
If the spring constant k is 4, what mass m must be used to produce a period of 1 sec?
–.3 15. Spring The height attained by a weight attached to a spring set in motion is
2 st 4 cos 8 t
9. (a) st 4 cos t
3 inches after t seconds.
1 (a) Find the maximum height that the weight rises above the equilibrium position
(b) 3.46 in. (c)
3 of y 0.
(b) When does the weight first reach its maximum height, if t 0?
(c) What are the frequency and period?
16. Spring (See Exercise 14.) A spring with spring constant k 2 and a 1-unit
10. (a) st 6 cos t
2 mass m attached to it is stretched and then allowed to come to rest.
1
(b) 2.30 in. (c) (a) If the spring is stretched 12 ft and released, what are the amplitude, period, and
4 frequency of the resulting oscillatory motion?
11. (a) st 2 sin 2t ; (b) What is the equation of the motion?
amplitude: 2; period: ;
1 17. Spring The position of a weight attached to a spring is
frequency:
st 5 cos 4 t
(b) st 2 sin 4t ; amplitude: 2;
period: ; frequency:
2 (a) What is the maximum height that the weight rises above the equilibrium
4 position?
12. period: ; frequency:
4 (b) What are the frequency and period?
8 1 (c) When does the weight first reach its maximum height?
13. 2 14. 2
(d) Calculate and interpret s1.3.
1 18. Spring The position of a weight attached to a spring is
15. (a) 4 in. (b) after sec
8
1 st 4 cos 10t
(c) 4 cycles per sec; sec
1
16. (a) amplitude: ; (a) What is the maximum height that the weight rises above the equilibrium
2
position?

2
period:
2 ; frequency: (b) What are the frequency and period?
2
(c) When does the weight first reach its maximum height?
1
(b) st sin
2t (d) Calculate and interpret s1.466.
2
17. (a) 5 in. (b) 2 cycles per sec; 19. Spring A weight attached to a spring is pulled down 3 in. below the equilibrium
position.
1 1
2
sec (c) after sec
4 (a) Assuming that the frequency is 6 cycles per sec, determine a model that gives
(d) approximately 4; After the position of the weight at time t seconds.
1.3 sec, the weight is about 4 in. (b) What is the period?
above the equilibrium position. 20. Spring A weight attached to a spring is pulled down 2 in. below the equilibrium
5 position.
18. (a) 4 in. (b) cycles
(a) Assuming that the period is 13 sec, determine a model that gives the position of
the weight at time t seconds.
per sec; sec
5 (b) What is the frequency?

(c) after sec
10 Use a graphing calculator to graph y1 e t sin t, y2 e t, and y3 e t in the view-
(d) approximately 2; After ing window 0, by .5, .5.
1.466 sec, the weight is about 2 in.
above the equilibrium position. 21. Find the t-intercepts of the graph of y1. Explain the relationship of these intercepts
19. (a) st 3 cos 12t with the x-intercepts of the graph of y sin x.
22. Find any points of intersection of y1 and y2 or y1 and y3. How are these points related
(b) sec
6 to the graph of y sin x ?
20. (a) st 2 cos 6 t
(b) 3 cycles per sec 21. 0; ;
They are the same. 22. for y1

and y2: 1.5707963 ; for
2
y1 and y3: none in 0, ;

Because sin 1,
2

e 2 sin e 2.
2
CHAPTER 6 Summary 593
Chapter 6 Summary
KEY TERMS
6.1 radian linear speed v phase shift frequency
sector of a circle 6.3 periodic function argument damped oscillatory
6.2 unit circle period 6.4 addition of ordinates motion
circular functions sine wave (sinusoid) 6.5 simple harmonic
angular speed amplitude motion
QUICK REVIEW
CONCEPTS EXAMPLES
6.1 Radian Measure

An angle with its vertex at the center of a circle that inter-
cepts an arc on the circle equal in length to the radius of the
circle has a measure of 1 radian.
Degree/Radian Relationship 180° radians
Converting Between Degrees and Radians

1. Multiply a degree measure by 180 radian and simplify to Convert 135° to radians.

convert to radians.
3
2. Multiply a radian measure by 180° 135° 135 radian radians
and simplify to con- 180 4
vert to degrees.
Convert 53 radians to degrees.

