Exploring Science Active Book 8

8L Sound and Hearing

a. Animal sounds
- Uses
Communicate
Remind danger
Find mate
Hunt
Stop intruder
b. Sound device
- How sound travels
Vibrating (moving back and fro) objects produce sounds
- How tuning fork produces sound
Variation in air pressure

Collision between air particles

Complete to and fro movement sound wave move away from the fork
- Reminders:
Cycle per second = number of waves generated per second
Increase in cycles per second higher speed
E.g. travelling in oil and in water
c. Music to your ears
- Ways to detect
Microphone connected to an oscilloscope
Sound intensity meter
- Terms used in sounds
Frequency
No. of complete waves passing a point per second
Unit : Hertz (Hz)




Audible Range
20 Hz
20000 Hz
Wavelength
Distance between same point on two cycles

Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency
Amplitude = loudness
Reminder : higher pitch louder
d. Light and sound
- Similarity
Wave
Reflection
Refraction -- focusing
Transfer energy
- Difference
Sound: requires a medium, travels slower (334 ms
-1
), faster in solid than gas or liquid because.

Light : does not require a medium, travel faster, (3x10
8
ms
-1
), faster in air than solid or liquid
- Use for communication

e. How do we hear sound
- Sound approaches
Eardrum (vibrate)
Three tiny bones (vibrate)
Cochlea (conversion)
Auditory nerve (transmission)
Brain (interpretation)
Reminder: make a louder sound by using trumpet tube
- Ear damage
Blocked by wax
Cure by washing out the wax
Damage to eardrum due to loud sound
Repair itself
Infection to middle ear
Antibiotics
Tiny bones fused due to aging less sensitive to vibration
Nerve does not work well
Permanent damage to cochlea due to persistent loud noise
- How dolphin talk
Clicks from nasal sacs
Echolocation
Reflected waves (echo) being focused by the fats to the inner ear
f. Use of sounds
- Unwanted noise
Need sound insulators dont pass the vibrations to other particles
Sound intensity meter
Threshold hearing to human

Uses of ultrasound
Flaws check
Ocean depth
Communication
Echolocation
Exploring Science Active Book 8
8K Light
a. What a picture!
- Cameras
Bitumen
Chemical cameras
Digital cameras
Communication
Space explorations
- Travelling light
Luminous: light creating
Light spreads out and some of them goes into our eyes
Non Luminous
Seen because light bounces off them (is reflected) and enters our eyes
Ray diagram
Speed of light
Fastest things in the universe
Measurable
Observing difference in time of successive moon eclipses
Lanterns but failed
- Properties of light
Travel in straight lines
Shadows
Because light cannot travel through or bend around opaque objects
Scattering
By comparatively large molecules











Reflection
Refraction

b. Cameras and eyes
- Nature of objects
Transparent
Translucent a glow of light
Opaque light cannot pass through (absorbed)
Light energy Heat energy
Selection of materials for heat conduction
- Camera Verse Eyes
Pinhole Camera Eyes
Entry of light
Brightness or
protection
Pinhole in the front Pupil
Focusing Lens / None Lens
Image formation Screen Retina
Easily damaged by
strong light
Image detection Chemicals or sensors Rods and cones and brain

Differences
Energy change
Retina converts light to electrical signals
Existence of optical nerve
Pass the impulses to the brain
Brain allows you to see the image

c. Mirror image
- Reflection
Regular reflection clear and sharp images
Irregular reflection (Scattering) blurred images
Reminder: this scattering is different from that mentioned in (a)
Plane Mirror: glass coated with silver or aluminium on the back (Also mercury)
Laws of reflection on a plane mirror
Angle of incidence Angle of reflection
Reflection occurs at the surface of the mirror
Properties of the image formed
Same size
Laterally inverted
Object and image are of same distance from the mirror
Virtual
Shadows


HSW: Periscope















d. Lens and Light
- Use of lens
Refract the light (bending) to make the image sharp and clear
- Refraction
When light travels from one transparent substance to another
Take place at the interface
If incidented at 90
o
no change in direction
If one medium is optically denser Light travelling from the less dense one to it bends towards
normal
Light travels slower in dense materials


Image appears closer and bigger for above case
- Lens
Converging lens
Focus light to one point
Fatter bend more closer focus
HSW : Magnified or diminished images
Microscope
Diverging lens
Diverge the light
Focus located on the side of the object
HSW : Diminished image





e. Making rainbows
- Dispersion of white light
White light is
composed of different colors
Split up with a prism
A band of colors spectrum
Separation of colors dispersion
E.g.
Rainbow is formed by refraction of light rays by rain or mist
Aberration () in lens but solved by a combination of lenses









- Absorption and Transmission
Coloured object because they do not reflect all the colours
White Black
3 primary colours Red, Green, Blue
Shining a coloured light colour subtraction















