CEMENT RAW

MATERI ALS


November 2005






BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
MI NERAL PROFI LE
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
1: Definition, mineralogy and deposits
1.1 Definition and mineralogy
1.2 Deposits
2: Extraction and processing
2.1 Extraction
2.2 Cement making
3: Specification and uses
3.1 Specification
3.2 Uses
4: World production
5: Alternative materials
5.1 Alternative raw materials
5.2 Alternative fuels
6: Building stone - focus on the UK
6.1 Resources
6.2 Reserves
6.3 Structure of the Industry
6.4 Production
6.5 Consumption
6.6 Trade
6.7 Issues
7: Further reading
MI NERAL PROFI LE: CEMENT
RAW MATERI ALS
Contents
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
1.1 Definition and mineralogy
Cement is a manufactured product made by blending different raw materials and firing
them at a high temperature in order to achieve precise chemical proportions of lime, silica,
alumina and iron in the finished product, known as cement clinker. Cement is therefore
essentially a mixture of calcium silicates and smaller amounts of calcium aluminates that
react with water and cause the cement to set.
The requirement for calcium is met by using high calcium limestone (or its equivalent
calcareous raw material) and clay, mudstone or shale as the source of most of the silica
and alumina. Finished cement is produced by finely grinding together around 95% cement
clinker with 5% gypsum (or anhydrite) which helps to retard the setting time of the cement.
The quality of cement clinker is directly related to the chemistry of the raw materials used.
Around 8090% of raw material for the kiln feed is limestone. Clayey raw material
accounts for between 1015%, although the precise amounts will vary. Magnesium
carbonate, which may be present in limestone, is the main undesirable impurity. The level
of magnesia (MgO) in the clinker should not exceed 5% and many producers favour a
maximum of 3%; this rules out dolomite or dolomitic limestones for cement manufacture.
Other deleterious materials include excessive alkalis (sodium oxide, Na
2
O or soda and
potassium oxide, K
2
O) which would be unacceptable because of durability problems with
the concrete (due to the reaction of alkalis with some siliceous aggregates to form a
swelling gel

).
Portland cement is the most widely produced cement, both in the UK and worldwide. The
term Portland cement was created by its inventor in 1824 because of the presumed
resemblance of the set material to Portland Stone, the well-known natural building stone.
Other varieties include rapid hardening, low heat, sulfate resisting, and low-alkali cements.
In addition, blended cements are produced by finely grinding Portland cement clinker with
other constituents, such as blast furnace slag, natural pozzolanas

, silica fume,
metakaolin

, siliceous fly ash

**
, calcareous fly ash, limestone fines and shale. In Europe,
for example, these types of cement are standardised to BS EN 197-1. This covers five
main types of cement used for concrete (Table 1.1.1) and indicates the relative proportions
of Portland cement clinker, a second main constituent, the standard (28 day) strength
class and the rate of early strength gain.

A jelly-like substance that increases in volume with adverse effects on cement durability and strength.

Volcanic ash, named after the type locality Pozzuoli, in Italy, used in the manufacture of a kind of mortar
which hardens under water.

Metakaolin is an altered form of the clay mineral kaolinite.

**
Small ash particles carried in suspension in combustion products, typically from coal.
MI NERAL PROFI LE: CEMENT
RAW MATERI ALS
1: Definition, mineralogy and deposits
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Table 1.1.1 Types of cement for concrete (BS EN 197-1)
CEM I Portland cement Comprising Portland cement and up to 5% of
minor additional constituents
CEM II Portland-composite cement Portland cement and up to 35% of other single
constituents
CEM III Blastfurnace cement Portland cement and higher percentages of
blastfurnace slag
CEM IV Pozzolanic cement Comprising Portland cement and higher
percentages of pozzolana
CEM V Composite cement Comprising Portland cement and higher
percentages of blastfurnace slag and pozzolana
or fly ash