5
3
radians
3
5 180°

300°
Arc Length
The length s of the arc intercepted on a circle of radius r by a In the figure, s r so
s=3
central angle of measure radians is given by the product of
␪
the radius and the radian measure of the angle, or s 3
radian. 0 r=4
r 4
s r , in radians.
Area of a Sector
The area of a sector of a circle of radius r and central angle The area of the sector in the figure is
is given by
1
A
1
2
42
3
4 6 square units.
A r 2 , in radians.
2
CONCEPTS EXAMPLES
6.2 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions

Circular Functions
Start at the point 1, 0 on the unit circle x 2 y 2 1 and lay Use the unit circle to find each value.
off an arc of length s along the circle, going counterclock-
5 1
wise if s is positive, and clockwise if s is negative. Let the sin
endpoint of the arc be at the point x, y. The six circular 6 2
functions of s are defined as follows. (Assume that no de- 3
cos 0
nominators are 0.) 2

2
y 2
sin s y cos s x tan s tan 1
4
2
x 2
1 1 x 7 1
csc s sec s cot s csc
2
y x y 4
22
The Unit Circle 7 1 2
3
sec

3
6 2 3
y 1
2
3
cot
1 , √3 (0, 1) 1 , √3 3
3 3
(– 2 2 ␲
) ( 2 2 ) 2
90° ␲ √2 √2
( – √2 , √2 ) 2␲ 2
60° 3 ␲ ( , )
3␲ 3 120°
2 2 2 2
45° 4
( – √3 , 1 5␲ 4 135°
) ␲ ( √3 , 1
)
2 2 30° 6
2 2
6 150°
(–1, 0) 180° 0° 0 (1, 0)
x
␲ 0 360° 2␲
7␲ 210° 330° 11␲
√3 , 1
– √3 , – 1 (2 )
6
( 2 2 ) 5␲ 225°
4
315° 7␲
6 –
2
4␲ 240° 300° 5␲ 4 √2 , – √2
(– √22 , – √22 ) 3 3␲
270° 2
3
2 2 ( )
1 , √3
(– 12 , – √32 ) (0, –1) 2 –
2( )
Unit circle x2 + y2 = 1
Formulas for Angular and Linear Speed
A belt runs a pulley of radius 8 in. at 60 revolutions per min.

Angular Speed Linear Speed
Find the angular speed in radians per minute, and the lin-
s ear speed v of the belt in inches per minute.

v
t t 602 120 radians per min
r v r 8120 960 in. per min
( in radians per unit time, v
t
in radians)
v r
CHAPTER 6 Summary 595
CONCEPTS EXAMPLES
6.3 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions
Sine and Cosine Functions Graph y sin 3x.
y y
y
1 y = sin x 1 y = cos x y = sin 3x
1
x x
0 ␲ ␲ 0 x
3␲ 2␲ ␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲ 0
2 2 2 2 ␲ 2␲ ␲ 4␲
–1 –1 3 3 3
–1
Domain: , Domain: ,
period: 23 amplitude: 1
Range: 1, 1 Range: 1, 1
Amplitude: 1 Amplitude: 1 domain: , range: 1, 1
Period: 2 Period: 2
The graph of Graph y 2 cos x.
y c a sin b(x d ) or y c a cos b(x d ),
y
b 0, has y = –2 cos x
2
2
1. amplitude a , 2. period b , x
0
3. vertical translation c units up if c 0 or c units down 2␲ 4␲
if c 0, and –2
4. phase shift d units to the right if d 0 or d units to

the left if d 0. period: 2 amplitude: 2
See pages 562 and 565 for a summary of graphing domain: , range: 2, 2
techniques.
6.4 Graphs of the Other Circular Functions

Cosecant and Secant Functions Graph one period of y sec x 4 .
y y
y = sec x y
␲
–␲ y = csc x 1 2
2 1
x x
–␲ 0 ␲ ␲ –␲ – ␲ 0 –1 ␲ 3␲
–1
2 2 1 4
x
0
–1 ␲ 5␲ 7␲ 9␲
Domain: x x n, Domain: x x 2n 1 2 ,
4 4 4 4
where n an integer where n an integer

Range: , 1 1, Range: , 1 1, y = sec x +
( )
4
Period: 2 Period: 2
period: 2
See page 577 for a summary of graphing techniques. phase shift: 4
domain: x x 4 n,
range: , 1 1,
(continued)
CONCEPTS EXAMPLES
Tangent and Cotangent Functions Graph one period of y 2 tan x.
y y y
y = tan x y = cot x
1 1
2 ␲
0 x x 2
0
0 ␲ ␲ x
–␲ ␲
2 2 2 –␲
2 –2
Domain: x x 2n 1 2 ,

