HISTORY OF WEST ASIA CONFLICT AFTER SECOND WORLD WAR

LEE BIH NI

Second Edition, 2013 Lee Bih Ni Editor: Edit Pad Translator: Google Translate Published by: Eco Campus Desktop Publisher Kota Kinabalu e mel: [email protected]

Acknowledgement to Yahoo, Google and other search engines sources & images, etc.

Chapter Contents Page _____________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1 Background to Conflict West Asia a) Introduction - Year 1800 to World War II b) contributory factors and the event of conflict - Arab-Israeli Conflict - Aspects of Religious Conflict c) History i) End of 19th Century to 1948 ii) 1949-1967 iii) 1967-1973 iv) 1974-2000 - Egypt - Jordan - Iraq - Lebanon - Palestine v) 2000-2009 vi) 2010-present d) Conclusion Chapter 2 Establishment of the State of Israel, 1948 a) Introduction - History of Israel - Early Israel (1200-950 BC) - Israel and Judah (c.1200-576 BC) - Babylonian, Persian and Greek rule (586 BC - 2nd century BC) - Government Hasmonean (2nd century BC - 64 BC) - Roman Rule - Pre-Christian Rome (64 BCE - 324 CE) - Rabbinical Era - Christian Roman and Byzantine rule (324-636) - Arab rule (636-1096) - Crusader Rule (1099 - 13th century) - Mamluk Rule (th century 13-1517) - Ottoman rule (1516-1917) b) The emergence of Zionism and antisemitism - Growth persecution in Eastern Europe - Migration from Eastern Europe - The creation of the Zionist movement c) the British Mandate of Palestine - The Balfour Declaration - British Mandate of Palestine (1917-1948) - Immigration Jewish and Arab opposition d) The Second World War and the Holocaust (1939-1945) e) Post-War Years (1945-1947) f) Plan of Subdivision united Nations - The UN Plan for Palestine 1947 g) of the Civil War, Jan.-May 1948

h) Establishment of the State of Israel - "Ten Day Attack" (July 9 to 18, 1948) - Second Armistice (July 18 to 15 October of 1948) - Battle Renewed (October 6 - November 5, 1948) - Armistice Agreement (March-July 1949) - Government and Politics - Immigration i) Conclusion Chapter 3 The Arab-Israeli Conflict (I) - Arab Israeli War 1948 a) Introduction - Background b) 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine - Political factors; Yishuv c) Overall Arab League - King Abdullah I (Jordan) - Other Arab Countries - Supreme Committee Amin al-Husayni d) Evaluation Force - Military Yishuv - Saudi Military - British forces in Palestine e) Intervention by Arab League countries f) Arab-Israeli War of 1948 i) Phase One: 15th May - June 11, 1948 - Israeli Army in 1948 - Jordan Cannon illuminates Jerusalem in 1948 - First Armistice: 11th June, - July 8, 1948 ii) Phase Two: 8-18 July 1948 - Operations Danny - Operation Dekel - Operation Kedem - Second Truce: July 18 - October 15, 1948 - Operations Shoter iii) The third phase: October 15, 1948 - March 10, 1949 - Israeli Operations - Air Battles of the Anglo-Israel g) the effect of the Arab Israeli War of 1948 - After the 1949 Armistice Agreement - Demographics: Migration Palestine 1948 Palestinian migration Reason, 1948, and the migration of Jews from Arab Lands - Migration of Jews from Arab Countries Islam - Illegal camps Maabarot h) Conclusions The Arab-Israeli Conflict (II) - Suez War, 1956 a) Introduction - Background b) the events leading to the Suez Crisis - Postwar Years c) Nationalization of the Suez Canal and the Road to Crisis

Chapter 4

d) Diplomacy Anglo-French-American - Committee Menzies - Protocol - British Army - The French Army e) Israeli Military History - Egypt - Planning - August 9 Eisenhower press conference on the crisis - Operational Information (1956) - France recalled That Stockwell - Check Operation (Operation REVISE) - Intrusion - Operation Kadesh: Israeli operation in the Sinai Peninsula f) Early Action in South Sinai (South Egypt) - Battle of Jebel Heitan, under attack paratroop brigade - Air Operations, Phase 1 - Naval Operations - Anglo-French Army e) Financial & Armistice Pressure f) Effect: - Military Education - Migration of Jews from Arab countries and the Islamic and Jewish history in Egypt - Israel g) Conclusion Chapter 5 The Arab-Israeli Conflict (III) - Six-Day War, 1967 a) Introduction - Background and Summary of Events That Lead To War b) Prepare the Military - Preparation Arab - Preparation Israel c) Forward Team Fight - Beginning of Air Attack - Gaza and the Sinai Peninsula - West Bank - Golan Heights - Weapons d) Conflict and Post-War Situation - Casualties - Controversy - Strike Attack Prevention of Improper - Allegations Against Egyptian Military Brutality - USS Liberty Incident e) Population displaced - Arabic - Jews in the Arab countries - Jew In Communist Countries f) Conclusion The Egyptian Revolution, 1952

Chapter 6

a) Introduction b) Causes of c) Predecessor d) Consolidation - Reminder e) Conclusion Chapter 7 The Lebanese Civil War, 1982 a) Introduction - Background - Colonial Rule b) Independence c) Tension Demographics - Line of Lebanon and the Lebanese National Movement - Christian - Shia Islam - Sunni Islam - Druze sect - The Secular - Palestine d) First Phase 1975-1977 - Terrorism and sectarian massacre - Syrian Occupation of Lebanon - Quiet Is Not Comfortable e) The second phase 1977-1982 - Hundred Days War - Israeli intervention in South Lebanon, 1978 - Safety Zone - Safra massacre - Campaign Zahleh f) Third Phase 1982-1983 - The Israeli invasion of Lebanon - Siege of Beirut - For Armistice Negotiations - International Rehabilitation: Multinational Force in Lebanon - The massacre of Sabra and Shatila - Agreement May 17 - Terrorism g) Fourth Phase 1984-1990 - The Increasingly Poor Conflict and Crisis: War Camp - Government - Taif Agreement - Disputes in East Beirut: Massacre October 13 h) Effect After Violence i) Conclusion The Iranian Revolution, 1979 a) Introduction - Background and Reasons for the Iranian Revolution - Historical Background b) the rise of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Chapter 8

c) the ideology of the Iranian Revolution d) Organizations of the Iranian Revolution e) Some events 1970-1977 - A revolutionary leader - Demonstrations In Late 1977 f) Summer - Fire Rex Cinema in Abadan - Black Friday and Beyond - Protests Muharram g) win the Revolution and the fall of the Monarchy - Return Khomeini and Fall of monarchy Monarchy - Casualties of the Iranian Revolution h) Consolidation of power by Khomeini: Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution - Organization of the Iranian Revolution - Revolt Khuzestan 1979 Kurdish uprising 1979 in Iran j) The establishment of the Islamic Republic - Writing the Constitution k) Hostage Crisis - Suppression of the Opposition - Press coverage l) Islamic People's Republican Party - Kazem Shariatmadari - Left Islam m) The effect - History of the Islamic Republic of Iran - International - Persian Gulf War and the Iran-Iraq - Relationship with the West / US-Iran - Internal Iran - Literacy Development - Government and Politics of Iran - Women's Rights in Iran - Economic Iran n) Conclusion Chapter 9 The Iraq war - Iran, 1980 to 1988 a) Introduction b) Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) - Error Iraq, 1980-1982 - Withdrawal of Iraq, 1982-1984 - Slip War, 1984-1987 - Tank War, 1984-1987 c) Involvement of the Great Powers gradually - Special Weapons d) Termination of War e) Conclusion The Gulf War, 1990-1991 a) Introduction - Background

Chapter 10

b) Invasion of Kuwait c) War - How diplomatic - Creating A Series Alliance - Justification for Intervention - Early Battles: Air Campaign - Battle Of Khafji -Military Operations During the Liberation Khafji Land-Campaign d) The liberation of Kuwait - Initial Steps To Iraq - Allied Forces Enter Iraq - Analysis of Postwar Military - Part 1 during Operation Desert Storm. - End of Active Hostilities e) The combination of the Gulf War - United Kingdom - France - Canada - Australia's contribution to the 1991 Gulf War f) Public Casualties Iraq Right-Number - Controversy Gulf War - Effects of Uranium - Highway of Death - Bulldozer Attack - Expulsion of Palestinians from Kuwait 1991 - Infrastructure Coalition bombing - Abuse g) Operation of Southern Watch - Restriction of the Gulf War - UN Security Council Resolution 661 of the United Nations - Draining Qurna Marshes - Spill Gulf War - Kuwait Oil Fires - Cost h) Impact On Developing Countries - Media coverage of the Gulf War i) Conclusion Chapter 11 The Palestinian Intifada, 1987-1991 a) Introduction - Intifada b) Organization Palestinians in the first Intifada - Death in the first Intifada - Violent Incidents Within the First Intifada c) Israeli Reaction to the First Intifada d) Conclusion

Chapter 1 Background of West Asia Conflict Introduction

In 1800 to World War II

By the end year the 1800's the questions arise about how people Jewish can overcome increasing persecution and anti-Jewish in Europe. Promised Land Biblical led to a political movement, Zionism, to establish a Jewish state in Palestine, in the Middle East. From 1920 to 1947, the British Empire has a mandate over Palestine. At the time, including all Israeli and Palestinian Occupied Territories today, Gaza, the West Bank, and others. Increasing number of Jews immigrating to "Holy Land" to increase tension in the region. European geopolitics in the early half of the 20th century in the wider Middle East region contributed to the instability of the whole lot. The British Empire, in particular, plays a key role in the region. During World War I, in 1916, he convinced Arab leaders revolted against the Ottoman Empire (allied with Germany). In response, the British government would support the establishment of an independent Arab state in the region, including Palestine. Yet, in this contradiction, and also got a support people-people Jewish, in 1917, Lord Arthur Balfour, Foreign Minister State British, issue a declaration in (Declaration Balfour). Announced support for the establishment of the British Empire "home of the Jewish state in Palestine." As a complication, there was an agreement between Imperial Britain and France to carve out territories Arab Ottoman Empire and divide control of the region. The spoils of war are to be shared. With the Conference of Berlin in 1885 in which Africa was carved among the various European empires, the parts of the Middle East will also be engraved, which requires boundary manufacture and support of monarchies, dictators and other leaders who can be regarded as a "puppet" or at least can influenced by external forces. 1 Contributing factors and the process of conflict events

Arab-Israeli Conflict

Anup Shah. (2006 July 30). The Middle East conflicta brief background. Retrieved 2012 May 12 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/119/the-middle-east-conflict-a-brief-background

Arab-Israeli conflict refers to the political tensions and open hostilities between Arabs and Middle Eastern Jewish communities. Roots of the Arab-Israeli conflict lies in the rise of modern Zionism and Arab nationalism towards the end of the 19th century. Conflict between Jews and Palestinian Arabs appeared in the early 20th century, expanded to all Arab League countries with the creation of the modern State of Israel in 1948. Territory regarded by the Jewish people as their historical homeland is also regarded by the Pan-Arab movement as historically and currently owned by Palestinian Arabs, and the Pan-Islamic context, in territory regarded as Muslim lands. Conflict, which started as a political and nationalist conflict over competing regional ambitions following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, has shifted over the years from the large scale regional Arab-Israeli conflict Israeli-Palestinian conflict is more local. Peace agreement was signed between Israel and Egypt in 1979, and Israel and Jordan in 1994. However, the Arab world and Israel generally remain at odds with each other over a specific territory. 2 Religious Aspects Conflict Jewish groups, Muslims and Christians worship, religious arguments for their uncompromising positions. Contemporary history of the Arab-Israeli conflict are very much affected by Christian, Jewish and Muslim religious beliefs and their interpretation of the idea of the chosen people in their policy attention to the "Promised Land" and "Chosen City" of Jerusalem. The Holy Land or Eretz Yisrael (Land of Israel), according to the law promised by God to the Children of Israel. According to the study of the Bible and archaeological evidence, Israel ruled the land from the 13th century or 14th century BC-1 BC (with a brief period of foreign rule), remaining a majority ethnic population in the area until the 7th century CE. In the manifesto of 1896, the Jewish State, Theodor Herzl repeatedly refers to the Biblical concept of the promised land. Likud is the most prominent Israeli politicians, including the Biblical claim to the Land of Israel in the platform. Muslims also claim rights to the land in accordance with the Quran. Contrary to the Jewish claim that this land was promised to Abraham's son Isaac's descendants only young, they argue that the land of Canaan was promised to all descendants of Abraham, including the firstborn of Ishmael, from whom Arabs claim descent. In addition, many Muslims also
2

The Palestinian National Charter - Article 6. Retrieved 2012 May 11 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict

respect the sacred place for Israel Bible, such as Cave of the Patriarchs and the Temple Mount, and 1,400 years ago Islamic landmark built these sites ancient Jews, like the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque . Muslims also believe that Muhammad through Jerusalem on the first trip to heaven. Hamas ruling the Gaza Strip, claiming that the land of Palestine (Israel and the Palestinian territories) is an Islamic waqf must be administered by Muslims. Christian Zionists support Israel because they recognize the right of Jews to the land of your ancestors, as proposed, for example, by Paul in Romans 11. Some even believe that the return of the Jewish people in Israel is a prerequisite for the Second Coming of Christ. 3 History The end of the 19th Century (1948) At the end of the 19th century, under Zionism, many European Jews purchased land from the Ottoman sultan and his agents. At that time, Jerusalem did not go beyond the walled area and has a population of only a few tens of thousands. Collective farms, known as kibbutzim, were established, is the first entirely Jewish city in modern times, Tel Aviv. Before World War I, the Middle East, including Palestine, had been under the control of the Ottoman Empire for nearly 500 years. In the closing years of the Ottoman empire they began to support their Turkish ethnic identity, asserting the priority of the Turks in the empire, leading to discrimination against Arabs. Promise of liberation from the Ottomans led many Jews and Arabs to support the allied forces during World War I, which led to the emergence of widespread Arab nationalism. In the year 1915-1916, as World War I was walking, the British High Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon, secretly corresponded with Husayn ibn 'Ali, the patriarch of the Hashemite family and Ottoman governor of Mecca and Medina. McMahon convinced Husayn to lead the Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire, which aligned with Germany against Britain and France in the war. McMahon promised that if the Arabs to support Britain in the war, the British government would support the establishment of an independent Arab state under Hashemite rule in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, including Palestine. Arab revolt, led by TE Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") and Husayn son Faysal, succeeded in defeating the Ottomans, and Britain took control of much of this area. In 1917, the British issue the Balfour Declaration, which stated that the government agreed to "the establishment in Palestine a national home for the Jewish people" but "anything that can be done which may prejudice the civil rights of existing and non-religious
3

Review of On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend. Retrieved 2010 May 12 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict

Jewish community in Palestine ". Declaration was issued as a result of the trust principal members of the government, including Prime Minister David Lloyd George, that Jewish support was essential to winning the war; However, the declaration is causing great concern in the Arab world after the war, the area was under the rule British as the British Mandate of Palestine. Area mandated to the British included what is today Israel, Jordan, the West Bank and Gaza. It was during this time that Jewish immigration to Palestine increased. By 1931, 17 percent of the Palestinian population is Jewish, an increase of six percent since 1922. Jewish immigration increased after the Nazis came to power in Germany, causing the Jewish population in Palestine to double. Palestinian Arabs see the rapid influx of Jewish immigrants as a threat to their homeland and their identity as a people. Moreover, Jewish policies of purchasing land and prohibiting the Arab employment in industry and owned farms angered many Jewish-Palestinian Arab society. Demonstrations were held as early as 1920, protesting what the Arabs felt was an unfair preference to Jewish immigrants made by the British mandate that governed Palestine at that time. This resentment led to outbreaks of violence. In March 1920, the first violent incident occurred in Tel Hai, and later that year riots occurred in Jerusalem. Winston Churchill's 1922 White Paper tried to reassure the Arab population, denying that the establishment of a Jewish state is the intention of the Balfour Declaration. In 1929, after a demonstration by Vladimir Jabotinsky political group Betar at the Western Wall, riots started in Jerusalem and expanded throughout the Palestinian Arabs killed 67 Jews in Hebron city, in what is known as the Hebron Massacre. A Jewish bus equipped with wire screens to protect from stone, glass and throwing grenades, riot late 1930sDuring week, at least 116 Arabs and 133 Jews were killed and 339 injured. In the 1930s, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam organized and established the Black Hand, an anti-Zionist and anti-British militant organization. He recruited and arranged military training for peasants and by 1935, he had enlisted between 200 and 800 men. The cells were equipped with bombs and firearms, which they used to kill Zionist settlers in the area, and engaged in a campaign of vandalism of Jewish settlers farm. By 1936, the growing tensions led to the 1936-1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. In response to Arab pressure, the British Mandate authorities greatly reduced the number of Jewish immigrants to Palestine (see White Paper of 1939 and the ship Exodus). These restrictions remained in place until the end of the mandate, a period that coincided with the Nazi Holocaust and the flight of Jewish refugees from Europe. As a result, most of the Jewish participants to Palestine were illegal (see Aliyah Bet), causing tension in the

region. Following several unsuccessful attempts to solve the problem diplomatically, the British asked the newly formed United Nations for help. On May 15, 1947 the General Assembly to appoint a committee, UNSCOP, composed of representatives from 11 states. To make the committee more neutral, none of the Great Powers represented. After five weeks in-country studies, the report to the General Assembly on September 3, 1947. The report contains the majority and minority plan. The majority of the proposed Plan of Subdivision with Economic Union. The proposed minority Palestinian Independent State. With only slight modifications, Subdivision Plan with Economic Union is a recommended acceptance and implementation of the resolution 181 (II) of 29 November 1947. Resolution was adopted by 33 votes to 13 with 10 abstentions. Arab countries, which make up the Arab League, voted against. On the ground, Arab and Jewish Palestinians were fighting openly to control strategic position in the region. Several major atrocities were committed by both sides. Boundaries defined in the partition plan of the United Nations (UN) in 1947: The area assigned to the Jewish state; Area assigned to an Arab country; Separatum corpus Jerusalem (both Jewish and Arab). Border under the 1949 cease-fire: Arab territory from 1949 to 1967; Israeli weaponry months before the end of 1949 lines.In Mandate the Haganah launched several offensives in which they gained control over all the territory allocated by the UN to the Jewish State, creating a large number of refugees and capturing the towns of Tiberias, Haifa, Safad, Beisan and, basically, Jaffa. In early 1948, the United Kingdom announced its firm intention to terminate the mandate in Palestine on May 14. In response, U.S. President Harry S. Truman made a statement on 25 March proposed UN trusteeship rather than partition, stating that "unfortunately, it has become clear that the partition plan can not be conducted at this time by peaceful means .... unless emergency action is taken, there will be a public authority in Palestine on that date capable of preserving law and regulations. violence and bloodshed will descend upon the Holy Land. massive battle among the country will be the inevitable result. "4

United States Proposal for Temporary United Nations Trusteeship for Palestine. (1948,April). Source: Department of State Bulletin, vol. 18, No. 457, April 4, 1948, p. 451

On May 14, 1948, the day in which the British Mandate over Palestine expired 1, Council of Jews gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum, and approved one proclamation declaring the establishment of the Jewish state in Eretz Israel 1, known as the State of Israel . There is no other mention of a new state border is in Eretz Israel. Official cablegram from the Secretary General of the Arab League to the UN Secretary General on May 15, 1948, the Arab states publicly declared their goal to create a "United State of Palestine", where Jewish and Arab, two-state, UN Plan. That day, the armies of Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq invaded / intervened in the divided territories of the Arab state, marking the beginning of the ArabIsraeli War of 1948. Nascent Israeli Defense Force repulsed the Arab League nations from part of the occupied territories, thus extending its borders beyond the original UNSCOP partition. By December 1948, Israeli control of most of the Palestine Mandate west of the Jordan River. Mandate remainder consists of Jordan, the area that came to be called the West Bank (controlled by Jordan) and Gaza Strip (controlled by Egypt). Prior to and during this conflict, 713,000 Palestinian Arabs fled from their native land into the Palestinian refugees, in part, because the alleged promise from Arab leaders that they would be able to come back when the war was won. Palestinians fled from areas that now today Israel in response to the massacre of alleged Arab city by militant Jewish organizations like the Irgun and Stern (See Deir Yassin massacre). War ended with the signing of the 1949 Armistice Agreement between Israel and all Arab neighbors. 5 1949-1967 Before adoption by the United Nations (UN) Resolution 181 in November 1947 and the declaration of the State of Israel in May 1948, several Arab states to take steps discrimination against their local Jewish population. Status of Jewish citizens in Arab countries worsened dramatically during the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict. Major anti-Jewish riots broke out across the Arab world in December 1947, and the Jewish community was hit hard in Syria and Aden, with hundreds of dead and injured. By mid-1948, nearly all Jewish communities in Arab countries have suffered attacks and their status deteriorated. Jews under Islamic regimes were uprooted from their long residency or became political hostages of the Arab-Israeli conflict. As a result, a large number of Jews fled or were forced to emigrate from Arab countries and Islamic countries as well. Violence and anti-Jewish persecutions begin the first wave of emigration, with the following most. In Libya, Jews were deprived of citizenship, and in Iraq, their property seized. Egypt deported most of the
5

Smith, Charles D. Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict: A History With Documents. Bedford/St. Martins: Boston. (2004). Pg. 198

Jewish community in 1956, while Algeria denied the Jews citizenship, upon its independence in 1962. The majority have fled because of deteriorating political conditions, although some emigrated for ideological reasons. Over 700,000 Jews emigrated to Israel between 1948 and 1952, with about 285,000 of them from Arab countries. By the end of 1960, more than 850,000 Jews had left their birthplaces and their homes at about 10 Arab countries. Today, fewer than 7,000 Jews remained in the same countries. Individual and communal property was confiscated without compensation. Today, Jews refugees and their descendants represent 41% of the Israeli population. Due to the victory in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948, any Arabs caught on the wrong side of the ceasefire line could not return to their homes in what became Israel. Likewise, any Jews in the West Bank or in Gaza were expelled from their properties and homes to Israel. Palestinian refugees today are the descendants of those who left the responsibility for their migration into the dispute between Israel and the Palestinians (see Palestinian exodus Reason 1948). In 1956, Egypt closes the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, and blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba, in contravention of the Constantinople Convention of 1888. Many say that this is also violation of the Armistice Agreement 1949. On July 26, 1956, Egypt to nationalize the Suez Canal Company, and closed the Israeli shipping canal. Israel responded on October 29, 1956, by attacking the Sinai Peninsula with British and French support. During the Suez Canal crisis, Israel captured the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula. United States and the United Nations (UN) pressure soon ceasefire. Israel agreed to withdraw from Egyptian territory. Egypt agreed to freedom of navigation in the region and the demilitarization of Sinai. United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was created and deployed to oversee the demilitarization this. UNEF was only deployed on the Egyptian border, Israel refused to allow them on its territory. PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) was first established in 1964, under the charter includes a commitment to "he liberation of Palestine [which] will destroy the Zionist and imperialist presence ..." (PLO Charter, Article 22, 1968). On May 19, 1967, Egypt expelled UNEF observers, and deployed 100,000 soldiers in the Sinai Peninsula. It is once again close the Straits of Tiran Israeli shipping, returning the region to the way it was in 1956 when Israel was blockaded. On May 30, 1967, Jordan signed a mutual defense pact with Egypt. Egypt mobilized Sinai units, crossing UN lines (after being expelled the UN border monitors) and mobilized and gathered on the southern border of Israel. On June 5, Israel launched an attack on

Egypt. The Israeli Air Force (IAF) destroyed most of the Egyptian Air Force 1 in a surprise attack, then turned east to destroy the Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air forces. This strike is a key element in the Israeli victory in the Six Day war. At the end of the war, Israel gained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, east Jerusalem, Golan Heights and Shebaa farms. The results of the war affect the geopolitics of this region to this day. 6 1967-1973 At the end of August 1967, Arab leaders met in Khartoum in response to the war, to discuss the Arab position toward Israel. They reached a consensus that there should be no recognition, peace, and no negotiations with Israel, the so-called "three no".7 In 1969, Egypt began a War of attrition, with the goal of exhausting Israel to surrender the Sinai Peninsula. The war ended after the death of Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970. On October 6, 1973, Syria and Egypt staged a surprise attack on Israel during Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Jewish calendar. The Israeli army was caught off guard and unprepared, and it took about three days to fully mobilize. This led Arab countries to send troops to another to reinforce the Egyptians and Syrians. In addition, Arab countries agreed to enforce oil sanctions on industrialized countries, including the U.S., Japan and West European countries. OPEC countries raised fuel prices four times, and used as a political weapon to win the support of Israel. Yom Kippur War accommodated indirect confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. When Israel turned the tide of the war, the USSR threatened military intervention. United States, wary of nuclear war, obtained a cease-fire on October 25. 8 1974-2000 Egypt Begins, Carter and Sadat at Camp David Camp DavidFollowing late 1970s, Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty in March, 1979. Under the terms, the Sinai Peninsula back into the hands of Egypt and the Gaza Strip remained under Israeli control, to be included in a future Palestinian state. The agreement also provided for the free passage Israeli ships through the Suez Canal and recognition of the Strait of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba international waters.

Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous victims : a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881-2001 (1st Vintage Books ed. ed.). New York: Vintage Books. pp. 316-318. 7 "President Mubarak Interview with Israeli TV". Egyptian State Information Service. 2006-02-15. Retrieved 2007-03-04. http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Politics/Presidency/President/Interview/000001/0401050300000000000154.htm. 8 Smith, Charles D. (2006) Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, New York: Bedford, p. 329.

Jordan In October 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty, which stipulated, cooperation, the end of hostilities, and the settlement of other issues. Conflict between them has cost about 18.3 billion dollars. Signing is also closely linked with the efforts to create peace between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) representing the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). It was signed at the southern border crossing Arabah on October 26, 1994 and made Jordan only the second Arab country (after Egypt) to normalize relations with Israel. Iraq Israel and Iraq were implacable opponents since 1948. Iraq sent troops to take part in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and then supported Egypt and Syria in the Six Day War in 1967 and the Yom Kippur War in 1973. In June 1981, Israel attacked and destroyed newly built Iraqi nuclear facilities in Operation Opera. During the Gulf War in 1991, Iraq has unleashed 39 Scud missiles at Israel, in hopes of uniting the Arab world against the coalition working to liberate Kuwait. On the direction of the United States, Israel did not respond to this attack to prevent a larger outbreak of war. Lebanon In 1970, following the extension of civil war, King Hussein expelled the Palestine Liberation Organization from Jordan. September 1970, known as Black September in Arab history and sometimes referred to as the "era of regrettable events". It was a month when Hashemite King Hussein, Jordan moved to quash the autonomous Palestinian organizations and restore his monarchy in the country. Violence causing the death of tens of thousands of people, the vast majority of the Palestinian people. Armed conflict lasted until July 1971 with the expulsion of the PLO and thousands of Palestinian fighters to Lebanon. PLO resettled in Lebanon, from which it staged raids into Israel. In 1981, Syria, allied with the PLO, positioned missiles in Lebanon. In June 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon. In two months the PLO agreed to withdraw from there. In March 1983, Israel and Lebanon signed a ceasefire agreement. However, Syrian President Amin Gemayel urged to revoke cease-fire in March 1984. By 1985, Israeli troops withdrew to a 15 km wide strip of southern Lebanon, the ongoing conflict in the lower scale, with a relatively low injury on both sides. In 1993 and 1996, Israel launched a major operation against Shiite militia Hezbollah, which has become an emerging threat. In 2000,

as part of a larger plan for a peace agreement with Syria, Israel left the security zone in southern Lebanon. In 2006, in response to a Hezbollah cross-border raid, Israel launched air strikes against Hezbollah strongholds in southern Lebanon, from the 2006 Lebanon War. War lasted for 34 days, and resulted in creating a buffer zone in southern Lebanon and the Lebanese army deployment south Litani river for the first time since the 1960s. Hezbollah fighters withdrew from the border, and Israel finally turned on the UN peacekeepers in Lebanon occupied. Both sides declare victory in the conflict. 9 Palestine The 1970s were marked by a large number of major international terrorist attacks, including murder and murder Airport Munich Olympics in 1972, and Taking hostages at Entebbe in 1976, with over 100 Jewish hostages from various countries who kidnapped and held in Uganda . In December 1987, the First Intifada began. The First Intifada was a massive uprising against Israeli rule in the Palestinian Palestinian Territories. rebellion began in Jabalia refugee camp and quickly spread throughout Gaza, the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Palestinian actions ranged from civil disobedience to violence. In addition to general strikes, boycotts of Israeli products, graffiti and embankment, Palestinian demonstrations that included stone throwing by youths against the Israel Defense Forces brought the Intifada international attention. Israeli military response with a heavy hand on demonstrations, beatings, with live bullets and mass arrests, brought international criticism. PLO, which until then was never recognized as a leader of the Palestinian people by Israel, was invited to the peace talks in the next year, after it recognized Israel and renounced terrorism. Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton, and Yasser Arafat during the Oslo Accords signing ceremony on September 13, 1993In mid-1993, Israeli and Palestinian representatives engaged in peace talks in Oslo, Norway. As a result, in September 1993, Israel and the PLO signed the Oslo agreement, known as the Declaration of Principles or Oslo I; the next letter, Israel recognized the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people while the PLO recognized the right of Israel to exist and renounced terrorism, violence and desire to destroy Israel.

"Both Hezbollah and Israeli leaders declare victory". Fox News. 14 August 2006. Retrieved 16 January 2011. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,208206,00.html.

Oslo II agreement was signed in 1995 and detailed the West Bank into Areas A, B, and C. The land area is under full control of the civilian population. In Area A, Palestinians are also responsible for internal security. Oslo agreements remain important documents in Israeli-Palestinian relations. 10 2000-2009 Second Intifada forced Israel to rethink relations and policies towards the Palestinians. Following a series of suicide bombings and attacks, the Israeli army launched Operation Defense Shield. It was the largest military operation conducted by Israel since the Six Day War. As violence between Israeli forces and Palestinian militants intensified, Israel expanded the security apparatus across the West Bank to the acquisition of most of the land in the area of A. Israel established a complicated system of roadblocks and checkpoints around major Palestinian areas to prevent violence and protect Israeli settlements. However, since 2008, the IDF has slowly transferred authority to Palestinian security forces. Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon began a policy of withdrawal from the Gaza Strip in 2003. This policy was fully implemented in August 2005. Sharon's announcement to stay away from Gaza came as a big surprise to critics both on the left and the right. A year earlier, he had commented that the fate of the most remote settlements in Gaza, Netzararem and Kfar Darom, considered in the same light as that of Tel Aviv. The official announcement to evacuate 17 settlements in Gaza and another four in the West Bank in February 2004 represented the first reversal for the settler movement since 1968. It divided his party. It has been strongly supported by Trade and Industry Minister Ehud Olmert and Tzipi Livni, Minister of Immigration and Absorption, but Foreign Minister Silvan Shalom and Finance Minister Benjamin Netanyahu strongly condemned. It is also not sure whether this is just the beginning of further evacuation. In June 2006, Hamas militants infiltrated the military post near the Israeli side of the Gaza Strip and abducted Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit. Two IDF soldiers were killed in the attack, while Shalit was wounded after the tank was hit by RPG. 3 days after Israel launched Operation Summer Rains to secure the release of Shalit. He has been held captive by Hamas, which prevented the Red Cross from seeing him, until October 18, 2011, when he was exchanged 1027 Palestinian prisoners. In July 2006, Hezbollah fighters crossed the border from Lebanon into Israel, attacked and killed eight Israeli soldiers and kidnapped two others as hostages, triggering
10

"Uprising by Palestinians against Israeli rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip territories", Intifada, Microsoft Encarta.

the 2006 Lebanon War which caused much destruction in Lebanon. Ceasefire sponsored by the UN went into effect on August 14, 2006, officially ending the conflict. Conflict that killed over a thousand people, mostly Lebanese public, severely damaged Lebanese civil infrastructure, and displaced approximately one million Lebanese and Israeli 300000-500000, although many can return to their homes. After the ceasefire, some parts of Southern Lebanon remained uninhabitable due to Israeli unexploded cluster bomblets. After the Gaza War, where Hamas seized control of the Gaza Strip in a violent civil war with rival Fatah, Israel placed restrictions on the border with Gaza borders and ended economic cooperation with the Palestinian leadership there. Israel and Egypt imposed a blockade on the Gaza Strip since 2007. Israel maintains the blockade is necessary to limit Palestinian rocket attacks from Gaza and to prevent Hamas from smuggling weapons and advanced missile capable of hitting the town. On September 6, 2007, in Operation Orchard, Israel bombed the eastern complex of the so-called Syrian nuclear reactor built with North Korean assistance. Israel also bombed Syria in 2003. In April 2008, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad told a Qatari newspaper, Syria and Israel had been discussing a peace treaty for a year, with Turkey to try between. This was confirmed in May 2008 by a spokesman for Prime Minister Ehud Olmert. As well as a peace treaty, the future of the Golan Heights is being discussed. President Assad said "there would be no direct negotiations with Israel until a new U.S. president assumed the position. "11 Speaking in Jerusalem on August 26, 2008, the United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice criticized Israel's increased settlement construction in the West Bank to affect the peace process. Rice comments came amid reports that Israeli construction in disputed territory had increased by a factor of 1.8 compared to 2007 levels. Fragile six-month truce between Hamas and Israel expired on December 19, 2008; Attempts to extend the truce failed amid charges of violation of both parties. Following the expiration, Israel launched a raid on a suspected tunnel used to kidnap Israeli soldiers which killed several Hamas fighters. Following this, Hamas continued rocket and mortar attacks on Israeli cities, especially more than 60 rockets fired on December 24. On December 27, 2008, Israel launched Operation Cast Lead against Hamas. Various human rights organizations accused Israel and Hamas of war crimes.

11

Walker, Peter; News Agencies (May 21, 2008). "Olmert confirms peace talks with Syria". London: The Guardian. Retrieved May 21, 2008. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/may/21/israelandthepalestinians.syria. "Israel and Syria are holding indirect peace talks, with Turkey acting as a mediator..."

In 2009, Israel put a 10-month settlement freeze in the West Bank. Hillary Clinton praised the freeze as a gesture "never happened before" that can help revive Middle East talks." 12 The raid was carried out by the Israeli navy on the Gaza Freedom Flotilla of six ships in May 2010. After the ships refused to dock at Ashdod Port. On the MV Mavi Marmara, activists clashed with Israeli boarding party. During the fighting, nine activists were killed by Israeli special forces. Several dozen other passengers and seven Israeli soldiers were injured, with some commandos suffering from gunshot wounds. 13 2010-now Following the latest round of peace talks between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, 13 Palestinian militant movements led by Hamas initiated a campaign of violence designed to derail and disrupt the negotiations. Attacks on Israel have increased since August 2010, after 4 Israeli civilians killed by Hamas militants. Palestinian militants have increased the frequency of rocket attacks aimed at Israel. On August 2, Hamas militants launched seven Katyusha rockets at Eilat and Aqaba, killing one civilian and wounded Jordan 4 others. 14 Significant wars and violent events of the Israeli War of Independence 1948-1949 1951-1955 Operating sentence Suez War of 1956 Six-Day War in 1967 1967-1970 War of attrition Yom Kippur War 1973 1978 South Lebanon conflict 1978 First Lebanon War 1982 1982-2000 South Lebanon conflict 1987-1993 First Intifada 2000-2004 Second Intifada Lebanon War of 2006 2008-2009 Gaza War

12

"Palestinians blast Clinton for Israel praise". CNN. 2009 November 1. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/11/01/mideast.talks.clinton/index.html. 13 Yaakov Katz (2010-06-01). "Vicious conflict aboard Mavi Marmara". JPost.com. Retrieved 2010-07-06. http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=177067. 14 Jordanian-national-killed-in-multiple-militant-rocket-strike. Retrieved 2012 May 13 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/jordan/7922624/Jordanian-national-killed-inmultiple-militant-rocket-strike.html

A report by Strategic Anticipation Group has estimated the opportunity cost of the Middle East conflict from 1991-2010 at $ 12 trillion. The opportunity cost of calculating GDP report security of countries in the Middle East by comparing the current GDP to the potential GDP in peace. Israel's stock is nearly $ 1 trillion, with Iraq and Saudi Arabia, which has about $ 2.2 and $ 4.5 trillion, respectively. In other words, there has been peace and cooperation between Israel and the Arab League nations since 1991, the people of Israel will average more than $ 44,000 and not $ 23,000 in 2010. 15 In terms of human cost, it is estimated that the conflict has taken 92,000 lives (74000 soldiers and 18,000 civilians from 1945 to 1995). Conclusion From 1920 to 1947, the British Empire has a mandate over Palestine. At the time, including all Israeli and Palestinian Occupied Territories today, Gaza, the West Bank, and others. Increasing number of Jews immigrating to "Holy Land" increased tension in the region. European geopolitics in the early half of the 20th century in the wider Middle East region contributed to the instability of the whole lot. The British Empire, in particular, plays a key role in the region. Bibliography Anup Shah. (2006 July 30). The Middle East conflicta brief background. Retrieved 2012 May 12 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/119/the-middle-east-conflict-abrief-background Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous victims : a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881-2001 (1st Vintage Books ed. ed.). New York: Vintage Books. pp. 316-318. "President Mubarak. Cost of Conflict in the Middle East, Strategic Foresight Group. Retrieved 2012 May 13 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict. Review of On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend. Retrieved 2010 May 12 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict Smith, Charles D. Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict: A History With Documents. Bedford/St. Martins: Boston. (2004). Pg. 198The Palestinian National Charter Article 6. Retrieved 2012 May 11 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict
15

Cost of Conflict in the Middle East, Strategic Foresight Group. Retrieved 2012 May 13 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict

Chapter 2 The establishment of the State of Israel, 1948 Introduction

History of Israel
State of Israel declared independence on May 14, 1948, 16 after nearly two millennia, and persecution of Jews spread around the Mediterranean. From the end of the 19th century, the Zionist movement to work towards the goal of creating a state for the Jews. Israel's independence was marked by large-scale Jewish immigration, the conflict with the Palestinians and the war with neighboring Arab states. Since about 1970, the United States has been a key ally of Israel. In 1979, the uneasy peace was established with Egypt, and in 1994, with Jordan. Approximately 42% of Jews in the world live in Israel today. Apart from the area west of the Jordan River is now known as the West Bank, Israeli modern located approximately on the site of the ancient Jewish kingdom of Israel and Judah, which was the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity and contains the sacred sites to all the world's major monotheistic religions. Jews were largely driven out of the country by the Romans during the centuries of conflict, although some Jews continue. In the Middle Ages, the area became the main focus of the conflict between Christianity and Islam. The expulsion of Jews from Spain led to an increase, although still small presence, Jewish. In modern times, persecution in Europe led to the creation of the Zionist movement, which was able to win international support and establish only Jewish majority state in the world. In the Hebrew Bible Book of Genesis gives one of Abraham's grandson as Jacob, whose name was changed to Israel and the twelve sons of the father of the twelve tribes known as the "children of Israel". Judah was the fourth child of Israel. Early Israel (1200-950 BC) The first record of the name Israel occurs in the Merneptah stele, erected for Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah c. 1209 BCE, "Israel lay waste and his seed is not." William Dever see this "Israel" in the central plateau as a cultural and probably political entity, but instead of ethnic groups and organized country. Ancestors of the Israelites may have included Semites who occupied Canaan and the Sea Peoples. McNutt said, "It's probably safe to assume that sometime during Iron Age I population began to identify himself as 'Israel'", which
16

"Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1948 May 14. Retrieved 2012 April 16 http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of +State+of+Israel.htm..

distinguishes it from the Canaanites through such markers prohibition of mixed marriages, the emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion. Villages with a population of up to 300 or 400, which lived by farming and herding and largely sufficient; economic exchange is prevalent. Writing known and available for recording, even in. small sites. Archaeological evidence shows communities as village centers, but with more limited resources and a small population. 17 Israel and Judah (c.1200-576 BC) The Hebrew Bible describes war always occurs between the Jewish people and other tribes, including the Philistines, whose capital is Gaza. Around 930 BC, the kingdom split into the southern Kingdom of Judah and the northern Kingdom of Israel. An alliance between Ahab of Israel and Ben Hadad II of Damascus managed to repel the attacks of the Assyrians, with victory in the Battle of Qarqar (854 BCE). However, the Israeli government finally destroyed by the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III around 750 BC. Government Philistines were also destroyed. The Assyrians sent northernmost Israeli government in exile, thus creating a 'Lost Tribes of Israel'. The Samaritans claim to be descendants of the victims of the Assyrian conquest. A rebellion of Israel (724-722 BC) was destroyed after the siege and capture of Samaria by Sargon II. Assyrian King, Sennacherib, tried and failed to conquer Judah. Assyrian records claim he was sentenced to Judah and then leave (Herodotus also described the invasion). Babylonian, Persian and Greek rule (586 BC - 2nd century BC) The Assyrian Empire was overthrown by the Medes and Babylonians, or New Babylonian Empire in 612 BC. In 586 BC King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon conquered Judah. According to the Hebrew Bible, he had destroyed Solomon's Temple and exiled the Jews to Babylon. In 538 BC, Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and took over. Cyrus issue a declaration giving subjugated nations (including the men of Judah) their freedom. According to the Hebrew Bible 50,000 Judeans, led by Zerubbabel to return to Judah and rebuild the temple. The second group of 5000, led by Ezra and Nehemiah, returned to Judah in 456 BCE, although non-Jews wrote to Cyrus to try to prevent their return. (See also: Return to Zion and Yehud coins). In the year 333 BC, the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great defeated the Persians and conquered the region. Sometimes after the first translation of the Hebrew Bible, (the Septuagint), has begun in Alexandria. After Alexander's death, his
17

Lehman in Vaughn 1992, pp. 15662.

generals fought over the territory he had conquered. Judah became the border between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt, eventually became part of the Seleucid Empire. In the 2nd century BC, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (ruler of the Seleucid Empire) tried to eradicate Judaism in the Hellenistic name of religion. This gives rise to 174-135 BC Maccabean revolt led by Judas Maccabaeus (The victory is celebrated in the Jewish festival of Hanukkah). Books of Maccabees describes the rise and end of the Greek government. A Jewish party called Hasideans against both Hellenism and rebellion but eventually gave their support to the Maccabees. Modern interpretations see this period as a civil war between Hellenized and orthodox form of Judaism. 18 Government Hasmonean (2nd century BC - 64 BC) Hasmonean dynasty of priest-kings ruled Judea with the Pharisees, and Essenes Saducees as a major social movement. As part of their struggle against Hellenistic civilization, the Pharisees who established what may have been the world's first national men (religious) education and literacy programs, based around the meeting house. This leads to rabbinical Judaism. Justice was administered by the Sanhedrin, the leaders known as Rice. Rice religious authority gradually superseded that the high priest of the Temple (under the Hasmoneans is king). In the year 125 BC Hasmonean King John Hyrcanus conquered Edom and forced the population converted to Judaism. This is the only known case of forced conversion to Judaism. 19 Roman rule Pre-Christian Rome (64 BCE - 324 CE) In the year 64 BC the Roman general Pompey conquered Judea. Jewish Temple in Jerusalem to be the religion of the Roman Empire structure that contains no statue of the emperor. From 37 BC to 6 CE, the Herodian dynasty, rulers customer-Roman Jews, descendants of Edom, ruled Judea. Herod the Great substantially enlarged the temple (see Herod's Temple), making it one of the largest religious structure in the world. In spite of his fame, it was during this period that Rabbinic Judaism, led by Hillel the Elder, took over the popular stand over the Temple priesthood.

18

Revolt of The Maccabees. Retrieved 2012 May 14 from http://www.simpletoremember.com/articles/a/the_revolt_of_the_maccabees/ 19 Paul Johnson. 1988. History of the Jews. Jurusalem: Harper , p. 106,.

In 66 CE, the Jews of Judea rose in rebellion, naming their new government "Israel" (see also the First Jewish Revolt coins). The events that have been described by Josephus leader / Jewish historian, including Jotapata desperate defense, the siege of Jerusalem (6970 CE) and the heroic last stand at Massada under Eleazar ben Yair (72-73 CE). Most of the ruins of Jerusalem and the Temple. During the Jewish revolt, most Christians, at this time the sub-sects of the Jews, removed themselves from Judea. Movement Rabbinical / Pharisees, led by Yochanan ben Zacchaeus, who opposed the Sadducee priesthood temple, peace with Rome and survived. Rabbinical era Chazal Zugot Tannaim Amoraim Savoraim Geonim Rishonim Acharonim From 115 to 117, the Jews in Libya, Egypt, Cyprus, Kurdistan and rose in revolt against the Romans. This conflict was accompanied by massacres on a large scale both Roman and Jewish. Severe Cyprus, deported and banned Jews from living there. In the year 131, Emperor Hadrian renamed Jerusalem "Aelia Capitolina" and built a temple of Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish temple. Banned Jews from living in Jerusalem itself (prohibition continues until the Arab conquest) and the Roman territory, until then known as the Iudaea Province, was renamed Palaestina, no rebellion which led to the territory renamed. The names of the "Palestinians" (in English) and "Philistines" (in Arabic) is derived from this. From 132 to 136 Jewish leaders Simon Bar Kokhba led a major uprising against the other Romans, again renaming the country "Israel", (see the Bar Kochba Revolt coins). The Bar-Kochba revolt may cause more problems for the Romans of the revolt of the more famous (and better documented) 70. The Christians refused to join the rebellion, and from this point the Jews regard Christianity as a separate religion. The insurgency was crushed by Emperor Hadrian himself. Although uncertain, it is widely thought that during the Bar

Kokhba revolt, when the rabbinical assembly decided which books should be considered as part of the Hebrew Bible, Jewish writings equivocal left. After pressing the Bar Kochba revolt revolt, Rome allowed the Patriarch Rabbinical descent (from the House of Hillel) to represent the Jews in dealings with the Romans. The most famous is haNasi Judah. Jewish seminaries continue to produce the best scholars and is a member of the Sanhedrin. The Mishnah, the main text of Judaism, was completed in this period. Before the Bar Kochba revolt, approximately two thirds of the population of Gallilee and third beach area is Jewish. However, persecution and economic crisis that affected the Roman Empire in the 3rd century lead to further Jewish emigration from Palestine to the Persian Sassanid Empire more tolerant, where the prosperous Jewish community existed in Babylon. 20 Christian Roman and Byzantine rule (324-636) At the beginning of the 4th century, Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire and Christianity was adopted as the official religion. Name of Jerusalem was restored and it became a Christian city. Jews are forbidden to live in Jerusalem, but were allowed to visit, and in this period that the Western Wall of the temple are still alive to be sacred. At 351-2, there was another Jewish revolt against the Roman governor of corruption. In the year 362, the last pagan Roman Emperor, Julian Apostate, announced plans to rebuild the Jewish Temple. He died while fighting the Persians in 363, and the project was discontinued. Disintegration of the Roman Empire and the region became part of the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire. Under the Byzantines, Christians dominated by the Orthodox Church (Greek). In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire collapsed which led to the migration and development of Palestinian Christians to the Christian majority. 10-15% Jewish population numbered. Judaism is a religion of Christianity is not just tolerance, but there is a ban on Jews to build new places of worship, holding public office or a slave. There are two Samaritan revolt in this period. Sacred Jewish texts written in Israel at this time is the Gemara (400), Jerusalem Talmud (500) and the Passover Haggadah. According to Procopius, the Byzantine general Belisarius took 533 Jewish temple treasury from vandals who had taken them from Rome.