Exploring Science Active Book 8
8I Heat Transfers
a. Hot stuff
- Heat and temperature
Heat a form of energy (thermal energy)
Unit: Joules (J)
**Depends on: temperature, material, mass
Flow from a hot object to a cool one until same temp.
Greater temp. difference faster rate of heat transfer
Temperature how or cold an object is
Unit: Degree Celsius (
o
C)
Difference
Temp. can be measured but heat cannot.


b. Heating solids
- Conductors & Insulator
Conductors
Heat is quickly conducted away feel cold
Insulators
E.g. Carpets, jackets
Air trapped (Insulator) keep warmth
- Model of conduction
1. Particles at the hot end gains energy and vibrates more
2. Collision between particles passes the energy on
Conduction best in solid, then liquid, then gas
Because the closer the particles, the easier is the collision



- Effect of heating up
Particles move faster The solid expands and the density decreases
If cooled solid contracts and the density increases











c. Heating fluids
- Convection model
1. When the air near the fire is heated, the particles spread further apart

2. The air becomes less dense and rises

3. It meets cooler air and passes the energy on.

4. It cools and becomes denser. The denser air sinks, setting up a cycle or convection current.






- E.g. sea breeze, land breeze, shape of a fire

d. Changing state
- Temperature curve




M
elting point,
freezing point,
boiling point, condensation point
- Change of states
Temp. stays constant when the substance changes from one state to another
Stepping up requires energy; stepping down releases energy


- Evaporation
Sweating for cooling
Absorb heat from your body






Dogs dont sweat but pant
to cool themselves
Warmer air from the lungs evaporates the water on their tongue
Breathable jackets
They let the water vapour out that you will sweat less less heat is lost to the evaporation
of sweat keep you warm and dry

e. Radiation
- Similarity with light
Does not require a medium for travel
E.g. all radiation from the sun travels through the empty space
Can pass through transparent objects
Can be focused using a magnifying glass

- Heat transfer
Emitted by hot things
Easily absorbed by dark objects; but easily reflected by shiny materials

- Use of IR
Thermal imaging
Measure IR and convert the data into maps of temps.
Uses:
Provide sight at night
Weather forecasting
Exploring Science Active Book 8
8A Food, glorious food!
a. On a diet (Keywords: Nutrients, Food labels, Food tests)
i. Types of nutrients
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
Fibre
Water





ii. Main use of food
Energy
Growth and repair
Health

iii. Food tests
Iodine test
Starch
If present, Brown Blue Black
Biuret test
Protein
If present, Blue Purple
Transparent test
Fat
If present, a greasy mark
Benedicts test
Glucose
If present, Green, Yellow and Red colours are seen
Test for sucrose
Hydrochloric acid + boiling cool down sodium hydrogen carbonate solution
Benedicts test
If present, Green, Yellow and Red colours are seen.





Energy
Growth & Repair
Keep Body Healthy
Assist peristalsis
- Carry dissolved chemicals
around
- Maintain shape of the cells
- Maintain body temperature

b. Balanced diet (Keywords: energy requirement, e
- Contain a wide variety of foods
- Food pyramid

Nutrients Examples Why its needed Good sources
Carbohydrate Starch, sugars 1. Energy source
N.B. If excess fat
Pasta, Cereal food, Fruits, Sweets
Fat 1. Energy source
2. Keep warm
Meat, oil
Protein 1. Growth & Repair Meat, beans
Vitamins Vitamin C 1. Help cells in tissues to stick
together properly
Vitamin C: fruit and vegetables
Minerals Calcium, Iron 1. Calcium: health of bones
2. Iron: make red blood cells
1. Calcium: milk
2. Iron: spinach
Fibre 1. Keep intestine clean
2. Prevent constipation
Vegetables, fruit, wholemeal bread
Water 1. Solvent
2. Maintain shape of the cells
3. Maintain body temp.


- Health Problems due to Diet
Too much fats
heart disease
fat blocks the supply of blood to the heart muscles die and cause chest pain
cancer
obesity
Too little proteins
Kwashiorkor (big tummy)
Too little food
Weak and tired
Kwashiorkor ()

- Variety of Diet
Different people require different calories per day
Girl < Boy
Factory worker < Office lady
Woman < Pregnant woman






















c. Youve got guts
- Process of digestion



































Ingestion Digestive Juice:
Saliva
- Produced by salivary glands
- Breaks down starch into sugar (by
amylase)
- Makes food moist easy to swallow
Teeth
- Grind the food into smaller piece
Swallowing:
- Muscles in gullet contracts to push the
food down
Stomach Digestive Juice:
- Food is churned up with strong acid (pH
1-2)
- Pepsin (an enzyme)Break down proteins
into amino acids
Small intestine Digestive juice in small intestine:
- pH > 7
- Pancreatic amylase starch sugar
- Lipase fat fatty acid
- Large food molecules small molecules
wall of small intestine blood stream
(absorption)

Egestion No digestive juice in large intestine
Fibre is not digested
- Some animals can use bacteria to digest
fiber
Only water can be removed faeces
stored in rectum anus

Appendix
- Why digestion
Large insoluble food molecules are broken by enzymes into smaller soluble molecules small
enough that can pass through the wall