Domain: x x n, y = 2 tan x
where n is an integer where n is an integer period:
Range: , Range: ,
domain: x x 2n 1 2 ,

Period: Period:
See page 581 for a summary of graphing techniques. range: ,
6.5 Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion A spring oscillates according to
The position of a point oscillating about an equilibrium posi-
st 5 cos 6t,
tion at time t is modeled by either
where t is in seconds and st is in inches.
st a cos
t or st a sin
t,
where a and are constants, with 0. The amplitude of amplitude 5 5
the motion is a , the period is 2, and the frequency is 2 . 2
period
6 3
3
frequency

Chapter 6 Review Exercises

1. (a) II (b) III (c) III (d) I 1. Consider each angle in standard position having the given radian measure. In what
2 40 quadrant does the terminal side lie?
3. 4. 5. 225°
3 9 (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 7
6. 216°
9 2. Which is larger—an angle of 1° or an angle of 1 radian? Discuss and justify your
answer.
Convert each degree measure to radians. Leave answers as multiples of .

3. 120° 4. 800°

5 6
5. 6.
4 5
CHAPTER 6 Review Exercises 597
7. Railroad Engineering The term grade has several different meanings in construc-
7. (a) (b) 3.15°; .055 radian 1
200 tion work. Some engineers use the term grade to represent 100 of a right angle and
4 express grade as a percent. For instance, an angle of .9° would be referred to as a 1%
8. (a) in. (b) 12 in. grade. (Source: Hay, W., Railroad Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, 1982.)
3
9. 35.8 cm 10. 2263 in.2 (a) By what number should you multiply a grade to convert it to radians?
1 (b) In a rapid-transit rail system, the maximum grade allowed between two stations
11. 41 yd 12. radian is 3.5%. Express this angle in degrees and radians.
2
1 8. Concept Check Suppose the tip of the minute hand of a
13. radian 14. 16 sq units
2 clock is 2 in. from the center of the clock. For each of the
15 following durations, determine the distance traveled by
15. sec 16. 108 radians the tip of the minute hand. 2 in.
32
17. 1260 m per sec (a) 20 min (b) 3 hr

18. radian per sec
36
Solve each problem. Use a calculator as necessary.

9. Arc Length The radius of a circle is 15.2 cm. Find the length of an arc of the cir-
cle intercepted by a central angle of 34 radians.
10. Area of a Sector A central angle of 74 radians forms a sector of a circle. Find the
area of the sector if the radius of the circle is 28.69 in.
11. Height of a Tree A tree 2000 yd away subtends an angle of 1° 10. Find the height
of the tree to two significant digits.
12. Rotation of a Seesaw The seesaw at a playground is 12 ft long. Through what
angle does the board rotate when a child rises 3 ft along the circular arc?
Consider the figure here for Exercises 13 and 14.

13. What is the measure of in radians?
4

14. What is the area of the sector?
8
Solve each problem.

15. Find the time t if 512 radians and 89 radians per sec.
16. Find angle if t 12 sec and 9 radians per sec.
17. Linear Speed of a Flywheel Find the linear speed of a point on the edge of a fly-
wheel of radius 7 m if the flywheel is rotating 90 times per sec.
18. Angular Speed of a Ferris Wheel A Ferris
wheel has radius 25 ft. If it takes 30 sec for the
wheel to turn 56 radians, what is the angular
speed of the wheel?
1
19. A r 2, the formula for the 19. Concept Check Consider the area-of-a-sector formula A 2 r 2. What well-
1 known formula corresponds to the special case 2?
area of a circle 20.
2
21.
3 22. 2 Find the exact function value. Do not use a calculator.

23. .9703 24. 11.4266
2 7 2 7 11
25. .5148 26. 27. 20. cos 21. tan 22. csc
3 6 3 3 6
28. (a) 0; The face of the moon
1
is not visible. (b) ; Half the
2 Use a calculator to find an approximation for each circular function value. Be sure your
face of the moon is visible. calculator is set in radian mode.
(c) 1; The face of the moon is
23. cos.2443 24. cot 3.0543
1
completely visible. (d) ; Half
2 25. Approximate the value of s in the interval 0, 2 if sin s .4924.
the face of the moon is visible.
Find the exact value of s in the given interval that has the given circular function value.
Do not use a calculator.
26.