20

M. Avi-Yonah, The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule, Jerusalem 1984 chapter I

In 611, the Sassanid Persians invaded the Byzantine Empire, and after a long siege, Chosroes II captured Jerusalem (614) with the help of Jews, including the possibility of Jewish Himyar Kingdom in Yemen. Jews who lived to govern Jerusalem until 617, when the Persians took over. Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, promised to restore Jewish rights and to receive assistance in defeating the Persian Jews, but he soon reneged on the agreement after reconquering Palestine to issue a fatwa banning Judaism from the Byzantine Empire. (Egypt) Coptic Christians have to take responsibility for breaking this pledge and still fast in penance. 21 Byzantine Jews fled settled in the Baltic region, where the Khazar nobility and some residents later converted to Judaism. Arab rule (636-1096) According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad in 620 was taken in the spiritual journey from Mecca to "the farthest mosque", in which location is considered as the Temple Mount, back on the same night. In 634-636 the Arabs conquered Palestine, ending the Byzantine ban on Jews living in Jerusalem. Over the next century, Islam replaces Christianity as the dominant religion in the region. From 636 until the beginning of the Crusades, Palestine was ruled first by the Caliphs Caliphs of Medina-based, then the Umayyad Caliphate based in Damascus-and after that the Baghdad-based Abbasid caliph. In the year 691, Ummayad caliph Abd al-Malik (685-705) built the Dome of the Rock Temple Mount Temple. Jews regard it contains Stone Foundation (see also Holy of Holies), which is a sacred site in Judaism. A second building, the Al-Aqsa Mosque, also erected on the Temple Mount in 705. Between the 7th century and 11th century, the Jewish scribes, called the Masoretes and located in the Galilee and in Jerusalem, established the Masoretic Text, the text of the Hebrew Bible end. 22 Crusader rule (1099 - 13th century) During the Crusades, both Muslims and Jews in Palestine with impunity killed or sold into slavery. Murder of Jews began during the Crusaders travel throughout Europe and continues in the Holy Land. Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews still recite prayers in memory of the death and destruction caused by the Crusades. In 1187, Ayyubid Sultan Salahuddin, defeated the

21

While the Syrians and the Melchite Greeks ceased to observe the penance after the death of Heraclius; Elijah of Nisibis (Beweis der Wahrheit des Glaubens, translation by Horst, p. 108, Colmar, 1886) see http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=B&artid=1642#4756. 22 See The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem by Joshua Prawer, 1988, see also http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_cru1.htm (accessed November 2007)

Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin (above Tiberias), took Jerusalem and Palestine. Acres Crusader state centered round the survivors in poor form for another century. From 1260 to 1291 the area became a frontier between Mongol invaders (occasional Crusader allies) and Mamluk Egypt. Conflict is poor country and reduced weight of the population. Sultan Qutuz Egypt finally defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut (near Ein Harod) and successor (and assassin), Baibars, the Government abolished the last Crusader Acre in 1291, with the end of the Crusades. Mamluk Rule (13th century - 1517) Egyptian Mamluk sultan, Baibars (1260-1277) conquered Palestine and Mamluks who ruled until 1517. In Hebron, Baibars banned Jews from worshiping at the Cave of the Patriarchs (the second most sacred in Judaism) until the conquest by Israel 700 years later. The collapse of the Crusades were followed by increased persecution and expel the Jewish people in Europe. Removal began in England (1290), followed by France (1306). Spanish persecution of the Jewish community on a highly integrated and successful start, including massacres and forced conversions. During the Black Death, many Jews were murdered after being accused of poisoning wells. Completion of the Christian reconquest Spain led to the expulsion of the Jews of Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1497. This is a community rich in the most integrated and Jews in Europe. Many Jews who converted to Christianity, however, prejudice against Jewish converts continued and led many former Jews to move to the New World (see History of the Jews in Latin America). Most of the expelled Spanish Jews moved to North Africa, Poland, and the Ottoman Empire to Israel. In Italy, Jews are required to live in ghettos. Ottoman rule (1516-1917) Palestine was conquered by the Turkish Sultan Selim II in 1516-17, to be Syrian territory for four centuries to come. In the elimination of 1648-1654 in Ukraine Khmelnytsky rise more than 100,000 Jews were killed, leading to the migration of some of Israel. In 1660, the native Jews (the Old Yishuv) Palestinians have been killed in 1660 destruction of Safed and Tiberias 1660 destruction. There are Jewish massacres in Palestinian natives during the occupation of Egypt Muhammad Ali in 1834. In 1844, Jews are the largest population group in Jerusalem, and by 1890 an absolute majority in the city, but overall Jewish population made far less than 10% of the region. By 1890, the Palestinians are mainly Muslim Arabs and Christians,

and Jews, Greeks, Druze, Bedouins and other minorities. The small Jewish population is concentrated in the Four Holy Cities. 23 The emergence of Zionism and antisemitism The advent of modern Zionism and antisemitism is the Enlightenment in Europe led to the enlightenment movement of the 18th century and 19 Jews in Europe, called the Haskalah and the freedom of the Jews in Western Europe. In 1791, the French Revolution led France to Jewish law equity grants and civil rights for the first time since antiquity. Napoleon's empire spread equal rights of Jews in all of Europe. Britain gave the Jews full equal rights in 1856, Germany in 1871. The spread of Western liberal ideas among the newly liberated Jews created for the first time class secular Jews who absorb the ideas of existing awareness, including rationalism, romanticism, and nationalism. Growth persecution in Eastern Europe The formation of modern nations and national identity have been accompanied by changes in anti-Jewish prejudice. Prejudice that had previously been granted on the ground of religion is now defined in terms of the universal language of scientific use antisemitic race time. While Jews have established basic civil rights, the other groups saw a decline in their power, including the Russian Tsar and the Church, and these groups easily convinced that a Jewish conspiracy was behind their difficulties. In the 19th century, most Jews living in the Russian Empire. Jews were banned from Russia in the 1790s, but as the empire expanded, it took over a large area of the East European Jewish population area. Jews were confined to the Pale of Settlement (some Jews circumvented the rules). Since 1897, there were 5 million Jews, forming 10% of the population of the Pale. 24 From 1827 to 1855, the Russian authorities tried to forcibly convert Jews by requiring six years of education followed by 25 years of military service for young Jewish boy who is 12. From 1881 to 1917, the May Laws forbid Jews from rural communities in the Pale (many are driven out) and limit the number of Jewish students at the university and high school to 10% in the outer parts of the Pale, 5% and 3% in major cities. In Tsarist Russia, for different reasons, the state and the Church seeks to benefit from the establishment of the Jews as

23

"How to Respond to Common Misstatements About Israel". Anti-Defamation League. 2006. Retrieved 2006 October 4. http://www.adl.org/israel/advocacy/how_to_respond/establishment.asp?xflag=1. 24 Jon Bloomberg, The Jewish world in the modern age, New Jersey 2004 pp. 12 13

the enemy. In the early 1880s the government encouraged and genocide organized (attacks by mobs), blaming Jews for any problem and divert anger from Tsarist regime. Jews also banned from practicing medicine or law. Antisemitism was not confined to Eastern Europe, the International Anti-Jewish Congress was held in Germany: Dresden in 1882, Chemnitz in 1883. In France, the Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) reveal antisemitism, widespread in the highest echelons of the French. Military and government. Migration from Eastern Europe Millions of Jews left Eastern Europe in the late 19th century, mainly to the United States, but a small percentage are heading to Israel and some Jews began to consider the possibility of re-establishing themselves as an independent nation. In 1870, an agricultural school, Mikveh Israel was founded near Jaffa by the Alliance Israelite Universelle. The first modern Jewish settlements in Palestine, Petah Tikva, founded in 1878, followed by the Rishon LeZion (1882). Other settlements were established by members of Bilu and Hovevei Zion ("Love of Zion") movement. This has been accompanied by a revival of the Hebrew language. 'Zionism' attract Jews: all kinds of religious, secular, left-wing nationalist and socialist. Socialist aimed at reclaiming the land to be a form of collective labor. In Zionist history, the different waves of Jewish settlement known as 'Aliyah'. During the First Aliyah, between 1882 and 1903, about 35,000 Jews moved to Palestine. 25 The creation of the Zionist movement In 1896 Theodor Herzl published "Der Judenstaat" ("Jewish State") in which he stressed that the solution to growing antisemitism in Europe (so-called "Jewish Question") was to establish a Jewish state. In 1897, the Zionist Organization was founded and the First Zionist Congress proclaimed the goal of setting up a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law. "However, Zionism was regarded askance at the Ottoman rulers and not able to make great strides . Between 1904 and 1914, about 40,000 Jews living in Palestine (Second Aliyah '). In 1908 the Zionist Organization established the Palestine Bureau (also known as "Eretz Israel Office ') in Jaffa and began a policy of systematic Jewish settlement in Palestine. Immigrants mainly from Russia (which then included Poland), fleeing persecution. 1 kibbutz, Degania, founded by Russian socialists in 1909. The first full Hebrew-speaking city, Ahuzat Bayit was
25

Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction 1980 pp. 279280, http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0004_0_03408.html

established in 1909 (later renamed Tel Aviv). Hebrew newspapers and books have been published, and Jewish political parties and workers' organizations have been established. British Mandate of Palestine The Balfour Declaration French and British influence and control (Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916) The Balfour Declaration of 1917, which supports the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. During World War I, most Jews support Germany because they fought with the Russian army which is considered as the main enemy of the Jewish people. In Britain, the government get Jewish support for the war effort for a variety of reasons, including the perception of antisemitic "Jewish power" on the movement of young Turks of the Ottoman Empire, and the desire for American Jewish support for the intervention of the United States (U.S.) for the British. Already have sympathy for the goals of Zionism within the British government, including Prime Minister Lloyd-George. At the end of 1917, as British troops (including one particularly Zionist Jewish Legion) drove the Turks out of Palestine, the British Foreign Minister, Lord Balfour sent a letter to Lord Rothschild. The letter later became known as the Balfour Declaration in 1917. It states that the British government "view with favor the establishment in Palestine a national home for the Jewish people".26 In 1918, Chaim Weizmann, president of the British Zionist Federation, has established a Zionist Commission, who went to Palestine to promote Zionist objectives there. British Mandate of Palestine (1917-1948) British Mandate (rule effect, British) Palestine, including the Balfour Declaration, was confirmed by the League of Nations in 1922 and took effect in 1923. Palestinian border was drawn by the British modern Jordan and inserted (which was removed from the region by Churchill a few years later). Britain signed an additional agreement with the United States (which did not join the League of Nations) in the United States confirmed the terms of the Mandate. In 1921, the Zionist Commission was given official status as the Jewish Agency for Palestine in Article 4 of the Mandate. An offer to create a similar Arab Agency was rejected by the Arab leaders. Mandate that allowed the Jewish Agency to oversee Jewish immigration to Palestine and buying land from local Arabs. The Jewish Agency will soon operate as arms of the
26

David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace, part VI pp 253-305

Zionist leadership. It ran schools and hospitals, and later formed the militia, the Haganah. Chaim Weizmann was the leader of both the Zionist Organization and the Jewish Agency until 1929. Jewish Agency distributed to newcomers entry permit (number set by the British) and funds donated by Jews abroad. 27 From 1920, Va'ad Leumi (National Council or Jewish, or JNC) is the main institution of the Jewish community ('Yishuv') during the British Mandate of Palestine. It is democratically elected and including non-Zionist Jews. This body serves as a virtual state for the Jewish people in Palestine. Political Department of the JNC is responsible for relations with the Arabs, relations with the Jewish Agency and negotiations with the British. As growing Yishuv, JNC has adopted more functions, such as education, health and welfare, defense and internal security affairs. Most of the revenue raised by the mandate came from the Jewish minority but have spent to finance the British administration. Thus, with the permission of the British, Va'ad raise taxes and run their own independent service for the Jewish population education and health care for the Jews in Palestine was in the hands of political parties leading Zionists: General Zionists, Mizrahi and the Socialist Zionists, with each independent operation and services (except for Mizrahi) sports organizations funded by taxes, donations, and local fees. Zionist movement also established the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and the Technion (technological university) in Haifa (both 1925). 28 In the whole interwar period, the British, appealing to the terms of the Mandate, reject the principle of majority rule or any other measure that would give the government control over the Palestinian Arab majority. Jewish immigration and Arab opposition Between 1919 and 1923, 40,000 Jews arrived in Palestine, especially after the chaos escape the Russian revolution (3 Aliyah). Many immigrants become known as the 'pilot' (halutzim), experienced or trained in agriculture and capable of creating self-sustaining economy. Jezreel Valley and Hepher Plain marshes were drained and converted to agricultural use. Combined Jewish immigration led to the mandate and terms of the Arab riots in 1920 and 1921. In response, the British authorities formulate an immigration quota system. Exceptions have been made for the Jewish people for over 1,000 pounds in cash (about 100,000 pounds at a rate of 2000), or Jewish professional with more than 500 pounds. Arab attacks on isolated Jewish settlements and British failure to protect them led to the creation
27 28

Palestine Royal Commission, (Peel report) p. 172 Ibid. p. 5, 8 and 16

of the Haganah ("Defense"), mainly socialist Jewish militia underground to defend Jewish settlements. By 1923 the number of Jews in Palestine had reached 90,000. Between 1924 and 1929, 82,000 more Jews arrived (4 Aliyah), fled antisemitism in Poland and Hungary and as U.S. immigration policy now kept Jews out. New arrivals included many middle-class families who moved to the city and established small businesses and workshops despite the lack of economic opportunity means that about a quarter then leave Palestine. 1929 Palestine riots (see also the Hebron Massacre), led Ze'ev Jabotinsky to create a rightwing militia group known as the Irgun Tzvai Leumi (National Military Organization, known in Hebrew by the acronym "Etzel"). Despite Arab opposition, the increase in persecution of European Jews in the 1930s led to a significant increase in Jewish immigration. With the emergence of fascist regimes across Europe, Jews returned to non-citizens, deprived of all civil rights and economic and subjected to arbitrary persecution. As countries came under Nazi or Nazi ally (Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Croatia, Slovakia and Slovenia were the allies of the Nazis) the number of those who want to escape increases. Between 1929 and 1939, 250,000 Jews arrived in Palestine (5 Aliyah). The majority of these, 174,000, arrived between 1933 and 1936, after British immigration increasingly limited. Migration once again mostly from Europe and includes professionals, doctors, lawyers and professors from Germany. In 1933, the Nazis negotiated Ha'avara Agreement, in which 50,000 Jews and $ 100 million of their assets will be transferred to the Palestinians. In Palestine, Jewish immigration has helped the economy to grow. With the completion of the Haifa port and oil refineries, large industries to the Palestinian economy which is heavily dependent on agriculture. With the British to enforce quotas and increasingly desperate situation in Europe, Jews were forced to take illegal immigrants. Illegal immigrants, (Aliyah Bet or 'Ha'apalah') was organized by Beth Le'aliyah Mossad, and the Irgun. Jewish refugees arrived in secret by sea, or, to some extent, overland through Syria. In response, a series of violent Arab riots broke out in 1933. Increased Jewish immigration contributed to the large-scale Arab uprising in Palestine (1936-1939), the rise of nationalist largely end British rule. British Peel Commission responded (1936-1937), who suggested that Jews created an exclusive territory in Galilee and along the west coast (requires expulsion 200,000 Arabs) the other to be the exclusive Arabic. Jewish opinion was divided on the merits of the scheme, but it was rejected outright

by the Arabs of Palestine and in the absence of a strong Jewish support, eventually abandoned by the British as unworkable. 29 Woodhead Commission (1938) reported that the Peel Commission is unworkable and recommended setting up small Arab and Jewish zones, but the plan was rejected by both Arabs and Jews. 20 years later, the leaders of the Jewish Agency, Ben-Gurion wrote: "If the partition [referring to the Peel Commission partition plan was carried out, the history of our people has been different and six million Jews in Europe would not have been killed-most of them will be in Israel ".30 Ben-Gurion responded to the Arab Revolt with the "Havlagah" selfcontrol and a reluctance to provocations by Arab attack to prevent polarization. Etzel group broke from the Haganah in opposition to this policy. With the war in Europe more likely, the British tried to placate the Arab population of Palestine. White Paper 1939, stating that the more than 450,000 Jews had arrived in Palestine now, the goal of the Balfour Declaration "national home for the Jewish people" has been achieved. White Paper recommended independent Palestine, governed jointly by Arabs and Jews, to be established in the next 10 years. The White Paper has agreed to allow 75,000 Jewish immigrants to Palestine during the period 1940-44, after the migration will require (probably) Arab approval. Both Arab and Jewish leadership rejected the White Paper. In March 1940, the British High Commissioner for Palestine issued a fatwa prohibiting Jews from buying land in 95% of Palestine. World War II and the Holocaust (1939-1945) During World War 2, the Jewish Agency worked to establish a Jewish army would fight along with British forces. Churchill supports the plan but the British Army and government opposition leads to rejection. The British claim that the number of recruits that corresponds to the number of Jewish recruits but very few Palestinian Arabs Arabs are willing to fight for Britain. Refusal to provide weapons to the Jewish people, despite Rommel team has developed through Egypt in June 1942 (intent to occupy Palestine) and the 1939 White Paper, leading to the emergence of the Zionist leadership in Palestine believed 1 conflict with Britain was inevitable. While the Jewish Agency Jewish Palestinian youth urged voluntarily to the British Army (both men and women). In June 1944, the British agreed to create a Jewish Brigade, who will fight in Europe.

29

For more information see Palestine: Retreat from the Mandate, The making of British Policy, 1936 1945 by Michael Cohen, New York 1979 Chapter 3 30 Tom Segev, One Palestine Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate , 2001, p. 414)

Over a million Jews served in every branch of the allied forces, particularly in the Soviet and U.S. forces. 200,000 Jews died serving in the Soviet army only. A small group (with about 200 activists), dedicated to the Jewish resistance to the British administration in Palestine, has split from Etzel (who organizes support for Britain during the war) and formed the "Lehi" (Stern Gang), led by Avraham Stern. In 1943 the USSR produce revisionist Zionist leader, Menachem Begin from the Gulag and he went to Palestine, to take command of the organization Etzel that increasing conflict with the policy of the British. At the same time, Yitzhak Shamir escaped from the camp in Eritrea where the British had held Lehi activists without trial, to take command Lehi (Stern Gang). Jews in the Middle East were affected by the war. North Africa came under Nazi control, and many Jews were used as slave. -Axis coup in Iraq in 1941 pro was accompanied by massacres of Jews. Jewish Agency put together a plan to stand last in the Palestinian attack Rommel (Nazi plan to eliminate the Jews of Palestine). Between 1939 and 1945, an estimated 6 million Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe were murdered. Almost a quarter of those killed were children. Holocaust has had a very very strict on the Jewish world (and beyond). Polish and German Jewish community, which has played an important role in defining the pre-1945 Jewish world, now almost ceased to exist. In the United States and Palestine, the Jewish people of European origin to be cut off from their family and roots. Sephardic Jews, who were a minority, to be a more important factor in the Jewish world. The Second World War left the surviving remnant of Jews in central Europe as refugees (IDPs) of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry established to examine the issue of Palestine, reviewed their ambitions and found that 97% wanted to emigrate to Palestine. In the Pro-Zionist movement modest British (and British citizen) Weizmann, the child died flying in the RAF, have been undermined by the policies of the British anti-Zionist. Leadership of the movement passed to the Jewish Agency in Palestine, now led by the antiBritish-Zionist Socialist party (Mapai) and led by David Ben-Gurion. In the diaspora, the United States now dominates Jewish Zionist movement. 31 Post-War Years (1945-1947) The British Empire was severely weakened by the war. In the Middle East, the war has made Britain realize our dependence on Arab oil and attached more importance to good relations with the Arabs of helping Jews and create a homeland. Soon after VE Day, the
31

Palestine: Retreat from the Mandate, The making of British Policy, 1936 1945 by Michael Cohen, New York 1979 pp. 125135

Labour Party won the general election in Britain. Although the Labour Party conference called for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, the Labour government now decided to maintain the 1939 White Paper restrictions. Illegal immigration (Aliyah Bet) became the main form of Jewish entry into Palestine. Throughout Europe Bricha ("flight"), an organization of former partisans and ghetto fighters, smuggled Jewish Holocaust victims from Eastern Europe to Italy, where small boats trying to break the British blockade of Palestine. Meanwhile, Jews from Arab countries begin to move into Palestinian land. Despite British efforts to curb immigration, the Aliyah Bet next 14 years, more than 110,000 Jews entered Palestine secret. In order to win independence, Zionists are now bitter guerrilla war against the British. Jewish underground militia, the Haganah, formed an alliance known as the Jewish Resistance Movement Etzel and Stern Gang to fight the British. In June 1946, following the Jewish sabotage, the British launched Operation Agatha, capturing 2,700 Jews, including the leadership of the Jewish Agency, whose headquarters were raided. Those arrested were held without trial. In Poland, Kielce Pogrom (July 1946) led to a wave of Holocaust survivors fleeing Europe and the British responded by imprisoning more and more Jews who tried to illegally enter Palestine by sea in Cyprus internment camps. Those arrested mainly Holocaust survivors, including a large number of children and orphans. In response to the Cypriot fears that the Jewish people will not leave (because they do not have state or documentation) British then allowed to enter the Palestinian refugees at the rate of 750 a month. United Jewish resistance movement split in July 1946, after Etzel bombed the British Army HQ in the King David Hotel killing 92 people. In the days after the bombing of Tel Aviv were placed under curfew and over 120,000 Jews, nearly 20% of the Jewish population in Palestine, had been questioned by police. In the United States, Congress criticized the British handling of the situation and slow lending important for the British postwar recovery. By 1947 the Labour government is prepared to refer the Palestine problem to the United Nations (UN). Subdivision plan united Nations UN plan for Palestine 1947 Organization Haganah fighters, 1947 decided to how to deal with the Palestinian UN to appoint a committee, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP). In July 1947 UNSCOP visited Palestine and met with Jewish and Zionist delegation. Arab Higher Committee boycotted the meeting. At this time, there is more controversy when the British

Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin ordered an illegal immigrant ship, Exodus 1947, to be sent back to Europe. Immigrants on the ship was forcibly removed by the British army in Hamburg after a long period in prison ship. Jewish non-Zionist Orthodox party (or Haredi), Agudat Israel, suggested that the Jewish state should be established after reaching the religious status quo agreement with Ben-Gurion about the coming of the Jewish state. The agreement granted exemption future Yeshiva (religious seminary) students and orthodox women from military service, which made national Sabbath weekend, promised Kosher food in government institutions and allow them to maintain a separate education system. 32 On September 3, 1947, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) to recommend to the General Assembly of the United Nations partition plan for Palestine. On November 29, the General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 (II), which is recommended for the United Kingdom, as the mandatory Power for Palestine, and to all other Members of the United Nations (UN) use and implementation, taking into account the government's future Palestinian Economic Union Plan of Subdivision Plan, attached to the resolution, is to replace the British Mandate of Arab countries and the Jewish Independent and International Special regime City of Jerusalem, administered by the United Nations (UN). of the British army troops would be completed as soon as possible but in any event not later than August 1, 1948. Subdivision Plan in Part 1 A. 2 further provided that Britain should make every effort to ensure that the area is located in the territory of the Jewish State, including the port and hinterland adequate to provide facilities for a substantial immigration, it will be transferred at the earliest possible date and in any event no later than February 1, 1948. Not Britain and the UN Security Council to act to implement the resolution and Britain continued to hold Jews trying to enter Palestine. Concerned that the partition would severely damage the Anglo-Arab relations, Britain refused to cooperate with the UN, denying the UN access to Palestine in the interim period (needs partition decision). British retreat was finally completed in May 1948. However, Britain continued to hold Jews "fighting age" and their families in Cyprus until March 1949. 33

32

Hebrew. Retrieved 2012 May 14 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Israel#Armistice_Agreements_.28March.E2.80.93July_1949.29 33 UNSCOP Report to the General Assembly

Civil War in January-May 1948 Fighting between Arabs and Jews in Palestine began immediately after adoption by the General Assembly Resolution 181 (II) in November 1947. Neighboring Arab countries have declared that they will welcome any attempt to create a Jewish state with war. In January 1948 Arab volunteers from Palestine and from all over the Middle East began to gather in Syria to form the Arab Liberation Army (ALA). Arab-Jewish violence increased in the spring of 1948 because the British were slowly pulled away. Britain has imposed an arms embargo, which only really affects Jews as supplies reach the Palestinian Arabs from neighboring Arab countries across the borders of Palestine. Palestinian Arab forces consist of village militias backed by the Arab Liberation Army. On the other hand, is very organized Yishuv, better educated and prepared under the direction of Ben-Gurion. The Jewish Agency has a number of underground militias, including many World War II veterans and elite, professionals, several thousand strong called the Palmach. Jews have the manpower advantage over the local Arabs among men in the 20-44 age group and motivational advantage because they believe they face elimination. In the north, the Jewish people have been successful in Tiberias, Haifa and Safad. In Haifa, the Arab Higher Committee of the refusal to allow the Arab population to remain under Jewish control contribute off the city's Arab population. Near Jerusalem, Arabs besieged and captured four Jewish settlements in the Kfar Etzion and 100,000 Jews (sixth Jewish population) is under siege in Jerusalem as the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road running through Arab lands. Battle in and around Jaffa, surrounded by Jewish settlements, causing mass transfer Arab populations. In the early stages up to 100,000 Palestinian Arabs, especially the better-off, fleeing to neighboring states. By May 1948, 150,000 more have fled or been expelled. 34 Establishment of the State of Israel On May 14, 1948, the last British forces left Haifa. Later that day, David Ben-Gurion, the leader of the Jewish Agency, "declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Yisrael, known as the State of Israel." [63] Ben-Gurion became Prime Minister of the new state. Both superpower leaders, U.S. President Harry S. Truman (de facto) and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, immediately recognized the new state. U.S. recognition of the text is as follows: -

34

Benny Morris, 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale 2008 chapters 3 & 4

This Government has been informed that a Jewish state has been proclaimed in Palestine, and recognition has been requested by the provisional government. United States recognizes the provision of government as de facto authority the new State of Israel. (Sgn.) Harry Truman approved May 14, 1948 6.11 [64] At that time, the Jewish population in Palestine was about 650,000, the Arab population of about 1.2 million. War of Independence, or The First Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949) Arab invasion of Israel (May 14 to June 11 of 1948). Arab League members Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq refused to accept the UN partition plan and declaring the right of selfdetermination for the Muslims all over the whole of Palestine. They declared war on the new state of Israel and immediately attacked. It has been suggested that the news of the killings in Deir Yassin Arab governments strengthen our resolve to intervene. Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Sudan also contributed some troops. UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie described the conflict as "the first armed atrocities which the world has seen since the end of the war".35 New state of Israel has a well-organized and efficient army, the Haganah, under the command of Israel Galili. It numbered about 30,000 people, including the Palmach under General Yigal Allon. There is also another 30,000 people trained in the Haganah reserves. In addition, all Israeli settlements have been covered by trained guards. Etzel with about 3,500 people, and the Stern Gang with 500 men, was nominally under the command of the Haganah. Saudi forces are of varying quality, but the Arab countries have a heavy military equipment at their disposal. ALA consists of about 4,000 men trained in less than 4 major groups. Jordanian Arab Legion consists of less than 10,000 people and up to 40 armed Arab trained British officers in command. Iraq has sent two squadrons of air, armor battalions and 10,000 men of Egypt to send two air squadrons and about 7,500 men, including several independent units; Syria contributed tank battalion, squadron and 5,000 men; Lebanon has sent 2,500 men and some artillery. Palestinian Arabs have established the Salvation Army 'numbering 4000. Many Arab Legion team was in Palestine when the British left. Arab Legion commander of British high-ranking officials (who retired from the British Army in 1948) and commander-in-chief is a British General John Glubb Pasha. However, the Jordanian army generally do not attack the areas allocated to the Jewish state, focusing instead to occupy the West Bank and East Jerusalem, Jordan then annexed.

35

Ibid., p.126

In the north of Palestine, Syria and Lebanon forces initially stopped near the border. The Iraqis marched to Jenin to Nablus area but can get no further. An Israeli attempt to take repulsed Jenin (June 1-4). Syrians and Lebanese to renew their attack (June 6 to 10) and, in conjunction with the ALA, who conquered much of Galilee. General Arab Legion Glubb over the Old City of Jerusalem occupied without opposition and then captured and held the east and south of the New Jerusalem after hard fights (15 to 25 May). Aided by local Arab Palestinian Arab Legion was later arrested and held in the Old Jewish quarter of Jerusalem (May 15 to 28). Latrun Arab Legion also captured and held against repeated Israeli attacks to drive them out (25 to 30 May and June 9-10). Israeli troops attacked along the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem but failed to penetrate into Jerusalem. They are, however, a new road through the mountains further south. This road was completed on June 10. Jews eventually destroy most of the Arab villages along the road from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Egyptians marched along the beach, through the ALA-held Gaza, and advanced to Ashdod (May 29) is only 25 miles from Tel Aviv. A small team, mostly ALA, advancing towards Jerusalem. An Israeli attempt to recover the repulsed Ashdod (June 2-3). The Egyptians then marched inland, take Beersheba (May 20), Hebron (May 21) and is associated with the Arab Legion in Bethlehem (May 22). Arab army was initially successful attack but Israel will soon recover from the initial shock of the attack on all sides. On May 29, 1948, the British begin the United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 and the United Nations to declare an arms embargo on the region. Czechoslovakia violated the resolution supplying the Jewish state with critical military hardware to match the equipment (especially the British) weight and aircraft owned by Arab countries that attacked. On May 20, the Security Council of the United Nations appointed Count Folke Bernadotte Sweden to act as mediator. On 11 June, the month of the UN ceasefire was put into effect. Both sides want a chance to recover and reorganize. Following the announcement of independence, the Haganah became the Israel Defense Forces (IDF-Israel Defense Force). Palmach, Etzel and Lehi required to stop operation of free and join the IDF. During the ceasefire, Etzel trying to bring in private arms shipments outside the ship called "Altalena". When they refused to hand over weapons to the government, Ben-Gurion ordered that the ship would sink. Some Etzel members were killed in the fighting.

Large numbers of Jewish immigrants, many of them World War II veterans and Holocaust survivors are starting to arrive at the new state of Israel, and many joined the IDF. 36 "Ten Day Attack" (July 9 to 18, 1948) Israeli attack to drive the Syrians back across the Jordan that repulsed (July 9 to 14). However, the second attack continued Israeli control over the northern coast of Haifa and Nazareth sweeps inland to seize (12 to 16 July). Through intense battles, captured Israeli cities Lydda and Ramle (July 9 to 12), but again repulsed by the Arab Legion of Jerusalem (July 9 to 18) and Latrun (July 14-18). Far to the south, Israel always probing raid on the Egyptian people even if no advances have been made. IDF has seized the initiative and attack the Palestinian majority. By now Israel has deployed 49,000 troops. Organizations and their equipment has improved over time. Saudi supply route length and fragile and protracted war, they have trouble filling their supplies. Second Armistice (July 18 to 15 October of 1948) Both sides are once again keen to relax and regroup. In the recent fighting, Israel has met with limited success, but feels that the changes in their favor, and wanted more time to prepare for the attack. They used the truce to double the strength of the IDF over 90,000, giving them a huge numerical advantage over the Arab forces. Arabs were surprised by the strength of the Israeli resistance and their ability to launch attacks on all fronts. Arab countries are increasingly concerned to end the war as soon as possible. However, confident of victory, many Israelis are now represented by the UN mediation efforts, which will prevent further Israeli expansion and trying to force them to give hard-won territory. On 17 September, 1948, Count Bernadotte was assassinated by three unidentified men, probably members of the Stern Gang. By mid-September the cease-fire has been knocked down by Israeli forces and Egypt in the south. Israel focused on Faluja pressure, because they intended to cut off the communication between the Egyptian army in the coastal and inland areas. Renewed battle (October 6 - November 5, 1948) The attack on the northern border of ALA in Manara (October 22) to encourage major Israeli counter-offensive. Manara and the Hula Valley was cleared of Arab fighters and ALA were driven back to Lebanon and Israel to stop only in southern Lebanon (October 22 to 31).
36

Hebrew. hagana.co.il. Retrieved 2007-12-11. http://www.hagana.co.il/show_item.asp?levelId=59798&itemId=47310&itemType=3.

In the center, trying to expand Israeli attack Tel Aviv-Jerusalem pockets and less to the north and south of Jerusalem. However, they were defeated by the Arab Legion in Beit Gubrin. Israel's main effort in the south, where they concentrate their best team against the Egyptians (now reinforced to about 15,000). The main attack against Ashdod and Gaza, fail to capture either the city and lines of communication in the Rafah Egypt remains intact (15 to 19 October). However, an attack on Beersheba (October 19 to 21) has successfully captured the town and opened the way to the Negev. Huleiqat was captured after heavy fighting (October 19), cut the lines of communication and leave Egypt Egyptian soldiers near Hebron and in isolated Faluja. Egyptians were forced to withdraw from Ashdod (October 27) and Majdal (November 5) and focus their remaining forces in Gaza. In late November, tenuous local ceasefires were arranged between Israel, Syria and Lebanon. On 1 December, Jordan's King Abdullah announced a union with the Palestinian Arabs west of the Jordan, specify a new name into the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. He adopted the 'King of the Palestinian Arabs' titles, more disgusted other states that most Arabs. Defeat Egypt (November 19, 1948 - January 7, 1949) The Egyptians tried but failed to break the pocket Faluja (November 19 to December 7). By holding ceasefires in all other areas, Israel is now in a position to launch a major offensive against the Egyptians (December 20). Israel is surrounded Rafah (December 22), then captured Asluj (December 25) and Auja (December 27). Colonel Allon advanced south into the Sinai, then swung back north to El-Arish. Determined Egyptian resistance prevents further eastward movement, so Israel northeast swung back into Rafah. As Israel was preparing to attack the Rafah, Egypt asked the UN Security Council to arrange an immediate ceasefire put into effect (January 7, 1949). Armistice Agreement (March-July 1949) 1949 Green Line bordersPeace talks were held in Rhodes, the chairman of the UN mediator Dr.. Ralph Bunche. Armistices Israel signed with Egypt (February 24), Lebanon (March 23), Jordan (3 February) and Syria (July 20). No real peace treaties were signed. With permanent ceasefire comes into force, the new frontier of Israel, which later became known as the Green Line, were established. IDF has conquered the Galilee and the Negev. Syria remains in control of the territory along the Sea of Galilee bands originally allocated to the Jewish state, Lebanon occupies a small area at Rosh Hanikra and the Egyptians keep Gaza strip and still have some of the powers in the region surrounded Israel. Jordanian army

remained in occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, exactly where the British had placed them before the war. Jordan annexed the occupied areas while preserving Egypt Gaza as occupied zone. Following the declaration of the ceasefire, Britain has produced more than 2,000 Jewish prisoners still held in Cyprus and recognize the state of Israel. On May 11, 1949, Israel was accepted as a member of the United Nations (UN). Of the total Israeli population of 650,000, about 6,000 men and women killed in the fighting, including 4,000 soldiers in the IDF. According to United Nations figures, 726,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled by Israel between 1947 and 1949. Except in Jordan, Palestinian refugees have been living in refugee camps are great in poor and overcrowded conditions. In December 1949, the Organization of the United Nations (in response to a British proposal) to establish an agency (UNRWA) to provide assistance to Palestinian refugees Government and Politics A parliament with 120 seats, the Knesset, first met in Tel Aviv then moved to Jerusalem after the 1949 ceasefire. In January 1949, Israel's first elections. Socialist-Zionist party, Mapai and Mapam won the most seats (46 and 19 respectively), but not an outright majority. Mapai leader David Ben-Gurion was appointed as Prime Minister. Knesset elected as the first president Chaim Weizmann (largely ceremonial) Israel. All-party coalition government has never won a majority in the Knesset. From 1948 to 1977 all government headed by Mapai and Alignment, former Labour Party. In years of Labour Zionism, initially led by David Ben-Gurion, Israel's political and economic dominate went on line, particularly socialist. 37 Immigration In the last three years (1948-1951), immigration doubled the Jewish population of Israel and left an indelible impression on voters remains to Israeli society. Most immigrants are either Holocaust survivors or Jews who fled Arab lands; largest group (over 100,000 each) are from Iraq, Romania and Poland, although immigrants arrived from all over Europe and the Middle East. In 1949-1951, 30,000 Jews fled Libya. In 1950, the Knesset passed the Law of Return granted to all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry, and their spouses, the right to settle in Israel and gain citizenship. That year, 50,000 Yemenite Jews (99%) secretly flown to Israel. In 1951 the Jews of Iraq were given temporary permission to leave the country
37

Morris 2004, pp. 604

and 120,000 (over 90%) chose to move to Israel. Jews also escaped from Lebanon, Syria and Egypt. By the end of the sixties, about 500,000 Jews had left Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. During twenty years, about 850,000 Jews from Arab countries (almost the entire Jewish population of Arabia) to move to Israel. Land and property left the Jewish people (many in the Arab urban centers) are still some dispute. Today, there are about 9,000 Jews living in Arab countries, of which 75% live in Morocco and 15% in Tunisia. Between 1948 and 1958, the population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million. During this period, food, clothing and furniture had to be rationed in what is known as the prudent Period (Tkufat haTsena). Immigrants mostly refugees without money or property, and many were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot. By 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in tents or pre-fabricated huts built by the government. Israel receives financial support from private donations from abroad (especially U.S.). Financial pressure on the new state led Ben-Gurion to sign a compensation agreement with West Germany. During the Knesset debate about 5,000 protesters and riot police had gathered Cordon building. Heated debate, Herut leader Menachem Begin and Ben-Gurion called each other racist and branded Begin Ben-Gurion "thugs." Israel receives several billion marks and return agreed to open diplomatic relations with Germany. At the end of 1953, Ben-Gurion retired to Kibbutz Sde Boker in the Negev. 38 Conclusion Eretz-Israel (Land of Israel) was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here the spiritual identity, religion and politics were formed. Here they first reach to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal interests and provide permanent book to book world. After forcibly evicted from their land, the people kept faith with the rest spread them and never ceased to pray and hope to return to them and for the restoration of their political freedom. Arrest induced by this historic and traditional, Jews strive in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their lot. Pioneer, ma'pilim (immigrants coming to Eretz-Israel in defiance of the law restricting) and defenders, they made deserts bloom, turn Hebrew, built villages and towns, and created a thriving community who control the economy and its own culture, loving peace but knowing how to defend itself, bringing blessings of progress to all the country's inhabitants, and aspiring towards independent nationhood. In the year 5657 (1897), the spiritual father summons the Jewish State, Theodore Herzl, the First Zionist Congress convened and proclaimed the right of Jews to a national rebirth in its own country.
38

Haaretz 8/1/1952, http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3306796,00.html (Hebrew accessed 10/10/2007)

This right was recognized in the Balfour Declaration of the 2nd November, 1917, and reaffirmed in the League of Nations Mandate for certain, gave international sanction to the historic connection between the Jewish people and Eretz-Israel and the right of the Jewish people to rebuild its National Home. Bibliography "Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1948 May 14. Retrieved 2012 April 16 http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declarati on+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm. "How to Respond to Common Misstatements About Israel". Anti-Defamation League. 2006. Retrieved 2006 October 4. http://www.adl.org/israel/advocacy/how_to_respond/establishment.asp?xflag=1. Paul Johnson. 1988. History of the Jews. Jurusalem: Harper , p. 106,.

Revolt of The Maccabees. Retrieved 2012 May 14 from

http://www.simpletoremember.com/articles/a/the_revolt_of_the_maccabees/ While the Syrians and the Melchite Greeks ceased to observe the penance after the death of Heraclius; Elijah of Nisibis (Beweis der Wahrheit des Glaubens, translation by Horst, p. 108, Colmar, 1886) see http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=B&artid=1642#4756.

Chapter 3 Arab-Israeli Conflict (I) - Arab-Israeli War of 1948 introduction Arab-Israeli war of 1948, known by Israelis as the War of Independence or Ibrani.Milkhemet Hashikhrur Milkhemet Hakomemmiyut literally "war of liberation") - took place between the Israeli state and military alliance Arab countries and the Palestinian Arab forces. It is the first in a series of wars in the Arab-Israeli conflict. War had been preceded by a period of civil war in the territory of the British Mandate of Palestine between the Jewish Yishuv forces and Palestinian Arab forces in response to the United Nations Partition Plan of the United Nations. An alliance of Arab states intervened on the Palestinian side, turning the civil war into a war between sovereign states. Battle took place mostly in the territory of the former British Mandate and for a short time also in the Sinai Peninsula and southern Lebanon. War ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreement, which established the Armistice Demarcation Line between Israel and Arab forces, commonly known as the Green Line. About half of the 1948 Palestinian exodus, often referred to as al-Nakba (Arabic: , literally "Disaster"), which occurs in the middle of this war. War, in addition to the establishment of Israel itself, is also considered as one of the main triggers for the Jewish exodus from Arab countries and Muslims. 39 Background The proposed separation Palestine.Following World War II, on May 14, 1948, the British Mandate of Palestine came to an end. Neighboring Arab countries have also emerged from a mandatory rule. Jordan, under Hashemite ruler Abdullah I gained independence from Britain in 1946 and known as Jordan, but it remained under heavy British influence. Egypt, while nominally independent, signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 includes provisions that Britain would maintain a garrison troops in the Suez Canal. From 1945 on, Egypt attempted to renegotiate the terms of this agreement, which is seen as a remnant of colonialism insult. Lebanon became an independent state in 1943, but French troops would not withdraw until 1946, the same year, Syria won its independence from France. In 1945, the British prompting, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Jordan, and Yemen formed the Arab League to coordinate policy between the Arab countries. Iraq
39

Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli wars. 1982. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780853683674

and Jordan coordinated policies closely, signing mutual defense treaty, while Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia and Jordan are worried that the additional part or Palestine, and use it as a steppingstone to attack or undermine Syria, Lebanon, and the Hijaz. On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a resolution recommending the use and implementation of a plan to resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into two states, one Arab and one Jewish, and the City of Jerusalem. Each state will consist of three main parts, which are connected by the intersection of Extraterritorial; Arab states will also have pockets in Jaffa. Jews will get 56% of the land, which is located in the Negev Desert; their area would contain 499,000 Jews and 438,000 Arabs. Palestinian Arabs would get 42% of the land, which has a population of 818,000 Palestinian Arabs and 10,000 Jews. In consideration of religious significance, Jerusalem area, including Bethlehem, with 100,000 Jews and an equal number of Palestinian Arabs, are to be separatum Corpus, will be administered by the UN. Jewish leadership accepted the partition plan, without reservation, as "indispensable minimum," glad to gain international recognition but sorry that they did not receive more. Arguing that the partition plan was unfair to the Arabs with regard to the remaining population at the time, the representatives of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab League firmly opposed the UN action and reject the authority to involve itself in the whole thing. They maintain "that the rule of Palestine should revert to its inhabitants, in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations (UN)." 40 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine 1948 Palestinian exodus 1947-48 civil war Arab-Israeli war in 1948 1948 Palestine War The causes of such migration Nakba Day Palestinian refugee camps Palestinian refugees

40

"Charter of the United Nations: CHAPTER XI: DECLARATION REGARDING NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES". http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter11.shtml. Retrieved 1 January 2012. "b. to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive development of their free political institutions, according to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of advancement;"

Palestinian right of return Absent present transfer Committee resolution 1947 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine begins on November 30, 1947, the date after the UN General Assembly vote on the UN Sub Plan. It was completed on May 14, 1948 when the Jewish People's Council issued a proclamation declaring the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, known as the State of Israel. In this period of the Arab and Jewish communities in Palestine fought, while the British, who have an obligation to maintain order, organized their own production and intervention only periodically. Palestinian Arabs left, fled or were driven in large numbers, especially after the Jewish army took the main port of Haifa in April 1948. 41 Political Factors Yishuv Benny Morris stated that the goal of growing the Yishuv during the war. At first, the goal is "simple and modest": to survive the attack of the Arabs of Palestine and the Arab countries. "The Zionist leaders deeply, genuinely, fear of re-enactment of the Holocaust Middle East, which has just ended; Arab public rhetoric reinforces this concern." Because of the war, the goal of expanding the Jewish state beyond the UN partition borders appeared: first to incorporate clusters of isolated Jewish settlements and later to add more territories to the state and provide defensible borders. A further goal of 3 and appears among the political leaders and the military after four or five months is to "reduce the size of Israel's Arab minority to be large and hostile, which is seen as a potential fifth column 1 authorities, by belligerency and expulsion.""42 Plan, Dalet or D, (Hebrew: ' , Tokhnit dalet) is a work plan by the Haganah, a group of Jewish soldiers and pioneers Israel Defense Forces, in the autumn of 1947 to the spring of 1948, the Haganah unit that was sent in early March 1948 . According to academic Ilan Pappe, the aim is to conquer as much of Palestine and expel as many Palestinians as possible. Although according to Benny Morris there is no such intention. In his book The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine Ilan Pappe asserts that Plan Dalet was "blueprint for ethnic
41

Charles Herbert Levermore; Denys Peter Myers (1921). Yearbook of the League of Nations. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. pp. 63. Retrieved 3 May 2011. http://books.google.com/books?id=MwOtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA63. 42 Benny Morris, (2008), 1948, pp.397398.

cleansing": .... This ... blueprint spelled it clear: Palestinians have to go ... The goal of the plan is actually the destruction of both urban and rural areas of Palestine. Plan Dalet intent is subject to controversy, with a history of extreme stress that it is entirely defensive, and history on the other extreme who insisted that the plan was aimed at maximum conquest and expulsion of the Palestinians. 43 The Arab League Overall In the introduction to a cablegram from the Secretary General of the Arab League SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations (UN) dated May 15, 1948, the Arab League gave reaons to intervene, On the occasion of the Palestinian Arab state intervention to restore law and order and to prevent interference in Palestine from spreading into their territory and to examine further bloodshed, Clause 10 (a) Wire provided: Now that the Mandate for Palestine has come to an end, leaving no established legal authority behind to administer law and order in the country and can afford the necessary and sufficient protection to life and property, the United Arab declare as follows: (A) The right to establish a government in the Palestinian connection to the people under the principles of self-determination is recognized by the League of Nations Covenant and the Charter of the United Nations;'' Lighted Calegram attention to in subclause (b) Peace and order has completely disappointed in Palestine, and, due to the cruelty of the Jews, about more than a quarter of a million Arabs were forced to leave their homes and migrate to the neighboring Arab states. It furthe note in subclause (c) Mandatory announced that at the termination of the Mandate it will no longer be responsible for the maintenance of law and order in Palestine except in the camps and the area actually occupied by the power, and only to the extent necessary for safety their forces and their withdrawal. Wire also noted other clauses; Great Britain, however, put the Palestinians in such a position that made it possible for Jews flooded the country with waves of immigrants. Government of the Arab countries to recognize the independence of Palestine, which has so far been suppressed by the British Mandate. Only solution of the Palestine problem is the establishment of Palestinian unity. The events that occurred in Palestine exposed the hidden intentions of the Zionist regime's aggressive. Arab governments have found themselves forced to intervene for the sole purpose of restoring peace and security and establish law and order in Palestine.

43

Pappe, Ilan. 2006. The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine., p. 86-126, xii

According to Yoav Gelber, the Arab countries were "drawn into the war by the collapse of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab Liberation Army [and] Saudi government's main aim was to prevent the destruction of the Palestinian Arabs and the flooding in their own countries by more refugees. according to their own perception, had the invasion not occurred, is not Arab force in Palestine capable of checking the Haganah attack ".44 "Yishuv danger, Arab invasion is considered to be threatened existence. Having no real knowledge of the true Arab military capabilities, the Jews took Arab propaganda literally, preparing for the worst and respond accordingly." 45 King Abdullah I of Jordan King Abdullah is the commander of the Arab Legion, the strongest Arab army involved in the war. Arab Legion has about 10,000 soldiers, trained and commanded by British officers. King Abdullah outside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, May 29 1948In 1946 to 1947, he said that he had no intention to "resist or prevent the partition of Palestine and the creation of the Jewish state." Hostile towards Palestinian nationalism, Abdullah wants additional Palestinians as possible. Ideally, he would like to annex all of Palestine, but he was willing to compromise. He supports partitions, suggesting that the West Bank provided the British Mandate for Palestine annexed to Jordan. Abdullah held a secret meeting with the Jewish Agency (in which the future Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir was among the delegates) have reached an agreement with the Jews not intervene Jordan annexation of the West Bank (although Abdullah failed in its goal to obtain outlets to the Mediterranean Sea through the desert Negev) and Jordan agreement not to attack the Jewish state contained in the resolutions of the United Nations partition (in which Jerusalem was given a non-Arab and a Jewish state, but is administered as an area internationally). In a stunning diplomatic coup, strong Arab army agreed not to attack the Jewish state. However, by 1948, the country demanding Abdullah's Arab neighbors to join them in the "Arab military intervention" against the newly created state of Israel, so that it is used to restore the prestige in the Arab world, which has grown suspicious relatively good relations with leaders Western and Jewish leaders. Abdullah's role in this war to be great. He saw himself as the "supreme commander of the armed Arab" and "persuaded the Arab League to appoint him" to this position.