Enzyme:
Break large molecules into smaller ones
Do not get used up at the end of breaking
Only works on one particular type of molecule
E.g. amylase starch; proteases proteins; lipase fat
Very sensitive to pH and temp.
E.g. salivary amylase stop working after entering the stomach (acidic)
Model: Visking tubing
A tubing with very small holes on it
Only small and soluble molecules can pass through



















The insoluble large starch molecules are broken down by amylase into smaller glucose
molecules so can pass through the wall of intestine and be absorbed
The model only works best at body temperature because the enzyme (amylase) works best
at 37
o
C.
Similar applies to pH
Water, glucose
Water, starch,
amylase
After some time,
the right side will be
full of glucose
d. In the blood (absorption)
- Intestinal wall
Villi
Thin wall
Microvilli
Blood capillaries
Join up to a vein liver
Liver: remove poison and store excess nutrients and then pump around the body by
the heart
The whole process is assisted by the blood circulating system


















- Tissues
When the capillary reaches the tissue, food leaks out to form tissue fluid, carrying the dissolved
food to cells
Respiration
Some of glucose in the tissue is used to release energy
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
Energy is used as:
Heat Keep warm
Muscular work
Energy to form cells Growth and repair

Greatly increases the surface area for absorption rate
Exploring Science Active Book 8
8B Going for Gold
a. Energy for life
- Respiration
Require glucose
Glucose is provided by the digestion of the carbohydrates
E.g. athletes glucose supplement
Boyles experiment
Air is needed for our body
Mayows experiment
Certain part of the air is needed to keep a candle alight and a mouse alive
Word equation
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+ Energy)



b. Round and round
- Digested carbohydrates (sugars) are absorbed by the small intestine; oxygen is absorbed by the lungs
- Cells need glucose and oxygen to release energy
- The reactants are brought to the cells through circulatory system
Capillaries: tiny tube with very small holes in the walls Small molecules can get out easily as
tissue fluid
Arteries carry blood away from the heart
Vein carry blood to the heart
- Circulating process
1. When the heart muscles contract, the deoxygenated blood in the left chamber is pumped through
the pulmonary artery to the lung while the oxygenated blood is pumped through the aorta and
then the capillaries to the cells for release of energy.
Plasma containing dissolved oxygen and glucose leaks out, forming the tissue fluid
Red blood cell cannot leak out.
2. Deoxygenated blood reaches lung and is oxygenated
inside the alveoli.
3. When the heart muscles relax, the oxygenated blood
in the lung flows back through the pulmonary vein
into the right chamber while the deoxygenated blood
from the cells flow through into the left chamber
through a vein.
4. The contraction and relaxation process repeats again
and again.

c. Into thin air
- Effect of aerobic exercise
Heartbeat and breathing rate increases to get enough oxygen to your cells for respiration.
Reactant
Product
If too little oxygen weak and tired
- Diseases related to respiration
Emphysema
Cannot take enough oxygen from the air
Have shortness of breath even when resting
Tiredness
Frostbite
Blood vessels narrow when it is cold
If not enough oxygen is got, cells die because
of lack of energy
Heart attack
Blood vessels supplying oxygen to the heart muscles are blocked by fat not enough
oxygen for the muscle cells to be alive
Treatment: beta blocker
Slow the heart down less glucose and oxygen is needed for the heart muscles
less likely to die
Mountaineers should not take beta blocker blood vessel is narrowed due to
coldness more blood flow to satisfy the oxygen requirement
- Chemicals affecting respiration
Carbon dioxide
Product of respiration
Harmful if in large amounts
So it is carried back to lungs and is excreted
Carbon monoxide
Stop the red blood cells from carrying oxygen
Turn the muscles and red blood cells bright red
Used in packaging meat
Hydrogen cyanide
Stop one of the reaction in aerobic respiration (by inhibiting the working of an enzyme)
It can leak into the tissue fluid and kills cells quickly

d. Exchange rates
- Gaseous exchange in the lungs
Respiratory system
Breathing
Muscles in the lungs change size
Inhale lungs bigger
Exhale lungs smaller
Air sacs (alveoli)
Large surface area for exchange of gases
One cell thick
Many surrounding blood capillaries (also thin)
Deoxygenated blood (dark red) is oxygenated (bright red)
Ventilation
Carbon dioxide and oxygen
can diffuse easily and
efficiently into and out of
the blood














Cleanness of the respiratory tract
Mucus traps dust, dirt and germs
Ciliated epithelial cells (trachea and bronchi) sweeps mucus out of lungs and into the
gullet swallowed

- Effect of cigarette smoking
Chemicals and heat
Stop cilia working
Mucus accumulates in the lungs reduces the surface area for gas exchange
Irritate alveoli
Break down of alveoli (Emphysema)
Reduces surface area
Similar effect in breathing in large amount of dust over a long period
Remarks: chronic effect of air pollution
Questions**

e. Respiration detection
- Composition of inhaled air and exhaled air
Inhaled air Exhaled air
Nitrogen gas 78% 78%
Oxygen gas 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide gas 0.03% 4%
Water vapour Variable More
Temperature Variable Warmer
Dirt particles Variable Cleaner