1.2 Deposits
The availability of suitable raw materials is normally the determining factor in the location
of cement works and these are normally located in close proximity to limestone deposits
and ideally close by other major raw materials (clay and gypsum).
Limestones, clay, mudstone and shale deposits are common lithologies and are widely
distributed in most parts of the world. Nevertheless, such sedimentary rocks may vary
considerably in their chemistry and thickness and thus in their suitability for cement
manufacture on a large scale. Generally, large quantities of a uniform source of calcium,
silica, alumina and iron are required. If uniform raw materials are not readily available (and
they rarely are) it is essential that chemical variation within the deposit is known so that
development can be planned, and proper blending of stockpiles can consistently achieve
the desired chemistry. The process of cement making is, however, remarkably flexible in
terms of the raw materials that can be used to achieve required chemical compositions.
Many limestone deposits, provided they are low in MgO, easily meet the requirements and
a number of other CaO-containing raw materials are known to be used. Alternative
materials include marble, chalk, marl, shell deposits, blastfurnace slag and alkali waste.
The overburden to limestone deposits is also used frequently as a source of silica, alumina
and iron. Other mineral components (such as iron oxide wastes, silica sand, etc) are
sometimes used to blend into the raw material mix to optimise the chemistry. The variety
of raw material used worldwide for cement manufacture is very great.
1: Definition, mineralogy and deposits
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
2.1 Extraction
The raw materials used in cement manufacture are extracted in large quarries, typically
with outputs of up to, or over, 2.5 million tonnes per year. Typically about 1.65 tonnes of
limestone (1.5 to 1.8 tonnes) and 0.4 tonnes of clay are quarried for each tonne of cement
produced. Large reserves of feedstock, particularly of limestone, are required to provide
security of supply and these are normally quarried in close proximity to the cement works.
Clay or mudstone may be worked in the same, or an adjacent quarry, or transported from
more distant sites.
The raw materials which supply cement works, and which may be required in quantities of
over 4,000 tonnes per day, must be thoroughly proven if the plant is to run successfully.
Consistent quality feed is required and an extraction plan must be made to ensure that a
uniform flow of raw material will always be available to the kilns.
2.2 Cement making
Cement clinker is manufactured by heating the blended and ground raw material (typically
limestone and clay or shale and other materials) to partial fusion. The clinker burning takes
place at a temperature of 1450C in kilns, which are normally inclined rotating cylinders
lined with heat-resistant bricks. Clinker emerges from the kiln after several hours as
granulated spherical pebbles. Afterwards, the clinker is finely ground by ball milling with a
small amount (typically 5%) of gypsum/anhydrite to give Portland cement.
Gypsum/anhydrite is introduced to control the initial rate of reaction with water and to allow
concrete to be placed and compacted before hardening commences. Blended cements
are produced by intergrinding cement clinker with materials like fly ash, granulated
blastfurnace slag, limestone dust, natural (eg. volcanic ash) or artificial (eg. metakaolin)
pozzolanas, in addition to gypsum/anhydrite. The finished cement is transported in bulk or
in bags to the market. Cement clinker and finished cement are traded internationally.
Cement manufacture is a very energy intensive process and results in the production of
large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO
2
). The carbon dioxide is chiefly produced when the
calcareous raw material is calcined to produce calcium oxide. Generally around 0.5 tonnes
of carbon dioxide is released for each tonne of cement produced a figure that does not
include carbon dioxide released during energy generation to power cement manufacturing
plants. Worldwide it is thought that cement making is responsible for around 7% of total
man-made CO
2
emissions.
The UK cement industry has agreed to reduce its primary energy consumption by 25.6%
per tonne of cement produced by 2010, from a 1990 baseline. In return, the industry
receives an 80% rebate from the Climate Change Levy. The reductions are phased over a
number of years (Table 2.2.1)
MI NERAL PROFI LE: CEMENT
RAW MATERI ALS
2: Extraction and processing
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Table 2.2.1 Projected improvements in primary energy consumption of UK cement
production up to 2010
Primary energy per tonne of
cement produced (kWh)
Improvement over 1990
baseline figure (%)
2002 1.463 13.2
2004 1.414 16.1
2006 1.303 22.6
2008 1.287 23.6
2010 1.253 25.6