2
, ; tan s
3 27.
,
3
2
; sec s
2
3
3
(Modeling) Solve each problem.

28. Phase Angle of the Moon Because the moon orbits Earth, we observe different
phases of the moon during the period of a month. In the figure, t is called the phase
angle.
Moon
Earth
Sun
The phase F of the moon is computed by

1
Ft 1 cos t,
2
and gives the fraction of the moon’s face that is illuminated by the sun. (Source:
Duffet-Smith, P., Practical Astronomy with Your Calculator, Cambridge University
Press, 1988.) Evaluate each expression and interpret the result.
(a) F0 (b) F

2
(c) F (d) F
3
2
29. Atmospheric Effect on Sunlight The shortest path for the sun’s rays through
Earth’s atmosphere occurs when the sun is directly overhead. Disregarding the cur-
vature of Earth, as the sun moves lower on the horizon, the distance that sunlight
passes through the atmosphere increases by a factor of csc , where is the angle of
elevation of the sun. This increased distance reduces both the intensity of the sun and
the amount of ultraviolet light that reaches Earth’s surface. See the figure at the top
of the next page. (Source: Winter, C., R. Sizmann, and Vant-Hunt (Editors), Solar
Power Plants, Springer-Verlag, 1991.)
CHAPTER 6 Review Exercises 599

29. (b) (c) less ultraviolet
6

light when 30. B Atmosphere
3 d
31. D 32. 2; 2 ; none; none h
␪
33. not applicable; ; none;
3
1 2 Earth
none 34. ; ; none; none
2 3
2
35. 2; ; none; none 36. 2;
5 (a) Verify that d h csc .
1 (b) Determine when d 2h.
8 ; 1 up; none 37. ; 3 ;
4 (c) The atmosphere filters out the ultraviolet light that causes skin to burn. Com-
3 up; none 38. 3; 2 ; none; pare the difference between sunbathing when 2 and when 3 . Which
measure gives less ultraviolet light?
to the left 39. 1; 2 ; none;
2 30. Concept Check Which one of the following is true about the graph of y 4 sin 2x?
3
to the right 40. not A. It has amplitude 2 and period 2 . B. It has amplitude 4 and period .
4 C. Its range is 0, 4. D. Its range is 4, 0.

applicable; ; none; to the 31. Concept Check Which one of the following is false about the graph of
8 1
y 3 cos 2 x?
right 41. tangent 42. sine
43. cosine 44. y A. Its range is 3, 3. B. Its domain is , .
3 C. Its amplitude is 3, and its period is 4.
2
1
D. Its amplitude is 3, and its period is .
x
0
–1 2
–2
–3
For each function, give the amplitude, period, vertical translation, and phase shift, as
y = 3 cos 2x applicable.
45. 46.
y 1
32. y 2 sin x 33. y tan 3x 34. y
y
cos 3x
2
1
5
1 1 2
0
x
1
0
4
x 35. y 2 sin 5x 36. y 1 2 sin x 37. y 3 cos x
–1 9 4 4 3

6 3 4 4
–1
y = cos x –
( ) 3 1
y = 1 cot 3x
2
4
38. y 3 cos x 39. y sin x 40. y csc 2x
2 4 2 4
47. 48.
y y
3 Concept Check Identify the circular function that satisfies each description.
2
1 1 41. period is , x-intercepts are of the form n, where n is an integer
x
–1
0 x
0 2
42. period is 2, graph passes through the origin
2
–1 3
y = 1 + 2 cos 3x
y = tan x – ( )
2
43. period is 2, graph passes through the point 2 , 0
49. y
y = –1 – 3 sin 2x
2

4 Graph each function over a one-period interval.

x
0 3
–1
4
1
44. y 3 cos 2x 45. y cot 3x 46. y cos x
–4 2 4

47. y tan x

2
48. y 1 2 cos 3x 49. y 1 3 sin 2x
9 50. Explain how by observing the graphs of y sin x and y cos x on the same axes,
one can see that for exactly two x-values in 0, 2, sin x cos x. What are the two
x-values?
51. (b) d Solve each problem.