- Respiration of aquatic lives
From dissolved oxygen
Water plants
Dissolved oxygen diffuses into the cells

Aquatic animals
Gills filter the water


Large surface area and good blood supply
Speed up the diffusion
Effect of power stations on aquatic lives
Water is used for cooling the river water is warmed up
But oxygen dissolves less in warmer water suffocation of fish
Solution: careful monitoring of water temperature

- Detection of carbon dioxide
Hydrogencarbonate indicator
Normal pink
More carbon dioxide yellow
Less carbon dioxide purple

Exploring Science Active Book 8
8D The way of dodo
Fossils reveal the history of the Earth
a. Dead as a dodo
i. Animals extinct due to various reasons
ii. Organisms are adapted to their habitats. If environment (e.g. temperature) changes, the organisms
may not be adapted to the new environment and then die.
b. Death of the dinosaurs
i. Why did dinosaurs become extinct?
- Volcanoes
Emissions like sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide caused acid rain and global warming
Evidence: rocks formed by these huge eruptions in India
- Meteorite Impact
Giant meteorite rocks and dusts covered the Earth, blocking the sunlight coldness kills the
dinosaurs.
Evidence: Barringer Crater in the USA
Evidence: Iridium layer found in liquid rocks and asteroids

- Disease
Doesnt explain all evidence
E.g. why so many sea animals died at the same time
ii. Animal kingdom
Vertebrates (with backbone) and Invertebrates
Dinosaurs with hip bones Saurischia
Without hip bones Omithischia
Scientists who study fossils: paleontologists

c. Prehistoric plants
- Evidence from plants
Plants in wet areas Plants in drier regions
Mosses do not have roots
Their leaves are thin and lose water
quickly
Mosses live in wet places

Flowering plants have roots
They have cuticle (waxy and
waterproof) on their leaves
Their stems have xylem vessels (tubes
that carry water)
- Plants extinction
If atmosphere gets too hot lose too much water and die
If atmosphere becomes very dark stop photosynthesis and cannot generate food and energy
d. Detective work
- Community = living things in a habitat
- Population = no. of individuals of one species
- Method of sampling
Take as many samples as possible
Quadrat plants
Tree beating animals in trees
Sweepnet animals in tall grass
Tullgren funnel animals in leaves
Animals have a behavior that makes them move away from heat and light
Those who fall into a beaker can be counted.
Pond dipping water organisms
Pitfall trap small land animals
Working examples

e. Physical environment factors
- Factors
Temperature
Acidity
Water flow
Wind speed
- Tools
pH paper
anemometer
sensors connected to computers record data and send to lab
- e.g. corals
Only live at certain temperature
If gets too warm, they turn white and die

f. Focus on: Computer modeling
- Age of rocks from volcanoes no. of volcanoes on Earth at a particular time.
estimate the amount of carbon dioxide added by volcanoes to the air.
Causes changes in communities,
populations and distributions
- Air trapped in the polar ice composition of atmosphere
- Measure the changes in environmental factors make models that can explain changes in the past
and predict changes in the future

g. Living factors
- Animals
Mates
Food
Water
Space
- Plants
Water
Light
Space
Mineral salts
E.G. Migration of swallow
For warmer area where there is more food
Stimulus is the cold weather
- Living factors are organisms that affect other organisms around them
Predator depend on them as food feeding relationships in food web
If the prey disappears, the population of predator will decrease sharply
If the competitor disappears, its opponents population will increase
(Remarks: producers, herbivores, primary / secondary consumer, top predator (Omnivore/
carnivore))

- Symbiosis
Provide shelters or help to decompose animal waste
Resources for the
growth of population

h. Pyramids and poisons
- Pyramids of numbers
Energy losses reduce the amount of energy as food chain goes on.
Energy losses at each stage population the pyramid can support depends on the energy
stored in organisms






- Poisons in the food webs
Pesticides are used to kill organisms that eat or ruin their pests
They may be passed and accumulated along the food chains if they are not destroyed fatal
concentration
E.g. DDT weakening of bird egg shell


















Exploring Science Active Book 8
8F Materials and recycling
Elements, compounds, mixtures recycling from mixtures back to elements to form new compounds






a. Sorted!
- We classify materials before recycling
- Classify substance codes
Labels
E.g. plastics recycling code


b. The material world
i. How were different elements discovered?
- Needs extraction
- The time of discovery is related to the easiness of extraction from ores
Bronze Age Iron Age
Remarks: Copper is extracted by heating certain rocks in charcoal
Relationship between reactivity and easiness of extraction










- NF: Method of extraction
Direct Heating


Heating with carbon


Displacement

Electrolysis




c. Elementary
- Elements
Cannot be split into simpler substances by mixing them or heating them
E.g. Lime can be split by electrolysis into calcium and oxygen.
Atoms
The smallest particle of an element
Atoms builds up elements
Different atoms mixture instead of elements
Diagram