44

Gelber, Yoav Palestine, 1948: war, escape and the emergence of the Palestinian refugee problem. 2nd ed. Sussex Academic Press, 2006 p. 137-138. "A war between Israel and the Arab States broke out immediately, and the Arab armies invaded Palestine." 45 Ibid

Through his leadership, the Arabs fought against the war in 1948 to meet Abdullah's political goals. 46 Other Arab Countries King Farouk of Egypt eager to prevent Abdullah from being viewed as a major champion of the Arab world in Palestine, which he feared might damage their own leadership aspirations of the Arab world. In addition, Farouk wants to annex all selatanPalestin to Egypt. Nuri asSaid, Iraq's strong, has the ambition to bring the entire Fertile Crescent under Iraqi leadership. Both Syria and Lebanon would like to take certain areas of northern Palestine. One of the results ambition Arab leaders are doubts all Palestinian leaders who want to establish a Palestinian state, and mutual mistrust between each other. Cooperation is to be very poor during the war between pelbagaipuak Palestinian and Arab armies. " Supreme Committee Amin al-Husayni Amin al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and Chairman of the Arab Higher Committee, collaborated with Nazi Germany during World War II. In 1940, he asked the Axis Powers recognize Arab rights "for solving the Jewish elements in Palestine and the Arab countries in accordance with the interests of other countries and the Arabs and along the lines similar to those used to solve the Jewish question in Germany and Italy. " In early 1948, al-Husayni was in exile in Egypt. He was involved in several high-level negotiations between Arab leaders at a meeting held in Damascus in February 1948 to organize Palestinian Field Order, however, the commander of the Holy War Army, Hasan Salama and Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, provided only Lydda district and Jerusalem . These results pave the way for an undermining of the Mufti position among Arab countries. On February 9, just four days after the Damascus meeting, a severe blow suffered by the Mufti at the Arab League session in Cairo, where the demand for the appointment of General Staff Palestine League, the formation of the Provisional Government of Palestine, the transfer of authority to local National Committees in areas evacuated by the British, a loan for administration in Palestine and appropriation of large sums to the Arab Higher Executive for Palestinians entitled to war damages were all rejected. Arab League blocked recruitment of the armed al-Husayni, who collapsed following the death of the most charismatic commander, his cousin Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, on April 8. Following rumors that King Abdullah had re-opened bilateral negotiations with Israel that he had previously conducted in secret with the Jewish Agency, the Arab League, led by Egypt,
46

Avi Shlaim (1988). The Politics of Partition. Columbia : Columbia University Press.

decided to set up the All-Palestine Government in Gaza on 8 September under the nominal leadership of the Mufti . History Avi Shlaim writes: The decision to form the Government of All the Palestinians in Gaza, and the feeble attempt to create armed forces under control, furnished the members of the Arab League with the means of disposal themselves directly responsible for the prosecution of war and to withdraw their forces from Palestine with some protection of popular protest. Whatever the long-term future Palestinian Arab state, the immediate purpose, as conceived by the Egyptian sponsors, was to provide a central meeting against Abdullah and serve as an instrument to thwart the ambition to federate the Arab regions with Jordan. Abdullah considers the attempt to revive al-Husayni Holy War Army as a challenge to the authorities, and on October 3, the Minister of Defense directed all military bodies operating in the areas controlled by the Arab Legion disbanded. Glubb Pasha carried out the order ruthlessly and efficiently. 47 Military Assessment Benny Morris has argued that even if, by 1947, the Palestinians "have one healthy and demoralizing respect for the Yishuv's military power", they believe that in a decade or century "Jews, like the government crusader medieval eventually addressed by the Arab world ". On the eve of the war, the number of Arab troops might be committed to the war was about 23,000 (10,000 Egyptians, 4500 Jordan, Iraq 3000, 3,000 Syrian, 2,000 ALA volunteers, 1000 Lebanese and some Saudi Arabia), in addition to the Palestinian people regularly attended. Yishuv had 35,000 troops Haganah, Irgun and Stern 3000 and several thousand armed settlers. On May 12, David Ben-Gurion was told by his chief military adviser, "who overestimated the size of the Arab armies and the numbers and efficiency of the army will be done", that Israel's chances of winning the war against nations Arabs are just about over. 48 Military Yishuv Israeli Army Defence Force (IDF) Samson's Foxes unit advance in Egypt captured Bren Gun carrier. In November 1947, the Haganah was an underground army that has existed as a
47

Shlaim, Avi (2001). Israel and the Arab Coalition. In Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim (eds.). The War for Palestine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (p. 79103). 48 Morris, Benny (2004), The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, p35

very organized team, country, since the riots from 1920 to 1921, and during the riots in 1929, and the Great Awakening from 1936 to 1939. [47] It has a portable power, HISH, which has 2,000 full-time fighters (men and women) and 10,000 reserve (all aged between 18 and 25) and an elite unit, Palmach composed of 2,100 fighters and 1,000 reserve. Provident trained three or four days a month and returned to public life time. These forces can rely on portable power garrison, HIM (Heil Mishmar, lit. Guards Corps), made up of people aged over 25. Yishuv total strength is around 35,000 to 15,000 to 18,000 fighters and a garrison force of about 20,000. Both of these secret groups, the Irgun and Lehi, having members from 2.000 to 4.000 and 500-800, respectively. Irgun, whose activities were considered by MI5 to be terrorism, was monitored by the British. There are also several thousand men and women who have served in the British Army in World War II who did not serve in any of the underground militias but would provide valuable military experience during the war. Walid Khalidi said the Yishuv had the additional forces Jewish Settlement Police, number around 12,000 Gadna Youth Battalions, and the armed settlers. Some units have trained by December 1947. In 1946, Ben-Gurion decided that the Yishuv would probably have to defend itself against both Palestinian Arabs and neighboring Arab countries and accordingly initiate "a massive, secret weapons acquisition campaign in the West". By September 1947 the Haganah had "10,489 rifles, 702 light machine-guns, 2666 light guns, 186 medium machineguns, 672 two-inch mortars and 92 three-inch (76 mm) mortars" and earned more in the first few months of hostilities. Yishuv also had "a relatively advanced arms producing capacity", between October 1947 and July 1948 "produced 3 million 9 mm bullets, 150,000 Mills grenades, 16,000 light weapons (Sten Guns) and 210 three-inch mortars (76 mm)", cowith several "Davidka" homemade mortars highly inaccurate but had a spectacularly loud explosion that demoralized the enemy. Initially, the Haganah had no heavy machine guns, artillery, armored vehicles, anti-tank or anti-aircraft weapons, nor military aircraft or tanks. 49 On December 5, 1947, obligatory conscription was instituted for all men and women aged between 17 and 25. By the end of March, 21,000 have been deployed. On March 30, a call was extended to single men and women between the ages of 26 and 35. Five days later, a General Mobilization order was issued for all men under 40. Sources disagree about the amount of weapons at the disposal of the end of the Yishuv in Mandate. According to Karsh before the arrival of the shipment of arms from Czechoslovakia as part of Operation Balak, there was roughly one weapon for every three fighters, and even Palmach can complete just two out of every three active members.
49

Ibid, p16

According, Collins and Lapierre, by April 1948, the Haganah had managed to accumulate only about 20,000 rifles and Sten guns for the 35,000 soldiers who existed on paper. According to Walid Khalidi "arms at the disposal of these forces much". Weapons there is no shortage of locally produced explosives. 50 Arab troops There is no national military organization in the Palestinian Arab community. There are two military youth organization, which Futuwa pro-and anti-Husayni Husayni Najjada ("auxiliary corps"). According to Karsh, these groups have members from 11.000 to 12.000, but according to Morris, who Najjada, founded in Jaffa and had 2,000-3,000 members, was destroyed in the run-war, 1948, during an attempt to seize control Husayni, and never Futuwa numbered more than a few hundred. At the outbreak of war, the local militant groups recently, the National Guard, like mushrooms growing in towns and cities. Every responsible to local Arab National Committee. Palestinian tendency to dissipate their forces along village and clan lines would be a major disadvantage Palestinian side. In particular there is a split in Palestinian society between those who are loyal to the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin Husseini and those opposed to his leadership. In December, Abd alQadir Husseini, who was the protege's uncle the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem by 100 fighters who were trained in Syria and that would form the cadre of the Army of the Holy War. The army was joined by several hundred young villagers and veterans of the British army. There are 7,000 Palestinians who served in the British Army during World War II, and 10,500 Palestinians in para-military police mandate forcing many of them deserted during the winter 1947-48, fought in the war. Palestinian armed equipment is very poor. British seized their weapons during the 1936-1939 revolt and the World War II. A 1942 report by the Haganah intelligence service to assess the number of firearms at the disposal of the Palestinian at 50,000 but this may overestimate or even "highly exaggerated". In early February 1948 the military committee of the League, Arab deliver guns to the 1700 Arab Palestinians. at the same time give people the Mufti of Egypt in 1200 rifles, Iraq sent 1000 rifles and Syria gave 645 rifles, 78 machine guns and 8 mortars. Arab Liberation Army (Jaysh al-Inqadh al-Arabi) was established by the Arab League. It is made of about 6,000 volunteers, mostly from Syria, and led by Fawzi alQawuqji. Officially allocated area is north of Palestine, including Samaria. 51

50

Dov Joseph, "The Faithful City The Siege of Jerusalem 1948". Library of Congress number 60 10976. Page 8 : "For example, all the land mines used against Rommel came from Jewish factories in Palestine." 51 Karsh, op.cit., p28

Jordanian Arab Legion was considered the most effective Arab force. Armed, trained and commanded by British officers, is a strong force was organized on 4th 8.000 to 12.000 infantry regiments / mechanically supported by some 40 artillery pieces and 75 armored vehicles. Until January 1948, it has been reinforced by the 3,000 strong Jordan Frontier Force. As many as 48 British officers who served in the Arab Legion. 52 Glubb Pasha, the commander of the Legion, organized his army into four brigades. Arab League joined the war in May 1948, but fought only in areas that King Abdullah wanted to get to Jordan: West Bank and East Jerusalem. Armed Jordan is probably the best trained of all combatants. Other forces fighters lack the ability to make strategic decisions and tactical maneuvers, as evidenced by the position of the fourth regiment at Latrun, abandoned by other combatants before the arrival of the Jordanian army. At the end of the war, Latrun proved to be very important, and the determining factor for the fate of Jerusalem. In 1948, Iraq had the military, from 21,000 people in 12 brigades and the Iraqi Air Force had 100 planes, mostly British. Initially, Iraq committed around 3,000 men to the war effort, including four infantry brigades, one armored battalion and support personnel. These forces are to operate under the guidance of Jordan. During the first truce, the Iraqis improve them to about 10,000. Finally, Iraqi forces expedition numbered around 15,000 to 18,000 people. The first Iraqi forces to be deployed reached Jordan in April 1948 under the command of Gen. Nur ad-Din Mahmud. On 15 May, Iraqi engineers built a pontoon bridge across the Jordan River and attacked the Israeli settlement Alupang with little success. Following this defeat, Iraqi forces moved into the triangle of Nablus-Jenin-Tulkarm strategic, where they suffered heavy casualties in the Israeli attack on Jenin which began on 3 June, but they managed to hold on to their position. Active involvement in the Iraq war effectively ended at this point. In 1948, Egypt was able to put a maximum of around 40,000 men into the field, 80% of the male population of military age to be unfit for military service and logistics systems are limited in the ability of the embryo to support ground forces deployed beyond its borders. At first, the expeditionary force of 10,000 men was sent to Palestine under the command of Maj. Gen. Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi. This force consists of five infantry battalions, an armored battalion equipped with British Light Tank Mk VI and Matilda tanks, one battalion of 16 25-

52

"TRANS-JORDAN: Chess Player & Friend". Time. 1948 February 16. Retrieved http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,794208,00.html..

2010 April 20.

pounder guns, a battalion of eight 6-pounder guns and a medium machine-gun battalion with supporting troops. Egyptian Air Force has over 30 Spitfires, 4 Hawker Hurricanes and 20 C47s modified into crude bombers. By the time the second truce, the Egyptians had 20,000 men in the field in 13 battalions equipped with 135 tanks and 90 artillery pieces. Syria has 12,000 soldiers at the beginning of 1948 War, grouped into three brigades of infantry and armored force of about battalion size. Syrian Air Force has 50 aircraft, 10 is not the latest model of the World War II generation. On May 14 Syrian attack Palestinians with 1 Infantry Brigade, supported by an armored battalion, a French company R 35 and R 37 tanks, an artillery battalion and other units. On May 15 to 16 they attacked Israel Tzemah village, which they captured, the new attack, on May 18. The village is abandoned following the defeat of the Syrian forces in Deganias a few days later. After that, the Syrians scored a victory at Mishmar HaYarden on June 10, after which they return to the defensive posture, conducting only a small number of small attacks, Israeli settlements are exposed. Lebanese Army is the smallest Arab army, consisting of only 3,500 soldiers. According to Gelber, in June 1947, Ben-Gurion "arrived at an agreement first with the Maronite religious leadership in Lebanon that precious first few thousand pounds and kept Lebanon's army out of the War of Independence and the combined Arab armies." According to Rogan and Shlaim, a token force of 1,000 has been committed to the invasion. It crossed into the northern Galilee and was repulsed by the Israeli army. Israel then invaded and occupied southern Lebanon until the end of the war. Saudi Arabia sent a contingent of men 800-1200. Saudi troops have been attached to the Egyptian order. During the first truce, Sudan has sent six companies of ordinary soldiers to fight alongside the Egyptians. Yemen also committed a small expedition force to the war effort. 53 British forces in Palestine It is 100,000 British troops deployed in Palestine "in two ground forces divisions, two independent infantry brigades, two mechanized regiments, some artillery units and several RAF squadrons". Peak deployment was in July 1947, when 70 200 British troops have been stationed in Palestine, supported by public and driver 1277 28.155 civil servants. British

53

Uthman Hasan Salih, DAWR AL-MAMLAKA AL-`ARABIYYA AL-SA`UDIYYA FI HARB FILASIN 1367H/1948 (The role of Saudi Arabia in the Palestine war of 1948), Revue d'Histoire Maghrbine [Tunisia] 1986 13(4344): 201221.

forces, however, have gradually withdrawn in 1948. British High Commissioner Cunningham left Palestine on May 14, 1948 another British forces overseeing the withdrawal remained in Palestine for a few weeks after that, keeping pockets in and around the port of Haifa. Four Royal Air Force pilots were killed on May 22 when the Royal Egyptian Air Force struck RAF Ramat David, mistaking the airport for one occupied by the Israeli Air Force. The last British troops left Palestine on June 30, 1948.54 Intervention by Arab League countries Five of the seven countries of the Arab League at the time, namely Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, backed by Saudi Arabia and Yemen contingents invaded territory in the former British Mandate of Palestine on the night of May 14 to 15, 1948. Powers Syria and Egypt launched an attack outside the Arab section of the proposed Subdivision Plan. Some unofficial statements before the war has been more aggressive. Arab League Secretary Azzam Pasha, according to an interview in an article of 11 October 1947 Al-Yom newspaper, said: "I personally wish that the Jews do not drive us into this war, because this will be the elimination of war and massacre historic many of which will be spoken of like the Mongolian massacres and the Crusades ". According to Yoav Gelber, the Arab countries were "drawn into the war by the collapse of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab Liberation Army. Saudi government's main aim was to prevent the destruction of the Palestinian Arabs and the flooding in their own countries by more refugees. According perception their own, have the invasion not occurred, is not Arab force in Palestine capable of checking the Haganah attack ". "The Yishuv see the dangers of the Arab invasion as threatening existence. Having no real knowledge of the true Arab military capabilities, the Jews took Arab propaganda literally, preparing for the worst and respond accordingly." 55 Arab-Israeli war in 1948 First phase: 15th May - June 11, 1948 Invasion by Arab countries, May 15-June 10 hours 1948. In the Declaration of Establishment of the State of Israel, five of the seven countries of the Arab League at the time, namely Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, backed by Saudi Arabia and Yemen contingents

54

Associated Press (1948 July 1). "Israel Flag Over Haifa, Last British Troops Leave Zion". The Milwaukee Sentinel: p. 2. Retrieved 2010 March 30 http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&dat=19480701&id=mNA_AAAAIBAJ&sjid=w0EAAAAIBAJ&pg=7282,1374057.. 55 Yoav Gelber, op.cit, p137

invaded territory of the former British Mandate of Palestine on the night of 14-15 May 1948 . Powers Syria and Egypt launched an attack outside the Arab section of the proposed Subdivision Plan. Jordan invaded the proposed "Corpus Separatum", which has not be instituted, including the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. Defenders of Israel in the Arab AfulaThe team plan called for Syria and Lebanon to attack from the north while Jordanian and Iraqi forces to attack from the east. Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq forces to connect in Galilee and then turn toward Haifa. In the south, the people of Egypt to advance and take Tel Aviv. Cooperation among the various Arab armies is very poor, so the plan was not fully carried out in the spirit imaginable. The first mission of the Jewish paramilitary organization and then the IDF is to survive against the Arab armies and stop them from destroying major Jewish settlements, until reinforcements and weapons arrived. As the Arab armies attacked Israel, two Royal Egyptian Air Force (REAF) Spitfires bombed Tel Aviv. One of them was shot down and taken prisoner pilot. However, the Egyptians continued bombing raids on the city. On 18 May, the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station was bombed, killing over a hundred victims. Efforts were also made for the stake from the ground. For the first few weeks of the war, Egyptian fighter aircraft capable of bombing Tel Aviv with almost complete impunity, just meet fire ground. On May 22, REAF Spitfires attack the Ramat David air base in Israeli territory still occupied by the British Royal Air Force covering the withdrawal of British forces from Israel. The Egyptians believed that the base has been taken over by Israel, and has been attacked three times. Five RAF Spitfires were destroyed on the ground, transport aircraft was destroyed as it landed, hangars destroyed, and four pilots were killed. During the third attack, the RAF Spitfire shot down four of FR18s Spitfires attacked Egypt, and the fifth was shot down by the British Bren gun crew. British left Ramat David Airbase 1 a few days later. Two Egyptian attack by air, armor and artillery cover entered southern Israel, but were met with stiff resistance from various settlements defended by armed residents and Israeli soldiers. Joined the Egyptian army is a large number of volunteers from the Muslim Brotherhood. An Egyptian column heading to Tel Aviv will be joined by more Egyptian troops who arrived by sea at Majdal and another column put towards Beersheba. To get their flanks, the Egyptians besieged several kibbutzim in the Negev. Egyptians met with stiff opposition from the armed mild defense of besieged kibbutzim. They had stopped their advance and took heavy losses, while the losses suffered by those who defend the comparison light. Kfar Darom, after withstanding attack by the Muslim Brotherhood, was attacked by Egyptian tanks retreated after losing one tank. In the kibbutz Nirim, about 40

Israeli struggle over Egypt attack, supported by artillery, armor and air power. The most notable involvement was the Battle of Yad Mordechai, where a lower power 100 Israelis armed with nothing more than a gun, medium machinegun and PIAT anti-tank weapons, organized a column in 2500 Egypt, backed by armored units, artillery and air, for five days [103] The Egyptians suffered some 300-400 victims while Israeli victims was 26 killed and 49 wounded. This battle has delayed action, which is designed to allow time Haganah ready to attack Egypt. Egyptians attacked Kibbutz Nitzanim who surrendered after a long battle. Some kibbutzim killed after surrender, but the Egyptian army to prevent local members who fought on their side of killing a prisoner of war. Over the next few days, more than 1,000 Lebanese, 5,000 Syrian, 5,000 Iraqi, and 10,000 Egyptian troops (initial numbers) invaded the newly established state, while the 4000 Jordanian army attacked Corpus separatum region include Jerusalem and its environs, as well as certain areas as part of the Arab state by the UN partition plan of the United Nations (UN). They were assisted by a corps of volunteers from Saudi Arabia, Libya and Yemen. Arab countries gradually increase the number of troops by the thousands as the war later developed. Both sides increased their manpower over the following months, but the Israeli advantage grew very well as a result of the progressive mobilization of Israeli society and the influx of migrants an average of 10,300 per month. Syrian troops advanced into Galilee on May 15, but deadlocked by resistance from many kibbutzim. Syria was forced to besiege the kibbutzim not advance. Throughout Galilee, various isolated settlement outposts Israel has been exposed to Arab attack on all sides, and had to rely on their own armories for defense. Lebanese army take Malkiya village, who recaptured by Israel three days later. An Iraqi division comprising two infantry and one armored brigade arrived in the area known as the "triangle" between Jenin, Nablus and Tulkarm, where on May 25, 1948, it started the attack with a view to taking Netanya, which failed. On May 29, Israeli counter-attacks against the people of Iraq that led to three days of heavy fighting over Jenin, which ultimately saved by the Iraqis. After this battle, the Iraqi army to be stationary. On 6 June, the Arab Liberation Army forces retook the SyrianLebanese Malkiya. 56 Israeli troops in 1948 On May 26, 1948, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) was officially established, and the Haganah, Palmach and Irgun were incorporated into the IDF.

56

Karsh, op.cit, p60

Jordan artillery illuminates Jerusalem in 1948 Egyptian Spitfire shot down in Tel AvivOn May 29, Israeli soldiers stopped drive towards Tel Aviv Egypt Pleshet Operations. In the first combat missions carried out by Israel's fledgeling air force, four Avia S-199s attacked Egyptian armored column of 500 vehicles on the way to Ashdod. Israeli planes dropped 70 kilogram bombs and strafed the column, although their machine guns jammed quickly. Two of the planes crashed, killing a pilot. The attack caused the Egyptians to spread, and they have lost the initiative by the time they have to regroup. The attack, which was followed by small-scale disturbances Israel Egyptian online. Brigade givati team then launched a counterattack. Although the response was repulsed, Egyptian attack was stopped in Egypt to change strategy to defend themselves from attack. Because of the war, the IDF managed to lose more troops than the Arab forces. By July 1948, the IDF had 63,000 soldiers; by early spring 1949, they had 115,000. Arab armies had about 40,000 troops in July 1948, increased to 55,000 in October 1948, and less by the spring of 1949. All Jewish aviation assets were placed under the control of the Sherut Avir (Air Service, known as SA) in November 1947 and flying operations began the following month from a small civil airport on the outskirts of Tel Aviv called Sde Dov, with the support of ground operations first (1 RWD-13) occurred on December 17. Galilee Squadron was formed in March 1948 Yavne'el, and the Negev Squadron was formed in NIR-Am in April. Of 10 May, when SA lost the first battle, there are three flight units, air staff, maintenance facilities and logistics support. At the outbreak of war on May 15, SA became the Israeli Air Force. With a fleet of light aircraft, it is not comparable to the Arab forces during the first few weeks of the war with the T-6s, Spitfires, C-47s and Avro Ansons. It was also during this time that the balance of air power began to swing in favor of the Israeli Air Force following the purchase of 25 Avia S-199s from Czechoslovakia, the first of which arrived in Israel on May 20. This created the ironic situation of the young Jewish state using derivatives BF-109 designed in Nazi Germany to help deal with the British designed Spitfires flown by Egypt. The first raid on the Arab capital followed on the night of May 31 / June 1 when three Israeli planes bombed Amman. On June 3, Israel scored the first victory in the battle air when the pilot Modi Alon shot down a pair of Egyptian bombers on Tel Aviv. During the war, a total of 15 Egyptian and Syrian 2 plane was shot down. By the fall of 1948, the IDF had achieved air superiority and have a better firepower and more knowledgeable, many who had seen action in World War II. Israeli aircraft also bombed targets in and around Arish, Gaza, Damascus, Amman and Cairo. Israel B-17 bomber coming to Israel from Czechoslovakia bombed Egypt on their way to Israel.

Jerusalem's Jewish population fled during the war beginning offenses Jordan, Israel Navy consists of four former Aliyah Bet ship that was seized by the British and detained at the port of Haifa. These vessels have been modified by naval repair facilities of the newly formed with the help of two private shipbuilding and repair company. In October 1948, the hunter submarines purchased from the United States. Five warships were handled by former merchant seaman, ship crews former Aliyah Bet, the Israeli who served in the Royal Navy during World War II, and foreign volunteers. Warships newly refurbished and crewed served on patrol duties and inundated coastal areas Egyptian coastal installations in and around the Gaza Strip all the way to Port Said. Arab Legion soldier standing in the ruins of the Hurva Synagogue, Old CityThe heaviest fighting occurred in Jerusalem and in Jerusalem -. Tel Aviv road, between Jordan's Arab Legion and the Israeli Army. As part of the relocation deal with first in Egypt, Israel left the Latrun fortress overlooking the main highway to Jerusalem, the Arab Legion immediately seized. The Arab League also ranked Latrun Monastery. From this position, Jordan can not afford to cut off supplies to the soldiers and Israeli civilians in Jerusalem. Although some supplies, mostly weapons, airdropped into the city, the lack of food, water, fuel, and medicine is acute. King Abdullah ordered Glubb Pasha, the commander of the Arab Legion, to enter Jerusalem on 17 May, and heavy house-to-house fighting occurred between 19 and 28 May, with the Arab Legion eventually succeeded in pushing Israeli forces from the Arab neighborhoods of Jerusalem and the Old City Jewish Quarter . The Israeli army is seriously short of food, water and ammunition. Arab League release 10,000 artillery and mortar shells a day. 1500 Jewish population Jewish Quarter Old City were expelled, and several hundred arrested. Jews had to be escorted out by the Jordanian army to protect them against the Palestinian Arab mobs intended to massacre them. The Arab League also attacked Western Jerusalem with sniper fire. Israeli attempt to take Latrun fortress unsuccessful. Israeli army suffered about 586 victims, among them Mickey Marcus, the first general Israeli, who was killed by friendly fire. Arab Legion had about 30 victims, even among those who died Jordan is the commander of the fort. Israel's position on Jerusalem only saved by the opening of what is known as the "Burma Road", while the shortcuts built by the Israeli army supply convoy that allows Israel to enter into Jerusalem. Some of the areas where roads are built has been cleared of Jordanian snipers in May and the road was completed on June 14. Supply has already started through before the road was completed, with the first convoy through the night 1 to 2 June Jordan detect and try to traveling expenses, but is not effective, because it can not be seen. However, Jordan Sharpshooters kill some road

workers, and on June 9 attack left eight Israelis dead. On 18 July, the Harel Brigade elements took about 10 villages south of Latrun to enlarge and get the Burma Road. Iraqi troops failed in their attacks on Israeli settlements in the most significant battles that took place in Mishmar HaEmek, and instead took defensive positions around Jenin, Nablus, and Tulkarm, where they can put pressure on the Israeli center. On May 25, the advance of Iraqi forces from Tulkarm, which takes Geulim and reach Kfar Yona and Ein Vered in Tulkarm-Netanya road. Then stop the advance brigade Alexandroni Iraq and retook Geulim. On June 1, Carmeli and Golani Brigades captured Jenin from Iraqi forces. They were forced by the Iraqi counterattack, and lost 34 dead and 100 injured. On 21 May, the Syrian army was stopped at the kibbutz Degania Alef in the north, where local militia reinforced by elements of the Carmeli Brigade stop Syrian armored forces with Molotov cocktails, grenades and a single PIAT. A tank disabled by Molotov cocktails and hand grenades still on kibbutz. Syrian forces were driven from the remainder of the next day with the first use 4 Napoleonchik-Israeli artillery guns during mountain warfare. Syrian R-35 light tank destroyed in Degania Alef on 22 May, the Arab armies attacked kibbutz Ramat Rachel south of Jerusalem. After a fierce battle in which 31 Arabs and 13 Israelis were killed, defenders of Ramat Rachel withdrew, only part retake the kibbutz the following day. Fighting continued until May 26, until the entire kibbutz was recaptured. Radar Hill was taken from the Arab League, and held until May 26, when Jordan retook in clashes that left 19 Israelis dead and 2 Jordan. A total of 23 attempts by the Palmach Harel Brigade to capture Radar Hill in the war failed. On 23 May, the Brigade had captured Alexandroni Tantura, south of Haifa. On the same day, Thomas C. Wasson, United States (U.S.) Consulate General in Jerusalem and a member of the UN ceasefire Commission shot dead in West Jerusalem. It is disputed whether Wasson was killed by Arabs or Israelis. During the following days, the Arabs were able to make limited gains as fierce Israeli resistance, and quickly driven their new holdings by Israeli counterattacks, though the Arab Legion able to repel the Israeli attack on Latrun. On June 2, Holy War Army commander Hasan Salama was killed in clashes with Israeli soldiers in Ras al-Ein, north of Jaffa. Jordan launched two counter-attacks, while taking Beit Susin before being forced back, and captured Gezer after a fierce battle. On June 6, almost two brigades Arab Liberation Army and the Lebanese army has taken Malkiya and Kadesh, while the Syrian army attacked Mishmar HaYarden, but were repulsed. At the Battle Nitzanim, Egyptian soldiers attacked the kibbutz Nitzanim on the same day, and the Israeli defenders surrendered after a five-

day fight. On 10 June, the Syrian Mecca Mishmar HaYarden and advanced to the main road, where they were stopped by Oded Brigade units57 First Armistice: 11th June, - July 8, 1948 Palestinian UN official mediator, Count Folke Bernadotte, was killed in September 1948 by the UN LehiThe militant group declared a ceasefire on 29 May, which came into effect on June 11 and runs for 28 days. The ceasefire was overseen by UN mediator Folke Bernadotte and UN observer team consisting of army officers from Belgium, United States, Sweden and France. Bernadotte was elected by the General Assembly to "ensure the safety of the holy places, to protect the well-being of the population, and to promote the" peaceful adjustment of the future situation of Palestine ". Ceasefire was designed to last for 28 days and an arms embargo was declared with the intention that side would not make any profit from the cease-fire. Side does not respect the ceasefire; both found ways around the restrictions placed on them. Both Israel and the Arabs used this time to improve their position, a direct violation of the ceasefire terms .. "The Arabs violated the ceasefire to strengthen their lines with fresh units and prevent supplies from reaching isolated Israeli settlements; sometimes, they open fire along the line". At the time of the ceasefire, the British view is that "Jews are too weak in armament to achieve spectacular success". As the truce commenced, a British officer stationed in Haifa stated that the four-week truce "would certainly be exploited by the Jews to continue military training and reorganization while the Arabs would waste them] feuding over the spoils of the future" . During the ceasefire, Israel has tried to enhance them with weapons of mass import IDF was able to buy weapons from Czechoslovakia and improve team training and reorganization of the army at this time. Yitzhak Rabin, IDF commander in the war and later Israel's fifth Prime Minister, stated without arms from Czechoslovakia ... it is very doubtful whether we will be able to conduct war. "Israeli forces increased workforce of about 30.000 to 35.000 men to almost 65,000 during the truce. It also can increase the supply of arms to more than 25,000 rifles, 5,000 machine guns, and fifty million bullets and violating arms embargo and the staff, they also sent fresh units to the front lines as Arabs. During the cease-fire, the Irgun tried to bring in private arms shipments outside the ship called "Altalena". When they refused to hand over weapons to the government of Israel, Ben-Gurion ordered that the ship would sink. Several Irgun members were killed in the fighting.
57

Timeline (Chronology) of Israel War of Independence 1948 Arab-Israeli War". Zionism-israel.com. Retrieved 2010 June 26. http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/Israel_war_independence_1948_timeline.htm.

After the cease-fire in place, Bernadotte began to address the issue of achieving a political solution. The main obstacle in his opinion is "continuing refusal of the Arab world that existed in the Jewish state, what its borders; Israeli new 'philosophy', based on the strength of a growing army, ignoring the partition boundaries and conquering what additional territory it could and the Palestinian refugee problem emerging Arab ". Taking all these issues into account, Bernadotte presented a new partition plan. He suggested that there be an Arab Palestinian state alongside Israel and that "the Union" "be established between the two sovereign states of Israel and Jordan (which now includes the West Bank) that the Negev, or part thereof, included in the Arab countries and that Western Galilee, or part thereof, will be included in Israel, that the whole of Jerusalem be part of the Arab states, with the Jewish areas enjoying municipal autonomy and free Lydda Airport and Haifa 'ports' considered free-Israeli or Arab sovereignty ". Israel rejected the proposal, particularly in terms of loss of control of Jerusalem, but they did not agree to extend the truce for another month. Arabs rejected both extend the truce and the proposal. On July 8, the day before the expiration of the ceasefire, the Egyptian army under General Muhammad Naguib renewed the war by attacking Negba. [125] The next day, the Israeli army launched a simultaneous attack on all three fronts. The fight continued for ten days until the UN Security Council ceasefire Second issue on July 18. In the battle, Israel was able to open a lifeline to some besieged kibbutzim. 58 Second phase: 8-18 July 1948 An Egyptian artillery battalion captured by Givati Brigade 53 Israeli soldiers in battle LOD (Lydda) or Ramle. It is being followed and is dominated by large-scale Israeli offense and defense posture from the Arab side. Operation Danny was the most important Israeli offensive, which aims to guarantee and extend the corridor between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv by capturing the roadside cities LOD (Lydda) and Ramle. In the second stage planned operations, strong defensive position overlooking the Tel AvivJerusalem highway and also captured the city of Ramallah. Hadita, near Latrun, was captured by Israel at a cost of 9 dead. The second plan was Operation Dekel, which aims to capture the lower Galilee including Nazareth. The third plan, the less resources were allocated, Operation Kedem, was to secure the Old City of Jerusalem, but failed. In the north, Operation Brosh was launched in a failed effort to oust Syrian troops from the Eastern Galilee and the Benot Yaakov Bridge.
58

Morris, Benny (1988), The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 19471949, Cambridge: Cambridge Middle East Library.

During this operation, 200 Syrians and 100 Israelis were killed. Israeli Air Force also bombed Damascus for the first time. In the south, the IDF carried out several offensives, including Operation An-Far and Operation Death to the invaders. On 12 July, the Egyptians launched an offensive action, and once again attacked Negba, they have failed to capture, using three infantry battalions, an armored battalion, and artillery regiments. In the war that followed, the people of Egypt were repulsed, suffering 200-300 victims, while Israel lost 5 dead and 16 injured. After failing to take Negba, the Egyptians turned their attention to placement and more isolated position. On 14 July, the Egyptian attack on Gal On mine and driven by 1 population by resistance from Gal at that. The Egyptians then attacked villages defended Be'erot Yitzhak light. Egyptians managed to penetrate permimeter village, but the defenders concentrated in the internal position in the village and fought advances IDF Egypt until reinforcements arrived and drove the attackers. The Egyptians suffered about 200 victims, while Israel had 17 dead and 15 injured. The war is one of the last actions abusive Egypt during the war, and the people of Egypt did not attack any Israeli village due to this war.. Danny Operations Israeli armored vehicles in Lydda airport after the capture of the city by the Israeli army. Arab forces surrender to the victorious Israelis in Operation Danny RamlaThe objective to capture territory east of Tel Aviv and then to push inland and relieve the Jewish population and forces in Jerusalem. Lydda had become an important military center in the region, lending support to Arab military activities elsewhere, and Ramle was one of the main obstacles blocking Jewish transportation. Lydda was defended by a local militia of about 1,000 people, with the Arab Legion contingent of 125-300. IDF forces gather to attack the city numbered around 8000. It was the first operation where several brigades involved. This city was attacked from the north via Majdal al-Sadiq and al-Muzayri'a, and from the east via Khulda, al-Qubab, Jimzu and Daniyal. Bombers also used for the first time in the conflict to bombard the city. IDF captured the city on 11 July. Increased to 9-10 450 Arabs and Israeli soldiers were killed. The next day, falling Ramle Lydda and Ramle civilians fled or were driven to the forefront of Arabic, and the resistance in Lydda, the population there dismissed without provision of transport vehicles;. Some evictees died on the long journey under the hot July sun. On July 15 to 16, the attack on Latrun happen but not managed to occupy the fort. A desperate second attempt occurred on 18 July by units of Yiftach Brigade equipped with armored vehicles, including two Cromwell tanks, but the attack also failed. Despite the

second truce, which began on 18 July, the Israeli efforts to conquer Latrun continued until July 20. Operation Dekel During Danny walked in the middle, Operation Dekel was carried out in the north. Nazareth was captured on July 16, and by the time the second truce came into effect on July 18, 19:00, lower Galilee from Haifa Bay around the Sea of Galilee was conquered by Israel. Operation Kedem Originally Operation Kedem was started on July 8, shortly after the first truce, by Irgun and Lehi forces. However, it was delayed by David Shaltiel, possibly because he did not trust their ability after their failure to capture Deir Yassin without Haganah assistance. Irgun forces commanded by Yehuda Lapidot to break through at the New Gate, Lehi was to break down the wall that extends from New Gate to the Jaffa Gate, and Beit Horon Battalion was to strike from Mount Zion. Battle was planned to start on the Sabbath, at 20:00 on July 16, two days before the second ceasefire of the war. The plan was one of the early and delayed first until 23:00 and then to midnight. It was not until 02:30 that the battle actually began. The Irgun managed to break through at the New Gate, but other forces failed in their mission. At 5:45 on July 17, Shaltiel ordered the retreat and to cease hostilities. On July 14, 1948, Irgun occupied the Arab village of Malha after a fierce battle. A few hours later, the Arabs launched a counterattack, but Israeli aid arrives, and the village was taken back at the cost of 17 dead. Second ceasefire: July 18 - October 15, 1948 At 19:00 on July 18, the second conflict ceasefire went into effect after intense diplomatic efforts by the United Nations. On September 16, Count Folke Bernadotte proposed a new partition for Palestine in the Negev will be divided between Jordan and Egypt, and Jordan would annex Lydda and Ramla. There will be a Jewish state in the whole of Galilee, with the border running from northeast Faluja towards Ramla and Lydda. Jerusalem would be internationalized, with municipal autonomy for the Jewish and Arab residents of the city, Haifa Port will become a free port, and Lydda Airport will be complimentary airport. All Palestinian refugees be given the right to return, and those who choose not to return will be compensated for lost property. UN will control and regulate Jewish immigration. The plan was once again rejected by both sides. The following day, 17 September, Bernadotte was

assassinated in Jerusalem by the militant Zionist group Lehi. A team of four Horde ambushed Bernadotte in Jerusalem, killing him and a French UN observer who sat next to him. Lehi see Bernadotte as British puppets and Arabic, and thus a serious threat to the emerging State of Israel, while Israel's fear that the government will accept the plan, which was considered a disaster. Unbeknowest Lehi, the government has decided to reject and continue the battle in a month. Bernadotte's deputy, American Ralph Bunche, replaced him.59 Shoter operations Arabs had blocked traffic along the highway Tel Aviv-Haifa Israel. Attack on 18 June and 8 July failed because of poor planning and stiff resistance by Arab militia in a better position. Shoter operation was launched a week after the ceasefire came into force on the area known as the "Little Triangle" south of Haifa, with the aim of taking the final Arab pocket Tel Aviv-Haifa road. Arabs were blocking the road to traffic along the highway Israel, and did not plan the attack on 18 June and 8 July failed to unearth the Arab militia from a higher position. The operation was launched on July 24, in response to the killing of two Israeli civilians. Israeli attacks on July 24 and 25 have been beaten back by fierce resistance. Israel then broke the Saudi defense with infantry and armor assault backed by heavy artillery and aerial bombing attack. The three Arab villages surrendered, and Israeli soldiers and aircraft struck at one of the Arab retreat routes, killing 60 Arab armies. Arabs claim that Israeli Arabs have killed civilians, but Israel rejected the claim. United Nations investigation found no evidence of genocide. Following the operation, the Tel Aviv-Haifa road opened to traffic Israeli soldiers and civilians, and Arab roadblocks along the route has been eliminated. Train traffic along the coast of Haifa-Hadera also restored. 60 Phase three: October 15, 1948 - March 10, 1949

Israeli operations
Israel launched a series of military operations to oust the Arab armies and secure the borders of Israel.

October Battle
On 15 October, the IDF launched Operation Yoav in the northern Negev. The goal is to drive a wedge between the Egyptian forces along the coast and the road Beersheba-Hebron59 60

Ibid Ibid

Jerusalem and ultimately to conquer the whole Negev. This is a special concern on the part of Israel for the British diplomatic campaign throughout the Negev handed over to Egypt and Jordan, and thus made Ben-Gurion anxious to have the Israeli army in the Negev control as soon as possible. Yoav headed by South Front commander Yigal Allon. Committed to Yoav were three infantry and one armored brigade, which was given the task of breaking through the Egyptian lines. Egyptian position severely weakened by the lack of defense in depth, which means that once the IDF had broken through the Egyptian lines, there is little to stop them. The operation was a huge success, breaking the line of Egypt and the Egyptian military force from northern Negev, Beersheba and Ashdod. In the so-called "Faluja Pocket", which surrounded the Egyptian force can survive for four months until the 1949 Armistice Agreement, when the village is peaceful and the army moved to Israel left Egypt. Four Navy warships to bombard Israel to support the installation of the Egyptian coast in Ashkelon, and prevent Egyptian Navy Egyptian army retreated from the transfer by sea. On 19 October, the naval battle between the three Israeli warships near Majdal, and Egyptian corvette with air support. Israeli sailors were killed and 4 wounded, and two ships were damaged. An Egyptian aircraft were shot down, but the Corvette ran away. Israeli naval vessels also bombed Majdal on October 17, and the Gaza Strip on October 21, with air support from the Israeli Air Force. On the same day, the IDF captured Beersheba, and taking 120 Egyptian soldiers prisoner. On 22 October, Israeli naval commandos using explosive boats sank the Egyptian flagship Emir Farouk, and destructive Egyptian minesweeper. An Israeli mortar team outside Safsaf in October 1948On October 22, 3 ceasefire went into effect. Irregular Arab forces refuse to recognize the truce, and continue to interfere with the Israeli army and settlements in the north. On the same day that a ceasefire came into power, the Arab Liberation Army violated the ceasefire by attacking Manara, capturing the strongpoint Sheikh Abed, repulsing counterattacks by local Israeli units, and ambushed Israeli forces attempting to relieve Manara. IDF Carmeli Brigade lost 33 dead and 40 injured. Manara and Misgav Am completely severed, and Israeli objections in the United Nations failed to change the situation. On 24 October, the IDF launched Operation Hiram and captured the entire upper Galilee, driving the ALA and the Lebanese army back to Lebanon, and successfully ambushing and destroying whole battalions of Syria. Israeli force of four infantry brigades were commanded by Moshe Carmel. The entire operation for only 60 hours, where many villages are caught, often after locals or Arab forces put make resistance. Arab losses were estimated at 400 dead and 550 taken prisoner, with low Israeli victims. Some prisoners were

reportedly executed by the Israeli army. An estimated 50,000 Palestinian refugees fled to Lebanon, most of them fled before the advancing forces, and some expelled from villages that were opposed, while the Arab population of those who remained peaceful village be allowed to stay and become citizens of Israel. Iqrit and Birim villagers were persuaded to leave their homes by the Israeli authorities, who promised them that they would be allowed to return. Israel finally decided to not allow them to return, and offering them financial compensation, which they refused to accept. At the end of the month, the IDF has arrested around Galilee, driven all Lebanese troops out of Israel, and had advanced 5 miles (8.0 km) into Lebanon to the Litani River, occupying 13 Lebanese villages. In the village of Hula, two Israeli officers killed between 35 and 58 prisoners in retaliation for the massacre of Haifa Oil Refinery. Both officers were later tried for their actions. Israeli troops occupying trenches Huleiqat left Egypt, October 1948 IDF troops during Operation Yoav Beersheba. On November 9, 1948, the IDF launched Operation Shmone to capture the Tegart fort in the Iraqi village Suwaydan. Egyptian defenders before this fortress repulsed eight attempts to take it, including two during Operation Yoav. Israeli army bombarded the fort before an assault. After violate isolated gate unchallenged, Israel blew a hole in the outer wall fortifications, which led the Egyptian army which operates 180 fort surrender without a fight. The defeat leaves the Egyptians to evacuate several nearby positions, including hills the IDF had failed to take by force. Meanwhile, IDF forces met with stiff resistance in Iraq Suwaydan itself, losing 6 dead and 14 wounded. From 5 to 7 December, the IDF run BD Operations to take control of the Western Negev. The main attacks were led by the power of the machine, while the Golani Brigade infantry covered the rear. A counterattack in Egypt was repulsed. Egyptians planned another counterattack, but it failed after Israeli aerial reconnaissance revealed Egyptian preparations and Israel launched a preemptive strike. About 100 Egyptians were killed, and 5 tanks were destroyed, with Israel losing 5 killed and 30 wounded. On 22 December, the IDF forces driving Israel out of Egypt balances with Operation Horev (also called Operation Ayin). Operational goal is to get the whole Negev from Egyptian presence, destroying the Egyptian threat on Israel's southern communities and forcing the Egyptians into a ceasefire. Within five days of fighting, Israel expel the Egyptians from the Negev. Israeli army staged a raid Nitzana area, and entered the Sinai Peninsula on December 28. IDF captured Umm and Abu Ageila Katef, and move north towards Al Arish,

with the goal of surrounding the entire Egyptian expedition team. Israeli troops pulled out of the Sinai on January 2, 1949 following a joint British-American pressure and the threat of British military action. IDF troops were back at the border with the Gaza Strip. Rafah, Israeli forces raided the next day, and after several days of fighting, the Egyptian army in the Gaza Strip has been surrounded. Egyptians agreed to negotiate a cease-fire on January 7, and then pulled the IDF out of Gaza. On December 28, Brigade Alexandroni failed to take Falluja Pocket, but managed to grab Iraq el-Manshiyeh and temporary hold. Egyptians counterattacked, but were mistaken for a friendly energy and is allowed to develop, trapping a large number of men. Israel lost 87 soldiers. On March 5, Uvda operation launched after almost a month of reconnaissance, with the goal of mastering the Negev south of Jordan. IDF in and acquire territory, but did not meet significant resistance along the way, because the area has been designated to be part of the Jewish state in the UN Partition Plan, and operations designed to establish Israel's sovereignty over the territory rather than actually conquer. Golani, the Negev, and Alexandroni brigade took part in the operation, along with a number of smaller units and naval support. On March 10, Israeli forces reached Umm Rashrash Red Sea (where Eilat was built later) and take without fighting. Israeli soldiers lift handmade Israeli flag ("Ink Flag") at 16:00 hours on March 10, claiming Rashrash Umm for Israel. Flag-raising Ink regarded as the end of the war. Air Battles of the Anglo-Israel Remains of the Royal Air Force pilots were killed in a clash with Israeli Air ForceAs advanced fighting and Israel mounted an attack to Sinai, the Royal Air Force began conducting almost daily reconnaissance missions over Israel and Sinai. RAF reconnaissance plane took off from airbases Egypt and sometimes flew with the Royal Egyptian Air Force aircraft. British highflying aircraft often fly over Haifa and Ramat David Airbase, and became known to Israel as "shuftykeit." 61 On November 20, 1948, 1 unarmed RAF photo-reconnaissance De Havilland Mosquito No. 13 Squadron RAF was shot down by 1 Israeli Air Force P-51 Mustang flown by American volunteer Wayne Peake as it flew over the Galilee to the Hatzor Airbase. Peake opened fire with artillery, causing a fire to break the port engine. The aircraft turned to the sea and lowering the height, then exploded and crashed off Ashdod. Both crew were killed.

61

"Iaf V Raf". Spyflight.co.uk. Retrieved 2010 June 26. http://www.spyflight.co.uk/iafvraf.htm.

Shortly before noon on January 7, 1949, four FR18s Spitfire from No. 208 Squadron RAF reconnaissance mission in Deir al-Balah area flew over Israeli convoy that was attacked by five Egyptian Spitfires fifteen minutes earlier. The pilots have spotted smoking vehicles, and have been prepared to the scene out of curiosity. Two planes dive below 500 feet elevation to take pictures convoy, while the other two covered them from 1,500 feet. Israeli troops on the ground, informed by sound Spitfires approaching and fear another Egyptian air attack, opened fire with machine guns. One Spitfire was shot down by a tank mounted machine guns, while others were damaged lightly and quickly pulled over. The remaining three Spitfires were attacked by patrolling IAF Spitfires flown by Slick Goodlin and John McElroy, volunteers from the United States and Canada respectively. The three Spitfires were shot down, and one pilot was killed. Two pilots were captured by Israeli forces and taken to Tel Aviv for interrogation, and then released. Others were rescued by Bedouins and handed over to the Egyptian military, which makes him the RAF. On the same day, four RAF Spitfires from the same squadron escorted by seven No.. 8 No. 213 Squadron RAF 6 Squadron RAF Hawker storm went looking for the missing aircraft, and was attacked by four IAF Spitfires. The establishment of Israel was led by Ezer Weizman. The remaining three were conducted by Weizman wingman Alex Jacobs and American volunteers Bill Schroeder and Caesar Dangott. Storm finds they can not Jettison external fuel tanks, and some have nonoperational guns. Schroeder shot down British Tempest, killing pilot David Tattersfield. Weizmann severely damaged a British plane flown by Douglas Liquorish, but the plane itself was lightly damaged by RAF pilot Brian Spragg. Two other British aircraft were lightly damaged during the engagement. Battle ended after the British wiggled their wings to be more clearly identified, and Israel finally realized the danger of their situation and released, returning to Hatzor Airbase. A salvage team was deployed to RAF demanded that the plane wreck was shot down, entering Israeli territory during their search. Two found in Egypt, and later confirmed by local Arabs that Israeli forces had visited the crash site, remove various parts of wrecks, and buried the other aircraft. Tempest tattersfield found in northern Nirim, four miles in Israel. Tattersfield was initially buried near the wreckage, but his body was later removed and reburied at the British War Cemetery in Ramla. In response, the RAF provided all the storms and the Spitfires attack any IAF aircraft they faced and bomb IAF airport. All British troops in the Middle East were put on alert, all leave has been canceled for the British army, and British citizens have been advised to leave Israel. In Hatzor Airbase, general consensus among pilots, most of whom have flown by or co-RAF during World War II, is that the RAF would not allow the loss of five aircraft and two

pilots went without reprisal, and will probably attack the base at dawn the next day. That night, in anticipation of the impending British attack, some pilots decided not to offer any resistance and left the base, while the number of available pilots and Spitfires that they were tied to a chair in the morning, ready to repel air attack response. However, British commanders refused to authorize any retaliation. Days following the event, the British pilot had issued a directive to assume that any Israeli aircraft infiltrated Egyptian or Jordanian airspace as enemy and shoot them, but also were instructed to avoid activities near the border with Israel. British diplomacy in support of the Arabs of the disputed neutrality of this section. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Please help improve this article by introducing citations of additional resources. Discussion about the problems with the sole source used may be found on the talk page. Britain, which at that time was one of the major powers in the Middle East, supporting the Arabs. The reasons for this have been carried out in the British staff memo stating "No proposed solution to the Palestinian problem will be. Alienate Arab nations If one of the two communities had to be antagonized, it is better, in terms of sheer military, that the solution must be found that does not involve ongoing hostility of the Arabs; event our difficulties will not be confined to Palestine, but will extend throughout the entire Middle East diplomat Sir John Toutbeck wrote: "We (and the Arabs) is a partner in trouble on this question. Jewish state is no more for our benefit than the Arabs .... Our whole strategy in ME founded when holding the base securely in Egypt, but the basic utility must gravely affected if we can not move out except through a hostile country ".62 Moreover, it is an article of faith most British policymakers that most Jewish Communists, and that Israel would be bound to become a Communist country, giving the Soviet Union-held foot in the Middle East. For these reasons, the British in the months before May 1948 have been doing their best to encumber and block partitioning. Trygve Lie wrote in his memoirs with some anger: "Great Britain has been put before the Assembly the Palestinians declare with confidence that the agreement between Arabs and Jews is not achievable. This does not prevent the British representative, (Colonial Secretary) Arthur Creech Jones, from informing the House that Britain will have an impact only on the plan received by Arabs and Jews ....