Additionally, Lafarge has committed to reducing its worldwide CO
2
emissions by 20% per
tonne during the period 1990 2010. Lafarge plans the reduction by intensifying a series
of actions such as improving energy efficiency, using waste fuels and incorporating
cementitious additions such as steel slags and fly ash from coal-fired power stations.
The processes of milling, blending, calcining and grinding the clinker are described as dry,
semi-dry/semi-wet or wet depending on how the raw material is handled before being fed
to the kiln. Moisture content of the raw materials (ranging from 3% for hard limestone to
over 20% for soft limestones such as chalk) is the main criterion for governing the process
used.
In the dry process the feed material is in a dry, powdered form. It is either preheated by the
kilns hot exit gases prior to entering the kiln (preheater kiln) or, if fuel is added in a special
combustion chamber, the calcination process can almost be completed before the raw
material enters the kiln (precalciner kiln).
In the wet process, the feed material is made by wet grinding and the resultant slurry,
which contains typically 30 40% water, is fed directly into the kiln.
In the semi-dry or semi-wet process water is either added to the ground dry feed or
removed from the slurry by filter pressing, resulting in a feed material containing about 15-
20% moisture.
Over recent decades there has been a move away from the wet process to the more
energy efficient dry process. In Europe, for example, about 78% of cement production is
from dry process kilns, a further 16% of production is accounted for by semi-dry/semi-wet
kilns, and only about 6% of European production now comes from wet process kilns.
2: Extraction and processing
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
3.1 Specifications
Most national specifications (http://www.bca.org.uk/main.asp?page=197) for Portland
cement require that the cement should not contain more than 5% MgO (less than 3% in
the limestone raw material); therefore identification of dolomite is crucial in the evaluation
of carbonate rocks for cement manufacture. Other chemical specifications may limit
sulphur trioxide (SO
3
) and phosphorus pentoxide (P
2
O
5
) to less than 1% and total alkalis to
less than 0.6%. Additional specifications may apply to speciality cement types, such as
sulphate-resisting cement, oil-well cement and white cement (for example, less than
0.01% Fe
2
O
3
).
3.2 Uses
Cement is an essential constituent of concrete, which is a mixture of cement and coarse
and fine aggregate. When mixed with water, this material can be placed in situ or cast in
moulds (such as concrete blocks). It is a highly versatile building material valued for its
high compressive strength, fire resistance, mouldability, impermeability and durability.
Mortar (a mix of cement, fine aggregate and water) is used for joining structural blocks,
brickwork, and plastering. Both concrete and mortar are vital, and essentially irreplaceable,
construction materials for the building and civil engineering industries. They are widely
used in all construction sectors, including house building, road construction, bridges and
dams, and in other infrastructure projects, such as railways, airport facilities, hospitals,
schools, new offices and shops. Demand for cement is a function of economic activity and
construction activity, both of which can be highly cyclical.
MI NERAL PROFI LE: CEMENT
RAW MATERI ALS
3: Specification and uses
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
World production of cement 1995 - 2004
(estimated)
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
2,200
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
M
i
l
l
i
o
n

t
o
n
n
e
s

Source: United States Geological Survey
Figure 4.1 World cement production 1995 to 2004
World production of cement rose steadily from 1995 to 2004 (Figure 4.1), increasing by
almost 600 million tonnes during this period. It is estimated that cement production in 2004
was around 2,000 million tonnes. This is consistent with improving economic conditions
and population growth in many parts of the world.
Other
40%
China
31%
Italy
2%
USA (inc. Puerto
Rico)
6%
J apan
6%
India
5%
Rep. Of Korea
4%
Germany
3%
Russia
3%
Total producti on
1.42 bi l l i on tonnes


Source: United States Geological Survey
Figure 4.2 World cement production in 1995
MI NERAL PROFI LE: CEMENT
RAW MATERI ALS
4: World production
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Other
35%
China
42%
USA (inc. Puerto
Rico)
5%
J apan
3%
Russia
2%
Spain
2%
Italy
2%
Rep. Of Korea
3%
India
6%
Total producti on
2.0 bi l l i on tonnes