- How do we represent different elements


d. Compound interest
- Compound elements joined together by chemical reactions
- Molecule discrete form of non-metals in nature
Chemical formula (empirical represent the simplest ratio of elements)
Dish





E.g. CFC CF
2
Cl
2

E.g. *PVC C
2
H
5
Cl
E.g.* Polythene CH
2

- Chemical formula
Showing the ratio of different elements
Oxide name
First word: metal name; Second word: represent the non-metal
-ide compound contains two elements; ox- name of non-metal
If there are two non-metals to one metal use di- before oxide
E.g. carbon dioxide
Chemical formula :

E.g. formation of rust
iron + oxygen iron oxide
HSW: how to speed up rusting

e. Mixtures
- A mixture is what you get when you put two substances in such a way that no chemical reaction occurs
between the components and you can separate them again.

- Examples: Eggs vs Dough
f. Metal detecting
- Properties of metals
Shiny
Flexible
Good heat conductors
Solids at room temp.
Good electrical conductors
Some are magnetic e.g. iron

- Properties of non-metals
Usually gases or liquids at room temp.
Melt easily
Good heat and electrical insulators
Usually brittle

- Some examples of non-metals
Sulphur
Low melting point (m.p.)
Brittle
Yellow
Chlorine
Poisonous gas at room temperature
Uses:
Use with oxygen to bleach recycled paper
Kill harmful bacteria in swimming pool
Remarks: high concentration of chlorine is harmful

Iodine
Poisonous
Purple in colour
Sublimes upon heating (i.e. changes directly from solid to gas)


g. Re-use, renew and recycle how can 3R be beneficial to both business and environment

- Reuse
Use the things again without melting them into the simplest form
- Recycle
Use the waste to make other substances
- Glass
Reused by washing
Recycled by crushing up and melting to make new bottles
Recycled glass:
Sustainable
development
because depletion of
resources
Bottles
Roads
- Paper
Recycled paper envelopes, cardboard and toilet paper
Plant trees after chopping them down

- Metals
Extraction of aluminum
Bauxite containing aluminium oxide
Electrolysis of aluminium oxide aluminium [at 1500
o
C]
aluminium oxide aluminium + oxygen
Aluminium has a lower melting point than aluminium oxide recycling is beneficial
No need to extract and use so much bauxite
Less waste in landfill
Reduce energy cost less energy is used to extract and melt the raw materials
Reduce carbon dioxide emissions
- Plastics
Recycling is important to plastics
Difficult to reuse plastic bottles
they soften or melt at relatively low temp.
the source of plastics oil is limited
Recycled plastics
Black sacks
Traffic cones
Crates

Fleeces
Exploring Science Active Book 8


















a. Difference between elements and compounds
- Atoms
The smallest particles that make up every substance
- Elements
Only one type of atom
- Compounds
Two or more elements
Linked by chemical bonds (attraction)
The elements cannot be separate easily
Particle diagram

b. Some structures in compounds or elements
i. Molecules
- Natural existing forms of some elements and compounds
E.g.
Substance Number of atoms
joined in a
molecule
Chemical name Chemical formula Diagram
Hydrogen 2 H Hydrogen


Water 2 H and 1 O


Atoms, Elements, Compounds, Mixtures
Particle diagram
8G All that glitters
Chemical formula
Word equation
Physical change Chemical change

Natural gas 1 C and 4 H Carbon hydride



Nitric acid 1 H ,1 N, 3 O Hydrogen nitrate HNO
3




Sulphuric acid 2 H, 1 S, 4 O Hydrogen sulphate H
2
SO
4




Hydrochloric acid 1 H, 1 Cl Hydrogen chloride HCl


Carbon dioxide


Carbon monoxide


ii. Large regular structures
E.g. Iron sulphide





c. Chemical formula
- Unique to compounds
- Represent the ratio of atoms of each element that are bonded together
- If it changes different compound
Changes in Chemical formula is represented by a word equation
E.g. Iron + Sulphur Iron sulphide
Sodium carbonate + Calcium chloride Sodium chloride + Calcium carbonate
Reactants Products
Can also be represented by particle diagram

d. Physical changes Vs Chemical changes
Physical change Chemical change
No new substances formed New substances are formed
Easy to reverse Can be different to change
May require heating May require heating
Usu. No heat is given Heat is usu. given out

e. Types of chemical changes
- Oxidation (1)
Formation of oxide
E.g. Iron sulphide + oxygen iron oxide + sulphur dioxide
Brass yellow red
- Decomposition
Involving one kind of reactant
E.g. copper carbonate copper oxide + carbon dioxide
green black
- Precipitation
Formation of solids in a solution
Usu. w/o heating
E.g. sodium carbonate + copper sulphate copper carbonate (solid) + sodium sulphate

f. Mixtures
- Involves two or more types of pure substances
A pure substance contains only one element or compound
- Components of mixtures can be in various ratios
E.g. inhaled air vs exhaled air
- No chemical bonds formed in between
- Cannot be represented by a chemical formula
- Can be separated by physical methods while compounds can only be separated by chemical methods
like electrolysis

g. Points of a substance

- Definition
Melting point From solid to liquid (melt)
Freezing point From liquid to solid
Boiling point From liquid to gas (evaporate)
- Pure substances have sharp points ; Mixtures melts or boils over a range of temperatures
Impurities will lower ones melting point or boiling point
Explained by particle diagrams
e.g. Solder