62

Karsh, op.cit, p73

The British approach proved to be appropriate, in my opinion with the letter or spirit of either the distribution plan ".63 United Kingdom could not progressively turn over power to the Palestinian Commission as Assembly resolution provided, but only abruptly and completely on May 15. Neither did "assume good any recommendations by the Commission to proceed to Palestine earlier than two weeks before the date of termination of the Mandate". London will not allow the establishment of the militia called the Assembly resolution, it will facilitate the delineation of the border. Another Assembly has recommended that the United Kingdom strives to move by February 1 port and the hinterland in the Jewish state adequate to provide for immigration ". General Sir Alan Cunningham wrote to Creech Jones at this time to complain "It seems to me that HMG policy now just to get the Palestinians as soon as possible without regard to consequences in Palestine". In February 1948, the British Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin assured the Prime Minister of Jordan Tawfiz Abu al-Huda British support for the invasion of Jordan as soon as the British left Palestine. British officials consider the prospects for the Arab invasion well as offering the best opportunity to cancel the UN partition resolution and cut Israel "to size". Bernard Burrows Department of Middle East British Foreign Office wrote: "It is tempting to think that Jordan probably overstepped the boundaries of the Jewish state of the United Nations (UN) as creating a corridor across the Southern Negev joining the existing territory of Jordan to the Mediterranean and Gaza. This will have a huge strategic advantage for us, both of two in cutting the Jewish State, and therefore Communist influence, off from the Red Sea and the Mediterranean area where the expanding military and political influence is dominant to provide a way to send and other military equipment needed to Jordan through routes other than self rotate through Aqaba".64 On May 20, Bevin informed Baron Inverchapel, British Ambassador to the United States: "I do not (repeat not) intend in the near future to recognize the Jewish state and still less to support any proposal that it should become a member of the United Nations (UN). In this regard, I hope that even through the U.S. has recognized de facto Jewish state they will not own any right recognized borders. It is possible that if the two sides ever accept a

63 64

Ibid Ibid, p76

compromise it will be different from the base boundary proposed in the General Assembly Partition Plan ".65 In this case, the British have launched a diplomatic offensive that continued to the United Nations (UN) recognizes all areas taken by the Arabs as their own Arab countries, especially Jordan and to reduce Israel's borders became more or less the Peel Plan 1937 was advised. In the early days of the war, the British delegation at the UN blocked all efforts cease-fire (which is perceived to hurt the Arabs, who won the war at this point more than Israel) and because of fears that Article 39 of Chapter 7 of the UN Covenant might involve sanctions against Arab countries. The change in the British position ceasefire in the spring of 1948 when Arab armies that have large chunks of Palestine with Egypt that holds a lot of the Negev and Jordan hold a large section of central Palestine. Sir Ronald Ian Campbell, the British Ambassador to Egypt was instructed by Bevin to tell the Egyptian government after the first ceasefire: "It may be assumed that the ceasefire will be used by Jews to establish an effective administration not only in parts of their November State which are behind military lines, but also in the Arab territories they have occupied, such as Central and Northern Galilee . If the Arabs are to be in a show on the same terms, it is important that they need to establish some real authority in the areas behind the lines occupied by their forces. This is especially important in the area for frontline south of Egypt. most of this area has been awarded to Jews in November, and the Jewish settlements there are still holding and may maintain relationships with Tel Aviv. We shall have great difficulty in supporting the Arab claim to retain this part of Palestinians unless it can show that it is in fact and not in name only under Arab administration during the cease-fire .... "66 Finally as part of a diplomatic effort to support the Arab war effort, British support arms embargo perceived to favor the Arabs more than the Israelis. British reasoning behind the arms embargo is that it has been a long time it is in place, the United States would be prevented from supplying arms to Israel, and if the restriction has been lifted and the United States can provide far greater numbers of weapons to Israel from Britain could supply arms to Arabs. UN Resolution 1941. In December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations passed Resolution 194 which declared (amongst other things) that in the context of a general peace agreement "refugees wishing to return to their homes and live in peace with
65 66

Ibid Ibid, p79

their neighbors should be permitted to do so "and that" compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return. "resolution also mandated the creation of the peace Commission of the United Nations. However, the resolution was never implemented, resulting in the Palestinian refugee crisis. Most of the weapons remains of World War II era weapons were used by both sides. Egypt had some British equipment; Syrian army has some French. German, Czechoslovak and British equipment was used by the Israelis. 67 Arab Israeli War of 1948 impact After the 1949 Armistice Agreement In 1949, Israel signed separate armistices with Egypt on February 24, Lebanon on March 23, Jordan on 3 April, and Syria on July 20. Armistice Demarcation Lines, as set by the agreement, look at the area under Israeli control covering about three-quarters of Mandate Palestine. This is about one-third more than that allocated to the Jewish state under the partition proposals of the United Nations (UN). Armistice lines were known afterwards as the "Green Line". Gaza Strip and West Bank occupied by Egypt and Jordan respectively. Supervision truce United Nations Organization and Mixed Armistice Commission was set up to monitor ceasefires, supervise armistice agreements, to prevent isolated incidents from rising, and helped the UN peacekeeping operations in the region. Israel lost 6373 people, about 1% of the population of the country, in war. About 4,000 soldiers and the rest were civilians. The actual number of Arab losses is unknown, but estimated to be between 8,000 and 15,000. Demographics: Migration Palestine 1948 Palestinian migration Reason, 1948, and the migration of Jews from Arab Lands Jewish exodus from Arab Countries 1947-1972 Jewish exodus from Arab Countries and Islam Arab-Israeli war in 1948 Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen) Operation Ezra and Nehemiah Jakin Operations Removal of Egyptian Jews in 1956

67

Weapons of the Arab-Israeli Wars. Retrieved 2012 May 16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War

Immigrants camps Maabarot During the 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War that followed, around 750,000 Palestinian Arabs who fled or were expelled from their homes, from about 1.2 million Palestinians living in the former Palestinian Mandate. In 1951, the UN Commission for Palestinian reconciliation estimates that the number of Palestinian refugees displaced from Israel was 711,000. This number does not include displaced Palestinians inside Israeli-held territory. More than 400 Arab villages, and about ten villages and neighborhoods Jews deported during the Arab-Israeli conflict. According to estimates based on an earlier census, the total population is 1,143,336 moslim in Palestine in 1947. 1948 exodus Palestinian cause is a topic of controversy among historians. Displaced Palestinian Arabs, known as the Palestinian refugees, have settled in Palestinian refugee camps throughout the Arab world. United Nations (UN) established the UNRWA relief and human development agency tasked with providing humanitarian aid to Palestinian refugees. Arab countries refused to absorb the Palestinian refugees, rather than keeping them in refugee camps insisting that they be allowed to return. Refugee status are also passed on to their offspring, which also largely denied citizenship in Arab countries. Descendants of refugees were denied citizenship in the countries hosting them. Arab League instructed its members to deny Palestinians citizenship "to avoid dissolution of their identity and protect their right to return to their homeland." More than 1.4 million Palestinians still live in 58 recognized refugee camps. Palestinian refugee problem and the right of return is also debate about the key issues of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Arab Palestinians and their supporters have held annual demonstrations and commemorations that on 15 May each year, known as the "Nakba Day". The popularity and number of participants in the annual al Nakba demonstrations has varied from time to time. During the Second Intifada after the failure of the Camp David summit in 2000, attendance at demonstrations against Israel increased. During the War of 1948, about 10,000 Jews were forced to flee their homes in Palestine or Israel, but in the three years after the war, 700,000 Jews lived in Israel, especially along the borders and in former Arab lands. Around 136 000 comes from 250,000 Jewish refugees of World War II. About 270,000 other Jews came from Eastern Europe. Another 300,000 arrived from the Arab world and Islam as part of Jewish exodus from Arab countries and Muslims. Most immigrants were forcibly removed by their respective governments, while others left voluntarily, either to escape antisemitic violence and genocide and persecution by the government brought by war or by political instability, or left to settle in Israel conviction Zionist or find a better one economically and get home in the

West. They formed the first wave of 800,000-1,000,000 Jewish people during the next thirty years will flee or were expelled from the Arab world Approximately 680,000 of them migrated to Israel, others mostly live in Europe (particularly France) or the United . Israel initially depends on the tent camp run by the Jewish Agency called immigrant camps to accommodate Jewish refugees from Europe and Islamic countries. In the 1950s, it was transformed into a transition camp, where living conditions have improved and the tents were replaced with tin dwellings. In contrast to the situation in the camps of immigrants, when the Jewish Agency provided to immigrants, the population shift camps needed to provide for themselves. The camps began to decline in 1952, with a final closing in 1963. Largely camps change permanent settlements known as urban development, while others are absorbed as neighborhood cities they serve, and the people given permanent housing in these cities and neighborhoods. Most of the cities eventually evolved into the development of the city. Some Jewish immigrants were also given an empty house Palestinian refugees. There are also trying to solve the Jewish refugees from Arab countries and Muslims in moshavim (cooperative farming villages), though these efforts are not only a success, because they have history artisans and merchants in their home countries, and traditionally involves in farm work. Conclusion After the war, the Israeli and Palestinian historiographies different interpretation of the events of 1948: the majority view in the West is a small group of Jews who were far outnumbered and ill-equipped fighting force assembled Arab armies that attacked it also is widely believed that the Arabs of Palestine to leave the house them on the orders of their leaders. From 1980, with the opening of the Israeli and British archives, some Israeli historians have developed within different accounts. In particular, the role played by Abdullah I of Jordan, the British government, the Arab goal during the war, the balance of force and the events related to the Palestinian issue has been nuanced or given new interpretations. Some of them are still hot among historians and commentators of the conflict today. Bibliografi Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli wars. 1982. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780853683674

Charles Herbert Levermore; Denys Peter Myers (1921). Yearbook of the League of Nations.

The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. pp. 63. Retrieved 3 May 2011.

http://books.google.com/books?id=MwOtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA63. "Charter of the United Nations: CHAPTER XI: DECLARATION REGARDING NON-SELF-

GOVERNING TERRITORIES".
http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter11.shtml. Retrieved 1 January 2012. "b. to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive development of their free political institutions, according to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of advancement;" Gelber, Y. 2006. Palestine, 1948: war, escape and the emergence of the Palestinian refugee

problem. 2nd ed. Sussex Academic Press, p. 137-138. "A war between Israel and the
Arab States broke out immediately, and the Arab armies invaded Palestine." Morris, Benny (1988), The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 19471949, Cambridge: Cambridge Middle East Library. Shlaim, Avi (2001). Israel and the Arab Coalition. In Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim (eds.).

The War for Palestine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (p. 79103

Chapter 4 Arab-Israeli Conflict (II) - Suez War, 1956 Introduction Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression or Suez War, it is the end of the diplomatic and military confrontation in 1956 between Egypt on the one hand, and Britain, France and Israel on the other, with the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Nations (UN) plays a key role in forcing Britain, France and Israel to withdraw. Less than a day after Israel invaded Egypt, Britain and France issued an ultimatum to Egypt and Israel together, and then began to bomb Cairo. Despite the denial of the Israeli government, the British and French, evidence began to appear that the attack on Egypt was planned in advance by the three powers. The forces of the Anglo-French withdrawal before the end of the year, but Israeli forces remained until March 1957, prolonging the crisis. In April, the canal is fully reopened to shipping, but other consequences followed. Attack followed the President of the results of the July 26, 1956 Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, nationalize the Suez Canal, after the withdrawal of one bid by Britain and the United States to finance the construction of the Aswan High Dam, which is in response to Egypt's new ties with the Soviet Union and recognizing the People's Republic of China during the height of tensions between China and Taiwan. The purpose is mainly to control the invasion of Western canal and to remove Nasser from power. Three allies, especially Israel, particularly successful in achieving their military objectives immediately, but pressure from the United States and the USSR in the United Nations (UN) and elsewhere forced them to withdraw. Due to outside pressure Britain and France failed in their political objectives and strategic control of the canal and removing Nasser from power. Israel to meet certain objectives, such as achieving freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. By the conflict, UNEF Egypt-Israel border police to prevent both sides from recommencing hostilities. Some sources assert that the crisis that began on July 26 with the nationalization of the canal, and that the military action by Britain, France and Israel is their response to the crisis. 68 Background Suez Canal opened in 1869, after ten years of work funded by the governments of France and Egypt. The canal was operated by the Universal Company of Suez Maritime Canal, an
68

"Suez crisis" 2003. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press,.

Egyptian-chartered company; canals surrounding areas remained sovereign Egyptian territory and the only land bridge between Africa and Asia. Canal instantly became strategically important, it provides the shortest sea link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Canal trade relief for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain and govern their colonies. In 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian government has been forced to sell shares in the canal operating company to the British Benjamin Disraeli. They are buyers ready and get 44% shares in the canal operating for less than 4 million; retains majority shareholding mostly French private investors. With the invasion of Egypt in 1882 and occupied the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country and right channels, and financial and operations. 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to allow independent international shipping pass through the canal, in times of war and peace. Convention came into force in 1904, the same year as the entente cordiale, between Britain and France. Although this convention, the strategic importance of the Suez Canal and control has been proven during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, after Japan and Britain entered into a separate bilateral agreement. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, Russia has sent aid of their fleet in the Baltic Sea. The British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced to steam around the entire continent of Africa, giving the Japanese time to strengthen their position in the Far East. The importance of the canal as a strategic intersection again significantly during the First World War, when Britain and France were shut down non-Allied shipping canal. Attempts by the German-Ottoman army to storm the Canal in February 1915 caused the British to commit 100,000 troops for the defense of Egypt during the First World War. Continue to strategically important canal after the Second World War as a conduit for oil shipments. Petroleum business Daniel Yergin writes the history: "In 1948, the canal abruptly lost traditional rationale .... British control over the canal no longer be maintained on the ground that it is important for the defense of either India or parts of the empire being and again, right at the same time, the canal got a new role - as the highway not of empire, but oil. By 1955, oil accounted for half of the canal traffic, and thus, two-thirds of European oil through. At that time, Western Europe imported two million barrels (bbls) per day from the Middle East, 1.2 million by ship through the Canal, and another 800,000 via pipeline from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, where tankers received it. U.S. import another 300,000 bbls. every day from the Middle East. Although the pipeline connecting oil fields of Iraq and

the Persian Gulf states to the Mediterranean, this route tends to suffer from instability, which led British leaders to choose to use the sea route through the Suez Canal. As it is, the rise of super tankers to Middle East oil shipments to Europe, that is not too large to use the Suez Canal meant that policy-makers of the mighty British overestimated the importance of the canal. By 2000, only 8% of imported oil in Britain arrived via the Suez canal to the other will come through the Cape route. In August 1956, the Royal Institute of International Affairs published a report entitled "Britain and the Suez Canal" revealing government perception of the Suez area. It repeats several times the strategic needs of the Suez Canal the United Kingdom, including the need to meet military obligations under the Manila Pact in the Far East and the Baghdad Pact in Iraq, Iran, or Pakistan. The report also shows how the canal was used in past wars and could be used in future wars to transport troops from power up to Australia and New Zealand in the event of war in Europe. 69 Events leading to the Suez Crisis Postwar Years After the Second World War, Britain had to reassess its role in the region in view of the severe economic constraints and colonial history. The economic potential of the Middle East, with large oil reserves, as well as the geo-strategic importance of the Suez Canal against the background of the Cold War, prompted Britain to consolidate and strengthen its position there. The governments of Egypt and Iraq were seen as crucial to maintaining strong British influence in the region. Britain's military strength was spread throughout the region, including the vast military complex at Suez with a garrison of about 80,000 people, making it one of the largest military installation in the world. Suez base was considered the first important part of Britain's strategic position in the Middle East; However, increasingly it is becoming a growing source of tension in Anglo-Egyptian relations, Egyptian politics after the war in the country has undergone a radical change, in accordance with. no small part by economic instability, inflation, and unemployment. Unrest began to manifest itself in the growth of radical political groups, such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, and the increasingly hostile attitude towards Britain and its presence in the country. This coupled with the spirit of the anti-British role Britain has played in the creation of Israel. Thus, the Egyptian government began to reflect population and the first anti-British policy began to permeate Egypt's relations with Britain.
69

Donald Watt, "Britain and the Suez Canal", Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1956, p. 8.

In October 1951, the Egyptian government unilaterally cancel the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936, given the conditions of the lease on the basis of Suez Britain for 20 years. Britain refused to withdraw from Suez, too dependent on the rights agreement, and so the presence of the Suez garrison. Price action course is a steady increase in the increasingly violent hostility towards Britain and British troops in Egypt, where the Egyptian authorities did little to curb. On January 25, 1952, British attempts to disarm a police force barracks in Ismailia resulted in additional burden of death of the Egyptians 41. This in turn led to anti-Western riots in Cairo cause heavy damage to property and the deaths of several foreigners, including 11 British citizens. This proved to be a catalyst to eliminate the Egyptian monarchy. On July 23, 1952 a military coup by officers' movement led by Mohammed Percuma'-Neguib and future Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser-overthrew the King Farouk and established an Egyptian republic. Since the establishment of Israel in 1948, cargo shipments and from Israel has been subjected to search the truth of Egypt, and seizure when trying to go through the Suez Canal. On 1 September 1951, the United Nations Security Council Resolution 95 of the United Nations called Egypt: "... to terminate the restrictions on freight and international trade of goods through the Suez Canal, in wherever bound, and to cease all interference with shipping The "This interference and confiscation, contrary to the laws of the canal (Article 1 of the 1888 Suez Canal Convention), increased following the coup. Post-revolution periodBritain desire to improve relations following the Anglo-Egyptian coup saw her strive for rapprochement throughout 1953 and 1954. Part of this process is the agreement, in 1953, to end British rule in Sudan in 1956 in response to demands for a powerful left Cairo on the Nile Valley region. In October 1954, Britain and Egypt concluded an agreement on the phased evacuation of British troops from the Suez base, the terms of which have agreed to the withdrawal of all troops in 20 months, basic maintenance to continue, and for Britain to hold the right to return for seven years. Suez Canal Company was not due to return to the Egyptian government until 16 November 1968 under the terms of the agreement. Although the establishment of any agreement with the British, Nasser's position remained tenuous. Egypt's claim to Sudan's loss, coupled with the continued presence of Britain at Suez for a further two years, led to domestic unrest including an assassination attempt against him in October 1954. Weak nature of Nasser's rule caused him to believe that his regime, nor Egypt's independence would be safe until Egypt had established itself as

a leader of the Arab world. This will manifest itself challenging the British Middle Eastern interests throughout 1955. At the same time, the United States has been trying to lure Nasser into a federation. The main problem for American policy in the Middle East is that the region was seen as strategically important as oil, but due to the U.S. defense commitment to Europe and the Far East the lack of sufficient troops to oppose Soviet aggression in the Middle East. In 1952, General Omar Bradley's Joint Chiefs of Staff declared in a planning session on what to do in case of a Soviet invasion of the Near East: "If the staff will come from It will take a lot of stuff to do there job?" Thus, the creation of an American diplomat in favor of the NATO organization types in the Near East. to provide the necessary military force to prevent the Soviets from invading the region. The main dilemma for American policymakers is that the two dominant forces in the Near East, Britain and France are also the ones that many local nationalists objected to the most. From 1953 onwards, American diplomacy has tried unsuccessfully to persuade the powers involved in the Near East, both local and imperial aside their differences and unite against the Soviet Union. United took the same view as fear of the Soviet Union has helped to end the Franco-German hostility historic, so that anti-Communism too can end the Arab-Israeli conflict more recent. It is a source of constant puzzle to U.S. officials in 1950 that the Arab countries and Israel seems to have an interest in fighting each other instead unite against the Soviet Union. In May 1953, during a meeting with U.S. Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, who asked Egypt to join the anti-Soviet alliance, Nasser responded by saying that the Soviet Union never occupied our territory .. but the British have been here for over seventy years. How can I go to my people and tell them I ignore killer with gun 60 yards from me in the Suez Canal to worry about a person holding a knife a thousand miles away? Dulles informed Nasser of his belief that the Soviet Union sought world conquest, that the main danger came from the Near East to the Kremlin, and urged Nasser to put aside his differences with Britain to focus on against the Soviet Union. In this spirit, Dulles suggested that Nasser negotiated a deal that would see Egypt take over sovereignty over the Canal Zone base, but then allowed the British to have "technical control" in the same way that the Ford car company provided the training to the dealer and Egypt . Nasser did not share the fear Dulles, the Soviet Union took over the Middle East, and quite vehemently insisted that he wanted to see the final total of all British influence not only in Egypt, but all the Middle East. The CIA Offered $ 3 million bribe Nasser if he would join the proposed Middle East Defense Organization; Nasser took the money, but then

refused to participate. While America is trying to set up in the form of federal Middle East still born Defence Organisation to keep the Soviet Union out of the Near East, the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev's new leadership has made a major effort to win influence "world 3" supposedly. As part of a diplomatic offensive, Khrushchev had abandoned traditional line Moscow treating all communists not as an enemy and adopting one new tactic of making friends with so-called "non-aligned" countries, which are often led by a nonCommunist leaders , but in a different way is hostile to the West. Khrushchev realized that by treating the non-communist as the same thing as an anti-communist, Moscow has wasted alienated a lot of friends that may occur throughout the year in the third world. Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai who met Nasser at the Bandung Summit 1955 impressed him, recommended that Khrushchev treat Nasser as potential allies. Zhou described as a nationalist Nasser for younger Khrushchev, the Communist although if used properly can not do much damage to Western interests in the Middle East. Marshal Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, who also came to know in Bandung Nasser told the meeting Khrushchev in 1955 that "Nasser was a young man without much political experience, but if we give him the benefit of doubt, we may be able to exert a beneficial influence on him, both because the Communist movement, and the people of Egypt. " Traditionally, most of the equipment in the Egyptian army had come from Britain, but Nasser's desire to break the British influence in Egypt means that he is desperate to find new sources to replace Britain's arms. Nasser has started broached the subject of buying arms from the Soviet Union in 1954. Not siding with either super-power, Nasser took the spoiler role and trying to play off the super power for them to compete with each other in an attempt to buy friendship. Option 1 Nasser to buy U.S. weapons, but frequent anti-Israel speech and sponsorship for that was fedayeen raids into Israel has made it difficult for the Eisenhower administration to get congressional approval to sell arms to Egypt. American public opinion is so hostile towards selling arms to Egypt that could be used against Israel. Nasser has let it be known in the year 1954-55 that he was considering to buy weapons from the Soviet Union as a means of urging Americans to sell him weapons he wanted. Hope Nasser Egypt faced with the prospect of buying Soviet weapons and thus come under Soviet influence the Eisenhower administration would be forced to sell Egypt weapons he wants. Khrushchev who desperately want to win the influence of the Soviet Union in the Middle East, is more than ready to complete Egypt if the U.S. proved unwilling. Britain's close relationship with the two Hashemite kingdom of Iraq and Jordan is special attention to Nasser. In particular, getting a good relationship with Britain Iraq is a threat to the desire to see Egypt as head of the Arab world Nasser. The creation of the

Baghdad Pact in 1955 seemed to confirm Nasser's fears that Britain was attempting to pull the Eastern Arab World into one block centered on Iraq, and sympathetic to Britain. Nasser reaction 1 series of challenges to British influence in the region that will culminate in the Suez Crisis. British disappointment aimsThroughout 1955 and 1956 Nasser pursue policies that will disappoint some British goals throughout the Middle East, and results in a more pronounced hostility between Britain and Egypt. Nasser "... played widespread suspicion that any Western defense pact merely veiled colonialism and that Arab disunity and weakness-especially in the struggle with Israel is a consequence of British machinations." He also began to align Egypt with Saudi Arabia's ruling government is the hereditary enemy of the Hashemites in an effort to thwart British efforts to draw Syria, Jordan and Lebanon into orbit Baghdad Pact. Nasser frustrated British attempts to draw Jordan into the pact by sponsoring demonstrations in Amman, leading King Hussein expel the British commander of the Arab Legion Glubb Pasha in March 1956 and throwing Britain's Middle Eastern security policy into chaos. Nasser struck a further blow against Britain by negotiating an arms deal with communist Czechoslovakia in September 1955 thereby ending Egypt's reliance on Western arms. Later, other members of the Warsaw Pact also sold arms to Egypt and Syria. In practice, all sales from the Eastern Bloc were approved by the Soviet Union, in an effort to increase Soviet influence throughout the Middle East. This causes tension in the United States because Warsaw Pact nations now have a strong presence in the region. Increasingly Nasser came to be seen within the British - and in particular by Prime Minister Anthony Eden - as a dictator, like Benito Mussolini. Ironically, the building crisis, it is the Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell and the left-wing newspaper, the tabloid Mirror began to make the comparison between Nasser and Mussolini. Anglo-Egyptian relations would continue on their downward spiral. At the same time, French Premier Guy Mollet, who face a serious war in Algeria, where the FLN rebels are supported by a growing Egyptian, have come to view Nasser as a major threat. During his visit to London in March 1956, Mollet to Eden that the country was faced with the threat of Islamic 1 very French soul backed by the Soviet Union Mollet stated that. "All this is the work of Nasser, the same as Hitler's policy was revealed in Mein Kampf. Nasser has an ambition to create the Islamic conquest. But now his position is largely due to Western policy in the building and demolish it." 70

70

Kyle, Keith Suez, London: I.B Tauris , 2011 page 115.

In May 1956, a gathering of veterans of France, where Louis Mangin, who was speaking at a Defence Minister is unable to attend meetings, give speeches violent antiNasser, leader of Egypt compare to Hitler, and Nasser accused of plotting to rule the entire East Middle and want additional Algeria, the "people living in the community with the French".71 Mangin Nasser urged France to stand, and as a strong friend of Israel, called for an alliance with the country against Egypt. Nationalization of the Suez Canal and the Road to Crisis Nasser announced the nationalization of the canal (Universal newsreel, July 30, 1956). Britain was eager to tame Nasser and looked to the U.S. for support. However, President Eisenhower strongly against the British-French military action. Closest Arab ally of America, Saudi Arabia, is just as fundamental against the Baghdad Pact Hashemite-dominated Egypt, and the United States is keen to increase its own influence in the region. Failure of the Baghdad Pact assisted goal by reducing Britain's dominance in the region. "Great Britain would like to overthrow Nasser America, however uncomfortable with the" Czech arms deal ', think smarter to please him. "72 The events that brought the crisis to a head occurred in the spring and summer of 1956. On 16 May, Nasser officially recognized the People's Republic of China, 1 move that angered the United States and the secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, one keen sponsor of Taiwan. These measures, as well as the notion that this project is beyond the capabilities of the Egyptian economy, leading Eisenhower to withdraw all financial support for the Aswan Dam project U.S. on July 19. Eisenhower administration had taken the view that if Nasser was able to get the Soviet economic support for the high dam, which would be beyond the ability of the Soviet Union for support, and so will burden the Soviet-Egyptian relations. Eisenhower wrote in March 1956 that "If Egypt finds itself isolated from the Arab world, and with no allies in sight except Soviet Russia, he would quickly get sick of prospects and will join us in finding a just and decent peace in the region" . Dulles told his brother, CIA Director Allen Dulles, "If they [the Soviets] do make an offer, we can make much use of propaganda in satellite blocks. You do not get bread because you are being squeezed to build a dam." 73 Finally, the Eisenhower administration had been very angry at Nasser plays the U.S. effort against the Soviet Union, and decided to call Nasser's bluff by refusing to finance the

71 72

Ibid pages 116-117. Kissinger, p. 528 73 Gaddis, John Lewis (1998) page 172.

Aswan high dam with the intention of teaching teach Nasser. As early as September 1955, when Nasser announced the purchase of Soviet military equipment via Czechoslovakia Dulles writing in favor of competing for Nasser was probably going to be "one expensive process", one that Dulles wanted to avoid as much as possible. Nasser's response was the nationalization of the Suez Canal. On 26 July, in a speech in Alexandria, Nasser gave a riposte to Dulles. In his speech, he accidentally saying the name of Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the canal, a code word for Egyptian forces to seize control of the canal and implement nationalization. He announced that the nationalization law was published, that all assets of the Suez Canal Company had been frozen, and that the shareholders will be paid their share price by the closing price on the Paris Stock Exchange. On the same day, Egypt closed the canal shipping Israel. Egypt also closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, and blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba, in contravention of the Constantinople Convention of 1888. Many say that this is also violation of the Armistice Agreement 1949. Nationalization of the Suez Canal hit British economic and military interests in the region. Prime Minister Anthony Eden was under immense domestic pressure from Conservative MPs who draw direct comparisons between the events of the 1956 Munich Agreement in 1938. Since the U.S. government does not support the British protests, the British government decided in favor of military intervention against Egypt to avoid the complete collapse of British prestige in the region. Eden has hosted a dinner for King Feisal II of Iraq and Prime Minister Nuri es-Said, when he learned Canal has become the government. They both unequivocally advised Eden to "hit Nasser hard, hit him soon, and his own hit" - a stance shared by the majority of the British people in the next few weeks. "There are a lot of twaddle about Suez," Guy Millard, Eden's private secretaries, and then recorded. "People forget that the policy at that time was very popular." Opposition leader Hugh Gaitskell also at the dinner. He further agreed that military action might be inevitable, but warned Eden would have to keep a close America informed. Jo Grimond, who became leader of the Liberal Party that November, thought if Nasser went unchallenged throughout the Middle East will go on the road. French Prime Minister Guy Mollet Nasser step angry and have absolutely determined that Nasser would not be allowed to get away with it. French public opinion is very supporting of Mollet, and except for the Communists, all the criticism of the government from the right, a very public doubts that the first socialist like Mollet has dared to go to war with Nasser. In an interview with Henry Luce, Mollet held up a copy of the book Philosophy

and Revolution Nasser said: "This is Nasser, Mein Kampf If we are too stupid not to read, understand and draw the obvious conclusion, then so much worse for us"74 On July 29, 1956, the French Cabinet decided military action against Egypt in alliance with Israel, and Nomy Navy Chief of Staff Admiral French was sent to Britain to inform national leaders that what the French have decided to, and invite them to join if they are interested. At the same time, Mollet very offended by what he regarded as the Eisenhower administration mentality nationalization of the Suez Canal Company. This is especially the case since early in 1956, the Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov was offered a deal in exchange for Moscow France ended support for the FLN in Algeria, Paris will pull out of NATO and become neutral in the Cold War. With the way that the war in Algeria has been hit vicious circle of violence rose 1 that French leaders longed to put an end to cabinet Mollet Molotov was tempted by the offer, but in the end, the first Mollet Atlanticist firm has chosen to remain loyal to NATO. In view of the Mollet, his loyalty to NATO has earned him the right to expect support for American firms to Egypt, and when the support is not coming, he became one more determined that if the U.S. is not willing to do anything about Nasser, then France. Direct military intervention, however, ran the risk of damaging the anger of Washington and the Anglo-Arab relations. As a result, the British government concluded a secret military pact with France and Israel aimed at regaining control of the Suez Canal. Diplomacy Anglo-French-American 1956 newsreels about the reaction to nationalization.Pada August 1, 1956, a tripartite meeting was opened at 10 Downing Street between British Foreign Secretary Selwyn Lloyd, U.S. Ambassador Robert D. Murphy and French Foreign Minister Christian Pineau. Soon federation was formed between Eden and Guy Mollet, Prime Minister of France, with its headquarters based in London. General Hugh Stockwell and Admiral Barjot was appointed as Chief of Staff. Britain sought the cooperation of the United States throughout 1956 to deal with what it maintained was a threat of Israeli attack on Egypt, but to little effect. Between July and October 1956, unsuccessful initiatives promoted by the United States have been made to reduce the tension that will eventually lead to war. The international conference was organized to seek agreement on Suez Canal operations but all ended up in vain. Menzies Committee
74

Kyle. K, op.cit, p145

Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies led an international committee in consultation with Nasser in September 1956, seeking to achieve international management Canal. The mission is failed. Subsequent power 18 London Conference involving Australia, Denmark, Ethiopia, France, West Germany, Iran, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, Britain, and the United States (U.S.) Prime Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies, was sent to Cairo to serve as chairman of the committee charged with the negotiations that led to Nasser. Menzies, is an elder statesman of the British Commonwealth, who felt that Nasser threatened action trading nations such as Australia. Menzies' argued publicly that the Western powers had built the canal trade, but Egypt now seek to exclude them from the ownership or management role. 75 September Menzies '7 official communique to Nasser presents a case for compensation for the Suez Canal Company and the "establishment of principles" for future use Canal which will ensure that it "will continue to be an international waterway operate independently of political or national discrimination, and the financial structure so safely and international confidence is so high that the future of an expanding and growing to be guaranteed Canal "and called for the Convention to recognize the sovereignty of Egypt Canal, but for the establishment of an international body conducting canal. Nasser look like steps "to reduce the sovereignty of Egypt" and rejecting Menzies. Nasser Menzies imply that Britain and France might use force to resolve the crisis, but the United States President Eisenhower publicly opposed the use of force and Menzies leave Egypt without success. Protocol Three months after Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal company, a secret meeting took place at Svres, outside Paris. Britain and France seek federal support for Israel against Egypt. The parties agreed that Israel would invade the Sinai. Britain and France would intervene, purportedly to separate the warring Israeli and Egyptian forces, ordered both to withdraw to a distance of 16 kilometers from both sides of the canal. British and French would argue that an important route to Egyptian control is too weak, and that it should be placed under Anglo-French management. David Ben-Gurion did not trust the British as their agreement with Jordan and he did not initially support the plan, because it will only make Israel look like the aggressor, but he soon agreed to since a good opportunity to strike back at Egypt may no longer presents itself.

75

Brian Carroll; From Barton to Fraser; Cassell Australia; 1978

StatesThe importance of motivation involves the parties are diverse. Britain was anxious lest it lose efficient access to the remains of the empire. Both the French and the British felt that Nasser should be removed from power. French "held the Egyptian president responsible for assisting the anticolonial rebellion in Algeria." 76 France is nervous about the growing influence that Nasser exerted on the North African colonies and protectorates. Both Britain and France want the canal should remain open as an important channel for the oil. Israel wanted to reopen the Straits of Tiran leading to the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, and saw the opportunity to strengthen its southern border and undermine what they see as a dangerous and hostile situation. This is particularly felt in the form of attacks injuring approximately 1,300 civilians originated from Egypt held Gaza Strip. Israel also very large amount of Egyptian revenue problem Soviet weapons including 530 tanks, of which 230 are tanks, 500 guns; 150 MiG 15 fighter jets, 50 Iluyshin-28 bombers; submarines and other naval vessels. Admission is developed weapons that change the balance of power was shaky. In addition, Israel believed Egypt had formed a secret alliance with Jordan and Syria. Washington disagreed with Paris and London on whether to use force to resolve the crisis. United States worked hard through diplomatic channels to resolve the crisis without conflict. "The British and French reluctantly agreed to pursue diplomatic channels but see it as merely a first attempt to buy time, where they continued their military preparations." 77 The British, the closest ally of Washington, Eisenhower ignored sharp warning, that the American people will not accept a military solution. Before the operation, London deliberately neglected to consult with the U.S., rather than believing that Nasser's engagement with communist countries will persuade Americans to accept British and French actions if they were presented as a fait accompli. This proved to be a critical miscalculation. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) has been taking pictures in high-altitude-related activities, and more details came from human sources in London, Paris and Tel Aviv. British troops Universal movie news from August 6 British and French ships departing for Egypt team. British troops are trained, experienced and has a good moral, but experienced economic and

76

Risse-Kappen, Thomas (1995). Cooperation among Democracies: The European Influence on U.S. Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p85.
77

Ibid, p87

technological limitations imposed by post-war austerity. 16th Independent Parachute Brigade Group, which aims to become a major British forces strike against Egypt has been heavily involved in the Cyprus Emergency, which led to the neglect of paratroop training in favor of the counter-insurgency operations. Royal Navy could project formidable power through the gun warships and aircraft flown from the carrier, but the lack of landing craft proved to be a serious drawback. It has just undergone a major modernization program carrier and innovative. Royal Air Force (RAF) has introduced a two-range bombers, Vickers Valiant and the English Electric Canberra, but since their entry into service recently, the RAF has not been properly established techniques for the airplane bombing. Even so, General Sir Charles Keightley, commander of the invasion force believed that air power alone is sufficient to defeat Egypt. Instead, Keightley, Deputy Chief Hugh Stockwell believed that methodical and systematic armored operations centered around the Centurion battle tank to be the key to victory. French troops France experienced and trained, but suffered cuts imposed by the post-war political economy savings. In 1956, French troops have been heavily involved in the Algerian war, which makes the operation against Egypt divert attention. French paratroopers elite Regiment de Parachutistes Coloniaux (RPC) is very experienced, battle-hardened and very tough soldiers who have much to distinguish themselves in the fighting in Indochina and Algeria. RPC those who follow shoot 1, ask questions later policy towards the public, first adopted in Vietnam, which led to the killing of several Egyptian public. Other French troops were described by the historian Derek Varble American soldiers as competent, but not outstanding. French major (and Israeli) battle tank, the AMX-13 is designed for mobile, outflanking operations, which can tank 1 light armor, but very fast. Chief Andr Beaufre, which served as a preferred 1 subordinate Stockwell fast movement campaign in which the main objective is to surround the enemy. During the operation, Beaufre proved himself to be more aggressive than the British, has always insisted that bold steps be taken once. French Navy carrier authority has the power to project power very nice interior, but, like his counterparts from Britain, suffering from lack of landing craft. Military History of Israel American Derek Varble called the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) the "best" of military power in the Middle East while at the same time experiencing a "shortage" as "immature doctrine,

faulty logistics, and technical deficiencies". The IDF's Chief of Staff, Major General Moshe Dayan encourage aggression, initiative, and ingenuity amongst the Israeli officer corps while ignoring logistics and armored operations. Dayan, a firm infantry man 1 priority at the expense of the services arms armor, which Dayan look like a clumsy, expensive, and often suffer damage. At the same time, the logistics arm of the IDF have quite a mess, which is placed under severe strain when the IDF invaded Sinai. Most of the IDF weapons in 1956 came from France. The main IDF tank AMX-13 and the main aircraft Dassault Mystere IVA and the Ouragan. Superior pilot training was to give the Israeli Air Force an unbeatable edge over their Egyptian opponents. Israeli Navy consists of two destroyers, seven frigates, minesweepers 8, several landing craft, and 14 torpedo boats. Egypt In Egypt the military, rather than political and military efficiency is the main criterion for promotion. Egyptian commander, Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer, was purely political appointment with an alcohol problem which owes its close friendship with Nasser, and who proved himself as a general prohibitively inefficient. In 1956, the Egyptian army was equipped with weapons from the Soviet Union's T-34 and JS-3 tanks, MiG-15 fighters, Ilyushin Il-28 bombers, SU-100 self-propelled guns and assault rifles. Rigid line between military officers and men in Egypt lead to "distrust and contempt" with the officers and men who served under them. Egyptian soldiers who excelled in defense operations, but does not have the ability to have a lack of offensive operations "rapport and effective small unit leadership".78 Planning August 9 Eisenhower press conference on the crisis In July 1956, Eden ordered his chief staff to begin planning for the invasion of Egypt 1. Eden's plan called for a Cyprus-based 16th Independent Parachute Brigade Group to seize the Canal Zone. Prime Minister's plan was rejected by the Chief of Staff who argue that the neglect of parachute training given 16 Independent Parachute Brigade plans to attack 1 Air inappropriate. Instead, the Chief of Staff suggested that sea-power based Contingency Plan, which called for the Royal Marines to take Port Said, which would then be used as a base for three British to overrun the Canal Zone.

78

Varble. D, op.cit., p20

In early August, the Contingency Plan has been modified to include the first strategic bombing campaign intended to destroy the Egyptian economy, and thus is expected to bring about the overthrow Nasser. In addition, the role was assigned to the 16th Independent Parachute Brigade, who will lead the assault on Port Said in conjunction with the Royal Marine landing. The commander of Task Force led by General Stockwell rejected Contingency Plan, which Stockwell protests failed to destroy the Egyptian military. Information Operations (1956) Operation Musketeer Stockwell offered, starting with a two-day air campaign that will see the British gain air superiority. In place of Port Said, Musketeer called for the arrest of Alexandria. When the city was taken in an attack from the sea, British armored division would be involved in the decisive battle of annihilation southern area north of Alexandria and Cairo. Musketeer require thousands of troops, and that led the British to find France as an ally. To destroy the Egyptian army 300,000 strong in battle he planned annihilation, Stockwell estimated that he needed 80,000 troops, while the majority of the British Army can spare is 50,000 French troops could supply 30,000 troops to make up the shortfall. On August 11, 1956 General Keightley was appointed as commander of Musketeer with the French Admiral Jobert as Deputy Commander. Stockwell appointment as commander of Task Force accused of leading an attack on Egyptian cause great frustration with other Task force officers. A French officer remembered That Stockwell There is still a part of keeping him, his hands, his feet and his head and hands are always busy, he began to sweep the object away from the table with his swagger cane swish in his room or to use it to make a golf swing with potted flowers and ash-tray. That was a good moment. You will see him pass in the blink of an eye from the most optimistic happy to note that total spinal fracture. He is cyclothymic. Since the switch to be polite and brutal, refined and rough, stubborn in certain circumstances, hesitation and doubt in others, he answers disconcerts by uncertainty and conflict that he made. The only constant quality: courage under fire. In contrast, the majority of the Task Force officers, French and British admired general Beaufre as elegant but tough with sharp analytical mind has always been angry. Most of the officers of the Anglo-French Task Force expressed regret that it is Beaufre which is deputy Stockwell, rather the other way around. A major problem both politically and militarily with planning for Musketeer is a 1 week interval between sending troops to the eastern Mediterranean and the beginning of the invasion. In addition, the arrival of winter

weather Mediterranean in late November will result in a possible invasion, which meant that the invasion had started earlier. In late August 1956, French Admiral Pierre Barjot suggested that Port Said once again will be the main target, which reduced the number of troops needed and thus reduce the interval between sending troops to the eastern Mediterranean and aggression. Beaufre is strongly opposed to such changes, modifications Barjot warned that only control of the Canal Zone made vague goals, and that the lack of clear goals is dangerous. In early September, Keightley embraced the idea Barjot seizing Port Said, and deliver Operational Check. Revision called for the following: Phrase I: Anglo-French air forces for aerial supremacy over the skies of Egypt Phrase II: The Anglo-French air forces to launch a 10-day "aero-psychological" campaign that would destroy the Egyptian economy. Phrase III: Air and sea-borne landings to capture the Canal Zone Check Operation (Operation REVISE) On 8 September 1956 Revision approved by the British and French cabinets. Both Stockwell and Beaufre against revision as open plan with no clear goal beyond seizing Canal zone, but has been embraced by Eden and Mollet offers more flexibility political and prospects of victims of the Egyptian public. At the same time, Israel has been working on Operation Kadesh for the invasion of the Sinai. Dayan plan, putting the emphasis on air power combined with mobile battles of encirclement. Kadesh urged the Israeli air force to win air superiority, which will be followed by "1 constant battle" in the Sinai. Israeli soldiers in a series of quick operation and then take strong around major points in the Egyptian Sinai. Reflecting this emphasis on siege is "out-" approach Kadesh, called for Israeli paratroops to seize distant points first, with closer to Israel to be seized later. Thus, the 202 paratroop brigade commanded by Colonel Ariel Sharon is to land on the far west of the Sinai to take the Mitla Pass, and thus cut off the Egyptian army in Sinai east of their supply lines. In October 1956, the Eden, after two months of pressure, finally reluctantly agreed to French demands, including Israel in Operation Check. British alliances with the Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and Iraq have made the British very reluctant to fight alongside Israel, so that the next reaction in the Arab world threaten London's friends in Baghdad and Amman. Arrival of winter weather in November meant that Eden need 1 reason to start Check as soon as possible, which means that Israel has to be included. Under the Protocol of Svres, the following points were agreed to:

October 29: Israel to invade the Sinai. October 30: The Anglo-French ultimatum to demand both sides withdraw from the Canal Zone. October 31: Britain and France began Check. Aggression Operation Kadesh: Israeli operation in the Sinai Peninsula Operation Kadesh received its name from ancient Kadesh, located in the northern Sinai and mentioned several times in the Hebrew Pentateuch. Israeli military planning for this operation in the Sinai depends on four main military objectives; Sharm el-Sheikh, Arish, Abu Uwayulah, and the Gaza Strip. Egyptian blockade the Straits of Tiran was based at Sharm el-Sheikh and, by capturing the city, Israel would have access to the Red Sea for the first time since 1953, which will allow to restore trade benefits of secure passage of the Indian Ocean. Gaza Strip was chosen as another military objective because Israel wants to remove the training grounds for Fedayeen groups, and because Israel acknowledged that Egypt could use the territory as a transit point for attacks against the advancing Israeli troops. Israel supports rapid progress, in which potential Egyptian flanking attack would present more risk. Arish and Abu Uwayulah important hubs for soldiers, equipment, and centers of command and control of the Egyptian army in the Sinai. Catch them will deal deathblow to Egypt's strategic operations throughout the peninsula. Arrests four objectives are intended to be a way that the entire Egyptian army will defeat and falling into Egypt proper, which British and French forces would then be able to raise against the Israeli advance, and crush in a decisive encounter. On 24 October, Dayan ordered the mobilization of the part. When this leads to a state of confusion, Dayan ordered full mobilization, and choose to take the risk so he can remind people of Egypt. As part of the effort to maintain surprise, Dayan ordered the Israeli army to go to Sinai concentrated near the border with Jordan first, intended to deceive the people of Egypt to think that it is Jordan. The conflict began on October 29, 1956. At about 3: .. 12:00, Israeli Air Force Mustangs launched a series of attacks on Egyptian positions across the Sinai because Israeli intelligence is expected Jordan to enter the war on the Egyptian forces, Israeli soldiers stationed along the Israel-Jordan border. Israeli Border Police Military Israeli-Jordanian border, including the Green Line with the West Bank, in the first hours of the war. Israeli-

Arab villages along the Jordanian border was placed under curfew, and orders were given to shoot curfew violators. This resulted in the killing of 48 civilians in the Arab village of Kafr Qasim in the event known as the massacre of Kafr Qasim. Border policemen involved in the killing was later tried and imprisoned, the Israeli court that orders to shoot civilians is "blatantly illegal". The event has a major impact on Israeli law relating to the ethics of war and more subtle effects on the legal status of Israel's Arab citizens, who at that time was regarded as the fifth column. Early actions in Southern Sinai Israeli paratrooper near Mitla Israeli Chief, Major General Moshe Dayan, first planned to take the important Mitla Pass. Dayan plan for paratroop battalion of 890 Brigade, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Rafael Eitan, 1 veteran Arab-Israeli War of 1948 and the future head of the IDF, to drop at Parker's Memorial, near one of the passes and the Jebel Heitan pollute. Other brigade, under the command of Colonel Ariel Sharon would then advance to meet with the battalion, and consolidate their holdings. On 29 October, Operation Kadesh - the invasion of Sinai, began when an Israeli paratrooper battalion air falls into the Sinai Peninsula, east of the Suez Canal near the Mitla Pass. In conjunction with a drop paragraphs, 4 Israeli P-51 Mustangs using their wings and propeller, cut all overhead telephone lines in the Sinai, severely disrupt command and control Egypt. Due to navigation errors, DC -3 transportation Israeli paratroopers landed Eitan 400, three miles from Memorial Parker, their intended target. Eitan marched his men towards Jebel Heitan, where they dug in while receiving supplies of weapons dropped by French aircraft. At the same time, Colonel Sharon, 202 paratroop brigade raced out towards the Mitla Pass. A major problem for Sharon is a vehicle break-down. Dayan's efforts to maintain a strategic shock bore fruit when the commander of the Egyptian Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer was initially treated Israel to Sinai summary report as a big raid is not an attack, and as a general warning order not Amer. By the time the Amer realized his mistake, Israel has made significant progress in the Sinai. Early actions along the Gulf of Aqaba, and the central paratroopers being dropped into the Sinai, which Israel captured 9 Infantry Brigade 1 Naqb-Ras, one important staging ground for that brigade's later attack against Sharm el-Sheikh. Rather than attack the city by frontal attack, they enveloped the city in the night attack, and negotiated them through some of the natural chokepoints city back, surprised the Egyptians before they could ready themselves to defend. The Egyptians surrendered, with no Israeli victims suffered.

4th Infantry Brigade, under the command of Colonel Josef Harpaz, captured alQusaymah, which will be used as a jumping off point for an attack on Abu Uwayulah. Colonel Harpaz out-flanked by two al-Qusaymah pengguntingkan from the south-east and north-east in the night attack. In a short battle that lasted from 3:00 am until sunrise, the IDF stormed al-Qusaymah. Heitan Jebel battle, paratroop brigade under attack Israeli paratroopers dig in near the Parker MemorialThe Paratroopers under Sharon's command continued to advance to meet the Brigade 1. Travel, Sharon assaulted Themed in a dawn attack, and was able to storm the city through the Gap themed armor. Sharon routed the Sudanese police, and capture solutions. On the way to Nakla, Sharon people come under attack from Egyptian MIG-15s. At 30, Sharon associated with Eytan near Nakla. Dayan had no plans for further advances beyond the passes, but Sharon decided to attack the Egyptian positions at Jebel Heitan. Sharon sending lightly armed paratroopers against dug-backed Egyptian aircraft, tanks and heavy artillery. Sharon's action in response to reports of the arrival of 1st and 2nd Brigade 4th Egyptian Armored Division was in the area, which Sharon believed would destroy his army if he did not seize the high ground. Sharon sent two companies of infantry, mortar battery and some AMX-13 tanks under the command of Mordechai Gur into the defile Heitan evening October 31, 1956. Egyptian forces occupied a strong defensive position and brought down heavy anti-tank, mortar and machine gun fire at the IDF force. Gur people were forced to retreat into the "Saucer", where they were surrounded and came under heavy fire. Hearing this, Sharon sent in its other tasks while the Gur people use the cover of night to scale walls Heitan smear. During the ensuing action, the Egyptians were defeated and forced to retreat. A total of 260 Egyptians and 38 Israeli soldiers were killed in the war. Although the battle was a victory of Israel, the injuries sustained by the controversy surrounding Sharon. In particular, Sharon was criticized for ordering the attack on Jebel heitan without permission, and do not realize that the Israeli Air Force controlling the skies, the men are not dangerous as the Egyptian tank as he believed. Dayan himself insists that Sharon was right to order an attack without orders, and that under the circumstances, Sharon made the right decision, but he criticzed Sharon to head the Egyptian attack tactics, which led to the victim claimed Dayan unnecessary Most deaths caused by Israel throughout the operation. remained at Jebel Heitan.