51. Viewing Angle to an Object Let
50
a person h 1 feet tall stand d feet ␪ h2

from an object h 2 feet tall, where
0
4

2 h 2 h 1. Let be the angle of ele- h1
d = 50 cot vation to the top of the object. See d
52. (a) 12.3 hr (b) 1.2 ft the figure.
(c) 1.56 ft 53. (a) 30° (a) Show that d h 2 h 1 cot .
(b) Let h 2 55 and h 1 5. Graph d for the interval 0
2 .
(b) 60° (c) 75° (d) 86°
(e) 86° (f) 60°
y
54. (a) See the graph in part (d). 52. (Modeling) Tides The figure shows a func-
(b) tion f that models the tides in feet at Clearwater

4
Beach, Florida, x hours after midnight starting (14.7, 2.6)
f x 25 sin x 4.2 50
Tides (in feet)

on August 26, 1998. (Source: Pentcheff, D., 3 (2.4, 2.6) (27, 2.6)
6
WWW Tide and Current Predictor.)
(d) The function gives an excellent 2
model for the data. (a) Find the time between high tides.
(b) What is the difference in water levels 1 (8.7, 1.4) (21, 1.4)
f(x) = 25 sin ␲ (x – 4.2) + 50
[ ] between high tide and low tide?
6 x
80 (c) The tides can be modeled by 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
f x .6 cos.511x 2.4 2. Time (in hours)
Estimate the tides when x 10.

53. (Modeling) Maximum Temperatures The maximum afternoon temperature in a
1 25 given city might be modeled by
20
(e) x
t 60 30 cos ,
6
where t represents the maximum afternoon temperature in month x, with x 0 rep-
resenting January, x 1 representing February, and so on. Find the maximum after-
noon temperature for each month.
TI-83 Plus fixed to the (a) January (b) April (c) May
nearest hundredth. (d) June (e) August (f) October
54. (Modeling) Average Monthly Temperature
The average monthly temperature (in °F) in Month °F Month °F
Chicago, Illinois, is shown in the table. Jan 25 July 74
(a) Plot the average monthly temperature Feb 28 Aug 75
over a two-year period. Let x 1 cor-
respond to January of the first year. Mar 36 Sept 66
(b) Determine a model function of the form
Apr 48 Oct 55
f x a sin bx d c, where a, b,
c, and d are constants. May 61 Nov 39
9 (c) Explain the significance of each constant. June 72 Dec 28
(d) Graph f together with the data on the
same coordinate axes. How well does f
Source: Miller, A., J. Thompson, and R.
model the data? Peterson, Elements of Meteorology, 4th
(e) Use the sine regression capability of a Edition, Charles E. Merrill Publishing
graphing calculator to find the equation Co., 1983.
of a sine curve that fits these data.
55. (Modeling) Pollution Trends The amount of pollution in the air fluctuates with the
seasons. It is lower after heavy spring rains and higher after periods of little rain. In
addition to this seasonal fluctuation, the long-term trend is upward. An idealized
graph of this situation is shown in the figure on the next page.
CHAPTER 6 Test 601
55. (a) 100 (b) 258 (c) 122 55. (continued) Circular functions can be used to 600
(d) 296 56. amplitude: 3; model the fluctuating part of the pollution levels,
1 and exponential functions can be used to model
period: ; frequency:
long-term growth. The pollution level in a certain
57. amplitude: 4; period: 2; area might be given by
1
frequency: 58. The period is y 71 cos 2x x 10 100e .2x,
2 0 6
0
the time to complete one cycle. where x is the time in years, with x 0 representing
The amplitude is the maximum January 1 of the base year. July 1 of the same year would be represented by x .5,
distance (on either side) from the October 1 of the following year would be represented by x 1.75, and so on. Find
initial point. 59. The frequency the pollution levels on each date.
is the number of cycles in one unit
(a) January 1, base year (b) July 1, base year
of time; 4; 0; 2
2
(c) January 1, following year (d) July 1, following year
An object in simple harmonic motion has position function s inches from an initial point,
where t is the time in seconds. Find the amplitude, period, and frequency.
56. st 3 cos 2t 57. st 4 sin t
58. In Exercise 56, what does the period represent? What does the amplitude represent?
59. In Exercise 57, what does the frequency represent? Find the position of the object
from the initial point at 1.5 sec, 2 sec, and 3.25 sec.
Chapter 6 Test
2 Convert each degree measure to radians.