Application: spreading salts on the roads in winter water does not freeze easily
Application: checking the purity (does not know the identity of the impurities)

f. Alloys
- Mixture of metals
- Pure metals may be too soft, too fragile, too easily being corroded
- Properties of alloys depend on the relative ratio of the metals being mixed
E.g. Carat gold system
Other examples of alloys: steel (Carbon, iron, and some other metals), solder( tin and lead), brass
(copper and zinc).


9A Inheritance and Selection




















a. Types of organisms
- Species
Similar organisms that can reproduce
- Hybrid
Mix of two different species that results in one which cannot reproduce

b. Characteristics
- e.g. eye colour, skin colour, hair colour, disease resistance
- that can describe one entity
- controlled by DNA which contain the inherited genetic information
- difference in characteristics among members of a species variation

c. Causes of variation
- Genetic factor
Genes
Half from mother; half from father
Gender is determined by sex chromosomes




Gametes
9A Inheritance and Selection
Species Hybrid
Genes
Characteristics
Variations
Environment
Fertilization
Breeding
Cloning Genetic
modification
Gametes
Sperm cell
The tip of head
Contains chemicals that dissolve the jelly coat of egg cell and help sperm cell
to burrow in.
Very little cytoplasm
Thin streamlined shape to reduce resistance
Tail
Allows it to swim
Egg cell
Large cytoplasm
Food reserve for the fertilized egg cell
Jelly coat
Ensure only one sperm cell can enter
Both sperm cell and egg cell have nucleus containing half of the chromosomes
Dominant vs Recessive character



Mutation
Changes in genes
Sources:
X ray
Gamma ray
Allergen
Usu. bad e.g. malignant tumor

- Environment factor
Can benefit and suffer from the change
Occur very slowly
Caused by damages
Wearing
Sunlight
Heat resistance
Diseases
HSW: Life process
Movement
Reproduction
Sensitivity
Growth
Respiration
Excretion
Nutrition
Classify causes into environmental and genetic

d. Artificial modification on characteristics
- Breeding
Selective breeding
E.g. Dogs are mated according to speed and character
Cross breeding
Different breeds are mated
E.g. good milk cow + good meat cow good meat and milk cow
Problem: may result in defects

- Cloning
To create exact copies
Can solve food supply problem but the species will be too vulnerable to environmental changes
Process
Nucleus from an adult sheep cell is placed inside an empty egg cell
Egg cell grow into an embryo
The embryo is placed in the uterus of a sheep
Although have exact genes, but the growing environment may be different

- Genetically modification
A desired gene is put into the DNA of a desired animal
E.g. Spidergoat -- spider silk gene is put into the DNA of a goat (cloned afterwards) to
produce Biosteel
E.g. Insulin bacteria the gene for the production of insulin in pigs are put into the DNA of a
bacterium
E.g. Genetically modified (GM) sweetcorn
Potential danger
GM may kill insects that normally eat it
GM contains genes that they do not naturally contain
Spread of diseases

e. Gardeners tricks
- Artificial breeding
Transfer of pollen grains
Stigma of flowers
Pollen grains pass from pollen tube to ovary
Nucleus of pollen grain finally reaches ovum
Fertilized egg will grow into seeds
- Take-a-cutting
Asexual reproduction does not require gametes
Part of the parent plant can form a new plant
Reason for decreasing the biodiversity little resistance to environmental changes

9B Fit and Healthy
a. Definition of fitness
- S-factors:
Suppleness stretching
Strength weight pulling
Speed running
Stamina (the time length of doing sth)

- The coordination of different organ systems
Digestive food glucose
Breathing oxygen
Circulatory carry oxygen and glucose to muscles
Skeletal Bones and Muscles
Muscles aerobic and anaerobic respiration energy for work

- Ways to improve the performance of the factors
Balanced diet (proteins, fat, carbohydrates, water, minerals and vitamins, fiber)
Muscle training Better coordination of heart and lung
Stronger heart muscles

Slower resting heartbeat rates and fast recovery after exercise
Pattern of heartbeat rate an indicator for how fit you are

Notes: Length of exercise, slope of the curve, level of heart rate
Plenty of sleep enough spirit
- Choice of sports
Swimming, weight training, football, table tennis, hiking, cricket
9ba7

b. Breathing
- Terms
Breathing
Change in volume of your lung
Ventilation
Air flow during breathing
Nose Trachea Bronchi Bronchiole Air sac
Gas exchange
The absorption of O
2
and removal of CO
2
at the air sac/ alveoli
Respiration
Glucose + O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O
Occurs in the cells