Air Operations, Phase 1 News from 1 November about the beginning of the attack on Egypt, the Israeli Air Force flew paratroop drops, supply flights and medevac sorties that. Israel's new French-made Dassault Mystere IV jets provide air cover for transport aircraft. In the early phases of the conflict, the Egyptian Air Force flew attack missions against advancing Israeli army. Egyptian tactic is to use their new Soviet-made MiG-15 fighter jets as escorts, and older British made De Havilland Vampire and Gloster Meteor jets conduct attacks against Israeli military and vehicles. In air combat, Israeli aircraft shot down between seven and nine Egyptian jets with the loss of one plane, but the strike Egypt against army continued to November 1. With the attack by the British and the air force and navy of France, President Nasser ordered the pilot to get away and fly their aircraft to base in southern Egypt. Israeli Air Force then free to attack the Egyptian army at will, as Israeli forces advanced to the Western Sinai. On November 3, four Israeli warplanes attacked a British warship, HMS Black Swanclass sloop crane as it was patrolling the approaches to the Gulf of Aqaba. According to the IDF, Crane has been identified as an Egyptian warship and the Israeli General Staff authorized the attacks. Three rocket penetrated the hull of the ship and cause significant internal damage, including mains power disconnected and the fuel tank ruptured. The ship also maintains a number of external damage from shrapnel and artillery fire, and three crew members were injured. Crane shot down an Israeli aircraft and other damaged during the engagement. Naval Operations Ibrahim el Awal after the capture by Israel NavyOn October 30, the Egyptian Navy sends Ibrahim el Awal, Hunt class destroyer ex-British, for the purpose of Haifa shore oil equipment attack that city. On 31 October Ibrahim el Awal reached Haifa and began bombarding the city with four 102mm (4 inch) guns. Kersaint French destroyer, in charge of the port of Haifa as part of Operation Musketeer, returned fire but failed to score any hits. Ibrahim el Awal miss and turn west. INS Yaffo Israeli destroyer INS Eilat and then gave chase and catch up with the Egyptian warship. Destruction of Israel, uniting two Israeli Air Force Dassault Ouragans, managed to damage the turbo generator destroyers, steering and antiaircraft guns. Left without power and unable to steer, the Ibrahim el Awal delivered to the destruction of Israel. Egyptian destroyer was later included in the Israeli Navy, and renamed INS Haifa (K-38). On the night of October 31 in the northern Red Sea, the British light cruiser HMS Newfoundland challenged and involved Domiat Egyptian frigate, reduce the burning hulk in

a brief gun battle. Egyptian warship was sunk by escorting destroyer HMS Diana, with 69 surviving Egyptian sailors rescued. Hedgehog-Abu Uwayulah village of Abu Uwayulah operations in central Sinai served as the center of the road for the entire Sinai, and thus is the main target of Israel. Abu Uwayulah East zone ridge some form natural defenses known to Israelis as the "Hedgehog". "Hedgehog" is a 3000's Egyptian battalions of the 17th and 18th of the 3rd Infantry Division commanded by Colonel Sami Yassa. Yassa's men held a series of trenches and fortified "Hedgehog" can only be attacked from the east wing Umm Qataf ridge and west sides of the ridge Ruafa. On 30 October, the probing attacks by Israeli armor under Major Izhak Ben-Ari turned into assault on Umm Qataf ridge that ended in failure. In the battle of Umm Qataf, Colonel Yassa was seriously injured and was replaced by Colonel Saadedden mutawally. In the south, another unit of the Israeli Armored Brigade 7 found a gap in the ridge Dayyiqa alJebel Halal "Hedgehog". Israeli soldiers raided and bring al-Dayyiqa gap. Colonel Mutawally failed to appreciate the extent of the danger to the powers that posed by the discovery of the IDF in al-Dayyiqa. Led by Colonel Avraham Adan 1 IDF force entered the al-Dayyiqa and at dawn on October 31 attacked Abu Uwayulah. After an hour of fighting, Abu Uwayulah down to the IDF. At the same time, another IDF battalion attacked the ridge Ruafa. At the same time, another attack was launched on the eastern edge of the "Hedgehog" by the IDF Infantry Brigade of the 10th (mostly deposits) which ended in failure. By mid-day, the Israeli Air Force conducted a series of punishing air attacks on Egyptian positions, sometimes accidentally hit the IDF ground forces. That tendency IAF with the incident "friendly fire" IAF is arguably as much a danger to the Israeli army to the enemy. After taking Abu Uwayulah, Adan do all the soldiers on the ridge Ruafa "Hedgehog", and begin a three-pronged attack with an interesting team shield northeast side Ruafa, mixed infantry / armor force attacking the north edge and attack the hypocrisy of the neighboring mounds. During the afternoon attack on 31 October, chaotic war that raged on Ruafa ridge with much hand-in-hand battle. Through every IDF tank involved was destroyed, after a battle tonight, Ruafa have fallen into the IDF. Another IDF assault that night, this time by the 10 Infantry Brigade in Umm Qataf is less succcessful with a lot of energy getting lost in the darkness of attack, resulting in a series of confused attacks that ended in failure. Dayan, who had grown impatient with the failure to storm the "Hedgehog", remove the 10th Brigade commander Colonel Shmuel Golinda and replaced him with Colonel Israel Tal. On the morning of November 1, Israeli and French aircraft launched frequent napalm attacks on Egyptian troops in Umm Qataf. Armored Brigade 37, Brigade 10 again attacked

Umm Qataf, and again defeated. However, the violence that the IDF assault combined with rapidly dwinding water stock and lead bullets to order Colonel Mutawally general retreat from the "Hedgehog" on the evening of November 1. Gaza Strip town of Rafah operation is strategically important to Israel for control of the city would sever Gaza from the Sinai, and provide a way for the main central northern Sinai, al-Arish and al-Qantarah. Forts outside Rafah is a mixture of Egyptian and Palestinian forces in the 5th Infantry Brigade commanded by Brigadier General Jaafar al-Abd. In Rafah itself Palestine 87 Infantry Brigade was stationed. Assigned to capture Rafah 1st Infantry Brigade led by Colonel Benjamin Givli and 27th Armored Brigade commanded by Colonel Haim Bar-Lev IDF. In southern Rafah is a series of sand dunes and met mine in the northern part is a series of fortified hills. Daylan ordered the IDF forces to seize Crossroads 12 in the central area of Rafah, and to focus on the break rather than reducing every Egyptian strongpoint. IDF assault began with Israeli sappers and engineers clear the path at night through the minefields that surrounded Rafah. French warships led by the cruiser Georges Leygues provided fire support, through Dayan has a low opinion of the French artillery, complaining that the French just hit reserve Egypt. Using both a cleared path through the southern minefields, IDF tanks entered the Rafah main feature. Under Egyptian artillery fire, the IDF force raced ahead and took Crossroads 12 with the loss of 2 killed and 22 wounded. In the northern Israeli troops fought a series of confused night action, but successful in attacking Hills 25, 25A, 27 and 29 with the loss of 6 killed. In the morning November 1, Israeli AMX-13s encircled and took Hills 34 and 36. At the time, al-Abd ordered his troops to abandon their posts outside of Rafah and retreat into the city. With more or less cut Rafah and the Israeli army controlled the north and east to the town, Dayan ordered the AMX-13s 27th Armored Brigade to strike west and take al-Arish. By this point, Nasser had ordered his troops to fall back toward the Suez Canal, so at first BarLev and his men met little resistance as they advanced across the northern Sinai. Hear the order to withdraw, al-Abd and his men leave on the morning of 1 November Rafah through the gap in the line of Israel, and towards the Canal Zone. Three hours later, Israel took Rafah. It has been reported that after taking Rafah, the Israeli army killed 111 people, including 103 refugees, in the Palestinian refugee camp of Rafah. Not until the Jeradi Pass in the northern Sinai do IDF term into serious opposition. A series of hooking attacks that outflanked by Egyptian positions combinded with air strikes that led to the defeat of Egypt in Jeradi Pass. On November 2, Arm Bar-Lev had taken al-Arish.

Meanwhile, the IDF attacked the Egyptian defenses outside of Gaza City late on November 1. After crossing the line in Egypt, Israeli tanks headed to Gaza City. Shield to attack the fortress of al-Muntar outside Gaza City, killed or captured 3,500 National Guard troops Egypt. By noon 2 November, there were no more Egyptian opposition in Gaza City. On November 3, the IDF attacked the Egyptian army and Palestinians in Khan Yunis. After a fierce battle, the Sherman Israeli Armored Brigade 37 broke through the line greatly enriched outside Khan Yunus held by the Brigade in Palestine 86. After several clashes with the Egyptian army streets and Palestinian fedayeen, Khan Yunis fall to Israel. There are claims that after taking into Khan Yunis, the IDF has committed genocide. Israel insists that the Palestinian people were killed in street fighting, while Palestinians claimed that Israeli forces began implementing the unarmed Palestinian people after the fall of Khan Yunis. Claims of genocide have been reported to the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 15, 1956 by the Director of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency Public Emirates, Henry Labouisse, who reported from "reliable sources" that 275 people were killed in massacre -many of which 135 140 are refugees and the local population. In both Gaza City and Khan Yunis, street-fighting led to the deaths of "tens, perhaps hundreds, of non-combatant". During the Gaza fighting, anarchy reigned in the streets, and a warehouse belonging to the United States. Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) has been fired by Palestinian mobs, leading to the humanitarian crisis in Gaza as many were left without food and medicine. This was exacerbated by a widespread view in Israel that the responsibility for the care of Palestinian refugees UNRWA rest, not Israel, leading Israel to give aid slow. By noon November 3, Israel has been dominated almost the entire Gaza Strip except for a few isolated strongpoints, which will be attacked and taken. The UN estimates that 447 to 550 civilians were killed by the Israeli army in the first week of the Israeli occupation of the strip. Operation of Sharm el-Sheikh on November 3, with the IDF has successfully taken the Gaza Strip, Arish, the Hedgehog, and Mitla Pass, Sharm el-Sheikh is the last Israeli objectives. The main difficulty faced by Colonel Abraham Yoffe the 9th Infantry Brigade logistics. There is no good road linking Ras-Naqb to Sharm el-Sheikh. After taking the border town of Ras 1-Naqb on October 30, Daylan ordered Yoffe to wait until air superiority is ensured. To outflank Sharm el-Sheikh, Dayan ordered paratroopers to take Tor city in western Sinai. Egyptian army at Sharm el-Sheikh has the advantage of holding one of the strongest fortified positions across the Sinai, but has been subjected to a heavy Israeli air strikes from the beginning of the war. Yoffe set to Sharm el-Sheikh on November 2, and the main obstacle is the terrain and vehicle break-down. Navy ships to support Israel during the

first Section 9. After many battles on the outskirts of Sharm el-Sheikh, Yoffe ordered an attack on the port at around midnight on November 4. After four hours of heavy fighting, Yoffe ordered his men to retreat. On the morning of November 5, the Israeli army launched an attack with massive artillery tanks and napalm against military strike to defend Egypt Sharm el-Sheikh. At 9:30 am on November 5, the Egyptian commander Colonel Raouf Mahfouz Zaki, submit Sharm el-Sheikh. Anglo-French military Damaged War de Havilland Sea Venom EagleTo support HMS invasion, large air forces had been deployed to Cyprus and Malta by Britain and France and many aircraft carriers were deployed. The two airbases on Cyprus was so congested that a third field which is in dubious circumstances had to be brought into use for French aircraft. Although the RAF Luqa in Malta very crowded with RAF Bomber Command aircraft. British deployed the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle, Albion and fortress and the French battleship Jean Bart had and aircraft carriers Arromanches and La Fayette on station. In addition, HMS Ocean and Theseus acted as jumping-point for attacks in Britain brought by helicopter (first world). Checking: Phase I and IIIn morning October 30 Britain and France have sent ultimatums to Egypt and Israel. They started Operation Musketeer on 31 October, with a bombing campaign. Nasser responded by sinking all 40 ships present in the canal was closed to all shipping. Shipping will not move again until early 1957. Although the risk of intrusion into the Canal Zone, Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer ordered the Egyptian army in the Sinai to survive, as assured Nasser Amer confident that Egyptians can beat Israel at Sinai and then defeat the forces of the Anglo-French once they come into beach in the Canal Zone. Amer also advised Nasser to send more troops into Sinai to defeat the Covenant in Israel, even through there is a risk of them being cut off if the Canal Zone was seized by the Anglo-French team is great. Not until late on October 31, do not ignore assessement encouraging Nasser Amer and ordered his troops to separate the Sinai and to retreat back to the Canal Zone to face the expected Anglo-French invasion. Eden and Mollet ordered Phase I Operational Check to begin 13 hours after the Anglo-French ultimatum. British bombers based in Cyprus and Malta departure to Cairo with the aim of destroying Cairo airport, only to be ordered personally by Eden when she learned that the American public has moved in Cairo airport. Fear reactions that may result if the American public were killed in a British bombing attack, Eden has sent the Valiant bombers back to Malta while the Canberras were ordered to hit Almaza airbase outside of Cairo. Night of British bombardment proved ineffective. Starting on the morning of November 1, carrier-based de

Havilland Sea venoms, Chance-Vought Corsairs and Hawker Sea Hawks begin a series of strike day in Egypt. On the night of 1 November the Egyptian Air Force has lost 200 aircraft. With the destruction of the Egyptian air force, Keightley ordered the beginning Check Phase II. As part of the Check Phase II, 1-wide interdiction between the campaign began. On November 3 F4U-7 Corsairs from the 14.F and 15.F Aronavale off from French carriers Arromanches and La Fayette, attacked the airport in Cairo. The very aggressive French General Beaufre suggests at once that the forces of the Anglo-French seize the Canal Zone with air landing rather than the planned 10 days to Check II will work through, and that risk without the prospect of sending paratroopers seaborne landings for several days will be taken. November 3, Beaufre finally convinced Keightley and Stockwell of the merits of his approach, and get approval for Operation Telescope as Beaufre has a code name airstrikes in the Canal Zone. Telescope Modified: Landon paratroopers late November 5, the advance elements of 3rd Battalion of the British Parachute Regiment dropped on El Gamil Airfield, a strip of land, led by Brigadier MAH Butler. "Red Devils" can not return Egyptian fire while landing, but when paratroopers landed, they used their Sten guns, three-inch mortars and anti-tank weapons to great effect. After taking the airport with a dozen 1 casualites, the remaining battalion flew in by helicopter. Battalion then obtained around the airport area. During a street battle to ensure, Egyptian soldiers involved methodical tactics, fighting on defense and inflict maximum casualties and retreating only when a favorable energy was brought to bear. In particular, proved to be a weapon SU100s formiable in urban combat. British forces moving towards Port Said with air support before digging in at 13:00 to hold up the beach assault. With close support from carrier-based Wyverns, the British paratroopers take sewage works Port Said and cemeteries having been involved in pitched battles for the Coast Guard barracks. At the same time, Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Chateau-Jobert landed with a force of 2e RPC at Raswa. Raswa apply a small drop zone problem that is surrounded by water, but General Jacques Massu's 10th Parachute Division assured Beaufre is not an insolvable problem for men. 500 armed paratroopers 2 French Colonial Parachute Regiment (2me RPC), hastily placed the battle in Algeria, jumped over the bridge of al-Raswa from Noratlas Nord 2501 escadrille transport de Transport (ET) 1/61 and ET 3/61, along with some Guard combat engineer Independent Parachute Company. Despite the loss of two soldiers, the western bridge swiftly secured by the level, and F4U Corsairs Aronavale 14.F and 15.F flew a series of close-air-support missions, destroying several SU-100 tank destroyer. F-84Fs also hit two large oil storage tanks in Port Said, which went up in flames and covered most of the

city in a thick cloud of smoke for the next few days. Egyptian resistance varied, with some positions fighting back until destroyed, while others are left with little resistance. The French paratroopers stormed and took Port Sad waterworks that morning, one important objective for control of a city in the desert. Chateau-Jobert followed up this success with effect from 1 attack on Port Fuad. Derek Varble, American military history, then write "Air support and fierce French attack on Port Fuad change battle to defeat". During the fighting in the Canal Zone, French paratroops often practiced their "no prisoners" code and executed Egyptian POWs. Egyptian commander at Port Said, Chief Salahedin Moguy then propose a truce. Deals have been taken, and the meeting to ensure the Chief Butler, Chateau-Jobert and General Massu, was offered terms surrender of the city and marching men Gamil airport to be taken to POW camps in Cyprus. Moguy has no interest in giving up and just made a ceasefire offer to buy time for his men to dig. Is strongly supported by the British Admiral Manley Laurence power, Beaufre suggested that sea-borne landings accelerated and that Allied troops land the next day. In this case, Beaufre was opposed by Stockwell and Knightley who want to stick with the original plan. Stockwell was always in favor of hardcore agreed to the plan, and are very reluctant to see any changes, while Beaufre all to change the plan to match changing conditions. The difference between Stockwell and Beaufre summarized by the American historian Derek Varble, "Stockwell favor of existing methods for their construction plans and the underlying staff work to reduce the risk Beaufre, by contrast opportunist, looking to plan only a means to an end, without much value exist for him, changed circumstances or assumptions provide sufficient justification for Jettison. part or all of the original plan. " Royal Marines coming ashore at Port SaidAt first light on November 6, Commando Commando Nos 42 and 40 Commando Royal Marines stormed the beaches, using landing craft of World War II vintage (Landing Craft Assault and Landing Vehicle tracked). The battle group standing offshore opened fire, giving covering fire for the landings and causing considerable damage to the Egyptian batteries and gun emplacements. Port Said city remained significant damage and was seen as down. Those who Commando 42 as much as possible choose to by-pass Egyptian positions and focused on trying to break through the interior. 40 Commando Royal Marines have the advantage backed by Centurion tanks as they landed in Sierra Red beach. Upon entering the center of Port Said, the Marines became engaged in fierce urban combat as the Egyptians used Palace Hotel Casino and other strongpoints as fortresses.

RPC paratroopers patrol in Port Said. October 1956, Nasser proclaimed the Suez War 1 "brown people". Therefore, the Egyptian military has been ordered to wear civilian clothes while guns were freely handed out to Egyptian civilians. From the point of view Nasser, 1 ", the war" presented at the British and French with 1 insolvable dilemma. If the Allies reacted aggressively "brown" people, then that will cause the death of innocent civilians and thus bring world sympathy to the cause while undermining morale on the home front in Britain and France. If the Allies reacted cautiously to "people's war", which will result from the Allied Forces getting bogged down by sniper attacks, which have the advantage of attacking "... with near impunity by hiding among the people-not the real fighters ". This tactic works especially well against the British. British leaders, especially Eden and the First Sea Lord Admiral Sir Louis Montbatten fear of being labeled "murderers and baby killers", and sincerely trying to limit public death in Egypt. Eden often interfere Check Phrase and II bombing, cutting a variety of targets that he felt might cause excessive civilian deaths, and limit the size of the gun that can be used in Port Said landings, again to reduce public death. American History Derek Varble commented that the paradox of concern to the public in Egypt Eden, and objects check Phrase II bombing, which was intended to terrorize the Egyptian people was never solved. Despite the best efforts of Eden, the British bombing still killed hundreds of Egyptian civilians during Check II, although this is more due to death are not exactly meant a deliberate policy of not 1 "area bombing" a la like that employed against Germany in World War II. In Port Said, the heavy fighting in the streets and the resulting fire destroyed much of the city, killing thousands of civilians. In the afternoon, 522 additional French Levels 1er REP (Regiment tranger Parachutiste., 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment) were dropped near Port Fouad. This is also constantly supported by Corsairs from Aronavale France, which flew very intensive operations: for example, although the French carrier La Fayette developed catapult problems, no less than 40 combat sorties were completed. France has been assisted by the AMX-13 light tanks. While clearing Port Fuad, IER Regiment Etranger Parachutiste killed 100 Egyptians without losing a man in return. In total, 10 French soldiers were killed and 30 injured in the landing and subsequent battle. No British commandos. 45 Commando assaulted by helicopter, meeting stiff resistance, with shore batteries attacked several helicopters, while friendly fire from British aircraft carriers brought by causing injuries to 45 Commando and HQ. Helicopter-borne assault of 45 Commando was the first time helicopters were used by UK forces to lift men directly into a combat zone. Lieutenant Colonel NH Tailyour, who led 45 Commando were landed by mistake in a stadium still under Egyptian control resulting escape very hasty.

Street fighting clearing, with strong opposition from well-enshrined Egyptian sniper positions, caused further injury. Particularly fierce battle took place at Customs House Port Said, and the Navy House. Egyptians destroyed Port Said there Inner Harbour, which forced the British to improvise and use the Fishing Port land their forces. 2nd Battalion Parachute Regiment landed by ship at the port. Centurion tanks 6 British Royal Tank Regiment were landed and by 12:00 they had reached the French paratroops. Although the British landing in Port Said, the man who RPC 2 at Raswa happen Egyptian counter-attack featuring SU100 selfpropelled guns themselves. After establishing themselves in the position of the center of Port Said, 42 Commando headed Muhammat Ali Shari, the main north-south road to link up with French forces on the bridge and lock Raswa Inner Basin. At the same time, the Marines also took Port Said's gasworks. Meanwhile, 40 Commando supported by the Royal Tank Regiment remained involved in the clean up in the center of Egyptian snipers. Colonel Tailyour arranged for more aid brought by helicopter. Heard rumors that Moguy want to give away, both Stockwell and Beaufre leave their command ship HMS Tyne to Port Said. After landing, they learned the rumors were not true. Otherwise return to the Tyne, both Stockwell and Beaufre spent the day in Port Said, and thus cut off from the news. Only a day late and Stockwell learn acceptance Beaufre truce United Nations Organisation. Instead of focusing on breaking out to take al-Qantarah, Royal Marines bogged down in clearing every building in Port Said snipers. Heads of the Royal Tank Regiment supported by the paratroops 2 RPC began to advance slowly down on the night of al-Qantarah 6th of November. Sniper attack Egypt and the need to clean every building that leads to the 3 will be slowed in their attempts to connect with the Royal Marines. When Stockwell know ceasefire takes effect in five hours time at 9: 00 pm, he ordered Colonel Gibbon and his centurions which to race and take al-Qantarah with all speed to improve the position of Associate. What followed was a series of confused melee action the way. What followed was a series of confused chaotic action in the way of alQantarah ended with British forces in al-Cap, a small village four miles north of al-Qantarah at 2:00 am, when a cease-fire took effect . Total British dead is 16, with 96 wounded. Sacrifice France totaled 10 dead and 33 others injured. Israel's loss of 177 dead and 899 injured. Number of Egyptians killed was "never definitely established". Victims of the Israeli invasion of Egypt was estimated at 1.000 to 3.000 dead and 4,000 wounded, while the loss to the Anglo-French operation was estimated at 650 dead and 900 injured. Egypt an estimated 1,000 civilians have died.

Anti-war protests in Britain. Protests against the war in Britain after the invasion began. On the popular television show talk Free Speech, especially bitter debate occurred on October 31 with the historian AJP Taylor and journalists leftist Labour Party leader Michael Foot future call their friends on Free Speech, the Conservative MP Robert Boothby, a "crime" to support the war . A Free Speech talk television critics during the war that "the team seemed on the verge of not only, but actually losing their tempers ... Boothby boomed, Foot fumed and Taylor trephined with real malice ...". 79 The anger, passion, watched the debate on the Suez war on Free Speech reflect the divided public response to the war. British historian AN Wilson writes that "a letter to The Times captures the mood of this country, the great majority of which opposed military intervention ...". Journalist Malcolm Muggeridge and actor Robert Speaight wrote in the public letter that: Bitter division in public opinion driven by the British intervention in the Middle East have had a disaster. It has diverted popular attention from the far more important struggle in Hungary. A week ago, the feelings of the British people were combined in a flame of admiration for the courage and apparent success of the Hungarian uprising. Now, success seems to be threatened by Russian treachery and violence, and Hungary have appealed to the West ... It is the first, and probably will prove only chance to reverse the calamitous results of the Yalta ... The Prime Minister has told us that 50 million tons of British shipping is at stake in his dispute with President Nasser. What is at stake in Central Europe is somewhat more than 50 million souls. It can be argued that it is not so easy to help in Hungary; reason they are entitled to reply that it is not so easy to help themselves. 80 Women Violet Bonham Carter, influential members of the Liberal Party, wrote in a letter to the Times that: I am one of the millions who watched his martyrdom Hungary and hear an appeal today for delivery agonizing help (immediately followed by "successful bombing" our "target" of Egypt) who has felt the humiliation, shame and anger that is beyond expression ... We can not comply with the edict ordering the Russian Soviet Nations (UN) that we ourselve have challenged, or remove tanks and weapons from Hungary, while we bombed and invaded Egypt. Today we stand in the dock with the Russian ... Never in my life have our name stood so low in the eyes of the world. We never stand alone so ingloriously. 81

79 80

Cole, Robert A.J.P. Taylor the traitor Within the Gates, London: Macmillan 1993 page 149 Wilson, A.N. Our Times, Hutchinson: London 2008 pages 65-66. 81 Ibid, p66

According to public opinion polls at the time, 37% of British people support the war, while 44% were opposed. Observer newspaper leader (editorial) attacked the government of Eden to "folly and crookedness" in invading Egypt while the Manchester Guardian urged readers to write letters of protest to their MPs. The Economist talking "weird union cynicism and hysteria" in the government and the audience stated that Eden will soon be facing a "terrible indictment".82 Labour Party and Trade Union Congress organized anti-war protests around the country, starting on 1 November under the slogan "law, not war!" [179] On November 4, the anti-war rally in Trafalgar Square attended by 30,000 people (making it easier largest gathering in London since 1945), the Labour MP Aneurin Bevan accused the government of "policy bankruptcy and despair". Bevan stated in Trafalgar rally: We are stronger than Egypt but there are other countries that are stronger than we. Are we ready to accept the logic we apply to Egypt for ourselves? If the countries are stronger than ourselves accept the principle of absence, anarchistic attitude Eden and launch bombs in London, what was the answer we got, what we got complaints? If we are going to appeal to force, if force is to be referee we appeal, it will at least make common sense to try to make sure in advance that we were there, if you accept that abysmal logic, that decadent view. We are actually in a position today to make an appeal to force in the case of a small country, where if it appealed to us it will lead to the destruction of Great Britain, not only as a nation, but as an island containing living men and women. So I said to Anthony, I said to the British government, there is no count at all in which they can be defended. They were using the name of Britain. They have made us ashamed of the things that we were once proud of. They have offended against every principle of decency and simply no way in which they can begin to restore their damaged reputation and that is to get out! Get out! Get out! 83 Inspired by Bevan's speech, the crowd in Trafalgar Square and then marched on 10 Downing Street chanting "Eden Must Go!", And tried to invade the house of the Prime Minister. The clashes between the police and ensure the protesters who were arrested by the television camera has a significant effect on the cabinet discourage Eden, who had met there.

82 83

Turner, Barry Suez 1956, London: Hodder & Stoughton 2006 page 354. "Aneurin Bevan 1956". New Statesman. UK. 4 February 2010 2010. http://www.newstatesman.com/ukpolitics/2010/02/aneurin-bevan-1956-speech. Retrieved 22 August 2011.

Some modern historians insist, however, that the majority of public opinion at the time was on the side of Eden. British historian Barry Turner writes that: The public comments highlighted the pressing in the country. But there is no doubt that Eden still commanded support from a sizeable minority, perhaps even a majority of voters who think that it is about time that the Arab people are disappointed to be taught a lesson. Observer and Guardian readers, as is the News Chronicle, a liberal newspaper soon to fold as a result of the findings. A.N. Wilson wrote that: Most of the press, the Labour Party and that the same party influence, learning left London dinner party, all of Suez along with rent mob poet, dons, priests and ankle-socked female graduates who regret the British action, they do not necessarily agree. The majority of public opinion "unexpressed Economy", Roy Harrod wrote at the time that "the head is more British, which I believe to be the majority by not the most vocal" support "a significant act of courage and statesmanship" of the government. Reaction International Operations, which aims to take control of the Suez Canal, Gaza, and the Sinai, was highly successful for invaders from a military standpoint, but a disaster from a political standpoint, causing international criticism and diplomatic pressure. Along with the Suez crisis, the United States was also dealing with the near-simultaneous Hungarian revolution. Vice President Richard Nixon later explained: "We can not on one hand, complain about the Soviet intervention in Hungary and on the other hand, approved the British and French dig that particular time to intervene against Nasser".84 Although no commercial or military interest in the area, many countries with respect to what is a growing split between Western countries associate. Although Israel refused to withdraw troops from the Gaza Strip and Sharm el-Sheikh, Eisenhower declared, "We can not allow Europe to go flat on the back of oil O." He tried the efforts supported by the United Nations to impose economic sanctions against Israel until it withdraws completely from Egyptian territory. Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson and minority leader William Knowland objected to American pressure on Israel. Johnson told Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles that he wanted him to fight "with all skills" any attempt to apply sanctions on Israel. Dulles institute demand Johnson, and Eisenhower told the objections made by the Senate. Eisenhower was "demanding to impose economic sanctions" as cutting U.S. aid to
84

Borhi, Lszl (1999). "Containment, Rollback, Liberation or Inaction? The United States and Hungary in the 1950s" (PDF). Journal of Cold War Studies 1 (3): 67108. doi:10.1162/152039799316976814. http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/152039799316976814?cookieSet=1&journalCode=jcws. Retrieved 2009-06-29.

Israel, which has been estimated at over $ 100 million a year. Finally, the Democratic Party controlled Senate will not work with Eisenhower position on Israel. Eisenhower finally told Congress he would take this issue to the American people, saying, "America has one or no voice, and that voice is the voice of the President - whether everyone agrees with him or not". The President spoke to the nation on radio and television where he outlined Israel's refusal to withdraw, explaining the belief that the UN has "no choice but to exert pressure on Israel." 85 On 30 October, the Security Council held a meeting, at the request of the United States, when it submitted a draft resolution calling on Israel to withdraw immediately forces behind the established armistice lines. It does not apply because the British and French vetoes. A similar draft resolution sponsored by the Soviet Union was also rejected. On 31 October, also as planned, France and UK launch air strikes against targets in Egypt, which was followed shortly by landing their troops in the north end of the Canal Zone. Later that day, considering the grave situation created by the actions of Egypt, and with the lack of consensus among the permanent members prevented from carrying out its primary responsibility to maintain international peace and security, the Security Council passed Resolution 119; she decided to call an emergency special session General Assembly for the first time, as provided in the 1950 "United for Peace" resolution, to make appropriate recommendations to end the battle. Universal Film news report Dag Hammarskjld's meeting with NasserThe emergency special session held on 1 November; same day Nasser requested diplomatic assistance from the United States (U.S.), without asking the same of the Soviet Union; him at first skeptical of the effectiveness of U.S. diplomatic efforts at the UN, but later gave full credit to Eisenhower role in stopping the war [190] In the early morning of 2 November, the General Assembly adopted the United States' proposal for Resolution 997 (ES-I). 64 votes in favor and 5 against (Australia, New Zealand, Britain, France, and Israel) with 6 abstentions. It calls for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of all forces behind the armistice lines, an arms embargo and the reopening of the Suez canal, which has now been blocked. The Secretary-General was requested to observe and report promptly on compliance to both the Security Council and General Assembly, for further action as it deems appropriate in accordance with the UN Charter. Over the next few days, the emergency special session next using a series of resolution, the United Nations established the first American Emergency Force (UNEF), on 7 November by Resolution 1001. This proposal and the resulting emergency team ceasefire was done primarily through the efforts of, Lester B.
85

Divine, Robert (1981). Eisenhower and the Cold War. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 6466.

Pearson, Secretary of Foreign Affairs of Canada, and Dag Hammarskjld, Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN). The role of Nehru, both as Indian Prime Minister and a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement is important, he tries to be handed in between the two sides, while denouncing Eden and co-sponsors aggression vigorously. Nehru has one powerful ally in U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower who, if relatively silent public, go up to the use of American influence in the IMF to make Eden and Mollet back down. Portugal and Iceland went so far as to suggest ejecting Britain and France from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defense pact if they did not withdraw from Egypt not in citation given] Nehru achieved his objective of protecting Egypt's sovereignty and Nasser's honor;. the Suez War ended in Britain's humiliation and Eden later resigned Britain and France agreed to withdraw from Egypt within a week; Israel does. Meanwhile, on 7 November in Israel, David Ben-Gurion addressed the Knesset in a victory speech that would set Israel on a collision course with the United Nations Organization, the United States (U.S.) and others. He declared a major victory and that the 1949 armistice agreement with Egypt was dead and buried, and that the armistice lines are no longer valid and can not be restored. Under no circumstances would Israel agree to placement of UN troops on territory or in any occupied area. He also made an oblique reference intention to annex the Sinai Peninsula. Isaac Alteras wrote that Ben-Gurion 'was carried away by the brilliant victory against Egypt' and while 'a statesman well-known for sober realism, he took flight in dreams of grandeur.' Speech marked the beginning of a fourmonth diplomatic struggle, culminating in withdrawal from all territory, under conditions far less palatable than envisioned in the speech, but with conditions for sea access to Eilat and a UNEF presence on Egyptian soil. Speech immediately drew increased international pressure on Israel to withdraw. Then on November 7 in New York, an emergency session passed Resolution 1002, again calling for the immediate withdrawal of Israeli forces behind the armistice lines, and for the immediate withdrawal of British and French troops from Egyptian territory. After a long Israeli cabinet meeting late on November 8, Ben-Gurion informed Eisenhower that Israel declared its readiness to accept the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Sinai, 'when satisfactory arrangements are made with the international forces were about to enter the canal zone'. 86 Although the Soviet Union's position in the crisis are not able to do anything as is the United States' on Hungarian uprising, Prime Nikolai Bulganin threatened to intervene on the side of Egypt, and rocket attacks in Britain, France and Israel. Eisenhower's reaction to this
86

Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli Relations, 19531960, Isaac Alteras, University Press of Florida, 1993, ISBN 0-8130-1205-8, page 246. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 8 September 2011.

threat is, "If those fellows start something, we may have to hit 'em -., And, if necessary, with everything in the bucket". Eisenhower immediately ordered the U-2s into action over Syria and Israel to find any Soviet air force base in Syria, the British and French so can destroy them. He told the Secretary of State Herbert Hoover Jr. and CIA director Allan Dulles, "If the Soviet invasion of France and the British directly, we will be in a war and we are justified in taking military action even if Congress is not in session." (American Israel excluded from warranty against Soviet attack, however, concern the Israeli government) Eden no clearly concerned with the Soviet threat, since Britain was itself a nuclear power, and the government does not have a broad knowledge of all weapons of the Soviet Union. Bulganin accused Ben-Gurion support of European colonialism, and Mollet of hypocrisy for leading a socialist government while pursuing a right-wing foreign policy. He did not budge in his letter to Eden that Britain has a legitimate interest in Egypt. Financial stress Film News from the month of November 12, the United States also provided financial pressure on the UK to end the invasion. As the Bank of England has lost $ 45 million between 30 October and 2 November, the UK's oil supply has been blighted by the closure of the Suez Canal, the British get immediate relief from the IMF, but it was denied by the United States. Eisenhower in fact ordered the Secretary of the Treasury, George M. Humphrey, to prepare to sell part of the U.S. Government's Sterling Bond holdings. U.S. Government bonds in part to help the economy after the war Britain during the Cold War, and as part payment of the debt-World War II Britain's big to the U.S. Government, American corporations, and individuals. It is also part of the overall effort of Marshall Plan aid, in the rebuilding of the Western European countries. UK Government considered invaded Kuwait and Qatar if oil sanctions has been created by the United States. Then Britain's Chancellor of Finance United Kingdom, Harold MacMillan, advised the Prime Minister, Anthony Eden, that the United States is fully prepared to carry out the threat. He also warned his Prime Minister that Britain's foreign exchange reserves simply can not sustain the devaluation of the pound, which will come after the U.S. action, and that within a few weeks of such measures, the country will be importing the food and energy supplies needed to maintain the population in the islands. However, there is some skepticism in the Cabinet that Macmillan had deliberately underestimated the financial situation forced out of Eden. What Treasury officials told Macmillan was far less serious than the version he told the Cabinet.

In conjunction with U.S. actions Saudi Arabia begin oil embargo against Britain and France. The U.S. refused to fill the gap until Britain and France agreed to a rapid withdrawal. NATO members refused to sell oil received from Arab nations to Britain or France. Cease-fire Israelis protest against UN order to evacuate Gaza and Sinai, February 14, 1957The British government faced political and economic pressure. British Prime Minister, Sir Anthony Eden, announced a cease-fire on November 6, not France or Israel warned beforehand. Army still in Port Said and operational maneuvers when the order came from London. Port Said has been overrun and the military assessment was that the Suez Canal could have really taken within 24 hours. Eisenhower initially agreed to meet with Eden and Mollet to resolve their differences, but then cancel the proposed meeting after Secretary of State Dulles advised him it risked inflaming the Middle Eastern situation further. Eisenhower did not favor immediate withdrawal of British troops, France and Israel, the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (UN), Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. urged. Eden before Sir Winston Churchill commented on 22 November, "I can not understand why our military has stopped. To go this far and not go on was madness." Churchill added that while he may not have been brave enough to start with military operations, but once he had ordered would not dare to stop before it has achieved its objectives. Without further guarantee, the Anglo-French Task Force to complete withdrawal by December 22, 1956, replaced by Danish and Colombian units of the UNEF. Israel refused to host any UN force on Israeli controlled territory and left the Sinai of March, 1957. Before the withdrawal of Israeli forces systematically destroyed infrastructure in the Sinai peninsula, such as roads, railways and telephone lines, and all the houses in the villages of Abu Ageila and Quseima El. Before the railway was destroyed, Israel Railways took captured Egyptian National Railways locomotive equipment including 6 and 30 ton crane damage. The UNEF was formed by forces from countries that are not part of the major alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact - though Canadian troops participated in later years, since Canada had spearheaded the idea of a neutral force). On 24 April 1957 the canal was fully reopened to shipping. 87
87

"Gallery". Fun. Israel Railways. http://www.rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx. Retrieved 25 May 2011. "Message to the Congress Transmitting the 11th Annual Report on United States Participation in the United Nations". University of California Santa Barbara. 14 January 1958. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=11356. Retrieved 5 March 2009. "Suez crisis, 1956". The Arab-Israeli conflict, 1947present. 28 August 2001. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/mideast/timeline.htm. Retrieved 5 March 2009.

Impression End imposed by the final weak signal crisis the United Kingdom and France as global powers. Medium-sized powers were no longer free to act independently. Nasser's position in the Arab world improved, with his stance helping to promote pan-Arabism. Although Egyptian forces had stood no chance against the three allies, many Egyptians believed that Nasser had won the war militarily. Suez Crisis may have directly led to the July 14 Revolution in Iraq. King Faisal II and Prime Minister Nuri-es-Said were killed in two years their advice to Eden to "hit Nasser hard and quickly". Egyptian sovereignty and ownership of the Canal was confirmed by the United States and the United Nations. In retirement Eden stressed that the military response crisis has prevented the larger war in the Middle East. Israel was expecting the invasion of Egypt either in March or April 1957 and the Soviet invasion of Syria. This crisis can be said to hasten the process of decolonization, as many of the remaining colonies of both Britain and France gained independence over the next few years. Some hold that it is ending crisis led to decolonization, over-hasty in Africa, resulted in civil war and military dictatorship. The fight over the canal also laid the foundations for the Six Day War in 1967 due to lack of post-war peace settlement in 1956. Failure of the Anglo-French mission was also seen as a failure for the United States, since the western alliance has weakened and the military response had ultimately achieved nothing. Soviets got away with their violent repression revolt in Hungary, and can give rise to the United Nations (UN) as the defender of small powers against imperialism. 88 As a direct result of one crisis and in order to prevent further Soviet expansion in the region, Eisenhower asked Congress on January 5, 1957 for authorization to use military force if requested by any Middle Eastern nation to check aggression and, second, to set aside $ 200 million to help Middle Eastern countries that desired aid from the United States. Congress granted both requests and this policy became known as the Eisenhower Doctrine. The Soviet Union has made major gains associated with influence in the Middle East. American History John Lewis Gaddis writes about the aftermath of the crisis. When the British-French invasion-Israel forces them to choose, Eisenhower and Dulles were down, with immediate firmness, next to the Egyptian people. They prefer alignment with Arab nationalism, even if it means separating the election of pro-Israel on the eve of presidential elections in the United States, even if it means throwing the NATO alliance to be the most divisive crisis again, even if it means risking whatever is left ' istimewa' AngloAmerican relationship, even if it means voting with the Soviet Union in the Security Council
88

Delauche, Frederic Illustrated History of Europe: A Unique Guide to Europe's Common Heritage (1992) p. 357

of the United Nations at a time when Russia invaded Hungary and destroy itself far more brutal than anything that happened in Egypt - the revolt against authority their own there. The fact that the Eisenhower administration itself applied crushing economic pressures, the British and French to stay away from Suez and it was later forced Israel to withdraw from Sinai as well with all this, one might think, would win the lasting gratitude USA Nasser, Egypt and the Arab world . Instead, America lost influence in the Middle East as a result of Suez, while Russia acquired. Many threats Nikita Khrushchev, publicity stated in a letter written by Nikolai Bulganin to launch a rocket attack on 5 November in Britain, France and Israel if they did not withdraw from Egypt was widely believed at the time to have to force a cease-fire. Thus, the prestige of the Soviet Union, which seems set to launch a nuclear attack on Britain, France and Israel to Egypt soared to new heights in Egypt, the Arab world and the Third World in general. Through Nasser in private admit that it is the American economic pressure that has saved him, but it was Khrushchev, Eisenhower not a public thank Nasser as Egypt's savior and special friend of Khrushchev in his memoirs later to increase: We use our influence to stop the England international, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in 1956 is a historic turning point ... Before this they seem to think that we were cheating, when we openly said that the Soviet Union has powerful rocket. But then they see that we really have a rocket. And this has an impact. Khrushchev took the view that the Suez crisis was a major victory for the Soviet nuclear brinksmanship, arguing in public and private sector that the threat to use nuclear weapons is what has kept Egypt Khrushchev claimed in his memoirs: England and the French government know well that the speech Eisenhower's invasion they only signal for public appearances. But when we deliver our own harsh warning to the three intruders, they know we do not play with public opinion. They take us seriously. 89 Khrushchev interesting conclusion that the Suez crisis, which he sees as his own personal victory is that the use of nuclear blackmail is a very effective tool to achieve the goal of Soviet foreign policy. Thus began the long crisis that began with the Berlin crisis of 1958 and culminated in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, where Khrushchev threatened to start World War III if he did not get the trip. No less important in explaining the Soviet diplomatic victory in the Near East is Nasser's reaction to the Eisenhower Doctrine. Nasser never wanted to Egypt in line with one superpower, and instead prefer a situation where he
89

Gaddis, John Lewis (1997, 1998). We Know Now: Rethinking Cold War History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p173.

was the object of competing American and Soviet efforts to buy friendship. After Suez, U.S. Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, to see that there is one vacuum power in the Middle East, and think the United States should fill it. Dulles policy, which is to ultimately led to the proclamation of the Eisenhower Doctrine was based on the assumption that Nasser and other Arab leaders share U.S. fear of the Soviet Union. This is not actually the case, and Nasser hate Israel far more than anything in him may have about the Soviet Union, and in any case prefer a situation in which the two major powers competing for his favor for its part to be aligned with one superpower. Eisenhower Doctrine was considered by Nasser as a heavy-hand attempt to dominate the Middle East America (region that Nasser believed he should rule), and bring him back swinging the Soviet Union as the best counter-weight. It is only by leaving the quiet Eisenhower Doctrine in the study of the National Security Council in mid-1958 that Nasser began to withdraw from the Soviet Union to continue its role as a spoiler liked trying to play two great powers against each other. Military Education Great military was strengthened by the Suez War was the extent that the desert supports very fluid, mobile operations and air retention power. French aircraft destroyed Egyptian forces threatening paratroops at Raswa and save the IDF Israeli air force a few days worth of time. Operating in the open desert without air supremacy proved suicidal for the Egyptian army in the Sinai. Royal Marine helicopter assault on Port Said "shows promise as a technique for transporting troops to the small landing zone". Strategic bombing proved ineffective. Revise Phrase II failed to achieve the goal of breaking the spirit of Egypt and at the same time, those civilian deaths that do not occur helped to turn world opinion against the invasion and especially hurt support for the war in Britain. Egyptian urban warfare tactics at Port Said proved effective delay Allied advance. Finally, the war demonstrated the importance of diplomacy. Anglo-French operation against Egypt's military succcessful, but proved to be counterproductive as opinion in the presence of both houses of Britain and France and the world abroad, especially in the United States, is on operations. Jewish exodus from Arab countries and the Islamic and Jewish history in Egypt In October 1956, when the Suez Crisis erupted, 1,000 Jews were arrested and 500 Jewish businesses were confiscated by the government. A statement branding the Jews as "Zionists and enemies of the state" was read in the mosques of Cairo and Alexandria. Jewish bank accounts were confiscated and many Jews lost their job. Lawyers, engineers, doctors and

teachers are not allowed to work in their profession. Thousands of Jews were ordered to leave the country. They were allowed to take only one suitcase and a small amount of cash, and forced to sign declarations "donating" their property to the Egyptian government. Foreign observers reported that members of Jewish families were taken hostage, apparently to insure that those forced to leave did not speak out against the Egyptian government. Some 25,000 Jews, almost half of the Jewish community left, mainly to Israel, Europe, USA and South America, after being forced to sign a declaration that they had left voluntarily and agree with seizure of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt had fallen to 15,000. British historian DR Thorpe wrote that the imposed ending to the Crisis gave Nasser "... an inflated view of his own power." In his mind, he had defeated the combined forces of the United Kingdom, France and Israel, when in fact the military operation was "defeated" by pressure from the United States. Despite the defeat of Egypt, Nasser emerged as a hero in the Arab world enhanced. American history Derek Varble commented "Although Egyptian forces fought with modest skills in conflict, many Arabs see Nasser as the conqueror of European colonialism and Zionism, simply because Britain, France and Israel leave the Sinai and the northern Canal Zone". Thrope wrote about Nasser's post Suez hurbis that "the Six Day War against Israel in 1967 was when reality kicked in a war that will not happen if the Suez crisis was having a different resolution".90 Political and psychological impact of the crisis resolution BritainThe have a fundamental impact on British politics. Anthony Eden was accused of misleading parliament and resigned from office on January 9, 1957, after significant pressure leveled by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the United States government. Eden almost did not become prime minister for two years by the time. resignation, and his unsuccessful handling of the Suez Crisis eclipse the success he has achieved in a variety of government and opposition roles over the past 30 years. Eden's successor, Harold MacMillan, many accelerated decolonization and try to recapture the joy of the United States. He enjoys a close friendship with Eisenhower from their first meeting in a very successful conference in Bermuda in March 1957. Benefit from the personal popularity and a good economy, governments Macmillan increase majority in general elections 1959. Increasingly, British foreign policy thinking turned out to act as a major imperial power. During the 1960s there was much speculation that the constant rejection Prime
90

Thrope, D.R. (1 November 2006). "What we failed to learn from Suez". London: Daily Telegrah. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/3656288/What-we-failed-to-learn-from-Suez.html. Retrieved 2010-21-21.