Source: United States Geological Survey
Figure 4.3 World cement production in 2004
Recent economic growth in China has stimulated growth in its construction industry, with
the result that Chinas cement production now constitutes 42% of the worlds total
production. Actual Chinese cement production increased from 445 million tonnes to 850
million tonnes per year over the period 1995 2004 (Figures 4.2 and 4.3), an increase of
over 90%. It is clear from Figure 4.3 that cement production is a function of population and
economic growth, both on country and world scales. With the global population expected
to rise to over 9 billion by 2050 (http://www.un.org/) further growth in world cement
production can be expected.
4: World production
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
5.1 Alternative raw materials
The principal objective of using alternative materials is to optimise the mix to make best
use of available raw materials. A range of calcareous raw materials can be used for
cement manufacture, but limestone, chalk or marble predominate. In most cases other
calcium-bearing sources do not occur in sufficiently large deposits or amounts to be used
as alternatives. Clay/mudstone is the main source of silica, alumina and iron oxides
because of its availability and low cost. However, mudstone often does not supply the
correct chemical balance of constituents and bought in supplements are sometimes
required. These may include silica sand, fly ash/pulverised fuel ash (PFA), iron oxides and
bauxite. PFA has a higher alumina to silica ratio than most mudstones, and also lower
alkalis. It is used in some cement plants to add alumina so that higher silica limestone can
also be utilised. It also helps to reduce alkalis. Ash from the coal burn also contributes to
the overall chemistry of the cement feed. However, alternative fuels are increasingly
substituting for coal (see below).
The production of blended cements is increasing. These may contain for instance, singly
or in combination, a proportion of PFA (a by-product of coal-fired power stations),
blastfurnace slag (a by-product of ironmaking), tuff (a type of volcanic rock) and limestone
dust. These act mainly as lower cost diluents, their main purpose being to reduce the
amount of cement clinker used per unit of concrete produced. However, their use may also
impart additional properties to the product. Both PFA and slag, for example, have
cementitious properties.
5.2 Alternative fuels
Cement manufacture is energy intensive (Section 2.2) and coal has been the traditional
fuel used. In many countries the cement industry is seeking to increase the proportion of
alternative fuels that it uses as kiln fuel. These fuels include end-of-life tyres, secondary
liquid fuels (such as waste solvents from printing and cleaning), paper and packaging
wastes, sewage sludge, meat and bone meal. All these fuels will have to meet strict
environmental specifications. The use of these fuels is not only less costly, but reduces
carbon dioxide emissions and the amount of waste that otherwise would be landfilled.
MI NERAL PROFI LE: CEMENT
RAW MATERI ALS
5: Alternative materials
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
6.1 Resources
Limestones of varying geological ages are distributed widely in England and Wales.
Scotland and Northern Ireland possess fewer limestone resources. They vary considerably
in their chemistry and thickness and thus their suitability for cement manufacture on a
large scale. Dolomites and dolomitic limestones are unsuitable for cement manufacture,
because of their high magnesia (MgO) contents. This precludes the use of dolomites (with
subordinate limestones) of Permian age occupying a narrow outcrop from Newcastle to
Nottingham.
In Britain the cement industry uses limestones from the Cretaceous (Chalk), Carboniferous
and J urassic (Figure 6.1.1). Carboniferous limestones are the major source of limestone
raw materials in Britain. Both Carboniferous and J urassic limestones mostly have low
porosities, and thus low moisture contents; thus the dry process is used in cement
manufacture from these resources. Chalk is generally highly porous and has a high
moisture content. Consequently wet or semi-wet manufacturing processes are used to
make cement from chalk.
Carboniferous limestones are relatively extensive and occur as thick consistent deposits
that are easy to work and which are generally of relatively high purity. The Peak District of
Derbyshire has extensive resources and the limestones are characteristically thick bedded
and flat-lying and are noted for their uniformity over wide areas. Large areas of both North
and South Wales, the northern Pennines and the fringes of the Lake District are also
underlain by Carboniferous limestones, some of which are relatively thick, pure and
consistent in quality. Elsewhere, Carboniferous limestones occur mainly in the Mendips,
although here they are more variable and do not exhibit the same degree of purity.
Cement plants using Carboniferous limestones are located at Hope and Tunstead in
Derbyshire, Cauldon in Staffordshire, Clitheroe in Lancashire, Dunbar in East Lothian,
Mold in Flintshire and at Cookstown in Northern Ireland.
Limestones of J urassic age outcrop widely from Dorset, through the Vale of Glamorgan
and central England to the Yorkshire coast. The limestones of Middle J urassic age are the
most extensive, although individual beds are comparatively thin. Currently J urassic
limestones are worked at only two sites for cement manufacture: at Ketton in Rutland
(which works the Lincolnshire Limestone) and at Aberthaw in South Wales (which works
the Lower Lias, in addition to local outcrops of the Carboniferous limestone).
The Cretaceous Chalk is a soft, fine-grained, white limestone that occurs extensively and
thickly in eastern and southern England. It is generally of high purity with a uniform
composition. The main impurities are flint, occurring as nodules and tabular beds, and clay
material represented by calcareous mudstone seams and partings. The lowest 25 60 m
of the Chalk has a higher clay content and it is this material that was formerly extensively
worked as a natural cement mix. There are currently five quarries producing chalk as raw
material for cement: at Northfleet in Kent, Westbury in Wiltshire, Kensworth in
Bedfordshire, Barrington in Cambridgeshire and South Ferriby in North Lincolnshire.
MI NERAL PROFI LE: CEMENT
RAW MATERI ALS
6: Cement raw materials focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Figure 6.1.1 Location of cement works and major raw material sources in the UK
Resources of clay and mudstone suitable for cement manufacture are widespread and
normally obtained from quarries adjacent to cement plants. One major exception is the use
of the London Clay at Ockendon in Essex, which is slurried with water and piped beneath
the Thames to supply the Northfleet cement works.
6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
6.2 Reserves
Cement plants are highly capital intensive. The construction of new plant costs about 10
million for each 100 000 tonnes per year of cement capacity. Large modern plants can,
therefore, cost over 100 million. Ongoing capital investment at individual plants can also
typically amount to several million pounds a year.
Cement raw materials must be available in sufficiently large quantities to justify these large
capital investments. Current policy in Mineral Planning Guidance 10 Provision of Raw
Material for the Cement Industry is that the stock of permitted reserves should provide at
least 25 years supply for a new plant or new kiln. Elsewhere the stock of permitted
reserves should be at least 15 years.
Permitted reserves of limestone and chalk for cement manufacture at 2003 are shown in
Table 6.2.1.
Table 6.2.1 Permitted reserves of limestone and chalk for cement manufacture in Britain in
2003
MPA Plant Clinker capacity
(thousand tonnes/year)
Reserve
(Mt)
Reserve Life
(Years)
Staffordshire Cauldon 920 117 49.2
Peak District National Park Hope 1 400 45 28
Kent Northfleet 1 250 9.4 5
Kent/Medway Medway (planned) 1 200 71.3 32.5
Wiltshire Westbury 720 9.4 9.1
Ketton Rutland 1 300 na 23
Ribblesdale Lancashire 1 300 (current)
800 (future)
na 24
North Lincolnshire South Ferriby 750 na 50
Cambs Barrington 250 na 38
Bedfordshire Kensworth quarry 1 250 na Many
Derbyshire Tunstead 750 na 40
Flintshire Padeswood 800 na na
Vale of Glamorgan Aberthaw 500 22.0 49.2
Tyrone Cookstown 650 na na
East Lothian Dunbar 1 000 48.0 34.0
Warwicks/Beds Rugby 1 250 na na