- Breathing action
Inhalation
1. Muscles between ribs (intercostal muscles) contract and pull the ribs up and out
2. The diaphragm contracts and moves down. (flattened)
3. The volume of the lung increases pressure decreases
4. Air moves in.
Exhalation
1. Muscles between ribs relax and the ribs move back down
2. The diaphragm relaxes and moves up. (dome-shaped)
3. The volume of the lung decreases pressure increases
4. Air moves out.
Model
Balloon lungs
Rubber sheet diaphragm

c. Smoking
- Ciliated epithelial cells
Ciliated epithelial cells along the respiratory tract produce mucus to trap dust and germs
Cilia (hairs) on them sweep the mucus to mouth for coughing out or swallowing.
If the tract is narrowed by the swollen blood vessels stuffy nose

- Bad things about smoking
Nicotine make arteries narrower, may stop blood flow
If occurs in the heart and brain, stroke or heart attack may result easily
CO stop red blood cells carrying oxygen
Tar lung damage (ciliated epithelial cells, air sac, irritation) and lung cancer
- Non-smokers are also subjected to the damage
- Model demonstrating the effect smoking machine
Cotton wool turns yellow (oily)
Acidic
Limewater turns white

d. Health problems regarding diet
- Two extremes (Anorexia vs Obesity)

Nutrient Recommended
daily amount for
14-year-olds*
Deficiency disease Problems if too much eaten
Protein More in boys Kwashiorkor swollen
tummy, liver damage
-
Calcium More in boys Rickets weak bones with
odd shapes
Kidney damage
Iron More in girls Anaemia tiredness and
shortness of breath
Heart damage
Liver damage
Vitamin A - Liver damage and
night-blindness inability to
see in dim light
Tissue damage
Loss of coordination
Vitamin B1 - Beriberi paralysis, swelling
in the limbs
-
Vitamin C - Scurvy bleeding gums -
- Remarks: Test the presence of vitamin C by DCPIP

e. Addictive and Depressants
- Stimulant
Increase the speed that neurons carry electrical signals (impulse)
Can cause
liver damage because of too much workload
- Depressant
Slow the neurons down
Too much intake can
stop the heart and lung functioning
cause brain damage
liver damage

Addictive Stimulant Depressant Health problems
Caffeine - if overdosed, mental
illness and withdrawal
effects will result
- liver damage
Cannabis - memory loss
- liver damage
Ecstasy - mental illness
- kidney problems
- liver damage
Cocaine - artery blockage
- liver damage
Heroin - vein collapse
- vomiting
- severe headache
- liver damage
Nicotine - artery narrowing
increase blood pressure
and heart rate (why?)
- liver damage
Alcohol - Brain damage if heavy
for a long time
- Deficiency disease of
vitamins
- liver damage

f. Skeletal system


Exploring Science Year 9
9C Photosynthesis
a. Comparison between photosynthesis and respiration
Photosynthesis and respiration assist each other and maintaining a balance
Question: rate of photosynthesis and respiration in a day





The higher rate dominates

b. Limiting factor
- The factor that will affect the rate of photosynthesis
Direct:
Light
Chlorophyll
CO
2

Indirect
H
2
O
Minerals like magnesium, nitrates
- *Experiments
More of direct factors faster photosynthesis

c. Different parts of the plant
- Transport
Xylem dead cells transport water and minerals from root to leaf
Phloem transport glucose or converted sugars but not oxygen from leaf to different parts of
the plant
Case of flooding in roots
Photosynthesis Respiration
Equation Light energy
CO
2
+ H
2
O ---------------------------->
Chlorophyll
Glucose + O
2


Light energy to chemical energy
Glucose + O
2
-------->
CO
2
+ H
2
O
Useful products - Glucose and O
2
- Energy
Essential factor for the reactions

- Light
- Chlorophyll (capture light)
- CO
2

- H
2
O
- Glucose
- O
2

Reaction place - Chloroplasts in cell - Mitochondria in cell
- Root
Root hair cell
Increase the surface area absorb water quickly
Water is important because
For photosynthesis
For cooling of leaves under strong light
For support by turgid pressure
For chemical medium
If too little water wilting
Stomata (not a cell)
With guard cells
Similar to air sac place for gaseous exchange
When too less water stomata will be closed by guard cell
Palisade cell
Densely closed packed near the leaf surface maximum light
Lots of chloroplasts maximum absorption
Able to shift in the cell maximum absorption
minimum damage
How to reduce water loss in plants?