1. 2. 3. .09
3 4 1. 120° 2. 45° 3. 5° (to the nearest
4. 135° 5. 210° 6. 229.18° hundredth)
4
7. (a) (b) 15,000 cm2
3
8. 2 radians 9. (a) radians
3 3 7
10 5
4. 5. 6. 4 (to the nearest
(b) cm (c) cm per sec 4 6 hundredth)
3 9
7. A central angle of a circle with radius 150 cm cuts off an arc of 200 cm. Find each
measure.
(a) the radian measure of the angle
(b) the area of a sector with that central angle
8. Rotation of Gas Gauge Arrow The arrow on a car’s gasoline gauge is 12 in. long.
See the figure. Through what angle does the arrow rotate when it moves 1 in. on the
gauge?
Empty Full

2
3 9. Angular and Linear Speed of a Point Suppose that point P is on a circle with
10. 11.
radius 10 cm, and ray OP is rotating with angular speed 18 radian per sec.
2 2
12. undefined 13. 2 (a) Find the angle generated by P in 6 sec.
(b) Find the distance traveled by P along the circle in 6 sec.
14. (a) .9716 (b)
3 (c) Find the linear speed of P.
15. (a) (b) 6 (c) 3, 9

(d) 3 (e) to the left Find each circular function value.

4
3 7 3 2
that is, 10. sin 11. cos 12. tan 13. sec
4 4 6 2 3
16. 17.
y y 14. (a) Use a calculator to approximate s in the interval 0, 2 , if sin s .8258.
(b) Find the exact value of s in the interval 0, 2 , if cos s 12 .
2
y = – cos 2x 2
1 1
– – 0
x
–1
0 3 2
x
15. Consider the function defined by y 3 6 sin 2x 2 .
2 –1 2 2 2
–2 (a) What is its period? (b) What is the amplitude of its graph?
–2
y = –csc 2x (c) What is its range? (d) What is the y-intercept of its graph?
18. y
y = tan x –
(e) What is its phase shift?
2 ( )
1
x
Graph each function over a two-period interval. Identify asymptotes when applicable.
– 0
–1
16. y cos 2x 17. y csc 2x
19.
x = –
y
x=
18. y tan x
2
19. y 1 2 sinx

3
2 y = –1 + 2 sin (x + )

–2 – 2
x
20. y 2 cot x
0 2
–1
–2 21. (Modeling) Average Monthly Temperature The average monthly temperature
–3
(in °F) in Austin, Texas, can be modeled using the circular function defined by

20. y
– 3

f x 17.5 sin x 4 67.5,
2 2 2
x
0
–2 6
where x is the month and x 1 corresponds to January. (Source: Miller, A., J.

y = –2 – cot x – ( ) Thompson, and R. Peterson, Elements of Meteorology, 4th Edition, Charles E.
2
21. (a) Merrill Publishing Co., 1983.)
f(x) = 17.5 sin ␲ (x – 4) + 67.5 [ ] (a) Graph f in the window 1, 25 by 45, 90.
90
6 (b) Determine the amplitude, period, phase shift, and vertical translation of f.
(c) What is the average monthly temperature for the month of December?
(d) Determine the maximum and minimum average monthly temperatures and the
months when they occur.
(e) What would be an approximation for the average yearly temperature in Austin?
1 25 How is this related to the vertical translation of the sine function in the formula
45 for f ?
(b) 17.5; 12; 4 to the right; 67.5 up 22. (Modeling) Spring The height of a weight attached to a spring is
(c) approximately 52°F
(d) 50°F in January; 85°F in July st 4 cos 8t
(e) approximately 67.5°; This is the inches after t seconds.
vertical translation.
(a) Find the maximum height that the weight rises above the equilibrium position of
1
22. (a) 4 in. (b) after sec y 0.
8
(b) When does the weight first reach its maximum height, if t 0?
1
(c) 4 cycles per sec; sec (c) What are the frequency and period?
4
CHAPTER 6 Quantitative Reasoning 603
Chapter 6 Quantitative Reasoning

Does the fact that average monthly temperatures are periodic affect
your utility bills?
In an article entitled “I Found Sinusoids in My Gas Bill” (Mathematics Teacher,
January 2000), Cathy G. Schloemer presents the following graph that accompa-
nied her gas bill.
Your Energy Usage
Average
monthly
MCF temp (°F)
26 85
24 80
22 75
Thousands of cubic feet