6.3 Structure of the industry
There are four producers of cement in the UK. These are (with their approximate market
share): Lafarge Cement UK (48%), Castle Cement (25%), Rugby Cement (20%) and
Buxton Lime Industries (7%). The cement plants are listed in Table 6.3.1 and their
locations shown on Figure 6.1.1.
6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Table 6.3.1 Cement plants in Britain, clinker capacity and raw materials
Company MPA Plant Clinker
capacity
(Thousand
tonnes/ year)
Process Raw materials Transport
Staffordshire Cauldon 920 Dry Carboniferous
limestone and /
mudstone
Road
Peak District
National Park
Hope 1 400 Dry Carboniferous
limestone and /
mudstone
Road/Rail
Kent Northfleet 1 250 Semi-wet Chalk and
London Clay
Road
Kent/Medway Medway
(planned)
1 200 Dry Chalk and Gault
clay
Road/Rail
Wiltshire Westbury 720 Wet Chalk and
Kimmeridge Clay
Road/Rail
Vale of
Glamorgan
Aberthaw 500 Dry J urassic
limestone and
mudstone and
Carboniferous
limestone
Road
East Lothian Dunbar 1000 Dry Carboniferous
limestone and
mudstone
Road/Rail
Lafarge
Cement
UK
Tyrone Cookstown 470 Dry Carboniferous
limestone and
mudstone
Road
Rutland Ketton 1 300 Dry J urassic
limestone and
mudstone
Road/Rail
Lancashire Ribblesdale 1 300 (current)
750 (future)
Wet
Dry
(planned)
Carboniferous
limestone and /
mudstone
Road
Castle
Cement
Flintshire Padeswood 800 Dry and
wet
Carboniferous
limestone and
shales
Road
North
Lincolnshire
South
Ferriby
750 Semi-dry Chalk and
Kimmeridge clay
Road
Cambs Barrington 250 Wet Chalk and Gault
clay
Road
Rugby
Cement
Warwicks/
Beds
Rugby 1 250 Wet Chalk and
J urassic
mudstone
Road
Buxton
Lime
Industries
Derbyshire Tunstead 750 Dry Carboniferous
limestone and /
mudstone
Road/Rail