Minister Harold Wilson, to send any British troops into Vietnam, still in force 1 token, though continuing demand President Lyndon B. Johnson's, is partly due to the U.S. failed to support Britain during the Suez crisis. Edward Heath was frustrated by the opposition of the United States to Britain during the Suez crisis: as Prime Minister in October 1973 he refused the U.S. permission to use any of the UK's air bases to resupply during the Yom Kippur War, or to allow the Americans to gather intelligence from the British base in Cyprus. The events that led to the resignation of Eden marked the last significant attempt Britain made to impose military abroad without the support of the United States, up to the Falklands War in 1982. Macmillan was every bit as determined as Eden had stopped Nasser, although he is more willing to get American support. There are those who say that the crisis also marked the final transfer of power to the new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. Despite the lack of U.S. cooperation, although British domestic politics suffered, the British relationship with the United States did not suffer lasting consequences from the crisis. "'Special relationship' Anglo-American has revitalized immediately after the Suez Crisis." "The two governments ... engaged in almost ritualistic reassurances that the 'special relationship' with the quicker they will be restored." Eisenhower himself later stated that he regretted private opposition to the celebration combined British, French and Israeli crisis. After retiring from office Eisenhower came to see the Suez Crisis might be his biggest foreign policy mistake. Not only did he feel that the United States weakens two important European allies Cold War, but he has created in Nasser a man that can dominate the Arab world. In later years a revisionist view held that the real mistake during the Crisis was made not by Eden but by Eisenhower, for failing to support his allies, he gave the impression that the West was divided and weak, the Soviet quick to exploit. Revisionists further argued that by failing to show enough leadership in finding a diplomatic solution Crisis, Eisenhower and the Organization of the United Nations has made the Anglo-French military response unavoidable. Eisenhower was intensely worried supporting his allies might harm his chances of winning re-election - had the invasion was launched on November 7, he may be more muted reaction, in which the entire canal may have been taken by the British and French armies. American Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles was diagnosed with colon cancer and underwent surgery last week the Suez war. During a visit by UK Foreign Secretary, Selwyn Lloyd, at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, Dulles asked, 'Selwyn, why would you stop? Why do not you go through with it and get Nasser down?' Lloyd surprised replied, "If

you have so many a wink that we ... '. Records bedside visit by President Eisenhower five days earlier shows Secretary of State made a similar statement. Eden was reported to have said to one conservative and that he found it strange that someone so little compared to the Suez crisis in 1938 and wrote, "Egypt may be not Germany but Russia is and Egypt are 'pawns' in Moscow. Yet so much as be to fail to see this and to trust Nasser's almost like someone else gave Hitler years. "In 1977, died of Eden, The Times wrote," He was the last prime minister to believe Britain was a great power and the first to deal with the crisis that prove he is not. " French-American relations have never recovered from the Suez crisis. There are various reasons for this. "Prior to the Suez Crisis has become strain in Franco-American relationship triggered by what Paris considered U.S. betrayal of the French war effort in Indochina at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Incident reflects poorly on the NATO alliance in the lack of planning and external cooperation European level. Mollet believed Eden should have delayed calling the Cabinet together until 7 November, taking around Canal meantime, and then veto with the French resolution any UN sanctions. point of view of General de Gaulle, the Suez events show the French that it could not rely on allies associates; British started ceasefire in the middle of a battle without consulting the French, while the Americans had opposed Paris politically damage to relations between Paris and Washington DC "which led to the decision of 1966 to President de Gaulle withdrew from NATO's military integration." 91 According to the protocol of Svres agreements, France secretly transmitted parts of atomic technology to Israel. Israel Israeli Chief of Staff Moshe Dayan (left) speaks at the Sharm el Sheikh. To the right is Avraham Yoffe, commander of the 9th Brigade. Israeli capture of strategic positions of power emerged victorious from the war. Implementing powers leading the military campaign military theorist BH Liddell Hart termed "brilliant." [240] Israel Defense Forces gained confidence from the campaign. War proved that Israel is capable of performing large scale military maneuvers in addition to small night raids and counter insurgency operations. David Ben-Gurion, reading on November 16 that the 90,000 British and French troops were involved in the Suez affair, wrote in his diary, 'If they only joined us this power commander, Nasser would have been destroyed in two days' [236] The Battle it also has significant benefits for Israel. Straits of Tiran, closed by Egypt since 1951 has been reopened. Israeli
91

Risse-Kappen, Thomas (1995). Cooperation among Democracies: The European Influence on U.S. Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/06910346446|06910346446]].

shipping in turn can move freely through the Straits of Tiran to and from Africa and Asia. Israel also secured the presence of UN Peacekeepers in Sinai. Operation Kadesh bought Israel's 11-year lull in the southern border with Egypt. Israel missed the political humiliation that befell Britain and France following the release of their rapid, forceful. In addition, a stubborn refusal to withdraw without ending assurance efforts the West, particularly the United States and the British, to impose a political settlement in the Middle East without Israel's security must take into account. In October 1965 Eisenhower on Jewish fundraiser and Republican party supporter Max M. Fisher that he greatly regretted forcing Israel to withdraw from the Sinai peninsula; Vice-President Nixon recalled that Eisenhower expressed the same view to him several times.92 Other parties, Lester B. Pearson, who later became the Prime Minister of Canada, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his efforts in creating a mandate for the United Nations Peacekeeping Force the United Nations, and he is regarded as the father of the modern concept of peacekeeping. Suez Crisis contributed to the use of a new national flag for Canada in 1965, without reference to the past that the country as a colony of France and Britain. The Egyptian government had objected to Canadian peacekeeping troops on the grounds that their flag at that time included the British banner. As Prime Minister, Pearson would support simple Maple Leaf that was finally adopted. After Suez, Cyprus, Aden and Iraq became the main base for the British in the region while the French focus their troops in Bizerte and Beirut. UNEF was placed in the Sinai (on Egyptian territory only) with the real purpose of maintaining the ceasefire. Although effective in preventing small-scale warfare that existed before 1956 and after 1967, the budget cuts and changing needs had seen the force shrink to 3378 by 1967. The Soviet Union, after long peering through the closed door keyhole on what is regarded as the Western sphere of influence, now finds itself invited over the threshold as Arab partners. Soon after the re-opening, the canal was traversed by ships first Soviet war since World War I. Soviet influence 'of the Middle East, although it was not to last, included acquiring Mediterranean base, introducing multipurpose projects, supporting the budding Palestinian liberation movement and penetrating the Arab countries. 93
92

Hendershot, Robert M. (2008). Family Spats: Perception, Illusion, and Sentimentality in the Anglo-American Special Relationship. VDM Verlag. ISBN 978-3-639-09016-1. Heikal, Mohamed (1986). Cutting The Lions Tail : Suez Through Egyptian eyes. London: De utsch. Herzog, Chaim (1982). The Arab-Israeli Wars : War and Peace in the Middle East. New York: Random House Hyam, Ronald (2006). Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation 1918 1969. Cambridge University Press. 93 "Suez: The 'betrayal' of Eden". BBC News. 30 October 2006.

Conclusion Ongoing blockade of the Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, prompting Israel, with the support of Britain and France to invade Egypt on October 29, 1956. Israeli Ambassador to the UN Abba Eban explained provocation to the Security Council on 30 October. In the last six years has operated in violation of the Armistice Agreement has occurred 1843 cases of armed robbery and theft, 1339 cases of armed clashes with Egyptian armed forces, 435 cases of invasion of the Egyptian-controlled territory, 172 cases of sabotage committed by Egyptian fedayeen units and the Israeli military. Due to the actions of Egyptian hostility in Israel, 364 Israelis were injured and 101 killed. In 1956 alone, as a result of this aspect of Egyptian aggression, 28 Israelis were killed and 127 injured. One of the reasons this is so intolerable attack on Israel is that the country has chosen to create a relatively small standing army and depends mainly on the reserves in times of war. This means that Israel has little power to fight in an emergency, that threat can provoke mobilization reserves nearly crippled the country, and that the initial core of the enemy will have to last long enough to complete mobilization. Bibliography "Gallery". Fun. Israel Railways. http://www.rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx. Retrieved 25 May 2011. Heikal, Mohamed (1986). Cutting The Lions Tail : Suez Through Egyptian eyes. London: Deutsch. Hendershot, Robert M. (2008). Family Spats: Perception, Illusion, and Sentimentality in the Anglo-American Special Relationship. VDM Verlag.Herzog, Chaim (1982). The ArabIsraeli Wars : War and Peace in the Middle East. New York: Random House Hyam, Ronald (2006). Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation 19181969. Cambridge University Press. "Message to the Congress Transmitting the 11th Annual Report on United States Participation in the United Nations". University of California Santa Barbara. 14 January 1958. Retrieved 2009 March 5. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=11356 "Suez crisis, 1956". The Arab-Israeli conflict, 1947present. 2001 August 28. Retrieved 2009 March 5 from http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/mideast/timeline.htm.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6085264.stm.

Chapter 5 Arab-Israeli Conflict (III) - Six-Day War, 1967 Introduction Six-Day War or "setback," 1967, Harb, 1967, "War of 1967"), also known as the June 1967 War, the Arab-Israeli War, or Third Arab-Israeli War, took place between 5 and June 10, 1967 , by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known then as the United Arab Republic), Jordan, and Syria. After a period of tension between Israel and its neighbors is high, the war began on June 5 with Israel launching surprise air strikes against the Arab powers. Israel's decision is a victory that swiftly and firmly. Israel took effective control of the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Background and Summary of Events That Lead To War After the Suez crisis of 1956, Egypt agreed to placement of the Emergency Team of the United Nations Organisation (UNEF) in the Sinai to ensure all parties will comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreement. In the following years there were many border skirmish between Israel and its Arab neighbors, particularly Syria. In early November 1966, Syria signed a mutual defense treaty with Egypt. Not long after that, in response to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) guerilla activity, including mine attack that left three dead, the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) attacked the city of as-Samu in the Jordanian-occupied West Bank. Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back. King Hussein of Jordan criticized Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser failed to come to Jordan's aid, and "hiding behind UNEF skirts".94 In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that Israel was massing on the Syrian border. Nasser began massing troops on the border in the Sinai Peninsula (May 16) Israel, expelled the UNEF force from Gaza and Sinai (May 19), and take UNEF positions at Sharm el-Sheikh, overlooking the Straits of Tiran. UN Secretary-General U Thant proposed that the UNEF force stationed on the borders of Israel, but this was rejected by Israel despite U.S. pressure. Israel reiterated declarations made in 1957 that any closure of the Straits would be considered an act of war, or justification for war. Nasser declared the Straits closed to Israeli shipping in May. 22-23. On May 27, he stated "Our basic objective

94

Burrowes, Robert & Muzzio, Douglas. (1972). The Road to the Six Day War: Towards an Enumerative History of Four Arab States and Israel, 196567. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 16, No. 2, Research Perspectives on the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Symposium, pp.224-225

will be the destruction of Israel. Arabs want to fight." On May 30, Jordan and Egypt signed a defense pact. On the following day, at the invitation of Jordan, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armored units in Jordan. They were later reinforced by contingents of Egypt. On June 1, Israel formed the National Unity Government to expand the cabinet, and on June 4 the decision was made to go to war. The next day, Israel launched Operation Focus, the air strike a massive shock that is opening the Six Day War. 95 Military preparations Arab preparations On the eve of the war, Egypt gathered about 100,000 soldiers 160,000 in the Sinai, including all the 7 (four infantry, two armored and 1 machine), four infantry brigades and four independent armored brigades. Not less than one-third of whom are veterans of Egypt's intervention into the Yemen Civil War and another third was safe. These forces had 950 tanks, 1100 APCs and more than 1,000 pieces of artillery. At the same time some Egyptian troops (15,000-20,000) are still fighting in Yemen. Nasser's ambivalence about his goals and objectives are reflected in his orders to the army. General staff changed the operational plan four times in May 1967, each change requires redeployment of troops, with the toll on both men and vehicles that can not be avoided. By the end of May, Nasser finally forbade the general staff from proceeding with plans Qahir ("Victory"), called for a light infantry screen in the forward fortifications with most of the forces held back to conduct a massive counterattack against the main Israeli advance when identified, and ordered the defense before Sinai. Meanwhile, he continued to take actions intended to increase the level of mobilization of Egypt, Syria and Jordan, to bring pressure on Israel. Syrian troops have 1 total strength of 75,000 and collect them along the Syrian border. Jordanian army has 55,000 troops and 300 tanks along the Jordanian border, 250 of which were U.S. M48 Patton, sizable amounts of M113 APCs, 1 new motorized infantry battalion, and a paratrooper battalion trained in the new school was built. They also have 12 battalions of artillery and six batteries of 81 mm and 120 mm mortars. Documents captured by Israel from Jordan commandments various records kept by the end of May for the Hashemite Brigade to capture Ramot Burj Bir Mai'in in night raid, codenamed "Operation Khaled". The aim is to establish a database along with the position to capture Latrun armor LOD and Ramle. "Continue" and the final codeword Sa'ek Nasser. Jordan plans to capture and Sha'alvim Motza in the strategic Jerusalem Corridor. Motza was
95

Churchill, Randolph & Churchill, Winston. (1967 ). The Six Day War. Houghton Mifflin Company. PP 52-77.

assigned to Infantry Brigade 27 camped near Ma'ale Adummim "reserve brigade will commence infiltration into Motza night, will destroy the foundation, and will not leave residue or refugee from among 800 residents". 100 Iraqi tanks and infantry division has provided near the border with Jordan. Two fighter squadron, Hawker Hunters and MiG 21, were rebased adjacent to the Jordanian border. On June 2, Jordan called all reserve officers, and commander of the West Bank to meet with community leaders in Ramallah to request assistance and cooperation for the army during the war, assuring them that "in three days we'll be in Tel-Aviv". Arab air forces assisted by volunteer pilots of the Pakistan Air Force acting in independent capacity, and by some aircraft from Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia to make huge losses suffered on the first day of the war. 96 Israeli preparations Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting aircraft returning from sorties, enabling an aircraft sortie up to four times a day (as opposed to the norm in Arab air forces of one or two sorties per day). This allows the Israeli Air Force (IAF) to send several attack waves against Egyptian airport on the first day of the war, overwhelming the Egyptian Air Force, and allowed to knock the Arab air forces on the same day. This has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces (see Controversies relating to the Six Day War). Pilots were extensively schooled about their targets, and forced to memorize every single detail, and read operations several times on dummy runways in total secrecy. The Egyptians built the fortress defenses in the Sinai. These designs are based on the assumption that the attack would come along some main roads through the desert, not through desert terrain difficult. Israel chose not to risk attacking the Egyptian defenses head, and instead surprised them from an unexpected direction. They had practiced driving vehicles through soft dunes in the Negev, and discovered that the vehicle will have greater maneuverability in desert terrain if the tire part deflated. As a result, they can choose the angle of attack, and advance through areas the Egyptians least expected. To maintain the high performance of the Israeli army in the summer of the Sinai desert, the Israeli army ordered that soldiers be supplied with one liter of water per hour, compared to the previous one liter per day. As a result, the military is capable of doing better than their Egyptian counterparts.
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"Pakistan Air Force Pakistan Navy Pakistan Army". Scramble.nl. Retrieved February 1, 2012. http://www.scramble.nl/pk.htm.

Israeli civilians to dig trenches in Gan Shmuel. To prepare war with Syria, the Mossad (Israeli secret service) had sent agent Eli Cohen to infiltrate the Syrian government, in which he exploits high position to provide vital intelligence. Pretending to be sympathetic to the Syrian army, he ordered trees planted by every Syrian charging for their shade. They were then used as a marker targeted by Israel. Intelligence has revealed in the form of the most difficult terrain, so the path of the storm were chosen that would avoid natural tank traps and surprises Syria. Mossad also exercise oversight over Egypt. By the time war broke out, the Mossad has either katsa informants (field intelligence officer) or Egypt at the headquarters every Egyptian air bases and military. Three staff officers at the General Headquarters of the High Command is Israeli mole. Between the intelligence gathered by the informant is embarrassing personal information on Egyptian soldiers. This information is sometimes used as blackmail to get new information Mossad. Mossad also disclose details of private conduct numerous deployments to the family and their friends through anonymous letters and phone calls. The campaign caused a considerable dissention in the Egyptian army, and led to the suicide senior. Early 1967, the Israeli intelligence network in Egypt, Nasser was spotted preparing for war with Israel, and more information was employed. By early May 1967, the Mossad, the Israeli commander can keep the right time to attack Egyptian airbases. The Israeli army had a total strength, including reserves, 264,000, although this figure could not be sustained, as the savings are essential to civilian life. James Reston, writing in The New York Times on May 23, 1967, said, "In the efficiency of discipline, training, morale, equipment and general [Nasser's] army and the other Arab forces, without the direct assistance of the Soviet Union, not on par with Israel Even with 50,000 troops .... and the best generals and air force in Yemen, he was not able to work in a small and primitive country, and efforts to help the Congo rebels are flops. " On the evening of June 1, Israeli Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan called Chief of Staff Yitzhak Rabin and the General Officer Commanding (GOC), Southern Command Brigadier General Yeshayahu Gavish to present plans against Egypt. Rabin had formulated a plan in which Southern Command team would fight their way to Gaza and then hold the territory and people hostage until Egypt agreed to reopen the Straits of Tiran;, while Gavish had a more comprehensive plan that called for the destruction of the Egyptian army in the Sinai. Rabin support Gavish plan, which was later confirmed by Dayan with the caution that simultaneous attack against Syria should be avoided. Although plans were made for an offensive operation of society, Israeli Arabs are ready for the invasion. Israeli civilians and defense dug, and preparations were made to

transfer the child to Europe. About 14,000 hospital beds were available. Antidote to the poison gas victims, are expected to arrive in waves of about 200, stockpiled, and German donate approximately 20,000 gas masks. About 10,000 graves have been excavated. Jewish diaspora plays an important role in the preparation. Volunteers arrived in large numbers, and priority was given to the young and skilled degree. There are large-scale donations and fund drives of both Jews and Gentiles sympathetic. French Jews expressed their willingness to donate blood, the children of Israel moved, and selling artwork to raise money. According to Michael Oren account of the war, there was a sense of approaching calamity in Israel, with lectures widely bombing Israeli cities and wiped out a whole generation of soldiers. 97 Forward Team Fight Beginner Air Attack Israel's first step and the most critical is the surprise attack on the Egyptian Air Force. Egypt has the largest far and all the Arab air forces, consisting of about 420 of the most modern combat aircraft, all of them Soviet built and with a heavy quota of top-line MiG-21 capable of reaching Mach 2 speed. Initially, both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by another country. Of concern to Israel 30 Tu-16 "Badger" medium bombers, capable of inflicting damage on the weight of Israeli military and civilian centers. On June 5 at 7:45 Israeli time, as civil defense sirens sounded throughout Israel, the IAF launched Operation Focus (Moked). All but 12 of nearly 200 operational jets left the skies of Israel in a mass attack on the airport 1 Egypt. The Egyptian defensive infrastructure is very poor, and no further airport is equipped with hardened aircraft shelter capable of protecting Egypt fighter planes. Most of the Israeli warplanes headed in the Mediterranean Sea, flying low to avoid radar detection, before turning toward Egypt. Other people who fly over the Red Sea. Meanwhile, Egyptians prevented their own defense effectively shut down their entire air defense system: they were worried that rebel Egyptian forces would shoot down the plane carrying Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer and Lt-Gen. TULUNGAGUNG Mahmoud, who travel from al Maza to Bir Tamada in the Sinai to meet the commander of the troops stationed there. In any event, it does not make much difference as the Israeli pilots came in below Egyptian radar cover and well below the lowest point at which the battery missile SA-2 surface-to-air can reduce aircraft. Despite Jordan's powerful radar facility in Ajloun detecting plane wave approaching Egypt and reported the code word for "war" up the Egyptian command chain,
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Oren, Michael. (2005). The Revelations of 1967: New Research on the Six Day War and Its Lessons for the Contemporary Middle East, Israel studies, volume 10, number 2.

Egyptian command and communications problems prevented the warning from reaching the targeted airport. Israeli attack mix strategy worked: bombing and strafing runs against planes parked on the ground itself, and bombed the runway with special-shredding penetration bombs developed platform with France to disable them and leave surviving aircraft can not take off. Arish airport runway has been missed, Israel is expected to return to the airport to transport their troops after the war. Surviving aircraft were later taken out by wave attack some more. Operation was more successful than expected, catching the Egyptians by surprise and destroying virtually all Egyptian Air Force on the ground, with few Israeli losses. A total of 338 Egyptian aircraft were destroyed and 100 pilots were killed, though the actual number of aircraft lost by the Egyptians dispute. Among the Egyptian planes lost all 30 Tu-16 bombers, 27 of the 40 Il-28 bombers, 12 Su-7 fighter-bombers, over 90 MiG-21s, 20 MiG-19s, 25 MiG-17 fighters, and about 32 helicopters and transport aircraft. In addition, the Egyptian radar and SAM missiles have also been attacked and destroyed. Israel lost 19 aircraft, including two destroyed in air combat and air-to-13 downed by antiaircraft artillery. One of the plane, which was damaged and could not break radio silence, was shot down by Israeli Hawk missiles after it lost over the Negev Nuclear Research Center. Another literally blown air by Egyptian bombers exploded. Attack guaranteed Israeli air superiority throughout the war. Due to the misleading information provided by the two agents, the Egyptians have left their aircraft on the runway, allowing them to be easily destroyed. Only four unarmed training flight in the air when the strike Egypt began. Attacks on other Arab air forces occur later in life as hostilities occurring in other fields. Also on the morning of June 6, 1967, Lebanese Hunter, one of 12 Lebanon had, was shot down on the Israeli-Lebanese borders by Israel Israeli Mirage IIICJ, piloted by Uri Even-NIR. Number of Arab aircraft claimed destroyed by Israel were at first regarded as "greatly exaggerated by the Western media. Nevertheless, the fact that the Egyptian Air Force, along with other Arab air forces attacked Israel made practically no days seem to prove that the number of conflicts are most likely authentic. During the war, Israeli aircraft continued strafing Arab airfield runways to prevent their return to usability. Meanwhile, Egypt's state run radio reported Egyptian victory, falsely claiming that 70 Israeli planes had dropped on the first day of battle. 98 Gaza and the Sinai Peninsula
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"Part 4: The 1967 Six Day War". Retrieved April 20, 2011. http://www.npr.org/news/specials/mideast/history/history4.html.

Egyptian forces consists of seven divisions: four armored, two infantry, and one mechanized infantry. Overall, Egypt had around 100,000 troops and 900-950 tanks in the Sinai, backed by APC in 1100 and 1,000 artillery pieces. This arrangement has been thought by Soviet doctrine, where mobile armor units at strategic depth provide a dynamic defense while infantry units engage in defensive battles. Israeli troops concentrated on the border with Egypt included six armored brigades, one infantry brigade, one mechanized infantry brigade, three paratrooper brigades, giving a total of about 70,000 men and 700 tanks, which were organized in three parts of the shield. They had gathered at the border the night before the battle, camouflage themselves and observe radio silence before directed to develop. Israeli plan was to surprise the Egyptian forces in both time (the exact equivalent of an attack with the IAF strike on Egyptian airport), location (attacking via northern and central Sinai routes, as opposed to the Egyptian expectations repeat the 1956 war, when the IDF attacked through central and southern routes) and method (using a combined approach flanking force, instead of directly attacking tanks). The northern part of Israel, consisting of three brigades and commanded by Major General Israel Tal, one of Israel's most prominent armor commanders, crossed the border at two points, opposite Nahal Oz and south of Khan Yunis. They move quickly, hold fire extend the element of surprise. Tal forces attacked "Rafah Gap", which consists of seven miles shortest three main routes through the Sinai toward Qantara and the Suez Canal. The Egyptians have four parts in the area, which is supported by minefields, pillboxes, bunkers, hidden gun emplacements and trenches. Terrain on either side of the route is passable. Israeli plan is to hit the Egyptians at the main gate selected by thick armor. Tal advance was led by 7th Armored Brigade under Colonel Shmuel Gonen. Israel plans urging Brigade 7 outflank Khan Yunis from the north and 60 Armored Brigade under Colonel Menachem Aviram will advance from the south. Both teams will be connecting and around Khan Yunis, and Rafah paratroopers will take. Gonen findings entrusted to the battalion of his brigade. Initially, first met with light resistance, Egyptian intelligence has concluded that it is a diversion for the main attack. However, as the lead battalion advanced Gonen, it suddenly came under intense fire and took heavy losses. A second battalion was raised, but also pinned down. Meanwhile, 60 Brigade became submerged in the sand, while the paratroopers have trouble browsing through the dunes. Israel continued to press their attack, and even losses, cleaned up the position of Egypt and Khan Yunis railway junction about four hours. Gonen Brigade then added nine miles to Rafah in a twin room. Rafah itself

was bypassed, and Israel attacked Sheikh Zuweid, eight miles to the southwest, which is defended by two brigades. Although lower in numbers and equipment, the Egyptians were deeply entrenched and camouflaged. Israel crushed by stiff Egyptian resistance, and called in air and artillery support to allow these elements to advance their lead. Egypt is left after their commander and some of his staff were killed. Israel broke through with a tank-led attack. However, the team misjudged ribs Aviram Egypt, and pin the stronghold before they were extracted after a few hours. Before sunset, Israel has finished absorbing obstacles. Israeli forces took heavy losses, with Colonel Gonen later told reporters that "we abandon our many dead soldiers in Rafah, and many tanks burn out." The Egyptians suffered about 2,000 victims and the loss of 40 tanks.

Major-General Ariel Sharon, during the Battle of Abu AgeilaWith, the open road, the Israeli army continued advancing towards Arish. By late afternoon, elements of the 79th Armored Battalion was claimed by seven miles long Jiradi defile, a narrow pass defended by troops placed 112 Egyptian Infantry Brigade. In the fierce battle that saw change hands several times passes, Israel imposed through position. Egyptians suffered heavy casualties and losses tank, while Israeli losses at 66 dead, 93 wounded and 28 tanks. Emerging on the western end, the Israeli army reached the outskirts of Arish. As he reached the edge of Arish, Tal also strengthen the hold on the Rafah and Khan Yunis. Israeli reconnaissance team from the unit "realization" in the Sinai during the days following the war. Israeli soldiers on the outskirts of Arish was reinforced by the 7th Brigade, which fought through Jiradi pass. After receiving supplies via airdrop, Israel entered the city and captured the airport at 7:50 am. Israel entered the city at 8:00 am. Company commander Yossi Peled told that "Al-Arish is completely quiet, deserted. Suddenly, the city was turned into a mad house. Shots comes to us from every street, every corner, every window and the house." Record IDF stated that "clearing the city is fighting hard. Egyptians fired from the roof, from the balconies and windows. They dropped grenades into our halftracks and blocking the roads with trucks. Our man threw a grenade into the back and destroy the truck with their tanks. " Gonen send additional units to Arish, and the city finally taken. Far to the south, Israel 38 Armored Division under Major-General Ariel Sharon attacked Um-enriched Katef many areas defended by 2 Egyptian Infantry Division under Major-General Sa'adi Nagib. The Egyptians also had a tank destroyer battalion and a tank regiment, formed the Soviet World War II armor, which included T-90 tanks 34-85 (with 85

mm guns), 22 SU-100 tank destroyers (with 100 mm guns), and about 16,000 men. Israel has the power of about 14,000 men and 150 tanks after World War II, including the AMX-13 with 90 centurions guns, mm, and M50 Super Shermans (modified M-4 Sherman tanks). Sharon's plan is to cross the sand waste Egyptians considered impassable, and attack from the north. At the same time, the tank will be involved from the west ridge of the Egyptian army in Um-Katef and prevent any aid. Israel will evacuate three infantry trenches, while heliborne paratroopers will land behind Egyptian lines and silence their guns. An armored thrust would be made at al-Qusmaya the focus and isolate the garrison. As part of Sharon's march to Sinai, Egypt held a successful delaying military action Tarat Umm, Umm Tarfa, and Hill 181. An Israeli jet was downed by anti-aircraft fire, and armed Sharon came under heavy attack as they marched from the north and west. Israel had to fight through sand dunes and mine while under heavy fire, and take a heavy toll. However, Israeli tanks managed to penetrate the northern flank Abu Ageila, and by nightfall, all units are in position. Israel then carry 90 105mm and 155mm artillery guns for Meal preparation, while public buses carrying infantrymen Jekuthiel reserve under Colonel Adam and helicopters arrived to bring their paratroopers. These movements are unobserved by the Egyptians, who were preoccupied with Israeli probes against their perimeter. As night falls, the Israeli military attack lit flashlight, battalion each a different color, to avoid friendly fire incidents. At 10:00 pm, Israeli artillery barrage on 1-Katef Um, firing about 6,000 shells in less than twenty minutes. Israeli tanks invaded northern Egypt defense and largely successful, even if the entire armored brigade was stopped by the mine, and have only a mine-clearing tank. Israeli infantrymen attacked three lines in the east ditch. To the west, paratroopers commanded by Col. Dani Matt landed behind enemy lines, although half submerged helicopter and never found the battlefield, while others can not land because of mortar attacks. That no land paratroopers attacked the Egyptian artillery park. Confusion sown among the artillery crews helped to slow but not quite stop artillery fire. Overall plan have been met and sometimes exceeded. Egyptian reinforcements from advancing towards Libni Jabal Um-Katef to respond, but failed to achieve their goals, which are subject to heavy air attack and face lodgments Israel on the road. Egyptian commander then called in artillery attacks on their own position. Israel reached and sometimes exceeded their overall plan, and have largely been replaced by the following day. Egyptians have taken a heavy casualty, while Israel lost 40 dead and 140 injured. Meanwhile, two Israeli reserve brigade under Brigadier-General Avraham Yoffe, each equipped with 100 tanks, penetrated in the southern Sinai in the northern part and Tal, Sharon, catching at the crossroads of Abu Ageila, Beer Lahfan, and Arish, take all them

before midnight. Two armored brigades counterattacked Egypt, and a fierce battle going until the next day. Egyptians were beaten back by fierce resistance coupled with air strikes, keep losing weight tank. They fled west towards Jabal Libni. Further south, 8 Armored Brigade under Colonel Albert Mandler, originally positioned as a ruse to lure the invading forces from the real invasion route, attacking fortified bunker in Kuntilla, valuable strategic position that will allow Mandler arrests for blocking aid from reaching Um-Katef and to participate in the upcoming attack on nakhl Sharon. Battalion defending Egypt, overcome and Outgunned, fiercely opposed the invasion, do damage and hit several Israeli tanks. However, most of the defenders were killed, and only three tanks of Egypt, one of them is damaged, survived. Before sunset, armed Mendler took Kuntilla. Yoffe attack allows Tal and Sharon to complete the catch dirty Jiradi, Khan Yunis and Um-Katef. All of them were taken after a fierce battle. The main thrust of the Um-Katef has stalled because of mines and craters. After the IDF engineers have cleared the way by 4:00 pm, Israeli and Egyptian tanks engaged in a fierce battle, often in the range of 10 kilometers away. Israel's war ended with the victory, with 40 Egyptian and 19 Israeli tanks were destroyed. Meanwhile, Israeli infantry finished cleaning drains Egypt, the Israeli victims who died there on 14 and 41 people injured and Egypt in 300 dead and 100 prisoners taken. Gonen then sends force of tanks, infantry and engineers under Colonel Yisrael Granit directly to the Mediterranean coast towards the Suez Canal, while a second team led by Gonen himself turned to the south and captured Bir Lahfan and Jabal Libni. With the exception of Rafah and Khan Yunis, Israeli forces initially avoided entering the Gaza Strip. Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan was expressly excluded from the area. After Palestinian positions in Gaza opened fire on Nirim and Kissufim Negev settlements, IDF Chief of Staff Yitzhak Rabin and Dayan overrode direct command of the 11th Mechanized Brigade under Colonel Yehuda Reshef to enter Gaza. Force immediately met with heavy artillery fire and fierce resistance from the forces and the remnants of the Egyptian military Palestinians from Rafah. By sunset, Israel has taken significant strategic Ali Muntar ridge overlooking Gaza City, but were beaten back from the city itself. Some 70 Israelis were killed, along with Israeli journalist Ben Oyserman and American journalist Paul Schutzer. Twelve members of UNEF also killed. On the second day of the war, Israel was boosted by Paratroopers Brigade 35th under Colonel Rafael Eitan, and take Gaza City along with the rest of the Gaza Strip. Intense fights, and accounted for nearly half of all Israeli victims in front of the south. However, the rapid fall of Gaza to Israel.

During the fighting ground, remnants of the Egyptian Air Force attacked Israeli army, but took the loss from the Israeli Air Force and from Israeli anti-aircraft units. During the last four days, Egyptian aircraft flew 150 sorties against Israeli units in the Sinai. Most of the Egyptian units remained intact and could try to prevent Israel from reaching the Suez Canal or engaged in combat in order to reach the canal. However, when the Egyptian Minister of Defense, Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer heard about the fall of Abu Ageila, he panicked and ordered all units in the Sinai to retreat. This order effectively meant the defeat of Egypt. Film News from June 6 about the first battle during the Israel-Egypt Egypt retreated, Israeli aircraft and artillery to attack them. Israeli jets using napalm bombs during their sorties. Attack destroyed hundreds of vehicles and causing heavy casualties. In Jabal Libni, retreating Egyptian army had been shot by their own artillery. In Beer Gafgafa, intense Egyptians against Israeli soldiers advance, knock three tanks and eight half-tracks, killing 20 soldiers. Due to the withdrawal of Egypt ', the Israeli High Command decided not to pursue the Egyptian units but to intercept and destroy them in the mountainous passes West Sinai. Therefore, in the following two days (6 and 7 June), all three parts of Israel (Sharon and Tal were reinforced by armored brigade each) rushed westwards and reached the passes. Part Sharon goes south then westwards through an nakhl-, the Mitla Pass with air support. It is accompanied by the division Yoffe, while other units blocking Gidi Pass. This pass into killing grounds for the Egyptians, who ran right into waiting Israeli positions and suffered heavy losses. According to Egyptian diplomat Mahmoud Riad, 10,000 people were killed in one day alone, and others who died from hunger and thirst. Tal units long stop at various points of the Suez Canal. Israel's actions are part of successful block. Only the Gidi pass was captured by the Egyptian people, but in other places, Egyptian units managed to pass through security and cross the canal. Due to retreat hastily Egypt, the military is often left arms, military equipment, and hundreds of vehicles. Many Egyptian soldiers were cut off from their units had to walk about 200 yards by foot before reaching the Suez Canal with food and water supplies are limited and are exposed to intense heat. Thousands of soldiers died. Many Egyptian soldiers choose otherwise submit to Israel. However, Israel eventually exceed their ability to provide for the detention. As a result, they began to instruct soldiers towards the Suez Canal and just take prisoners high-ranking officials, who are expected to be exchanged for captured Israeli pilots. During the attack, the Israeli Navy landed six combat divers from the unit Shayetet 13 naval commandos to infiltrate Alexandria harbor. Divers submerged Egyptian

minesweeper before taken prisoner. Shayetet 13 commandos also infiltrated Port Said harbor, but found no boat there. Planned commando raid against the Syrian Navy never materialized. Both Egyptian and Israeli warships made movement in the sea to intimidate the other side throughout the war, but do not engage each other. However, Israeli warships and planes do hunt submarines Egypt during the war. On June 7, Israel began the conquest of Sharm el-Sheikh. Israel Navy probe began operations with naval defense Egypt. Aerial reconnaissance flight found that the area is less defensible than originally thought. At about 4:30 am, three Israeli missile boats opened fire on the Egyptian shore batteries, while the paratroopers and commandos boarded the helicopter and transport aircraft Nord Noratlas for the attack on Al-Tur, as Chief of Staff Rabin believe it is too risky to land directly in Sharm el-Sheikh. However, the city was largely abandoned the day before, and the report of the air force and navy finally convinced Rabin to divert the plane to Sharm el-Sheikh. There, Israel engaged in pitched battles with the Egyptians and took the city, killing 20 Egyptian soldiers and took 8 prisoners. At 12:15 pm, the Minister of Defense Dayan announced that the Straits of Tiran is an international waterway open to all vessels without restrictions. 99 On June 8, Israel completed the capture of the Sinai by sending infantry units Ras Sudar on the western coast of the peninsula. Several tactical elements made the swift Israeli advance possible: first, a surprise attack that quickly gave the Israeli Air Force air superiority entirely on the Egyptian Air Force, secondly, the determined implementation of an innovative battle plan; Third, the lack of coordination between the Egyptian military. These factors will prove to be a defining element in Israel's other fronts as well. West Bank Jordan is reluctant to enter the war. Nasser uses the first hour obscurity conflict to convince King Hussein that he had succeeded, he claimed as evidence a radar sight Israeli aircraft squadron returning from bombing raids in Egypt that he is Egyptian plane trip to Israel. One of the Jordanian brigades stationed in the West Bank has been sent to the Hebron area to connect with the people of Egypt. Hussein decided to attack. Jordanian Armed Forces included 11 brigades totaling some 55,000 troops, equipped with some 300 modern Western tanks. Of these, nine brigades (45,000 troops, 270 tanks, 200
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Oren, Michael. (2006). "The Six-Day War", in Bar-On, Mordechai (ed.), Never-Ending Conflict: Israeli Military History. Greenwood Publishing Group. P 248.

artillery pieces) were deployed in the West Bank, including 40 elite armor, and two in the Jordan Valley. Jordanian army, which was then known as the Arab Legion, is a long-term service, professional army, which is quite well equipped and trained. In addition, the Israeli post-war briefings said that the Jordanian staff acted professionally as well, but always left "half a step" behind the Israeli move. Small Royal Jordanian Air Force consists of only 24 British-made Hawker Hunter fighters, six transport, and two helicopters. According to Israel, the Hawker Hunter basically on par with the French built Dassault Mirage III - the IAF's best plane. Against the force of Jordan in the West Bank, Israel deployed about 40,000 troops and 200 tanks (8 brigades). Israeli Central Command forces consists of five brigades. Two months remain stationed near Jerusalem and was called Jerusalem Brigade and the mechanized Harel Brigade. 55 Mordechai Gur paratrooper brigade was summoned from the Sinai front. 10th Armored Brigade was stationed in the northern West Bank. Israeli Northern Command provided that division (3 brigades) led by Major-General Elad Peled, which is located in the northern West Bank, in the Jezreel Valley. IDF's strategic plan is to stay in front of defense along the Jordan, to enable focus in the expected campaign against Egypt. Instant - intermittent exchange machine started to take place at 9:30 am Jerusalem, and the battle gradually increased as Jordan introduced the 3-inch mortars and 106mm recoilless rifle. Under the direction of Chief Narkis, Israel responds only to small arms fire, shooting in a flat trajectory to avoid hitting civilians, shrines or Old City. At 10:00 am on June 5, Jordan began shelling Israeli Army. Two batteries of 155mm Long Tom cannon firing in the suburbs of Tel Aviv and Ramat David Airbase. This battery commander was ordered to put the two-hour barrage of military and civilian settlements in the midst of Israel. Several shells hit the outskirts of Tel Aviv. Israel assumes that the attack was a symbolic unity with Egypt, and sent a message to King Hussein promised not to initiate any action against Jordan if it stayed out of the war. King Hussein replied that it was too late, "die was cast". At 11:15 am, Jordan howitzers start a barrage of 6,000 Israeli shell in Jerusalem. Jordan was initially targeted at kibbutz Ramat Rachel in the south and Mount Scopus in the north, it is to the city center and outlying neighborhoods. Military installation, the Prime Minister's Residence, and also targeted the Knesset compound. Israeli civilian casualties totaled 20 dead and about 1,000 injured. About 900 buildings were damaged, including Hadassah Ein Kerem Hospital. At 11:50 am, 16 Jordan Hawker Hunters attacked Netanya, Kfar Saba and Kfar Sirkin, killing one civilian, injuring seven and destroyed a transport plane. Three Hawker Hunters strafed Iraqi civil settlements in the Valley of Jezreel, and Iraqi Tu-16 attack Afula, and was shot down near the airport Megiddo. The attack caused minimal

material damage, hitting only a few homes for the elderly and chicken coop, but 16 Israeli soldiers were killed, most of them when a Tupolev crashed. When the Israeli cabinet convened to decide what to do, Yigal Allon and Menahem Begin said that this is an opportunity to take the Old City of Jerusalem, but Eshkol decided to defer any decision until Moshe Dayan and Yitzhak Rabin could be consulted. Uzi Narkiss make some proposals for military action, including the capture Latrun, but the cabinet turn him down. Dayan rejected several requests from Narkiss for permission to launch infantry attacks towards Mount Scopus. However, Dayan allowed some of the more limited response. Just before 12:30 am, the Israeli Air Force attacked airbases 2 Jordan. Hawker Hunters refueling at the time of the attack. Israeli planes came in two waves, the first of which crater the runway and control tower tapping, and the second wave destroys all Jordan Hawker Hunter fighter, along with six transport aircraft and two helicopters. One of the Israeli jet was shot down by ground fire. Israeli aircraft also attacked H-3, the Iraqi Air Force base in western Iraq. During the attack, 12 MiG-21s, two MiG-17s, 5 Hunter F6s, and 3 Il-28 bombers were destroyed or shot down. A Pakistani pilots stationed at the base managed to shoot down Israeli fighters and bombers during the raid. Jordanian radar facility at Ajloun was destroyed in an Israeli air strike. Israeli Fouga Magister jet attack Jordan's 40th Brigade with the rocket as it moves south from Bridge Damiya. Dozens of tanks were knocked out, and a convoy of 26 trucks carrying ammunition was destroyed. In Jerusalem, Israel, Jordan responded to the attack with a missile strike that hit the Jordanian position. L Israeli missile, the missile surface-to-surface developed in secret. A Jordanian battalion marched ridge and dug Government House Government House perimeter, the headquarters of the United Nations observers, and opened fire on Ramat Rachel, Allenby Barracks and the Jewish section of Abu Tor with the mortars and recoilless rifles. UN observers fierce protest encroachment into the neutral zone, and some Jordan manhandled machine guns from Government House after the crew had set the second-floor window. After Jordan occupied Jabel Mukaber, patrol sent out in advance and approaching Ramat Rachel, where they came under fire from four civilians, including the wife of the director, who, armed with old weapons artificial Republic. Israeli paratroopers deport Jordanian army during the war of the trenches Ammunition Hill. Israeli paratroopers silhouette advancing to welcome Israeli bullets promptly Hill.The is offensive to retake Government House and ridges. Jerusalem Brigade Reserve Battalion 161, under Lieutenant Colonel Asher Dreizin, was given the task. Dreizin have two companies of infantry and eight tanks under his command, some damaged or become stuck

in the mud at Ramat Rachel, leaving three for the attack. Jordan mounted fierce resistance, knocking two tanks. Israel broke through the western gate of a compound and began to clean up the building with grenades, before General Odd Bull commanders, UN observers, forcing Israel to hold their fire, tell them that Jordan had fled. Israel continue to take Antenna Hill, directly behind the Government House, and clear a series of bunkers to the west and south. Battle, who often run hand-in-hand, continued for nearly four hours before that Jordan still fall back to the trenches of life held by the Hittin Brigade, sound overwhelmed. By 6:30 pm, Jordan has retreated to Bethlehem, after suffering about 100 casualties. All but 10 soldiers Dreizin sacrifice, and self Dreizin was wounded three times. In the late evening of June 5, Israel launched its offensive to encircle Jerusalem that lasted into the next day. At night, they were supported by intense tank, artillery and mortar attacks to soften the position of Jordan. Searchlights placed on buildings Federation of Labor, the highest in Israel, Jerusalem, vulnerable and blind in Jordan. Jerusalem Brigade moved south of Jerusalem, while the mechanized Harel Brigade and the paratroopers under Mordechai Gur surrounded from the north. A combined force of tanks and paratroopers crossed no-man's land near the Mandelbaum Gate. One of the paratroop battalion approached Gur enriched Police Academy. Israel uses Bangalore torpedo blast their way through the barbed wire that leads to the exposure and position while under heavy fire. With the help of two tanks borrowed from the Jerusalem Brigade, they arrested the Police Academy. After receiving the assistance, they moved to attack the hill Bullets. Jordan's defense, which has been much dug in, fiercely opposed the attack. All Israeli officials except for two company commanders were killed, and the battle was mostly led by individual soldiers. Fights that were conducted at close quarters in the trenches and bunkers, and often hand-in-hand. Israel captured the title after four hours of heavy fighting. During the battle, 36 Jordanian and 71 Israeli soldiers were killed. Battalion then drive east, and is connected with pockets and Israel on Mount Scopus campus of Hebrew University. Another battalion captured Jordan Gur other positions across the United Colonies, though short on men and equipment and having come under mortar bombardment Jordan while waiting for the signal to advance. At the same time, mechanized Harel Brigade attacked the fort at Latrun, which Jordan has been abandoned due to heavy Israeli tank fire. Brigade attacked Har Adar, but seven tanks were hit by mines, forcing the infantry to mount an attack without armor protection. Israeli troops advanced under heavy fire, jumping between rocks to avoid the mines. Fights that have been conducted in close quarters, usually with a knife and attacked. Jordan fell back after the battle left two Israeli soldiers dead and eight Jordanian, and Israeli

troops marched through Beit Horon towards Ramallah, taking four fortified villages along the way. By the afternoon, the brigade arrived in Ramallah. Meanwhile, the 163 Infantry Battalion earned Abu Tor following a violent war, decided the Old City of Bethlehem and Hebron. Mordechai Gur and his paratroopers survey of the Old City of Jerusalem before catching itMeanwhile, 600 Egyptian commandos stationed in the West Bank moves to attack Israeli airport. Scouts led by Jordanian intelligence, they crossed the border and started to infiltrate through Israeli settlements towards Ramla and Hatzor. They will be detected and sought shelter in nearby areas, which Israel burned. About 450 commandos were killed and the rest fled to Jordan. 100 From Colony American paratroopers moving towards the Old City. Although their plan is to reach out through one light to defend al-Din Street. However, they made a wrong turn into a lot of Nablus Road is maintained. Israel ran into opposition. Their tank opened fire at point blank range at the end of the road, while the paratroopers mounted recurring charges. Despite Israel's repeated charges repel, Jordan gradually gave way to firearms and momentum of Israel. Israel suffered about 30 victims - half of the original force, while Jordan lost 45 dead and 142 injured. Meanwhile, Israel has violated 71 Battalion barbed wire and minefields and appear near Wadi Joz, Mount Scopus near the base, from which can be deducted from the Old City of East Jerusalem from Jericho and Ramallah. Israeli artillery targeted the remaining route from Jerusalem to the West Bank, and artillery fire prevented Jordan from counterattacking from their position in the Augusta-Victoria. A detachment of the Rockefeller Museum Israel then captured after a brief skirmish. After that, Israel broke through Jerusalem-Ramallah road. In the Tel al-performance estimation, Israel fought running battles with up to 30 Jordanian tank. Jordan ceased to advance and destroy some half tracks, but Israel launched air strikes and exploit the weaknesses of external fuel tanks mounted on the tank Jordan. Jordan lost half their tank, and retreated towards Jericho. Joining with the 4th Brigade, Israel Shuafat and then down through what is now the site of French Hill, through the Jordan defense in Mivtar, appeared in Bullets hill. An Israeli airstrike near-Augusta Victoria Hospital in Jerusalem to Jordan's defense collapsed, the elements of Jordan's 60th Brigade and a battalion of infantry was sent from Jericho to reinforce Jerusalem. Original order is to drive the Israelis from Latrun corridor, but because of the worsening situation in Jerusalem, the brigade was ordered to continue the Arab suburbs of Jerusalem and Mount Scopus attack. In line with the brigade Brigade
100

Oren, Michael. (2006). "The Six-Day War", in Bar-On, Mordechai (ed.), Never-Ending Conflict: Israeli Military History. P 203.

infantrymen from Imam Ali, who was approaching Issawiya. Brigade was detected by Israeli aircraft and destroyed by rocket and artillery fire. Jordan other attempts to strengthen Jerusalem was beaten back, either by ambush or air assault armor. Fear of damage to holy places and the prospect of fighting in built-up areas, Dayan ordered his troops not to enter the Old City. He also feared that Israel would be subject to intense international reaction and anger of the Christians around the world if it had to go to the Old City. Privately, he told David Ben-Gurion that he was also concerned about the prospect of Israel captured the holy sites of Jerusalem, only to be forced to give them under the threat of international sanctions. On June 7, following heavy fighting. Dayan had ordered his troops not to enter the Old City; however, upon hearing that the UN was about to declare a ceasefire, he changed his mind, and without cabinet clearance, decided to capture. Two paratroop battalions that attacked Augusta-Victoria Hill, the high ground overlooking the Old City from the east. A battalion attacked from Mount Scopus, and another attack from the valley between it and the Old City. Another paratroop battalion, personally led by Gur, broke into the Old City, and is accompanied by two other battalions after their mission is complete. Paratroopers met little resistance. Fights that were conducted solely by paratroopers; Israel does not use a shield in battle of fear damage to the Old City. In the north, one battalion from Peled division was sent to check Jordanian defenses in the Jordan Valley. One brigade belonging to Peled captured the western part of the West Bank. A Jordanian artillery brigade attacked positions around Jenin, the attack Ramat David Airbase. Jordan 12th Armored Battalion, ahead of Israel, held repeatedly attempt to capture Jenin. However, Israeli air strikes had taken their toll, and Jordan M48 Pattons, with their external fuel tanks, proved vulnerable at short distances, although Israel has modified Shermans. Jordan twelve tanks were destroyed, and only six remain operational. Just after nightfall, Israel's aid. Jordan continued fierce fight, and Israel can not be advanced without artillery and air support. Israeli jets attacked a tank commander Jordan, injuring him and killing the radio operator and intelligence officer. Jordan surviving military subsequently withdraws Jenin, where they were reinforced by the 25th Infantry Brigade. Jordan was effectively surrounded the Jenin. Jordan infantry and 3 tanks they managed to hold the balance of Israel until 4:00 am, when three battalions arrived to reinforce them in the afternoon. Jordan's tanks charged, and vehicle knocked Israeli variety, and the tide began to turn. After sunrise, Israeli jets and artillery bombardment of two hours of exercise in Jordan. Jordan lost 10 dead and 250 wounded, and had only 7 tanks left, including two without gas,

and 16 APCs. Israel then fought their way to Jenin, and captured the city after a fierce battle. IDF paratroopers shortly after the capture of the Western Wall in Jerusalem. After the Old City fell, Jerusalem Brigade paratroopers strengthen, and further to the south, capturing Judea and Gush Etzion. Hebron was taken without any resistance. Fear that Israeli soldiers will exact punishment for the massacres of 1929 in the city's Jewish community, the residents of Hebron, white cloth flying from their windows and rooftops, and voluntarily give up their weapons. The Harel Brigade walk towards the east, down to the Jordan River. On June 7, the Israeli army seized Bethlehem, took the city after a brief battle which left some 40 Jordanian soldiers dead, the rest ran away. On the same day, a Peled brigades seized Nablus, then joined one of Central Command armored brigades to fight the Jordanian army, Jordan held the advantages of superior equipment and are similar in number to Israel. Again, the air superiority of the IAF proved crucial as it struck the enemy, which led to the defeat. One of the brigade Peled joined the Central Command counterparts coming from Ramallah, and two blocked the Jordan river crossings together with General Order 10. Engineering Corps sappers blew up the bridge Abdullah and Hussein with mortar shells Jordan arrested, while elements of the Harel Brigade crossed the river and occupied positions along the east bank to protect them, but quickly pulled back due to American pressure. Jordan expects Israeli attack deep into Jordan, collect the remnants of their forces and the Iraqi units in Jordan to protect the western approaches to Amman and the southern slopes of the Golan Heights. No specific decision had been made to capture any other territories controlled by Jordan. After the Old City was captured, Dayan his troops to dig in the hold. When the armored brigade commander entered the West Bank on his own initiative, and stated that he could see Jericho, Dayan ordered him back. It was only after intelligence reports indicated that Hussein had withdrawn his forces across the Jordan River that Dayan ordered his troops to capture the West Bank. 101 According to Narkis, first of all, the Israeli government had no intention to dominate the West Bank. Instead, it was opposed. Second, not any provocation on the part of the IDF. Third, the rein loose only when a real threat to Jerusalem's security emerged. This is truly how things happened on June 5, although it is difficult to believe. The end result is something that no one had planned. 102

101

Shlaim, Avi (2007) Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace Vintage Books.P 245.
Ibid

102

Golan Heights False reports crushing victory against the army of Egypt, Israel and predicted that the Egyptian army will soon be attacking Tel Aviv influenced Syria's willingness to enter the war. Syrian artillery begins attack northern Israel, and 12 Syrian jets attacked Israeli settlements in the Galilee. Israeli fighter jets intercept aircraft Syria, shot down three and drive than the other. On the evening of 5 June, the Israeli Air Force attacked the Syrian airport. Syrian Air Force lost some 32 MiG 21s, and 23 MiG-15 and MiG-17 fighters, and two Ilyushin Il-28 bombers, two-thirds of the strength of battle. Syrian aircraft survived the attack retreated to the remote database without playing any further role in the ensuing battle. Following the attack, Syria understood that the news it had heard from Egypt almost total destruction of the Israeli army can not be true. A small Syrian force tried to capture the water plant at Tel Dan (the subject of intense reaction two years earlier), and, and She'ar Yashuv. This attack was repulsed with the loss of twenty-seven soldiers and tanks. An officer of Israel also killed. But a broader Syrian offensive quickly failed. Syria reserve unit was broken by an Israeli air strike, and several Syrian tanks were reported to have drowned in the river Jordan. Other problems included tanks too wide for bridges, lack of radio communications between tanks and infantry, and units ignoring orders to advance. A postwar Syrian army report concluded "Our forces did not go attack either because they did not arrive or were not available or because they belong to can not find shelter from enemy aircraft Reserve can not withstand the air attacks;. They dispersed after their morale plummeted . " Syria abandon hope under attack and began a massive bombardment of Israeli society in the Hula Valley instead. Israeli children in a bomb shelter at Kibbutz Dan during war.On June 7 and 8, the Israeli leadership debated about whether the Golan Heights should be attacked, and the attack on Syria was initially planned for June 8, but was postponed for 24 hours. At 3 am on June 9, Syria announced its acceptance of a cease-fire. Despite this, four hours later, at 7 am, Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, "gave the order to go into action against Syria." [I] Syria has supported the pre-war raids that had helped increase the tension and routine Israeli bombing of the Heights, so some Israeli leaders wanted to see Syria punished. "Military advice was that the attack was going to be very expensive, as high assailing will be a great challenge fortified against a strong enemy. western part of the Golan Heights consists rock escarpment that rose 500 meters (1700 feet) from the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River, and then horizontal to gently sloping plateau over. Dayan believed such an operation would yield losses of 30,000 and opposed. Prime Minister Levi Eshkol, on the other hand, is more open to the possibility of surgery in the Golan Heights, as is the head of

the Northern Command, David Elazar, whose unbridled enthusiasm for and confidence in the operation may have eroded Dayan's reluctance. Finally, as conditions in the South and Central cleared up, intelligence estimated that the likelihood of Soviet intervention had reduced, the survey showed some Syrian defenses in the Golan region collapsing, and an intercepted cable showed Nasser urging the President of Syria to immediately accept the cease-fire, Dayan become more enthusiastic about the idea, and he authorized the operation. Syrian Army consists of about 75,000 men grouped in nine brigades, supported by a sufficient amount of artillery and armored Israeli military used in combat brigade consists of 2 (The 8th Armored Brigade which and Golani Brigade) in the northern front at Givat haem, and another two (infantry and one of Peled brigade called from Jenin) in the center. terrain unique The Golan Heights' (mountainous slopes crossed by parallel streams every several kilometers running east to the west), and the lack of roads in the area channeled both forces along east-west axes of movement and restricted the ability of units to support them either on the sides. Accordingly, Syria could move north-south on the square itself, and Israel could move north-south at the base of the Golan escarpment. An advantage Israel has excellent intelligence collected by Mossad operative Eli Cohen (who was captured and executed in Syria in 1965) regarding the Syrian battle positions. Syria had built extensive fortifications in depth of up to 15 kilometers, comparable to the Maginot Line. Compared with all other campaigns, IAF was only partially effective in the Golan because the fixed fortifications are not very effective. However, the Syrian forces proved unable to build an effective defense largely because the officers are the military leaders of the poor and weak treat their troops; often officers would retreat to escape from danger, leaving their men confused and ineffective . Israel also has the advantage during close combat taking place in various Syrian bunkers along the Golan Heights, as they are armed with Uzi, soft light gun, designed for close combat, while Syrian troops armed with heavy AK -47 assault weapons, which are designed to combat the a more open area. Israeli tanks advanced into the Golan Heights in the morning of 9 June, Israeli jets began to run dozens of sorties against Syrian positions from Mount Hermon to Tawfiq, using rocket rescued from stocks captured Egypt. Air strikes and artillery batteries knock treasure and had to strip off-road transportation. Syria suffered heavy casualties and a decline in morale, with some senior military officers and desertion. Attacks are also provided time as Israeli forces clear the path through minefields Syria. However, the air attack was not seriously damage the fortress in Syria and the canal system, and most of the Syrian forces in the Golan Heights remained in their positions.