20 70
18 65
16 60
14 55
12 50
10 45
8 40
6 35
4 30
2 25
1996 D J F M A M J J A S O N D J 1998
1.
Notice that two sinusoids are suggested here: one for the behavior of the average
monthly temperature and another for gas use in MCF (thousands of cubic feet).
1. If January 1997 is represented by x 1, the data of estimated ordered pairs
(month, temperature) is given in the list shown on the two graphing calcula-
tor screens below.
nearest hundredth
85
–.1 13 Use the sine regression feature of a graphing calculator to find a sine function
20
that fits these data points. Then make a scatter diagram, and graph the function.
2. 2. If January 1997 is again represented by x 1, the data of estimated ordered
pairs (month, gas use in MCF) is given in the list shown on the two graphing
calculator screens below.

nearest hundredth
30
Use the sine regression feature of a graphing calculator to find a sine function
that fits these data points. Then make a scatter diagram, and graph the function.
–.1 13 9 3. Answer the question posed at the beginning of this exercise, in the form of a
–2 short paragraph.

Math Power 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Math Power 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Math Power 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LIALMC06_0321227638.

QXP 2/26/04 10:41 AM Page 533

534 CHAPTER 6 The Circular Functions and Their Graphs

6.1 Radian Measure

6.1 Radian Measure 535

EXAMPLE 1 Converting Degrees to Radians

This screen shows how a cal-

gree measures. Multiply by 180

Now try Exercises 21 and 31.

CAUTION Figure 2 shows angles measuring 30 radians and 30°. Be careful

Exact Approximate Exact Approximate

536 CHAPTER 6 The Circular Functions and Their Graphs

Looking Ahead to Calculus 90° = ␲

f x cos x. 180° = ␲ 0° = 0

However, if x is measured in degrees,

We use radian measure to simplify certain formulas, two of which follow.

Arc Length of a Circle We use the first for- y

mula to find the length of an arc of a circle. This T Q

6.1 Radian Measure 537

EXAMPLE 3 Finding Arc Length Using s r

(a) As shown in the figure, r 18.2 cm and 38 .

The length s is given by

Now try Exercises 49 and 51.

EXAMPLE 4 Using Latitudes to Find the Distance Between Two Cities

The distance between the two cities is

Now try Exercise 55.

538 CHAPTER 6 The Circular Functions and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE 5 Finding a Length Using s r

Now try Exercise 61(a).

EXAMPLE 6 Finding an Angle Measure Using s r

Now try Exercise 63.

6.1 Radian Measure 539

This discussion is summarized as follows.

EXAMPLE 7 Finding the Area of a Sector-Shaped Field

Solution First, convert 15° to radians.

Now try Exercise 77.

Concept Check In Exercises 15 –18, each angle is an integer when measured in

540 CHAPTER 6 The Circular Functions and Their Graphs

17. 3 18. 1 21. 60 17. y 18. y

Convert each radian measure to degrees. See Example 2(a).

Sine is positive Reference angle

39. sec 40. sin    7

6.1 Radian Measure 541

Concept Check Find the radius of each circle.

542 CHAPTER 6 The Circular Functions and Their Graphs

Work each problem. See Examples 5 and 6.

62. Pulley Raising a Weight Find the radius of the pulley in

63. Rotating Wheels The rotation of the smaller

64. Rotating Wheels Find the radius of the larger

65. Bicycle Chain Drive The figure

6.1 Radian Measure 543

Concept Check Find the area of each sector.

Work each problem.

544 CHAPTER 6 The Circular Functions and Their Graphs

6.2 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions 545

6.2 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions

546 CHAPTER 6 The Circular Functions and Their Graphs

Looking Ahead to Calculus Circular Functions

TEACHING TIP Draw a unit circle

see that the y-value (sine function) 6 150°

f x cos x. 180° = ␲ 0° = 0

17. 3 18. 1 21. 60 17. y 18. y

39. sec 40. sin 7

Tangent and Secant Functions: s s (2n 1)

(a) With a calculator in radian mode, we find cos 1.85 .2756.

Figure 20 to 32 Decreases from 0 to 1 Increases from 1 to 0

• The graph is continuous over its entire domain, , .

• The graph is continuous over its entire domain, , .

Figure 27 EXAMPLE 5 Graphing y sinx d

Method 2 We can also graph y sin x 3 using a horizontal transla-