There have been a number of cement plant closures in recent years due to rationalisation
and concentration on larger plants. Recent closures by Lafarge Cement have included
Masons in Suffolk, and Plymstock in Devon, both in 1999, and Weardale in Durham in
2001. Rugby Cement closed plants at Rochester, Kent and Southam in Warwickshire after
the new Rugby works came into full production in 2000.
6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Lafarge Cement UK is part of the Lafarge Group of France, which is the worlds largest
cement producer. Castle Cement is a subsidiary of the Heidelberg Cement Group of
Germany and Buxton Lime Industries is part of Tarmac, a subsidiary of the Anglo-
American Corporation. Rugby Cement is a subsidiary of the CEMEX Group of Mexico.
With the exception of Castle Cement, all the cement manufacturers are also large
producers of aggregates in the UK.
6.4 Production
The cement industry in Great Britain consumed some 14.6 million tonnes of limestone and
chalk and about 2.2 million tonnes of mudstone in 2004, together with about 0.6 million
tonnes of gypsum/anhydrite and much smaller quantities of ancillary materials, including
silica sand, pulverised fuel ash (PFA) and iron oxides. Cement plants in the UK have
clinker capacities of between 0.25 million tonnes per year to 1.4 million tonnes per year
(Table 6.3.1). They are, therefore, major consumers of mineral raw materials.
The industry had its origins in South East England in the mid 19th Century, where it was
based on chalk. This was because of the ease with which chalk and clay could be
converted to a uniform slurry with the equipment then available. The industry became
concentrated along the Thames east of London and in the Medway valley of Kent. The
later introduction of more efficient grinding mills made the use of harder limestone and
mudstone possible. In addition, rising energy prices favoured the use of the dry process
based on limestone at the expense of chalk using the wet process. Consequently, whilst
the consumption of limestone has remained fairly constant, there has been a declining use
of chalk in an overall declining market (Figure 6.4.1). In 2004, limestone accounted for
about 65% of the total requirement for calcareous material. Plant closures have been
mainly those based on chalk. However, a proposed new works in the Medway valley of
Kent will be based on chalk, although is intended to replace the existing Northfleet works
in Kent, which is also based on chalk.
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
20,000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d

t
o
n
n
e
s
Limestone
Chalk
Total

Figure 6.4.1 Great Britain: Production of limestone and chalk for cement manufacture,
1980 2004
Source: UK Minerals Yearbook 2004, BGS
6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
UK Finished Cement Production
8,000
8,500
9,000
9,500
10,000
10,500
11,000
11,500
12,000
12,500
13,000
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d

t
o
n
n
e
s

Figure 6.4.2. UK cement production in the UK, 1992 2004
Source: UK Minerals Yearbook 2004, BGS
Over the last 20 years UK cement clinker production has been in the range 15 million
tonnes per year to 10 million tonnes per year, but with a generally declining trend. Clinker
production was some 10.4 million tonnes in 2004 (GB). Production of finished cement is
shown in Figure 6.4.2.
6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Figure 6.4.3 Cement raw materials supply chain
6.5 Consumption
UK consumption of cement includes cement made from indigenously produced cement
clinker, cement made from imported clinker and imports of finished cement (Figure 6.5.1).
Total UK consumption of cement is 1213 million tonnes a year, of which 9092% is
supplied by the UK industry and the remainder is imported. Forecasts of demand for
cement raw materials published in Mineral Planning Guidance Note 10 published in 1991
have proved to be too high. This is due to a reduction in domestic capacity, increased
imports and increased use of blended cements (in which some of the cement is replaced
by PFA and granulated blast furnace slag). Total consumption of cementitious material
(including blended cement) was about 12 million tonnes in 2004. Per capita consumption
of Portland cement in the UK was about 220 kg in 2004.