About two hours after the air strikes began, 8th Armored Brigade, led by Colonel Albert Mandler, advancing to the Golan Heights from Givat haem. Advance was led by the Engineering Corps sappers and eight bulldozers, which cleared the barbed wire and mines. As they advanced, its criticism, and five bulldozers were immediately hit. Israeli tanks, with their maneuverability reduced dramatically with terrain, slowly advancing under fire towards the fortified village of al-Dib Sir, with their ultimate goal as a fortress at Qala. Israeli Victims sound installed. Some of the attacking force lost its way and appeared opposite Za'ura, storage fortification operated by Syria. With critical condition, Colonel Mandler directed attacks in Za'ura and Qala. Heavy fighting and confusion followed, with Israeli tanks and Syria struggled around obstacles and shoot at a very short range. Mandler recalled that "Syria fought well and covered in blood. We beat them just to crush them under our treads and blast them with our artillery at very short distances, from 100 to 500 meters." First three Israeli tanks enter Qala was prevented by Syrian bazooka team, and seven relief column arrived Syrian tank to fend off attackers. Israel took heavy fire from the house, but can not return, as other forces were advancing on their backs, and they were in a narrow street with mine by any party. Israel continued to press forward, and called for air support. A pair of Israeli jets destroyed two Syrian tanks, and the remainder to withdraw. Surviving defenders of Qala retreat after their commander was killed. Meanwhile, Za'ura fall in Israeli attacks, and Israel also captured 'Ein Fit fortress. In the center, Battalion 181 Israel captured the fort and Hillal Tel Dardara after a fierce battle. Desperate battle also occurred along the northern axis operation, where Golani Brigade attacked the 13 Syrians, including the position of Tel Fakhr awesome. Navigational error put directly under the guns of Israel in Syria. In the ensuing battle, the two sides have taken a heavy casualty, but Israel lost all 19 of their tanks and half-tracks. Israeli battalion commander then ordered the 25 remaining men to dismount, divided into two groups, and impose the north and south sides of Tel Fakhr. Israeli people first reached the southern perimeter of the approach laid the body down on the barbed wire, allowing their friends to their Vault. From there, they have a strong defensive position to attack Syria. Fights being fought at very close quarters, often hand-in-hand. In the north wing, Israelis broke through and in a few minutes and clean ditches and bunkers. While in the seven-hour battle, Israel lost 31 dead and 82 wounded, while Syria lost 62 dead and 20 captured. Among the dead was the Israeli battalion commander. Golani Brigade Battalion 51 took Azzaziat Tel ', and Darbashiya also fell to the army of Israel. Global News from June 9 Films about war and UN reaction by evening June 9, four Israeli brigades have all broken through the plateau, where they can be reinforced and

replaced. Thousands of reinforcements began to come to the front, tanks and half-tracks that survived the previous day's battle was refueled and replenished with ammunition, and the wounded were evacuated. By dawn, Israel has eight brigades in this sector. Syria's first line of defense has been shattered, but external defense held strong. Mount Hermon and Banias in the north, and across the sector between Tawfiq and Customs House Road in the south to remain in the hands of Syria. In an initial meeting on the night of June 9, the leaders of Syria decided to strengthen their position as soon as possible, and to maintain a steady barrage of Israeli settlements public. Throughout the night, Israel continued their advance. Although it has been delayed by strong opposition, the Syrian response expected never materialized. In Jalabina fortified villages, the Syrian garrison from savings, even an anti-aircraft gun they managed to hold 65 Israeli paratroop battalion for four hours before a small detachment managed to penetrate the village and knocked on heavy weapons. Meanwhile, Brigade 8 tanks moved south from Qala, advancing six miles to umpire under heavy artillery and tank bombardment. In Banaias in the north, Syria mortar batteries opened fire on the advancing Israeli forces just after the Golani Brigade cleared the way through the mine, killing 16 Israeli soldiers and wounding 4. The next day, June 10, the central and north participating in pincer movement on the plain, but that fell mainly on empty territory as the Syrian forces withdrew. At 8:30 am, Syria began blowing up their own fortress, burning documents and retreat. Several military units joined by Elad Peled climbed the Golan from the south, only to find that mostly vacant position. When the brigade arrived in Mansura 8, five miles from the umpire, Israel met no opposition and found the abandoned equipment, including tanks, in perfect condition. Banaias fortified village, Golani Brigade soldiers found only a few Syrian soldiers chained to their positions. On that day, the Israeli units stopped after obtaining maneuver room between their position and the line of volcanic hills to the west. 103 In some locations, Israeli troops advanced after the cease fire agreed to occupy a strategic position of strength. To the east, the ground terrain is an open plain gently sloping. This position later became the cease-fire line, known as the "Purple Line". Time magazine said: "In order to put pressure on the United Nations (UN) to enforce the ceasefire, Damascus Radio undermine its own army by broadcasting the fall of Quneitra city three hours before it actually surrendered That report premature surrender of their headquarters destroyed. Syrian army morale left in the Golan area."

103

Oren 2002, electronic edition, Section "Playing for the Brink".

Weapon With the exception of Jordan, Saudi depends mainly on Soviet weapons. Israeli weapons especially those from the West. Air force consists mainly French aircraft and armored units mainly design and manufacture of Britain and the United States. Some infantry weapons, including an Uzi everywhere, originating from Israel. War And Conflict Situations By June 10, Israel has completed the final attack on the Golan Heights, and the ceasefire was signed the day after. Israel had seized the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan River (including East Jerusalem) and the Golan Heights. Overall, Israel's territory grew by a factor of three, including about one million Arabs placed under Israel's direct control in new territories captured. Israel's strategic depth grew to at least 300 kilometers to the south, 60 kilometers east and 20 kilometers of extremely rugged terrain in the north, security asset that would prove useful in the Yom Kippur War six years later. 1967 War political importance is immense, Israel shows that it is able, and willing to initiate strategic strikes that could change the regional balance. Egypt and Syria learned tactical and will launch an attack in 1973 in a failed attempt to reclaim their lost territory. Speaking three weeks after the war ended, he received an honorary degree from the Hebrew University, Yitzhak Rabin gave the reason behind the success of Israel: Our pilot, the plane hit the enemy with precision that no one in the world to understand how it is done and the people who look for explanations or secret weapons technology; military defeat our enemy armor even lower their equipment; our troops in all branches can overcome our enemies everywhere, despite the superior numbers and fortifications second-all these revealed not only coolness and courage in battle but ... understanding that only their personal stand against the greatest danger will achieve victory for their country and their family and if they are not winning alternative is ruin. In recognition of the donation, was given the honor of naming Rabin war for Israel. Of the recommendations proposed, he "chose at least ostentatious, the Six Day War, evoking the days of creation." The final report on the war Dayan, Israeli general staff listed several flaws in Israel's actions, including misinterpretation of Nasser's intentions, overdependence on the United States, and reluctance to act when Egypt shut down the Strait. He is also credited several factors for the success of Israel: Egypt did not appreciate the first cutting edge and their enemies do not accurately measure the strength of Israel.

After the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Egypt reviewed the cause of the loss of the war in 1967. Issues that have been identified include the "individualistic bureaucratic leadership"; "promotion based on loyalty, not expertise, and scared soldiers told Nasser truth"; lack of intelligence, and better Israeli weapons, direction, organization, and will to fight. According to Chaim Herzog, on June 19, 1967, the Government of National Unity (Israel) voted unanimously to return the Sinai to Egypt and the Golan Heights to Syria in return for a peace treaty. Golans will have demilitarized and special arrangement would be negotiated for the Straits of Tiran. The government also decided to open negotiations with King Hussein of Jordan on the Eastern border. Israel's decision to be conveyed to the Arab countries by the United States. United States has been informed of the decision, but not that it is to send. There is no evidence of receipt from Egypt or Syria, and some historians claim that they may not have accepted the offer. In September, Khartoum Arab Summit decided that there would be "no peace, no recognition and no negotiations with Israel." However, as Avraham Sela notes Khartoum conference effectively marked the first shift in the perception of a conflict by the Arab countries far from focused on the question of Israel's legitimacy in the direction to focus on regions and borders and is supported on November 22 when Egypt and Jordan accept the United Nations Security Council Resolution 242. June 19 Israeli cabinet decision did not include the Gaza Strip, leaving open the possibility of Israel permanently acquiring parts of the West Bank. In June 25-27, Israel incorporated East Jerusalem along with the West Bank to the north and south of the new municipal boundaries of Jerusalem. Another aspect discussed by the war on the people of the territories captured: about one million Palestinians in the West Bank, 300,000 (according to the U.S. State Department) fled to Jordan, where they contribute to growing unrest. Another 600,000 remain. In the Golan Heights, about 80,000 Syrians fled. Only residents of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights to be eligible to receive full Israeli citizenship, as Israel uses law, administration and jurisdiction to the provinces in 1967 and 1981 respectively, and a majority in both regions declined to do that. See also Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the Golan Heights. Both Jordan and Egypt eventually withdrew their claims to the West Bank and Gaza (the Sinai returned on the basis of the Camp David Agreement of 1978). After Israel's conquest of the newly acquired 'territory, a large settlement effort was launched to obtain permanent Israeli presence. Now there are hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers in the territories, even if Israeli settlements in Gaza were evacuated and destroyed in August 2005 as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan.

1967 War laid the foundation for the split in the region in the future - on November 22, 1967, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land for peace" formula, which called for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied "in 1967 and "termination of all claims or states of belligerency. " Resolution 242 recognizes the right of "every state in the area live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force." Israel returned the Sinai to Egypt in 1978, after the Camp David Accords, and regardless of the Gaza Strip in the summer of 2005, although the army frequently re-enter Gaza for military operations and still maintain control of the border crossings, ports and airports. After the war also important religions. Under Jordanian rule, Jews were effectively barred from visiting the Western Wall (although Article VIII of the 1949 Armistice Agreement demanded Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall). Jewish holy sites were not maintained, and a cemetery was vandalized. After the annexation to Israel, each religious group has been given administration over such sites and sacred. Despite the importance of the Temple Mount in Jewish tradition, the al-Aqsa Mosque is under sole administration of the Muslim Waqf, and Jews were barred from conducting services there. 104 After following the Arab countries declared war on the other, Mauritania remains in a state of declared war with Israel until 1999. Crash Between 776 and 983 Israelis were killed and 4517 were wounded. 15 Israeli soldiers were captured. Arab victims is far greater. Between 9800 and 15,000 Egyptian soldiers were listed as killed or missing in action. 4338 additional Egyptian troops were captured. Jordan losses estimated 6,000 killed or missing and 533 captured, though Gawrych cite some 700 were killed in combat with some other 2500 injured. The Syrian people are estimated to have suffered about 1,000 killed in battle. 105 367 Syrians captured. Controversy Strike Assault Prevention of Improper At the start of hostilities, both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by another country. The Israeli government then leave the original position, acknowledged
104

Bard, Mitchell G. (2002, 2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict. NY: Alpha books. 4th Edition. Chapter 14, "Six Days to Victory" is reproduced online as The 1967 Six-Day War, at the Jewish Virtual Library of the American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise.

105

Churchill, Randolph & Churchill, Winston. (1967 ). The Six Day War. Houghton Mifflin Company. P 189.

Israel had struck first, claiming that it was a pre-emptive strike in the face of aggression planned by Arab countries. Instead, the Arab view that it is improper attack. Allegation Against Egyptian Military Brutality It has been alleged that Nasser did not want Egypt to learn the extent defeat and ordered the killing of Egyptian soldiers stragglers make their way back to the Suez Canal zone. There are also allegations of both Israeli and Egyptian sources that Israeli soldiers killed unarmed Egyptian prisoners. Allegations of military support from the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union had some direct support allegations of Israeli army during the war by the United States and United Kingdom, including the supply of equipment (although restraints) and U.S. military participation in the conflict. Many claims have been disputed and it has been claimed that there is a given currency in the Arab world to explain the Arab defeat. Also been claimed that the Soviet Union, support Arab allies, using military power in the Mediterranean sea to act as a major obstacle to the U.S. Navy. USS Liberty incident At 8 JUN 1967, the USS Liberty, the Navy intelligence ship sailing USA 13 nautical miles (24 km) off Arish (just outside Egypt's territorial waters), was attacked by Israeli jets and torpedo boats, nearly sank the ship, killing 34 sailors and wound 171. Israel said the attack was a case of mistaken identity, and that the ship was misidentified as an Egyptian ship El Quseir. Israel apologized for the error, and pay compensation to the victims or their families, and to the United States for damage to the ship. After investigation, the United States accepted the explanation that the incident was friendly fire and the issue was closed by exchange of diplomatic notes in 1987. Crew members who are still alive still claims, and presents some evidence, that the attacks may have been intentional. 106 Displaced populations Arab Due to the war, a wave of displaced Palestinians. An estimated 300,000 Palestinians left the West Bank and Gaza, most of them residing in Jordan.

106

"McNamara: US Near War in '67". The Boston Globe: p. 1. September 16, http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/663999751.html?FMT=ABS&date=Sep%2016,%201983.

1983.

In the book Righteous Victims, Israel "Historian new" Benny Morris wrote: 107 In three villages in southwest Jerusalem and at Qalqilya, houses were destroyed "not in battle, but as punishment ... and to evict residents feel ... - contrary to government policy ...," Dayan wrote in memoirs. In Qalqilya, about one third of the houses were destroyed and about 12,000 residents were evicted, though many then camped in the vicinity. Evictees in both areas have been allowed to stay and given cement and tools by the Israeli authorities to rebuild at least some of their residence. But thousands of other Palestinians who are now taking the road. Perhaps as many as 70,000, mostly from the Jericho area, fled during the fighting; tens of thousands more left during the following months. Overall, about one-quarter of the population of the West Bank, about 200-250000, going to waste .... They just walk crossing the Jordan River and made their way on foot to the East Bank. It is not clear how many of them were forced or forced out by the Israeli army and how much to leave on a voluntary basis, in a state of panic and fear. There is some evidence about the IDF soldiers with loudspeakers ordered West Bankers to leave their homes and cross the Jordan. Some left because they have relatives or sources of livelihood in the East Bank and the eternal fear of failure. Thousands of Arabs were taken by bus from East Jerusalem Allenby bridge, although there is no evidence of repression. Israel organized free transport, which began on June 11, 1967, went on for about a month. At the bridge they had to sign a document stating that they have left their own free will. Perhaps as much as 70,000 people emigrated from the Gaza Strip to Egypt and other places in the Arab world. On 2 July, the Israeli government announced that it would allow the return of refugees in 1967 required them to do so, but no later than August 10, later extended to 13 September. Jordanian authorities may stress many refugees, which is a huge burden, to sign up for the return. In practice, only 14,000 of the 120,000 who applied actually allowed by Israel to the West Bank by the beginning of September. After that, only a trickle of "special cases" were allowed back, perhaps 3,000 in all. In addition, between 80,000 and 110,000 Syrians fled the Golan Heights, about 20,000 from the city of Quneitra. According to more recent research by the Israeli daily Haaretz, 130,000 Syrian residents were expelled from the region, most of them by the Israeli army.

107

Right of return: Palestinian dream. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3629923.stm .

UK:

BBC.

April

15,

2004.

Jews in Arab countries Minority of Jews living in the Arab world was immediately faced persecution and expulsion, following the Israeli victory. According to historians Michael B. Orange: Mobs attacked Jewish neighborhoods in Egypt, Yemen, Lebanon, Tunisia, and Morocco, burning synagogues and attacking residents. Pogrom in Tripoli, Libya, left 18 Jews dead and 25 wounded; survivors were herded into detention centers. 4000 Egyptian Jews, 800 were arrested, including two chief rabbis of Cairo and Alexandria, and their property removed by the government. Ancient communities of Damascus and Baghdad were placed under house arrest, their leaders imprisoned and fined. A total of 7,000 Jews were expelled, many with merely satchel. 108 The Jewish Communist Countries Antisemitic purges began in communist countries as counter terrorism. Many Jews were forced to emigrate eg. during the 1968 Polish political crisis. Conclusion 2007 marked the 40th anniversary of the war the Western terms "Six Day War". The Arabs call it the "War of 1967" or Naksah (setback). It has been said that for Israel's war is a question of sheer survival for the Arabs, it is one of credibility. Of course hindsight is a wonderful thing, offering great clarity over what could or should have done. It is too easy to be judgmental retrospect. So, this page has been trying to turn back the clock to give you a sense of what it is like in Israel at the time, who live with the tension involved with opposing backs will propose the elimination of Israel. This website has been collected background information from various sources to provide a deeper understanding of how the situation developed over the weeks and months leading up to the war. War itself has been comprehensively documented, both in books and on the internet, so this site will focus more on build-and beyond.

108

Oren, Michael (2002). Six Days of War. Oxford University Press. P 306-307

Bibliography "Al-Qunayirah". Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 2010. Retrieved July 18, 2010. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487614/al-Qunaytirah. Bard, Mitchell G. (2002, 2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict. NY: Alpha books. 4th Edition. Chapter 14, "Six Days to Victory" is reproduced online as The 1967 Six-Day War, at the Jewish Virtual Library of the American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Churchill, Randolph & Churchill, Winston. (1967 ). The Six Day War. Houghton Mifflin Company. P 189. "McNamara: US Near War in '67". The Boston Globe: p. 1. September 16, 1983. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/663999751.html?FMT=ABS&date=Sep% 2016,%201983. Oren, Michael (2002). Six Days of War. Oxford University Press. Right of return: Palestinian dream. UK: BBC. April 15, 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3629923.stm .

Chapter 6 Egyptian Revolution, 1952

Introduction 1952 Egyptian revolution (Arabic: 23 1952), also known as the July 23 Revolution, began on July 23, 1952, by a military coup d'etat by the Free Officers Movement, a group of army officers led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser. Revolution was initially aimed to overthrow King Farouk. However, the movement has greater ambitions of a political nature, and soon moved to abolish monarchy and nobility of Egypt and Sudan, establishing a republic, ending the British occupation of the country, and guarantees freedom of Sudan (currently administered as an Anglo- Egyptian condominium). Revolutionary government adopted a strong nationalist, anti-imperialist agenda that came to be expressed primarily through Arab nationalism, and international non-alignment. Revolution was faced with the immediate threat of Western imperialist powers, especially the United Kingdom, who had occupied Egypt since 1882, and France, both of whom are wary of rising nationalist sentiment in the territory under their control throughout the Arab world and Africa. State of war with Israel is also a serious challenge, as Egypt's Free Officers increase already strong support of the Palestinians. Both these issues persist four years after the revolution when Egypt was conquered by Britain, France, and Israel in 1956 Tripartite attack. Despite heavy losses the military, the war was seen as a political victory for Egypt, mainly because it leaves control of the Suez Canal in Egypt without competing for the first time since 1875, erasing what was seen as a sign of national humiliation. This reinforces the appeal of revolution in the Arab countries and other African. Wholesale reform of agricultural and industrial programs was initiated in the first decade and a half of the revolution, which led to a period of unprecedented building this infrastructure, and urbanization. By the 1960s, Arab socialism has become a dominant theme, making Egypt the planned economy in the middle. Fear of Western-sponsored official counterrevolutionary extremism, domestic, religious, communist infiltration potential, and the conflict with Israel, all cited severe restrictions and has long been a compelling reason on the political opposition, and the prohibition of multi-party system. Restrictions on political activities would remain in place until the presidency of Anwar al-Sadat, from 1970 onwards, in which many revolutionary policies have been scaled back or reversed. The initial success of the revolution encouraged many other nationalist movements in Arab countries and Africa, such as Algeria, and Kenya, which are involved in the anti-colonial

struggle against the European empires. It also provides inspiration to topple the proWestern monarchy and the existing state of the region and the continent. Revolution is commemorated every year on the national Egyptian Revolution Day on 23 July. Causes Both the United States and the Soviet Union to promote the view that the Egyptian monarchy is both corrupt and pro-British Satrapy, luxury lifestyle in sharp contrast to the Free Officers, who live in poverty. Super-power propaganda solve two images of the Egyptian government as corrupt British puppet. The Central Intelligence Agency and the KGB through their agents in Egypt to promote a sense of corruption on several institutions such as the police, court and Egyptian political parties, and help coordinate their sympathy for the anti-British and reformers with the Free Officers Movement. Loss of 1948 war with Israel led to the Free Officers blame the King and court corruption and promotion of the feeling among the people of Egypt. Free Officers Movement 'was formed by a group of reform-minded officers, supported by the Soviet Union and the United States, which together around a young officer named Gamal Abdel Nasser. They use military general, Muhammad Naguib, as they head to show seriousness and attract more followers of the army. In a warning that General Naguib conveyed to King Farouk on July 26 on the abdication of the king, he also provides a summary of the reasons for the revolution: Given what the country has been experiencing lately, in complete tears in all corners due to bad behavior, your toying with the constitution and your practice, and your disdain for the will of the people, no person shall count confident about life, life, and honor. Egypt's reputation among the people of the world has been debased as a result of your extreme 1 in these areas that traitors and bribe-takers seek refuge under your shadow in addition to security, excessive wealth, and at the expense of many extravagances. hungry and poor people. You manifested this during and after the Palestine War in the corrupt arms scandals and your open interference in the courts to try to falsify the facts of the case, thus shaking faith in justice. Thus, the military, which represents the power of the people, has empowered me to ask Your Majesty abdicate the throne to His Royal Highness, Crown Prince Ahmed Fuad, provided that this is achieved at a fixed time is 00:00 noon (Saturday, July 26, 1952, 4 Zul Qa'ada, 1371), and as you exit before 6:00 pm the same day. Army put

to His Royal Highness you loads of things that can cause your failure to abdicate according to the wishes of the people. 109 Precursor During the winter 1951-1952 nationalist police officers, supported by the United States and the Soviet Union began to protect and promote the fedayeen (Egyptian resistance) attacks on British authorities in Cairo, Alexandria, and the Suez Canal. After a devastating attack drove the British and shipping facility near Ismailia that cause the deaths of several British soldiers. The British Army has been detected fedayeen to bandar.Pada January 25, 1952, the British forces found fedayeen had retreated to the local police barracks. When police refused to hand fedayeen, British officials tried to negotiate a surrender and the fedayeen. When consulting them were killed in parley by fedayeen, the British forces attacked the Egyptian police barracks in Ismailia. Fifty Egyptian police officers were killed and 100 injured. Egypt erupts in anger. After that, the cells Free Officers Movement was started riots in Cairo that led to the arsons. Without oppression from the local fire brigade, burning more rioting inflammatory attack more. American and Soviet newspapers promoting the event in the global wireless branch as "Cairo Fire" and suggested they were seen as further evidence of the beginning of the end of the monarchy. The next day, January 26, 1952 ("Black Saturday"), what many Egyptians who say "second revolution" broke out (the first, the Egyptian Revolution in 1919). King Farouk reject Mustafa el-Nahhas government, and in the months that followed, three members of different political have been instructed to form a government, each proved short-lived: Ali Maher (January 27-March 1), Ahmed Naguib El-Hilali (2 March to 29 June, and July 22 to 23) and Hussein Sirri (July 2 to 20). This "ministry of security", as they are called, failed to stop the downward spiral. Corruption remains the case despite attempts by successive prime ministers to put their political home. Stirrings of discontent was felt in the army, and in January 1952 opposition officers supported by the Free Officers gained control of the governing board Officers Club. On July 16, King canceled this election, appoint his own and not in an attempt to regain control of the military. A coup d'etat (coup) was planned for August 5, but when General Naguib, one of the Free Officers, the group was informed on 19 July that the Royal Military Egyptian high command has a list of their names, the coup leaders to act on the night of 22 July.
109

The Long Struggle: The Seeds of the Muslim World's Frustration By Amil Khan, p.58

On July 23, 1952, military coup in Egypt, carried out by the "Free Officers" and led by General Naguib, but the real power behind the military coup was Gamal Abdel Nasser. Assisted by intelligence provided by the two super-powers and their own network, Free Officers Movement target command, control, and communications posts and the Ministry of Internal Forces. Some sections which have penetrated the police assisted in rounding up key personnel royal government. At 7:30 in the morning, the people of Egypt heard the first issue of broadcasting stations Statement revolution in the name of Gen. Naguib to the Egyptian people stated justification for revolution or movement that is. All voice heard reading the message belonged to the Free Officers and the future president of Egypt, Anwar El Sadat: the coup was carried out by less than 100 officers - almost all taken from the junior ranks - and prompted scenes of celebration in the streets by cheering mobs. Egypt has gone through a critical period in recent history characterized by bribery, corruption, and the absence of governmental stability. All of these are factors that have a significant influence on the army. Those who accept bribes and thus influenced caused our defeat in the Palestine War (1948). For the period after the war, elements have helped to make damage to each other, and have dominated the traitor forces. They were appointed as commanders either ignorant or corrupt. Egypt has reached a point, therefore, has no army to defend. Accordingly, we have undertaken to clean up and was appointed to command us men from within the military that we are confident in their abilities, their properties, and their patriotism. It is certain that all Egypt will meet this news with enthusiasm and will welcome. For those who caught it makes us feel that before the men were associated with the military, we would not be hard to deal with them, but will release them at the appropriate time. I can assure the people of Egypt that the entire army today has been able to operate in the national interest and under the rule of the constitution apart from any interests of its own. I take this opportunity to ask people never permit any traitors to take refuge in deeds of destruction or violence because it is not in the interest of Egypt. Anyone should behave in that way, he will be dealt with forcefully in a way like never before and deeds will meet immediately the reward for treason. Army will take over with the help of the police. I assure our foreign brothers that their interests, their personal safety. "Self-their own"), and their property safe, and that the army considers itself responsible for them. May Allah give us success. "God is the guardian of success"). With British support network now neutralized, King Farouk seeking U.S. intervention, the surprise will not respond. Since 25, the army had occupied Alexandria, where the king is in residence Montaza Palace. Now obviously terrified, Farouk leave Montaza, and moved to

Ras Al-Teen Palace on the waterfront. Naguib ordered the captain of the yacht, Farouk alMahrusa, not sail without orders from the military. Sparked debate among the Free Officers about the fate of deposed king. While some (including Gen. Naguib and Nasser) is seen best solution to send him into exile, others argue the urge to put him on trial and execute him for "crimes he committed to the people of Egypt." Finally, the order came to Farouk to abdicate in favor of his son, Crown Prince Ahmed Fuad - who had received the throne as King Fuad II - and a Regency Council was appointed. Departure into exile finally came on Saturday, July 26th, 1952 at 6:00 pm, the king set sail for Italy with the protection of the Egyptian army. On July 28, 1953, Muhammad Naguib became the first President of Egypt, which marked the beginning of modern Egyptian governance. 110 Unification Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), composed of the previous 9-member committee directives Free Officers in addition to the five members, including Mohamed Naguib, was established. Ali Maher was asked to form a civilian government. When the Free Officers began to isolate elements sympathetic to the Soviet Union, Communist Party cadres led riots in Kafr Dawar workers on August 12, 1952, which resulted in two death penalty. Ali Maher who still sympathized with the British resigned on September 7 following differences with officials, particularly over the proposed land reform. Prime Minister Mohamed Naguib. On September 9, Agricultural Law Reform was passed, which immediately seized any white owned, full British property especially in Egypt. This is followed by a signal major land redistribution program among peasant farmers who got most of the seized land. However, the royal land and Jews, Greeks, and Copts, thus distributed among the Free Officers regime and regular supporters. In order to stop the concentration of land ownership, 200 feddans regime put a ceiling on land ownership. On 9 December, the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) without the right to determine that the 1923 Constitution was repealed Egypt "in the name of the people." On January 16, 1953, officials of the RCC dissolved and banned all political parties, declaring the three-year transition period during which the RCC would rule. A provisional Charter Constitution, written by close circle hijackers, was written with the intention to give legitimacy to the RCC veneer. This new constitution promulgated on February 10, and the first 3 Liberation Rally-political organization associated with the July regime was launched soon afterwards with a view mobilize popular support. The rally was led by Gamal Abdel110

Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p.40

Nasser and the Free Officers, including another as secretary-general. On 18 June, the RCC declared Egypt a republic, abolish the monarchy (infant son Farouk has been ruled as King Fuad II) and appoint General Naguib, aged 52 years, first as president and prime minister. Gamal Abdel-Nasser, 35, was appointed deputy prime minister and interior minister. Revolutionary Tribunal consisting of RCC members Boghdadi Abdel Latif, Anwar el-Sadat and Hassan Ibrahim, was set up to try politicians Ancien regime. In opposition to the Constitution with overt secularism is the Muslim Brotherhood. Moreover, contrary to the orders issued by the Council, a member of the Liberation Rally accumulated a lot of non-Muslim property seized and distributed among their closed networks. Left angry at the political and economic spoils and see the continuity of secularism and modernity in the Free Officers Movement as having been under the King, the Muslim Brotherhood organized a street element. From June 1953 to the following year, Egypt wracked by street violence, fighting, fire, and civil tumolt as the regime and the Muslim Brotherhood fought for popular support. In January 1954, the Muslim Brotherhood was banned, the balance of political organizations illegal until 2011 Revolution. The move comes in the midst of a battle between members of the Brotherhood and the Liberation Rally student demonstrators on January 12, 1954. March saw combat in the RCC, symbolized in the trial, ultimately successful, to oust Naguib. This step opposition from the military, and some members of the RCC, especially Khaled Mohieddin, in favor of the return to constitutional government. On October 26, suspected of attempted murder was ordered by the Brotherhood on Nasser during a rally in Alexandria. This led to the regime to act against the Brotherhood, implement Brotherhood leaders on 9 December. After that, Gamal Abdel-Nasser, who has maneuvered itself into a high power rule, finally cemented his power, first chairman of the RCC, and finally as prime minister, with Naguib constitutional position, which remains vague until 14 November, when he was removed from office and placed under house arrest. Meanwhile, RCC, morally supported by the Soviet Union and the United States, managed to remain united against the British and the French, in particular on the Suez. Despite constant calls from RCC, the debate in the United Nations (UN), and pressure from the U.S. and the USSR, the British refused to transfer control of the Canal to the new regime. RCC begins fund and coordinate an ever greater attacks on the British and French in the Suez and Damietta. Finally, on October 19, Nasser signed an agreement for the transfer of British forces from Egypt, to be completed within 20 months. Two years later, on June 18, 1956, Nasser raised the flag over the Canal Zone of Egypt, announced the complete evacuation of British troops.

President Nasser announced a new constitution on January 16, 1956 in the popular assembly, set up the presidential system of government in which the President has the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. An electoral law was passed on March 3 gave women the right to vote for the first time in the history of Egypt. Nasser was elected as the second president of the Republic on June 23. In 1957, Nasser announced the formation of the National Union (Al-Ittihad Al-Qawmi), paving the way to the July elections for the National Assembly, the first parliament since 1952. Warning Commemorated the anniversary of the Revolution in the Revolution Day, an annual public holiday in Egypt, on July 23. 111 Conclusion On July 23, 1952: Egypt Revolution overturned the monarchy of King Farouk in 1952 and led to the temporary installation under Naguib government, "the president of the short-lived revolution". In 1952, early education reform in Egypt, including free installation (and compulsory education) in public for children ages 6-12 with co-education at the primary level. Government priority goals to eradicate illiteracy, which proved difficult due to lack of facilities in rural areas. In 1954, Nasser's rise to power plays an important role in getting the British to evacuate the Suez Canal, in the military press and in the creation of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt's democratic Marxist. In 1955, the opening of the first family planning clinics and government efforts to control population growth. "Arab Socialism" 1956 in Egypt that led to broad social reform, including women's suffrage in 1956 and the rights of women to run for political office. This period starts the past two decades migration to urban areas, such as Cairo, Alexandria, Suez and Port Said, where economic opportunities and education is greater. 1962: National Charter drafting, claiming egalitarianism for men and women, it was formally approved in 1962. In the 1960s-70s: the feminism in Egypt, on par with the second wave of feminism in the United States, although the first wave of feminism in Egypt is closely associatedalthough completelywith not later colonization pressure and modernization, westernization efforts in Egypt, where many contemporary feminist and postcolonial leaders remain critical. Andre Chedid and feminist Nawal el Saadawi's top two this time, although their influence, especially Saadawis (still living), still applies today. Leila Ahmed writes that "in uncovering the hidden physical abuse, whether culturally sanctioned and carried out openly, as the practice of clitoridectomy, or culture that can not be seen, in
111

Ibid

a hidden committed, and denied abuse such as child sexual abuse, no writer has played The more important and eloquent role of feminist Nawal el Saadawinor have any more straightforward and do more challenging misogynist and androcentric cultural practices "(215). However, Ahmed also strongly criticized Saadawis a total generalization about patriarchy, Islam and Egyptian culture. In 1967, Egypt's defeat by Israel in the Egyptian-Israeli wars (Yemen War, 19621967); increasing influence of the Muslim Brotherhood and Islamic fundamentalism. In the end Nasserism, Egypt witnessed the decline of socialist policies and undermine democratic Marxist or socialist country. In 1969, the death of Nasser, Anwar Sadat became president of Egypt. In the 1970s-1980s: a reduction of interest and improper influence on Egyptian feminism. Hijab (which has declined during Nasserism and equitable, socialist reforms) began to rise in the 1980s, however, many scholars note that this "veil" is an objection to Western imperialism and capitalism. Also, the issue of the veil or hijab is a contested among feminists, most postcolonial feminists who oppose western feminist interpretation of the veil as misogynist. In 1974, "In 1974 the United States and Egypt resume diplomatic relations, which were previously cut off by Egypt in 1967 By September 1975, through the efforts of U.S. mediator, Egypt and Israel have reached some agreement on the withdrawal of their forces In March 1976 , Sadat. abrogated the friendship agreement with the USSR was signed in 1971. " Under the authority of Sadat, Egypt experienced an increase of two conflicting ideologies: the western and commercialization as American capitalism and "market economy" gained influence under Sadat, and increase Islamization religion under radical fundamentalist groups. On the one hand, Sadat encouraging sight Islamic fundamentalist groups, who criticized Nasser's socialist government; On the other hand, this increased visibility eventually lead to attacks on Sadat as well. "Infitah" (or "open door" policy) increased western capitalist investment in Egypt, such as tourism, food industry and fast burner among others. This period is a set back unfortunately Nassers socialism, establishing the affluence and poverty in some people. (In this sense, the late 1970s and early 1980s are interesting parallel for the same period in the United States, especially with the start of Reaganism). In 1977, food riots protesting subsidy cuts bread. In November 1977: Sadat visited Jerusalem and began the process of peace. In September 1978, the peace summit between Sadat, Jimmy Carter and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin happened, but the real deal was not signed until March 26, 1979, in Washington DC. Agreements required the withdrawal of troops gradually Israel from Sinai in the past three years. In January 1980, Egypt and Israel re-established diplomatic relations, however,

relations have been strained as the Egyptians are most sympathetic to the Palestinians. In 1981, intellectual capture, including Saadawi, under the control of Sadat's political thought: the release of political dissidents from prison in 1982 following the death Sadats. Grolier Encyclopedia reveal different readings Sadat era, wrote that "although Sadat increased political freedom, he also periodically cracked down on the opposition. During 1981, he was murdered by Islamic fundamentalists." In 1982, Sadat's successor, Hosni Mubarak, "honor the peace treaty with Israel but criticized the lack of progress on the Palestinian issue." He also improved Egypts relationship with Arab countries, Egypt to allow re-entry in 1984 of the Islamic Conference and the Arab League in 1989. In 1987: Mubarak's re-election, despite criticism of the government due to the economic downturn and the increasing influence of Islamic fundamentalism. During the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), Egypt help the people of Iraq (as did the United States). However, the concordance with the policy of the United States (U.S.), he criticized the Iraqi government after the invasion of Kuwait in 1990. In 1993: Mubarak's re-election for a third time, this time he made accommodation with the Muslim Brotherhood, and the cracking of the more radical groups. Sudan border conflict arises at this time. Bibliography Amil Khan. 2008. The Long Struggle: The Seeds of the Muslim World's Frustration. Egypt State Information Service. p.58

Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale: Yale University Press, 2010, p.40 Egypt. Retrieved 2012 May 23 from http://www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/EGYPT.html
Ibrahim, Sammar. 2008. 'Profile: Anwar Al-Sadat', Egypt: Egypt State Information Service.

Egyptian Revolution 1952. Retrieved 2012 May 23 from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1952

Chapter 7 Lebanese Civil War, 1982 Introduction Lebanese Civil War (Arabic: ) was a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon. War lasted from 1975 to 1990 and resulted in about 150,000 to 230,000 deaths. Another one million people (one fourth of the population) wounded, and today approximately 350,000 people remain displaced in Lebanon. There is also a mass exodus of nearly a million people from Lebanon. It has been argued that the background of war can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end of Lebanon's administration by the Ottoman Empire. The Cold War had a powerful disintegrative effect on Lebanon, which is closely related to the polarization of the political crisis that preceded 1958. Creation of Israel and displacement of 100,000 Palestinian refugees to Lebanon (around 10% of the total population of the country) changed the demographics of Lebanon and provided the basis for long-term involvement of Lebanon in regional conflicts. By 1975, the presence of foreign powers in the form of armed Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) guerrillas, who carries a veto on Lebanese politics, has a serious impact on Lebanon. Military Palestinian refugee population, with the arrival of the PLO guerrilla forces trigger an arms race among political groups that differ Lebanon. After a short break in the fighting in 1976, due to Arab League mediation and Syrian intervention, Palestinian-Lebanese strife continued, with fighting focused in south Lebanon, which has been occupied by the PLO since 1969, in violation of Cairo signed in accordance with the Lebanese government . During the fighting, alliances shifted rapidly and unpredictably: by the end of the war, nearly every party had allied with and subsequently betrayed every other party at least once. 1980s especially bleak: much of Beirut destroyed destruction caused carnage 1976 Quarantine conducted by the Lebanese Front, the Syrian Army attack Christian neighborhood in 1978 and 1981, and the Israeli invasion of the PLO expelled. Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the battle. In January of that year, a committee appointed by the Arab League, chaired by Kuwait and including Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco, began to formulate solutions to the conflict. However, on January 31, 1990, the Lebanese army forces clashed again with the LF. This led East Beirut clashes, and even LF made initial advances, the war between the Christian militia eventually fatigue the most strength battle. In August 1990, the Lebanese Parliament, which

did not heed Aoun order to dissolve, and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments contain some political reforms envisioned at Taif. On October 13, 1990, Syrians launched last major operation involving the army, air force and the Lebanese allies (especially the Lebanese Army, led by General mile Lahoud) against Aoun stronghold around the presidential palace, where hundreds of Aoun supporters were killed. It was later cleared of the last Aounist pocket, strengthen hold on the capital. Aoun fled to the French Embassy in Beirut, and later into exile in Paris. In March 1991, Parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes prior to enactment. In May 1991, the militias (except essential Hezbollah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution. Some violence still occurs. At the end of December 1991 a car bomb (estimated to carry 220 pounds of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of KRC. At least thirty people were killed and 120 wounded, including former Prime Minister Shafik Wazzan, who was riding in a bulletproof car. Post-war occupation of the country by Syria was particularly politically disadvantageous Christian population as most of their leadership was driven into exile, or had been killed or imprisoned. Background Colonial rule In 1860, foreign interests changed socio-political struggle in bitter religious conflict. Civil war between Druze and Christians erupted in Ottoman Mount Lebanon, and causing the death of about 10,000 people. Commission members agreed that the partition of Mount Lebanon in 1842 between Druzes and Christians had been responsible for the massacre. In 1918 the Ottoman rule in Lebanon and Syria ended. These are difficult times for Lebanon, while the rest of the world was occupied with the World War, the people of Lebanon have suffered famine will last almost 4 years. The outbreak of World War I in August 1914 brought the problems of Lebanon, the Ottoman Empire allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Ottoman government abolish the semi-autonomous status and appointed Djemal Pasha Lebanon, then minister of the navy, as the commander of the Turkish forces chief in Syria, with discretionary powers. Renowned for its rudeness, he militarily occupied Lebanon and replaced the Armenian mutasarrif, Ohannes Pasha, with a Turk, Munif Pasha. In February 1915, disillusioned with the failed attack on the British forces protecting the Suez Canal, Jamal Pasha Mediterranean starting around the east coast blockade to prevent supplies from reaching his enemies; these thousands of deaths indirectly caused

famine and devastation widespread. Lebanon suffered as much as, or more than, any other Ottoman province. Restrictions deprived the tourists and summer visitors, and remittances from relatives and friends who lost or delayed for months. Turkish Army cut down trees for wood to fuel trains or for military purposes. In 1916 the Turkish authorities executed 21 public Syria and Lebanon in Damascus and Beirut, respectively, for anti-Turkish activities are said to be (see: Arab Revolt). Date, May 6 commemorated annually in both countries as Martyrs 'Day and the site in Beirut has come to known as Martyrs' Square. In 1926, Lebanon was declared a republic, and the Constitution was adopted. However, the constitution was suspended in 1932 due to the turbulence: some factions demanded unity with Syria, whilst a larger number demanded independence from France.112 In 1934, the country's first (and only date) census was conducted. In 1936 the Christian segment of the party was founded by Pierre Gemayel. Independence Lebanon was promised independence and on 22 November 1943 has been achieved. French troops, who had invaded Lebanon in 1941 to rid Beirut Vichy forces, left the country in 1946. Christians hold power over the country and the economy. Parliament confession was created, where Muslims and Christians were given quotas of seats in Parliament. As well, the President is to be a Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim and the parliament speaker Shiite Muslims. During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, a mass exodus of Palestinian refugees who fled the fighting or were expelled from their homes, arrived in Lebanon. Palestinians came to play a very important role in the future of civil conflict Lebanon, and the establishment of Israel radically changed the local environment in which Lebanon found itself. U.S. Marines on patrol in Beirut, Lebanon in 1958 during conflictIn. July 1958, Lebanon was threatened by a civil war between Maronite Christians and Muslims. President Camille Chamoun had attempted to break the stranglehold on Lebanese politics exercised by traditional political families in Lebanon. These families maintained their electoral appeal by cultivating client-patron relations with their local communities strong. But this prevented the emergence of an educated political class into the parliament. Although he succeeded in sponsoring alternative political candidates to enter the elections in 1957, resulting in the traditional family to lose their positions, these families then start a war with Chamoun, referred to as the War of Pashas. However, as usual and due to Lebanon's open media and
112

Lebanon: A Shattered Country: Myths and Realities of the Wars in Lebanon , 2002. Lebanon: Revised Edition Picard, Elizabeth .

political society, regional tensions were used as an excuse to mount the insurrection by employers who have issued political. In previous years, tensions with Egypt has increased in 1956 when the President of the Non-Aligned Camille Chamoun, did not break off diplomatic relations with the Western powers that attacked Egypt during the Suez Crisis, angering Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. Chamoun has often been called pro-Western, but he has signed several trade agreements with the Soviet Union (see Gendzier). However Nasser had attacked Chamoun because of suspected support for the US-led Baghdad Pact United States. Nasser felt that the pro-western Baghdad Pact pose a threat to Arab Nationalism. Lebanon however historically had a small cosmetic army 1 is never effective in defending Lebanon's territorial integrity, and why in the years after the PLO guerrilla factions had found it easy to enter Lebanon and set up base, and took over military barracks on the border with Israel as early as 1968. Yezid Sayigh documents the early battle which saw the army not only lose control of the barracks to the occupying PLO but also lost many soldiers. However, before this, the power of conscious weakness abroad, president Chamoun looked to regional pacts to ensure protection from foreign armies. But his Lebanese Sunni Muslim Prime Minister Rashid Karami supported Nasser in 1956 and 1958. Lebanese Muslims pushed the government to join the newly created United Arab Republic, a country formed from the union of Syria and Egypt, while the majority of the Lebanese and especially the Christians wanted to keep Lebanon as an independent state with independent parliament. President Camille feared topple his government and asked for U.S. intervention. At that time the U.S. was involved in the Cold War. Chamoun asked for help declaring that communism would topple the government. Chamoun however not only respond to the political revolt former boss, but also to the fact that both Egypt and Syria had taken the opportunity to use a proxy to the Lebanon conflict. Thus, the Arab National Movement (ANM), led by George Habash and later to become the Progressive Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the PLO factions, were deployed to Lebanon by Nasser. ANM is a secret militias involved in attempted coups against both the Jordanian monarchy and the Iraqi president throughout the 1950s at Nasser's bidding. The founding members of Fatah, including Yasser Arafat and Khalil Wazir also flew to Lebanon to use the insurrection as a means of war can be raised towards Israel. They took part in the fighting by directing armed forces against the government security in the city of Tripoli according to Yezid Sayigh work. In that year, President Chamoun was unable to convince the Christian army commander, Fuad Chehab to use the armed forces against Muslim demonstrators, fearing

that get involved in internal politics would split a variety of small and weak force confessions. Segment militia came to help the president rather than to bring a definitive end to the road blockades that crippled major cities. Encouraged by efforts during this conflict, later that year, principally through violence and the success of the general strike in Beirut, the segment achieved what journalists dubbed the "counterrevolution." By their actions Phalangists overthrow the government of Prime Minister Karami and secured for their leader, Pierre Gemayel, a position in the cabinet of four people then formed. However, estimates of segment membership by Yezid Sayigh and other academic sources put them at several thousand. Non-academic sources tend to inflate membership phalanges. What should be remembered that this rebellion was met with widespread rejection by many Lebanese who wanted no part in regional politics and many young men aided in the suppression of their revolt segment, especially when many protesters were little more than proxy forces hired by groups such as ANM and Fatah founders and hired by an employer who was defeated in Parliament. Demographic tensions During the years of the 1960s, Lebanon is relatively calm, but this will soon change. Liberation Organization Fatah and other Palestinian factions have long been active among the 400,000 Palestinian refugees in Lebanese camps. Throughout the 1960s, the center for armed Palestinian activities in Jordan, but they were forced to move after being expelled by King Hussein during Black September in Jordan. Fatah and other Palestinian groups have attempted to launch a coup in Jordan by incentivizing a split in the Jordanian army, something that the ANM was trying to do a decade earlier by Nasser's bidding. Jordan however responded and expelled forces into Lebanon. When they arrived, they created a "State within the State". This action was not welcomed by the Lebanese government, and this shook Lebanon's fragile sectarian climate. Solidarity for the Palestinian people have expressed through the Lebanese Sunni Muslims but with the aim to change the political system from one of consensus among the different sects, in which direction they will increase the power. Certain groups in the Lebanese National Movement would like to bring more order secular and democratic, but as this group increasingly included Islamist groups, encouraged to join by the PLO, the more progressive demands early agenda was dropped by January 1976. Islam does not support a secular order in Lebanon and want to bring rule by Muslim clerics. Yezid Sayigh documents these events, especially the role of Fatah and the Tripoli Islamist movement known as Tawhid, change agenda being pursued by many parties, including the Communists. This

rag-tag combination is often referred to as a left-wing, but many participants actually very elements that religious conservatives do not share any broader ideological agenda, rather, they were brought together by a short-term goal of overthrowing the established political order , each motivated by dissatisfaction of their own. These powers allow the PLO / Fatah (Fatah is 80% of the membership of the PLO and Fatah guerrillas controlled most institutions now) to transform the Western Part of Beirut into a stronghold. PLO had taken over the center of Sidon and Tyre in the early 1970s, it controlled large swathes of southern Lebanon, where the indigenous Shiite population had to suffer the insult pass despite the entrance of the PLO and now they have to work them by force into Beirut. PLO did this with the help of volunteers from Libya and Algeria which allegedly shipped through the port it controlled, as well as a number of Sunni Lebanese groups who have been trained and armed by PLO / Fatah and encouraged to declare themselves as separate militias. However as Rex Brynen make clear in the publication on the PLO, these militias were nothing more than "shop-fronts" or in Arabic "Dakakin" for Fatah, armed gangs have no ideological foundation and no organic reason for their existence except for the fact their individual members have been placed on the payroll of the PLO / Fatah. Strike fishermen in Sidon in February 1975 could also be considered the first important episode that sparked an outbreak of hostilities. That event involved a specific issue: trial of former President Camille Chamoun (also head of the Maronite-oriented National Liberal Party) to monopolize fishing along the coast of Lebanon. Injustices perceived by the fishermen raise sympathy from many Lebanese and reinforced the widespread anger and resentment felt against the state and the economic monopolies. The demonstrations against the fishing company quickly turned into a political action supported by the political left and their allies in the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The state is trying to suppress the demonstrators, and a sniper reportedly killed a popular figure in the city, former Mayor of Sidon, Maroof Saad. He was buried in a Palestinian flag, and in the media, the Sidon riots became somehow merged with the Palestinian war with Israel in the minds of media watchers. However, if was hi-raising by the Palestinians because Saad was on bad terms with the PLO. Fatah dominated the heart of Sidon and the port and tried to finance election campaigns of candidates competing eventually saw Saad lose both his efforts for a parliamentary seat in 1973 and then, lose the mayor-ship. This means that the Fatah sponsored rival had not only won Sidon, but now representing Fatah in parliamentary intention Lebanon! When Saad died, there was bitter enmity between him and the PLO / Fatah.