d. Use of products from photosynthesis
- Biomass
All materials in an organisms
- Use of glucose (6 C, 12 H, 6 O)
Aerobic respiration energy
+ minerals (e.g. nitrates) amino acids proteins growth and repair
Cellulose cell wall
Starch energy store
Fats cell membrane and energy store
e. Farming methods increase crop yield for profits
- Use of machines
Reduce processing time
- Use of toxic chemicals
Pesticides kill pests
Insecticides kill insects
Fungicides kill fungi that stop plants from photosynthesizing
Herbicides (selective) eliminate weeds that compete nutrients
Ethylene speeds up ripening
- Genetic combination / selective breeding
Increase crop yield and sustainability
- Fertilisers
Supply sufficient minerals to the crops
Minerals
Potassium salts enzymes in respiration and photosynthesis
Magnesium salts chlorophyll
Phosphates cell membrane and healthy roots
Nitrates proteins growth and chlorophyll
Organic or inorganic
- Greenhouse
Make sure the plants have the best conditions for growth
Essential:
Temperature
Light
Humidity
f. Farming problems
- Water pollution
- Algae boom
Death of water organisms
- Kill helpful insects
But is biological feasible?
Affect local food web
- Accumulation of toxic chemicals in the food web
- GM food may distort the food web and may be harmful to some pollinating insects
- Deforestation
Carbon cycle










Oxygen produced by photosynthesis in plants and CO
2
is absorbed
CO
2
is released by respiration and O
2
is absorbed
The further introduction of CO
2
from the
Combustion of coal and oil
Combustion of fire wood
increasing amount of atmospheric CO
2

global warming


9L Pressure and Moments
Definition of Pressure
- The amount of force acting on a certain area.
- The bigger the force, and the smaller the area bigger pressure
- Formula:
=

:
2
(. ) !!!Beware of the units
Suppose you are stepped by a woman who weighs 60 kg and is wearing high heels. If a typical
high heels has an area of 0.0004 m
2
, how much pressure will the high heels act on your feet?





Fluid pressure
- Include gases / liquids
- The origin of pressure
Random bumping of particles into each other and any surface
The force of particles hitting surfaces creates pressure.
The higher the frequency of collision per unit area the greater the pressure will be.
The pressure of gas and liquid comes from all directions.
E.g. car tyres
- Water pressure
Increase with depth
Quiz: Why dams are built with a thicker bottom?

Note that water is not compressible how to control the size of force?
Hydraulic system
Principle: Piston with different areas

Assume the area of Y is 20cm
2
. What the force at Y?
(Hint: the pressure within a fluid (gas/liquid) is the same through the fluid)




A smaller force generates a bigger force is conservation of energy being violated?
No, energy depends on the force and the distance moved by the piston. Although the
force at Y is bigger, the distance it moves is smaller conservation still retains

- Atmospheric pressure
Decrease with height
Quiz: Why decrease with height?

Living things and pressure?

- What will happen if water pressure and atmospheric pressure are used together?
Note that water is not compressible but gas is.

- Lever system
Effort, Pivot and Load

Moment
The turning effect of a force
Unit: Newton metres


Formula: Moment (Nm) = Force(N) x Perpendicular distance of the force from the pivot(m)
If moment creates a turning, what can stop the object from turning? Counter-moment
IF Clockwise Moment = Anticlockwise Moment Balance / Equilibrium

Quiz: If the distance of the left-hand load is now 20 m from the tower, what the maximum
load the crane can lift?
Quiz: If one of the moveable concrete blocks is removed, what will happen to the crane if
the crane is still at the same position?















9K Speeding Up
1. Speed
- Speed =

- Distance = Speed Time
- Time =

- Mean speed: Average of two speeds
Mean Speed =



E.g. Tom rides a bicycle. For the first 30 mins, he rides at 5 m/s. Later, he rides at 10 m/s for 45
mins. Calculate the mean speed of Toms journey.
Solution:
Total distance = 5 30 60 =
Total time = 30 60 +45 60 =
Mean speed =



=

=
- Units:
Speed: m/s or km/h
Distance: m or km
Time: s or h

2. Effect of Forces on Speed
- **Force exerted on the same body
- Balanced force = steady constant speed or remain at rest resultant force = 0
e.g. ping pong ball, plane


- Unbalanced force net resultant force
Acceleration
Increasing or Decreasing speeds

3. Acceleration
- Acceleration =

- Final Speed Original Speed = Change in Speed = Acceleration Time
- Time =

- Acceleration depends on:
Size of the force
Mass of the object
Force = Mass x Acceleration
Mass =

Unit:
Mass: kg
Force = N
Acceleration = m/s/s
e.g.
A drag racer accelerates at 30 m/s/s. Its mass is 950 kg. What force does its engine produce?

4. Parachuting
- Demonstrate the effect of balance and unbalanced forces
Two forces: weight VS Air resistance
- Learn how to read a distance-time graph

The steeper the slope, the greater the speed.
5. Air resistance
- More streamlined less air resistance
- Greater weight less effect from air resistance move faster
- E.g. The case for a balloon and a cannon ball
-

9Ka6
B5


Label the parts





What does the hair do?
Name three component in the cigarette smoke is harmful to our health. Please describe the impact.
Why smoking increases the heart disease? Why heart rate increases?

Label
Coronary arteries function?
Large blood vessels
Atrium
Ventricles

Which side has a thicker wall? Why?
Difference between atrium and ventricle

Exploring Science Year 9
9C Photosynthesis

Process of photosynthesis and related experiments for the limiting factor
Adaptation of plants for photosynthesis and respiration
Chemicals used for increasing crop yield
Problems with the boosting of crop yield