Imports: Portland
Cement 1.97 Mt
(1)
Great Britain Cement Raw Materials
The Supply Chain 2004
Exports Portland
Cement:
0.211Mt
(2)
Apparent
Consumption
11 873 Mt
(3)
Cement Clinker: 10.402 Mt
(2)
Fine
Grinding
Limestone/Chalk
14.6 Mt
(1)
Clay and Shale
2 Mt
(1)
Gypsum/
Anhydrite
0.6Mt
(3)
Imports Portland
Cement Clinker
0.377Mt
(4)
Exports: Portland
Cement Clinker
0.08 Mt
(4)
Finished Cement: 11.405 Mt
(2)
High temperature Calcination
1. Officeof National Statistics (includes WhitePortland and Grey Portland
cements +blended cements).
2. Monthly Statistics, Building Materials and Components, DTI
3. BGS estimate
4. HM Revenueand Customs (UK)
6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d

T
o
n
n
e
s
Production
Consumption

Source: Monthly Statistics, Building Materials and Components, DTI, 2004 GB only
Figure 6.5.1 UK: Production and apparent consumption of cement, 1980 2004
6.6 Trade
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the UK was a significant exporter (>1 million tonnes per
year) of cement. However, increasing competition in overseas markets has led to a decline
in exports and from 1987 onwards, the UK became a net importer due to insufficient
domestic production capacity (Table 6.6.1). The value of UK imports of clinker in 2004 are
estimated at about 21.6 million, with exports valued at about 1.3 million. Portland
cement imports are valued at about 62 million in 2004, and about 13.5 million for
exports.
Table 6.6.1 UK: Imports and exports of Portland cement, 2001 2004
Exports Imports Exports Imports
Tonnes
White Portland Grey Portland
2001 10 812 92 552 13 488 39 961
2002 18 996 229 297 11 206 57 439
2003 16 232 250 974 12 774 51 677
2004 27 794 293 027 13 309 61 952
(Grey Portland cement includes blended cement)
Source:http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_commerce/PRA-
20040/PRA26510_20040.pdf
6.7 Issues
6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Cement raw materials are not sold on the open market, but are entirely consumed in the
manufacture of cement. The value of UK sales of Portland cement, including blended
cements, was 765 million in 2004. Some 3 000 people are employed in the industry.
Cement is an essential material for the UK construction industry, which is a major sector of
the economy. In 2004 the total gross value added at basic prices of the work done in the
construction sector in Great Britain was 67.6 billion: of which about 60% is new work and
40% is for repair and maintenance.
The principal raw materials used in cement manufacture are almost always supplied from
adjacent quarries in order to avoid the high costs of transporting large tonnages of low-
cost raw materials. In England the only major exception is the Rugby works in
Warwickshire, where both the calcareous and clayey raw materials are transported into the
plant. The cement industry in Warwickshire was originally based on local impure J urassic
limestone, but these are unsuitable for modern cementmaking. Since 1965 a slurry
pipeline from Kensworth Quarry in Bedfordshire has been the source of chalk into the
county. Clay is also transported by road to Rugby from Southam. A pipeline is also used to
transport clay from Essex beneath the Thames to the Northfleet cement works. It is
unlikely that pipelines will be used in the future to transport raw materials, because of their
high cost and the economic disadvantages of the wet or semi-wet process, which slurrying
in water would entail. Six of the cement works in the UK are rail connected. A number of
cement works remain entirely reliant on road transport.
Modern cement operations tend to be large-scale and long-lived. The economies of scale
required in order to make individual operations profitable mean that production has tended
to concentrate on units which require large inputs of limestone and clay. This means that
there has been a trend toward more extensive quarries and larger processing plant, both
of which are likely to be more visually intrusive.
Cement manufacture requires complex plant which is expensive to install and maintain. As
a consequence operators require security of supply of both limestone and clay over
relatively long periods of time (see section on Reserves above). As a consequence,
individual extraction and processing sites can be long lived relative to other mineral
operations. Despite the fact that individual planning authorities have been largely
successful in following current guidance in bringing forward reserves to maintain security
of supply, economic conditions have meant that the indigenous cement industry has
contracted and there is an increased reliance on cement imported from elsewhere in
Europe.
6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain 6: Cement raw materials - focus on Britain
BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Mineral Planning Guidance 10 Provision of Raw Material for the Cement Industry
The British Cement Association: (http://www.bca.org.uk/)
The Portland Cement Association: (http://www.cement.org/)
http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/statistics/uk/home.html
Lafarge Cement: http://www.cement.bluecircle.co.uk/index.htm
Castle Cement: http://www.castlecement.co.uk/
Cement, Concrete and Mortar FAQ: http://www.axp.mdx.ac.uk/~john49/cemfaq.htm

MI NERAL PROFI LE: CEMENT
RAW MATERI ALS
7: Further reading