Many sources claimed that the government's non-academic killed Saad, however there is no evidence to support such claims, and it appears that whoever had killed him had intended for what began as a small and quiet demonstration to evolve into something more. Sniper target Saad right at the end of the demonstration as it was dissipating. Farid Khazen, Sidon academic local history sources and eye witnesses, gives a run-down of events today that based on research confounded them. Other interesting facts that Khazen reveals, based on the Sidon academic work including that Saad was not in dispute with the fishing consortium made Yugoslav people. In fact, the Yugoslavian representatives in Lebanon have been negotiating with the union to make the fisherman fisherman shareholders in the company offered to modernize the Fisherman's equipment and buy their catch, give their fisherman is a union and annual subsidy. Saad, as a union representative (and not the mayor of Sidon at the time because a lot of sources claim), was offered a place on the board too. There is some speculation that Saad's attempts to narrow the differences between the fishermen and the consortium, and the acceptance of a place on the board that made him the target of attacks by the conspirators who seek full fire around the small protest. The events in Sidon contained no longer. The government began to lose control of the situation in 1975. Front Lebanon and the Lebanese National Movement Most militias claimed that they are non-sectarian forces, but in fact they recruited mainly from the community or region of their leader. During the war most or all militias operated with little for human rights, and features some fighting sects, made non-combatant civilians often targeted. As the war continued, militias deteriorated ever further into mafia-style organizations with many commanders turning to crime as their main occupation than fighting. Finance for the war effort were obtained in one or all of three ways: Outside support: Generally from one of the rival Arab governments, Iran or Israel. Alliances will shift frequently. Extortion, theft, bank robberies and random checkpoints at which "customs" would be collected, common to all parties. During the break-fire, most militias operated in their home areas as virtual mafia organizations. Smuggling: During the civil war, Lebanon turned into one of the world's largest narcotics producers, with much hashish production centered in the Bekaa valley. But many others also smuggled, such as guns and supplies all kinds of stolen goods, and regular trade - war or no war, Lebanon will not give up its role as a middleman in European-Arab business. Many battles have been fought over Lebanon's ports, to gain smugglers access to the sea routes.

Christian Christian buy arms from Romania and Bulgaria as well as from West Germany, Belgium and Israel, and attract supporters from the Christian population in the north of the larger countries. They are generally right-wing in their political views, and all the main Christian militia is dominated Maronite, and Christian sects other secondary role. The most powerful Christian militia is Kataeb Regulatory Forces, the military wing Kataeb Party or phalanges, which remain under the leadership of the charismatic William Hawi until his death during the final push against Tel el Zaatar Camp. After the fall of Palestinian camps in East Beirut, the militia phalanx, now under the command of Bachir Gemayel, merged with several minor groups (al-Tanzim, Guardian Cedars, Lebanese Youth Movement) and form a professional army called the Lebanese Forces (LF). With the help of Israel, the LF established itself in Christian-dominated strongholds and rapidly transformed from unorganized militia and poorly equipped armed forces into a terrifying that now has its own armor, artillery unit commander, (SADM), a small Navy, and highly advanced Intelligence branch. Meanwhile, in the north, Marada Brigades served as the private militia Franjieh family and Zgharta. Another mainly Christian Militia was the South Lebanon Army controlled by Saad Haddad. This militia was installed in South Lebanon by Israel. Their goal was to be a bulwark against PLO raids and attacks into Galilee Also, another notable militia; Noumour ( ) is the military wing of the National Liberal Party (NLP / Ahrar) during the Lebanese Civil War. Tigers formed in Saadiyat in 1968, as Noumour Al Ahrar (Tigers of the Liberals, ) , under the leadership of Camille Chamoun. The group takes its name from his middle name, Nemr - "Tiger". Trained by Naim Berdkan, the unit was led by Chamoun Dany Chamoun son. After the Civil War beginning in 1975, the Tigers, strong of 3,500 militiamen fought the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) and Palestinian allies. Shia Islam Amal Movement is slow to establish and join in the battle. Initially, many Shi'a had sympathy towards the Palestinians and some have been attracted by the Lebanese Communist Party, but after 1970s Black September, there was a sudden influx of armed Palestinians to the Shi'a areas. Mainly Shiite population of southern Lebanon and the Palestinians soon set up base there for their attacks against Israel. Palestinian movement quickly squandered its influence with Shiite radical factions ruled by the gun that many Shiite inhabited southern

Lebanon, where the refugee camps happened concentrated, and the mainstream PLO proved either unwilling or unable to curb them. Secularism and behavior had alienated the Palestinian radical traditionalist Shi'ite community; Shiites do not want to pay the price for the PLO rocket attacks from Southern Lebanon. PLO created the state in one of the states in South Lebanon and this sparked outrage among Lebanon's Shiites, who fear reprisals from Israel to their homeland in the South. Shiites initially been sympathetic to the Palestinians, but when the PLO created chaos in South Lebanon these feelings were reversed. Shi influential in southern Lebanon in the 1960s became an arena for Israel-Palestinian conflict. State of Lebanon, which always avoided provoking Israel, simply leave southern Lebanon. Many people there migrated to the suburbs of Beirut, known as the "poverty belt". Young Shi'a migrants, who were not taking part in the prosperity of prewar Beirut, joined many Lebanese and some Palestinian organizations. After many years without their own independent political organizations, suddenly arose Musa Sadr's Amal Movement in 1974-75. Islamist ideology immediately attracted the unrepresented people, and Amal armed ranks grew rapidly. Amal against the PLO in the early days. Then the hard-line faction would break away to join with Shi'a groups fighting Israel to form the organization Hezbollah, also known as the National Resistance, who to this day remains the most powerful force and orderly Lebanon and the Middle East. Hezbollah was created as a faction split from Amal Movement, and the Islamic organization that is considered too secular charity. The original goal of Hezbollah, including the establishment of an Islamic state in Lebanon. There is a great support by Iran during the Lebanese Civil War for Shi'ite factions, Amal Movement and Hezbollah. Hezbollah and leaders were inspired by Ayatollah Khomeini's revolution and therefore in 1982 emerged as a faction determined to resist the Israeli occupation of Lebanon, and the forces were trained and organized by a contingent of Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps. Support very satisfied by both military training and financial support. The Lebanese Alawites, followers of the Shia sect of Islam, was represented by the Red Knights Militia Arab Democratic Party, a pro-Syrian Alawites for being dominant in Syria, and mainly acted in Northern Lebanon around Tripoli. Sunni Islam Sunnis half received support from Libya and Iraq, and several small militias exist, the more prominent with Nasserist or otherwise pan-Arab and Arab nationalist tendencies, but also of Islam, such as the Tawhid Movement. Sunni leadership is the main organization Almoravides

main Beirut-based south-west. Al-Murabitoun, led by Ibrahim Kulaylat, fought with the Palestinians against Israel during the invasion of 1982. February was the sixth movement of other pro-Palestinian Nasserist militia, and in favor with the PLO in the War camp. Druze sect Small Druze sect, strategically and dangerous sit on the Chouf in the middle of Lebanon, had no natural allies, and so was forced to put a lot of effort into building alliances. Under the leadership of the Jumblatt family, first Kamal Jumblatt (LNM leader) and then son Walid, the Progressive Socialist Party (PSP) served as an effective Druze militia, building excellent ties to the Soviet Union in particular, and with Syria when production in southern Israel Here you are. However, many Druze in Lebanon at the time were members of the non-religious party, the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. Under the leadership of Kamal Jumblatt, the PSP is the major element in the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) which supports the Arab identity of Lebanon and sympathize with the Palestinians. It builds a powerful private army, which proved to be one of the strongest in the Lebanese Civil War from 1975 to 1990. It conquered much of Mount Lebanon and the Chouf District. Its main enemy is Maronite Christian Phalangist militia, and later the Lebanese Forces militia (which absorbed the Phalangists). PSP suffered a major setback in 1977, when Kamal Jumblatt was assassinated. Walid, his son succeeded him as party leader. From the Israeli withdrawal from the Chouf in 1983 to the end of the civil war, the PSP ran a highly effective civil administration, Public Administration Mountain, in the area under control. Toll imposed on PSP militia checkpoints provided a major source of revenue for the administration. PSP plays an important role in what is known as the "Mountain War" under the lead Walid Jumblatt: after the Israeli Army retreated from the Lebanese Mountain, important battles between the PSP and Christian militias. PSP armed members accused of several massacres that occurred during the war (August 31, 1983: 36 members of the public on Bmarian, 7 September 1983: 200 Christian civilians killed in Bhamdoun, 10 September 1983: 64 in Bireh, 10 September 1983: 30 Ras el-Matn, 11 September 1983: 15 in Maasser Beit ed-Dine, 11 September 1983: 36 in Chartoun, 13 September 1983: 84 in Maasser el-Chouf, and other more ...). Progressive Socialist Party (or PSP) (Arabic: , al-Hizb altaqadummi al-ishtiraki) is a political party in Lebanon. Leader Walid Jumblatt is now. It is practice-led and supported mostly by followers of the Druze religion.

Secular groups Some Syrian Social Nationalist Party militia, although the Lebanese claim to be secular, most little more than vehicles for sectarian interests. However, there are some non-religious groups, particularly but not exclusively the left and / or Pan-Arab right. An example of this is the Lebanese Communist Party (LCP) and the Organization of Communist Action, more radical and independent (COA). Another famous example is the Party of the pan-Syrian Syrian Social Nationalist (SSNP), which promoted the concept of Greater Syria, in contrast to Pan-Arab nationalism or Lebanon. SSNP is generally aligned with the Syrian government, although it did not ideologically approve of Ba'thist regime (however, this has changed recently, under Bashar Al-Assad, the SSNP was permitted to impose political activity in Syria as well). SSNP various confessions was led by Inaam Raad, a Catholic and Abdallah Saadeh, Greek Orthodox. It is active in North Lebanon (Koura and akkar), West Beirut (around Hamra Street), Mount Lebanon (High Metn, Baabda, Aley and Chouf), in Southern Lebanon (Zahrani, Nabatieh, Marjayoun and Hasbaya) and Beqqa Valley (Baalbeck , Hermel and Rashaya). Two competing Baath party factions were also involved in the early stages of the war: a nationalist one known as "pro-Iraqi" headed by Dr. 'Abdul-Majeed Al-Rafei (Sunni) and Nicola Y. Ferzli (Greek Orthodox Christian), and a Marxist-called "pro-Syrian" headed by Assem Qanso (Shiite). Syrian pro-Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party of Lebanon now has two seats in the parliament. Kurdistan Workers Party during that time has coached camps in Lebanon, where they received support from Syria and the PLO. During the Israeli invasion PKK units were ordered to fight the Israeli army. A total of 11 PKK fighters died in the conflict. Mahsum Korkmaz PKK commander of all forces in Lebanon. Originals Armenian Marxist-Leninist militias were established in the territory of the PLO-dominated West Beirut in 1975. This militia was led by revolutionary fighters Monte Melkonian and group-founder Hagop Hagopian. Alinged closely with the Palestinians, originals fought many battles in the Lebanese National Movement and the PLO, the most prominent of the Israeli army and their right-wing allies during the 1982 phase of the war. Melkonian was commander during the battle field, and assisted in the defense of West Beirut PLO. 113

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Melkonian, Markar (2005). My Brother's Road: An American's Fateful Journey to Armenia. New York: I. B. Tauris.

Palestine Moved most of the Palestinian movement fighting strength to Lebanon at the end of 1970, after being fired from Jordan in the events known as Black September. Umbrella organization, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) denied itself the most potent fighting force in Lebanon at the time was little more than a loose confederation, but a leader, Yasser Arafat, controlled all factions by buying their loyalties. Arafat allowed little oversight to be implemented over the PLO fund he is the ultimate source of all decisions made in directing financial matters. Rex Brynen provide a detailed account of how this works. Arafat's control of funds, channeled directly to the oil producing countries like Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Libya meant that he had little real functional opposition to his leadership and although ostensibly rival factions in the PLO existed, this cover 1 stable loyalty towards Arafat so long as he was able to dispense financial rewards to his followers and members of the PLO guerrilla groups. Unlike the people of Lebanon, the Palestinian people are not sectarian. Palestinian Christians supporting Arab nationalism during the civil war in Lebanon and against the Lebanese Christian militia. PLO mainstream was represented by Arafat's powerful Fatah, which launched a guerrilla war but did not have a strong core ideology, except the claim for the liberation of Palestine. As a result, they gained broad appeal with a refugee population with conservative Islamic values (who opposed the secular ideology). Tribes over ideology, however, including the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the splinter, the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP). Fatah actually instrumental in splitting the DF from the PFLP in the early days of the formation PFLPs to reduce the appeal and PFLP competition poses to Fatah. Smaller role played by the Palestinian Liberation Front gripe (PLF) and another one-off fraction of the PFLP, Syria aligned Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command (PFLP-GC). To complicate the situation, the system Ba'thist Syria and Iraq both set up Palestinian puppet organizations within the PLO. As Sa'iqa Syrian militias controlled, parallel with the Arab Liberation Front (ALF) under Iraqi command. The Syrian government also can count on the Syrian brigades of the Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA), formally but not work regular army PLO. Some PLA units sent by Egypt under the leadership of Arafat. First Phase 1975-1977 Sectarian violence and massacre Throughout the spring of 1975, a small battle in Lebanon has been building towards all-out conflict, the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) pitted against the segment, and ever-

weaker national government skeptical of the need to maintain order and fill in the constituency. On the morning of 13 April 1975, unidentified gunmen in a speeding car opened fire at a church in the Christian East Beirut suburb of Ain El Rummaneh, killing four people, including two Maronite Phalangists. Hours later, Phalangists led by Gemayels killed 30 Palestinians in Ain El Rummaneh trip. Citywide battle erupted in response to the "Bus Massacre". Hotels war that began in October 1975, and lasted until March 1976. On December 6, 1975, the day that became known as Black Saturday, killing four members bring phalanx phalanx quickly and temporarily set up roadblocks around Beirut where identity cards were inspected for religious affiliation. Many Palestinians or Lebanese Muslims who pass through roadblocks were killed immediately. Additionally, the segment took hostages and attack Muslims in East Beirut. Muslim and Palestinian militias retaliated with force, increase the number of death counts between 200 and 600 civilians and militia. After this point, all started out fighting between militias. In a vicious circle of sectarian violence, the public is an easy target. On January 18, 1976 about 1,000 people were killed by Christians in Murder Quarantine power, counter strike immediately followed by Damour by Palestinian militias. Both massacres prompted a mass exodus of Muslims and Christians, as those who fear punishment fled to areas under the control of their own sect. Ethnic and religious layout of the residential areas of the capital to promote this process, and East and West Beirut were increasingly transformed into what is in effect the Christian and Muslim Beirut. Also, the number of Christian leftists who had allied with the LNM, and Muslim conservatives with the government, dropped sharply, as the war reveals itself as a truly conflict sect. Another effect of genocide is to bring in Yasser Arafat's Fatah armed with good and with the Palestine Liberation Organization on the side of the LNM, as Palestinian sentiment was now feuding with Lebanese Christian forces. Syrian occupation of Lebanon Christianity has a lot of anxiety exacerbated by the Damour massacre, and both sides feel the importance has been raised above mere political power. Syria responded by ending combination before the Palestinian Rejectionist Front and began supporting the Maronitedominated government. This technically put Syria on the same side as Israel, because Israel had already begun to supply Maronite forces with arms, tanks, and military advisers in May 1976. Syria had its own political and territorial interests in Lebanon, which harbored cells and anti-Ba'thist Muslim Brotherhood, as well as a possible route to attack Israel. At the request of the President, Syrian troops entered Lebanon, occupying Tripoli and the Bekaa Valley, easily brushing aside the LNM and Palestinian defenses. Cease-fire

was imposed, but it ultimately failed to stop the conflict, so Syria added to the pressure. With Damascus supplying arms, Christian forces managed to break the defense of Tel alZaatar refugee camp in East Beirut, which had long been under siege. The massacre of about 2000 Palestinians followed, which release heavy criticism against Syria from the Arab world. On October 19, 1976, the Battle Aishiya happens, when a combined force of PLO and Communist militia attacked Aishiya, an isolated Christian village in the mostly Muslim region. Israel Defense Forces Artillery Corps release 24 shells (66 kg TNT each) from the US-175millimeter field artillery unit in striker chase their first attempt. However, the PLO and the Communists back in the evening, when low visibility made Israeli artillery far less effective. Christian residents fled the village. They returned in 1982. In October 1976, Syria has accepted the Arab League proposal summit in Riyadh. This gave Syria a mandate to keep 40,000 troops in Lebanon as most of the Arab deterrent Team imposed by disentangling the combatants and restoring calm. Other Arab countries are also part of the ADF, but they lost interest relatively soon, and Syria once again left in sole control, now with the ADF as a diplomatic shield against international criticism. The Civil War officially ended at this point, and quiet settled over Beirut agitated and most other Lebanese. In the south, however, the climate began to deteriorate as a result of the gradual return of PLO combatants, who were required to vacate central Lebanon under the terms of the Riyadh Agreement. Quiet Not Comfortable Green Line (Green Line) that separates the east and west Beirut, 1982The country is now effectively divided, with southern Lebanon and the western half of Beirut became the basis of the PLO and Muslim-based militias and Christians in control of East Beirut and the Christian section of Mount Lebanon. The main confrontation line in divided Beirut known as the Green Line. In East Beirut, in 1976, the leaders of the Christian National Liberal Party (NLP), Kataeb Party and the Lebanese Renewal Party joined in the Lebanese Front, a political counterpoint to LNM. Their militias - the Tigers, Kataeb Regulatory Forces of Malaysia (KRF) and guardian Cedars - entered a coalition known as the Lebanese Forces, to form a military wing for the Lebanese Front. From the beginning, the Kataeb Regulatory Forces and militias', under the leadership of Bashir Gemayel, dominated the LF. During the year 1977-80, through absorbing or destroying smaller militias, he both consolidated control and strengthened the LF into the dominant Christian force.

In March of the same year, Lebanese National Movement leader Kamal Jumblatt was assassinated. Murder widely blamed on the Syrian government. While Jumblatt role as leader of the Druze Progressive Socialist Party was filled surprisingly smoothly by his son, Walid Jumblatt, LNM disintegrated after his death. Although anti-government alliance leftists, Shi'a, Sunni, Palestinians and Druze would stick together for a few more, they are wildly divergent interests that tore at opposition unity. Recognizing the opportunity, Hafez al-Assad immediately began splitting both Christian and Muslim coalitions in a game gap and conquest. The second phase 1977-1982 Hundred Days War Hundred Days War was a conflict in sub Lebanese Civil War, which took place in the Lebanese capital Beirut between February and April 1978. It was fought between the Christian Lebanese Forces (LF) militia, under the command of President Bashir Gemayel Kataeb Party, and the Syrian army Arab prevention team (ADF). This conflict resulted in the expulsion of Syrian troops from East Beirut, the end of the task Force in Lebanon and the Arab barrier breaking the alliance between Syria and the Lebanese Front. Conflict has caused 160 dead and 400 injured. Israel's intervention in South Lebanon, 1978 1981 PLO attacks from Lebanon into Israel in 1977 and 1978 increased tension between the countries. On March 11, 1978, 11 Fatah fighters landed on a beach in northern Israel and proceeded to hijack two buses full of passengers on the Haifa - Tel-Aviv road, shooting at passing vehicles in what became known as the massacre of Beach Road. They killed 37 and wounded 76 Israelis before killed in clashes with Israeli troops. Israel invaded Lebanon four days later in Operation Litani. Israeli troops occupying the southern area of the Litani River. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with trying to bring peace. Safety Zone Map showing the line of demarcation Blue Line between Lebanon and Israel, which was established by the UN after the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 1978 teams. Israeli withdrew later in 1978, but maintained control of the southern region by managing 12 miles (19 km) wide "zone" along the border security. This was held by the allies of Israel, Southern Lebanon Army (SLA), Christian-Shiite militia under the leadership of Major Saad

Haddad. Israel supplied the SLA with arms and resources, and posted "advisers" to help the militia. Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin's Likud over the fate of the Christian minority in southern Lebanon (then about 5% of the population in SLA territory) to European Jews during World War II. Violent exchange between the PLO and alliances connect Israeli / SLA. PLO attacking SLA while it continues to strengthen its power along the Lebanon-Israel border. PLO also continued firing rockets into northern Israeli towns, and Israel retaliated with air strikes against PLO positions. Constant tension between the PLO and the PLO IsraelThe frequently attacked Israel during the cease-fire, with over 270 documented attacks. People in Galilee to leave their homes during the shellings. Documents captured in PLO headquarters after the invasion showed they had come from Lebanon. In addition, Arafat refused to condemn attacks occurring outside of Lebanon, on the grounds that the cease-fire is only associated with theater in Lebanon. Arafat's interpretation emphasizes the fact that the ceasefire agreement do nothing to address ongoing violence between the PLO and Israel in other theaters. Israel continued to weather PLO attacks throughout the cease-fire. On July 17, 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed multi-story apartment buildings in Beirut that contained offices of PLO associated groups. Representative of Lebanon to the United Nations Security Council of the United Nations reported that 300 civilians had been killed, and 800 injured. Bombing led to condemnation around the world, and restrictions while U.S. aircraft exports to Israel. 114 In August 1981, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin re-elected, and in September, Begin and Defense Minister Ariel Sharon began to lay plans for a second invasion of Lebanon for the purpose of driving the PLO. Sharon's intention was to "destroy the PLO military infrastructure and, if possible, the PLO leadership itself, which means attacking West Beirut, where the PLO headquarters and command bunkers lie". Sharon also wanted to make sure that president Bashir Gemayel in Lebanon. In return for Israeli assistance, Sharon expected Gemayel, once installed as president, to sign the first peace treaty with Israel, may stabilize the northern border of Israel. [Citation needed] began to bring Sharon's plan before the Knesset in December 1981; however, after strong objections were raised, Begin felt compelled to set the plan apart. But Sharon continued to press the issue. In January 1982, Sharon met with Gemayel on board 1 in the waters of Lebanon and Israel discuss 1 plan "that would bring Israeli forces as far north as the edge of Beirut International Airport". In February, with Begin's input, Yehoshua Seguy, head of military intelligence, was sent to Washington to discuss the issue of Lebanon with
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"The Bombing of Beirut". Journal of Palestine Studies 11 (1): 218225. 1981.

Secretary of State Alexander Haig. In the meeting, Haig "stressed that there can not be a major unprovoked attack from Lebanon" Safra massacre Safra massacre, known as the Long Knives days, occurred in the coastal city Safra (north of Beirut) on July 7, 1980, during the civil war in Lebanon, as part of an effort to consolidate all Bashir Gemayel. Christian fighters under his leadership in the Lebanese Forces. Phalangist forces launched a surprise attack on the Tigers, 500 militia who are armed Liberal National Party former Lebanese President Camille Chamoun. The attack claimed the lives of about 83 people. Zahleh Campaign Zahleh campaign occurred between December 1980 and June 1981. Within seven months, the city of Zahle weathered some political and military frustration. Against the top players on the one hand, LF (Lebanese Forces) who is assisted by Zahlawi city population, and on the other hand, the Syrian Army are also known as the Arab ADF barrier, assisted by some tribes PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization). In terms of demographics, Zahleh is one of the largest cities in the mostly Christian Lebanese. Adjacent to the suburbs, the Bekaa valley, along the length of the Syrian border. Given the near Zahle Bekaa Valley, Syria Army feared the potential of the alliance between Israel and the LF in Zahle. This alliance could potentially threaten not only the presence of Syrian troops in the Bekaa Valley, but was considered a threat to national security from the point of view of the Syrians, as between Zahle and Damascus near the highway. Therefore, as a strategy to clamp down, Syrian forces controlled the main road leading in and out of the city and enriched throughout the Valley. Around December 1980, tensions grew between the Lebanese Forces and the Syrian Zahlawi leftist militants are supported. From April to June 1981, over a period of four months, a handful of LF, assisted by local opposition Zahlawi, confronted the Syrian army and defend the city from invasion of Syria and potential aggression. Nearly 1,100 people were killed on both sides during the conflict. This campaign paved the way for Bachir to reach the presidency in 1982. Third phase 1982-1983 The Israeli invasion of Lebanon On June 3, 1982, Abu Nidal Organization, a splinter group of Fatah, trying to kill Israeli ambassador Shlomo Argov in London. As a result, Ariel Sharon and Menachem Begin

ordered the air counter-attack on PLO and PFLP targets in West Beirut that led to over 100 casualties. PLO responded by launching a counterattack from Lebanon, without consulting with the Lebanese government, with rockets and cannon, which is also a clear violation of the ceasefire. This is the reason immediately after Israel's decision to attack. Meanwhile, on the 5th of June, the Security Council of the United Nations unanimously passed Resolution 508 calling for all parties to the conflict to cease immediately and simultaneously all military activities within Lebanon and across the Lebanese-Israeli border and no later than 0600 hours local time on Sunday, June 6, 1982. Israeli troops in southern Lebanon, June 1982. Israel launched Operation Peace for Galilee on 6 June 1982, attacking PLO bases in Lebanon. Israeli troops quickly drove 25 miles (40 km) into Lebanon, moving into East Beirut with the tacit support of Maronite leaders and militia. When the Israeli cabinet convened to authorize the invasion, Sharon described it as a plan to advance 40 kilometers into Lebanon, demolish PLO stronghold, and establish an expanded security zone that would put northern Israel out of range of PLO rockets. In fact, Israeli chief staff Rafael Eitan and Sharon had ordered troops to attack to head straight for Beirut, in line with Sharon's blueprint dating to September 1981. After the invasion had begun, the UN Security Council passed a resolution on June 6, 1982, Resolution 509, which confirms UNSCR 508 and "demands that Israel withdraw all troops immediately and unconditionally to the border of Lebanon's internationally recognized". So far the U.S. has not used the veto. However, on June 8, 1982, the United States vetoed a proposed resolution that "reiterated the demand that Israel withdraw all military forces forthwith and unconditionally to the border internationally recognized Lebanon", thereby giving implicit assent to Israeli aggression.

Siege of Beirut An aerial view of the stadium being used as ammunition supply site for the PLO after Israeli air strikes in 1982. On June 15, 1982, Israeli units were entrenched outside Beirut. United States called for PLO withdrawal from Lebanon, and Sharon began to order bombing raids West Beirut, targeting about 16,000, the PLO fedayeen who had retreated to a strong defensive position. Meanwhile, Arafat attempted through negotiations to salvage politically what was clearly a disaster for the PLO, an effort that ultimately succeeded when the multinational force arrived to evacuate the PLO. Fighting in Beirut killing more than 6,700 people, a majority are civilians. PLO fighters were killed, including 500, more than 400 Lebanese, over 100 Syrians and 88

Israelis. Fierce artillery duels between the IDF and the PLO attacks, and the PLO Christian neighborhood of East Beirut at the outset gave way to increasing the IDF aerial bombardment beginning on 21 July 1982. It is commonly estimated that during the entire campaign, approximately 20,000 were killed on all sides, including many civilians, and 30,000 people were injured. For Armistice negotiations On June 26, a UN Security Council resolution was proposed that "demands the immediate withdrawal of Israeli forces engaged round Beirut, to a distance of 10 kilometers from the outskirts of the city, as a first step towards a full withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon, and the simultaneous withdrawal of the armed Palestinian gunmen from Beirut, which shall retire to the existing camps have "; United States vetoed the resolution because it was" a transparent attempt to preserve the PLO as a viable political force ", However, President Reagan made an emotional appeal to Prime Minister Begin to end the siege. Began to be called back within a few minutes to tell the President that he had given the order to end the attack. 115 Finally, in the midst of growing violence and civilian casualties, Philip Habib was once again sent to restore order, which he reached on 12 August on the heels of IDF intensive, daylong bombardment of West Beirut. Habib-ceasefire negotiations called for the production of elements of both Israel and the PLO, as well as a multinational team consisting of U.S. Marines along with French and Italian units that would ensure the departure of the PLO and protect defenseless civilians. Recovery International: Multinational Force in Lebanon U.S. Navy Amphibian arrived in Beirut, 1982. Army's first multinational force landed in Beirut on August 21, 1982 to oversee the PLO withdrawal from Lebanon and U.S. mediation resulted evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut. The agreement also provided for the deployment of a multinational force composed of U.S. Marines along with a unit of French, Italian and British. However, Israel reported that some 2,000 PLO militants hiding in Palestinian refugee camps on the outskirts of Beirut.

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"Ronald Reagan on War & Peace". Ontheissues.org. Retrieved 2012-02-23. http://www.ontheissues.org/Celeb/Ronald_Reagan_War_+_Peace.htm.

Bachir Gemayel was elected president under Israeli military control on Aug. 23. Many, especially in the Muslim circles, feared relationship with Israel. He was killed on September 14, however, by Habib Tanious Shartouni Maronite Christians. The massacre of Sabra and Shatila Kahan Commission was established by the Israeli government to investigate the circumstances of genocide, in which about 3500 Muslim civilians were killed by Lebanese Christian forces under the full knowledge and support the Israeli authorities. Defense Minister, Ariel Sharon, was found to bear personal responsibility "for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge" and "not taking appropriate measures to prevent bloodshed". Sharon's negligence in protecting the civilian population of Beirut, which had come under Israeli control amounted to meet not the obligation with the Defence Minister was charged. Commission arrived to the same conclusion with the Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. Rafael Eitan, finding his actions are considered as a breach of duty is the responsibility of the Chief of Staff. The Commission proposes that Sharon resigned as Defense Minister, which he did, although he remained in the government as an influential Minister without Portfolio. Opening Amin Gemayel, Beirut 1982. Massacre made headlines around the world, and hear the call of the international community to assume responsibility for stabilizing Lebanon. As a result, multinational forces have begun to leave Lebanon after the PLO's evacuation returned as peace keepers. With U.S. backing, Amine Gemayel was chosen by the Lebanese parliament to succeed his brother as President and a new focus for the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces. May 17 Agreement On May 17, 1983, Lebanon Amine Gemayel, Israel, and the United States signed an agreement text on Israeli withdrawal conditioned on the departure of Syrian troops; reported after the United States (U.S.) and Israel's severe pressure on Gemayel. The agreement states that "the state of war between Israel and Lebanon has been terminated and no longer exists." Therefore, the agreement in effect amounted to a peace agreement with Israel, and additionally seen by many Lebanese Muslims as an attempt for Israel to gain freehold in South Lebanon. Much agreement on May 17 as described in the Arab world imposed surrender, and Amine Gemayel was accused of acting as President traitor; tensions in Lebanon significantly harder. Syria strongly opposed the agreement and refused to discuss military spending, effectively stalemating further progress.

In August 1983, Israel withdrew from the Chouf District (southeast of Beirut), thus removing the buffer between the Druze and the Christian militias and triggering another round of brutal fighting, Battle Mountain (Lebanon). By September, the Druze had gained control over most of the Chouf, and Israeli forces had pulled out from all but the southern security zone. IDF would remain in this zone until 2000. Violence Lebanese Army in February 1984, following the defection of Muslim and Druze units to militias that much, is a big blow to the government. With U.S. Marines seem ready to withdraw, Syria and Muslim groups stepped up pressure on Gemayel. On March 5, the Lebanese Government canceled May 17 Agreement, and the Marines departed a few weeks later. This period of chaos witnessed the beginning of attacks against U.S. and Western interests, such as the 18 April 1983 suicide attack on the U.S. Embassy in West Beirut, which killed 63. Following the bombing, the Reagan White House "ordered naval bombardments Druze positions, which caused many victims, mostly non-combatant," was a suicide attack. Then, on October 23, 1983, suicide bombing in Beirut devastating targeting the headquarters of the United States (U.S.) and French forces, killing 241 Americans and 58 French soldiers. On January 18, 1984, American University of Beirut President Malcolm Kerr was murdered. After U.S. forces withdrew in February 1984, the anti-US attacks continued, including the bombing of the U.S. embassy additional second in the East Beirut on September 20, 1984, which killed 9, including 2 U.S. servicemen. The situation became serious enough to compel the U.S. State Department to revoke U.S. passports for travel to Lebanon in 1987, a travel ban that was only lifted 10 years later in 1997. This year, Hezbollah emerged from a loose combination of the Shiite Muslim group that opposes the Israeli occupation, and broke away from the main Shiite movement, Amal movement Nabih Berri. The group found inspiration for revolutionary Islamism in the Iranian Revolution in 1979, with the help of Iran and Shiite refugees big pond unfaithful to draw support, Hezbollah quickly grew into a strong fighting force. Fourth phase 1984-1990 The Increasingly Poor Conflict and Crisis: War Camp USS New Jersey fires salvo against the forces of anti-government in the Shouf, January 9, 1984. Anatar 1985 and 1989, sectarian conflict worsened as various efforts at national reconciliation failed. Heavy fighting occurred in the 1985-86 War Camps as Syrian-backed

coalition headed by the Amal militia trying to rout the PLO from their Lebanese strongholds. Many of the dead Palestinians, and the refugee camps of Sabra, Shatila and Bourj elBarajneh largely destroyed. The main battle back to Beirut in 1987, when Palestinians, leftists, and Druze fighters allied against Amal, eventually attracting more Syrian intervention. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and Hezbollah. Hezbollah swiftly seized command Amal-held parts of some cities, and for the first time emerged as a powerful force in the capital. Kingdom Aoun Meanwhile, Prime Minister Rashid Karami, head of a national unity government that was formed after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was killed on June 1, 1987. Samir Geagea accused of murder when in coordination with the Lebanese army, but not proven. President Gemayel period expired in September 1988. Before the retreat, he appointed another Maronite Christian, Lebanese Armed Forces Commanding General Michel Aoun, as acting Prime Minister, violated the National Alliance. Conflict in this period also exacerbated by increasing Iraqi involvement, Saddam Hussein, find a proxy battlefield for the Iran-Iraq War. To counter Iran's influence through Amal and Hezbollah, Iraq's Christian support groups, Saddam Hussein has helped Aoun and the Lebanese Forces led by Samir Geagea between 1988-1990. Muslim groups rejected violate the National Pact and pledged support to Selim alHoss, who had succeeded Karami Sunni. Lebanon is divided between the Christian military government in East Beirut and the civilian government in West Beirut. On March 14, 1989, Aoun launched what it called a "war of liberation" against the Syrians and the Lebanese militia allies. As a result, Syrian pressure the Lebanese Army and militia pockets in East Beirut grew. Still, Aoun continued in the "liberation war", denouncing the regime of Hafez al-Assad and claiming that he fought for the independence of Lebanon. While he seems to have had significant Christian support for this, he is still considered a sect leader among others by the Muslim population, who distrusted his agenda. He also faced with the challenge to his legitimacy put forward by the government of Western-backed Syrian Beirut Selim al-Hoss. Military, this war did not achieve its goals. Instead, it causes great damage to East Beirut and raised massive emigration among the Christian population.

Taif Agreement An estimate of the distribution of major religions of Lebanon, 1991, based on the map by Global Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the battle. In January of that year, a committee appointed by the Arab League, chaired by Kuwait and including Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco, began to formulate solutions to the conflict. This led to a meeting of Lebanese parliamentarians in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia, where they agreed to the national reconciliation agreement in October. Agreement provided a large role for Syria in Lebanese affairs. Back to Lebanon, they confirmed the deal on November 4, and elected Rene Mouawad as President the following day. Military leader Michel Aoun in East Beirut refused to accept Mouawad, and denounced the Taif Agreement. Mouawad was assassinated 16 days later in a car bombing in Beirut on 22 November as the motorcade returned from Lebanese independence day ceremony. He was replaced by, Elias Hrawi (who remains in office until the year 1998). Aoun again refused to accept the election, and dissolved Parliament. Arguments in East Beirut: Massacre October 13 On January 16, 1990, General Aoun ordered all Lebanese media to cease using terms like "President" or "Minister" to describe Hrawi and other participants in the Taif government. Lebanese Forces, which has grown into a rival power broker in the Christian parts of the capital, protested by suspending all posts. Tension with the LF grew, as Aoun feared that the militia had planned to connect to the administration Hrawi. On January 31, 1990, the Lebanese army forces clashed with LF, after Aoun has stated that it is in the national interest for the government to "unite weapon" (ie that the LF must submit to the authority as acting head of state). This led East Beirut clashes, and even LF made initial advances, the war between the Christian militia eventually fatigue the most strength battle. In August 1990, the Lebanese Parliament, which did not heed Aoun order to dissolve, and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments contain some political reforms envisioned at Taif. National Assembly expanded to 128 seats and for the first time divided equally between Christians and Muslims. As Saddam Hussein focused attention on Kuwait, Iraqi supplies to Aoun reduced. On October 13, Syria launched the first major operation involving the army, air force (for the first time since the siege of Zahle, in 1981) and Lebanese allies (particularly the Lebanese Army led by General mile Lahoud) against strongholds around the presidential palace Aoun,

where hundreds of Aoun supporters were killed. It was later cleared of the last Aounist pocket, strengthen hold on the capital. Aoun fled to the French Embassy in Beirut, and later into exile in Paris. He will not return until May 2005. William Harris claims that the Syrian operation could not take place until Syria had reached agreement with the United States, in exchange for the support of the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein in the Gulf War, it would convince Israel not to attack Syrian aircraft approaching Beirut. Aoun claimed in 1990 that the United States "has sold Lebanon to Syria". End, Warin March 1991, Parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes prior to enactment. Amnesty was not extended to crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council. In May 1991, the militias (except essential Hezbollah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution. Some violence still occurs. At the end of December 1991 a car bomb (estimated to carry 220 pounds of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of KRC. At least thirty people were killed and 120 wounded, including former Prime Minister Shafik Wazzan, who was riding in a bulletproof car. Post-war occupation of the country by Syria's Christian population especially political disadvantage as most of their leadership was driven into exile, or had been killed or imprisoned. After Effects of Terrorism The war damaged buildings still standing in Beirut, 2006. Since the end of the war, Lebanon has held several elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended central government authority over about twothirds of the country. Following the armistice that ended on July 12, 2006 Israeli-Lebanese conflict, the army has for the first time in over three decades moved to occupy and control the southern areas of Lebanon. Lebanon still bears deep scars from the civil war. In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 people were killed and another 100,000 permanently handicapped by injuries. About 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-war population, were displaced from their homes. Perhaps a quarter million emigrated permanently. Thousands of land mines remain buried in the previously contested areas. Some Western hostages kidnapped in the middle of the 1980s were held until June 1992. Lebanese victims of kidnapping and wartime "disappeared" number in the tens of thousands.

Car bombs became the weapon of choice in violent groups worldwide, following their frequent, and often effective, use during the war. In 15 years of strife, there were at least 3641 car bombing, which left 4386 people dead and thousands injured. Other favorite weapons AK-47 and rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs). Germany fraud within 1981, was established during the Lebanese Civil War, based on a 1979 novel of the same name by Nicolas Born Beyroutou el Lika by Borhane Alaoui, 1981, was screened at the Berlin International Film Festival 32nd. Little war (film) by Maroun Baghdadi, 1982 was screened at the Cannes Film Festival in 1982. From Life by Maroun Baghdadi, 1991, was awarded the Jury Prize at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival. Lebanese movie drama Beyrout al Gharbyya (English: West Beirut, French: l'Abri les enfants) from 1998 is a story of two Muslim boys and orphaned Christian girl that divided Beirut in 1975. Civiliss by Randa Chahal in the 1999 Venice Film Festival selection. Danielle, Arbid on the battlefield was screened at the Cannes Film Festival 2004. Lebanese-Swedish film Zozo, 2005, is about a boy whose parents were killed during the civil war, and who later moved to Sweden. Animated drama Waltz With Bashir 2008 exploring scan a soldier of the war. Canada's Oscar nominated Incendies, 2010, by Denis Villeneuve after playing with Wajdi Mouawad focus on this tragedy and all the wars and has many scenes set at various times during the course of the entire war. In 2009, Saleh Barakat curated the "Peace Road" exhibition at the Beirut Art Center. The exhibition features paintings, photographs, drawings, prints and sculptures by artists Lebanon during the war. The title comes from a series of prints depicting the Aref Rayess Lebanon war survivors. 116 Jalan Damai featured Rafic Charaf, Elkoury Fouad, Paul Guiragossian, Hassan Jouni, Khaddage Samir, Manoukian SETA, Saloua Raouda Choucair, Mohammad RAWAS, Aref Rayess and others. Conclusion Israel to strengthen their control in the Chouf and Aley on November 16, 1982. Leaders in the mountains called Amine Gemayel who seems determined to speed up the solution of the crisis in the region Druze-Christian. Lebanese forces and armed groups Progressive Socialist Party started a war without mercy in cazas Aley and Chouf.

116

Harris William W (1997). Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions. New York: Princeton Series on the Middle East

Bibliography Bregman, Ahron and El-Tahri, Jihan (1998). The Fifty Years War: Israel and the Arabs. London: BBC Books. Penguin Books. Bulloch John. (1977). Death of a country: The civil war in Lebanon. Lebanon: Lebanese Civil War Elizabeth, P. (2002)Lebanon: A Shattered Country: Myths and Realities of the Wars in L

ebanon, London: Revised Edition Picard.

Harris William W (1997) Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions. London: Princeton Series on the Middle East. Hiro, D (1993) Lebanon: Fire and Embers: A History of the Lebanese Civil War. Lebanon: Lebanese Civil War Salibi Kamal S. (1976). Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon 1958-1976. London: O'Ballance Edgar

Chapter 8 The Iranian Revolution, 1979 Introduction The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution or 1979 Revolution; Persian: , Enghelbe Eslmi or ) refers to events involving yangmenggulingkan monarchy (Pahlavi dynasty) under Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and its replacement with a Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution. Demonstrations against the Shah commenced in October 1977, developed into a campaign of civil resistance, which is partly secular and partly religious, and intensified in January 1978. Between August and December 1978 strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country. Shah left Iran for exile in mid-January 1979, and in the resulting power vacuum two weeks later Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to a greeting by several million Iranians. Royal regime collapsed shortly after on February 11 when guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran voted by national referendum to become an Islamic Republic on 1 April, 1979, and approved a new democratic hybrid-theocratic constitution which Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country, in December 1979. Revolution was unusual for the surprise it created throughout the world: it does not have a lot of custom source revolution (defeat at war, financial crisis, peasant rebellion, or disgruntled military) produced profound change at great speed; was large-popular scale, and replace the monarchy with Theocracy westernising based Islamic scholar Care (or velayat-e faqih). It results-Islamic Republic "under the guidance of an extraordinary religious scholar from Qom", as one scholar put, "explained an incident that had to be explained".117 Background and Reasons for the Iranian Revolution Iran overly centralized royal power structure of the state, which has been widely covered by the lavishly financed army and security services. Revolution is a conservative reaction against Westernization and secularizing efforts of Western-backed Shah, and a liberal response to social injustice and other shortcomings Ancien regime. Western-backed shah quickly became popular and the Ayatollah Khomeini, who was an outspoken critic, was exiled. Shah was perceived by many beholden to - if not a puppet of
117

Benard, Cheryl and Khalilzad, Zalmay (1984). "The Government of God" Iran's Islamic Republic. Columbia University Press. P 18.

Western foreign powers (the United States) a new culture affecting that of Iran. The Shah's regime who became oppressive, brutal, corrupt, and transgress; it also suffered from basic functional failures - 1 program over-ambitious economy brought economic bottlenecks, shortages and inflation. That the revolution replaced monarchy and Shah Pahlavi with Islamism and Khomeini, rather than another leader and ideology, is credited part of the spread of the Shia version of the Islamic revival that opposed Westernization, saw Ayatollah Khomeini as following the footsteps of the beloved Shi'a Imam Husayn ibn Ali and Husayn Shah in enemy , hated tyrant Yazid I. Also thought responsible underestimate Khomeini's Islamic movement by both the Shah's regime - who considered them minor threat compared to Marxists and Islamic socialists and by the secularist opponents of the regime think Khomeinists indispensable. Historical Background Shi'a clergy (Ulema) have a significant influence on most Iranians, who tend to be religious, traditional, and opposed to any process of Westernization. The priest began to show themselves as a great power politics in opposition to Iran's monarch in 1891 Tobacco Protest boycott that effectively destroyed an unpopular concession granted by the Shah giving a British company a monopoly over buying and selling Tobacco in Iran. Decades later, the monarchy and the clerics clashed again, this time monarchy holding the upper hand. Shah Pahlavi's father, army general Reza Pahlavi, replaced Islamic laws with western ones, and forbade traditional Islamic clothing, separation of sexes and the veiling of women (hijab). Police forcibly removed and tore chadors off women who defy the ban on public hijab. In 1935, dozens were killed and hundreds injured when a rebellion by pious Shi'a at the most holy Shi'a shrine in Iran was crushed on his instructions. In 1941, Reza Shah was sacked and his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was installed by an allied attack British and Soviet troops. In 1953, foreign powers (American and British) again came to the Shah, after-Shah fled the country, the British MI6 aided American CIA operative in organizing a military coup d'etat to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad elected nationalist and democratic Mossadegh. Shah Pahlavi maintained a close relationship with the government of the United States (U.S.), both regimes shared opposition to the expansion of the Soviet Union, powerful northern neighbor Iran. As his regime, Shah Pahlavi was known for autocracy, focus on modernization and Westernization and for disregard for religious and democratic measures in Iran's constitution. Leftist groups, nationalists and Islamists attacked government (often

from outside Iran as they were suppressed within) for violating the Iranian constitution, political corruption, and political oppression by the SAVAK (secret police). The rise of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini Post-revolutionary leader - Shia cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini - first came to political prominence in 1963 when he led opposition to the Shah and his "White Revolution", a program of reforms to break the land owned (including those owned by religious foundations) and allow religious minorities government office. Khomeini was arrested in 1963 after declaring the Shah "wretched miserable man" who had "start (the way) the destruction of Islam in Iran." Three days of major riots throughout Iran followed with Khomeini supporters claiming 15,000 dead from police fire. However, much lower estimates of 380 killed and wounded were later made. Khomeini was released after eight months of house arrest and continued his agitation, condemning the Israeli regime and the close cooperation of capitulations, or extension of diplomatic immunity to American government personnel in Iran. In November 1964 Khomeini was rearrested and sent into exile where he remained for 14 years until the revolution. Ideology of the Iranian Revolution In this interim period "disloyal calm" the budding Iranian revival began to undermine the idea of Westernization as progress that was the basis of Shah's secular regime, and to form an ideological revolution in 1979. Ideas Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, from Gharbzadegi - that Western culture is one disease or one drunk to be destroyed Ali Shariati's vision, Islam as the one true liberator of the Third World from the oppression of colonialism, neo-colonialism, capitalism and the Shia faith popularized Morteza Motahhari , all spread and gained listeners, readers and supporters. Very important Ruhollah Khomeini, Khomeini preached that revolt, and especially martyrdom, against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam, and that Muslims should reject the influence of liberal capitalism and communism with the slogan "No East, nor West - Islamic Republic!" Away from public view, Khomeini expand velayat-e faqih ideology (care of the jurist) as government, that Muslims in all material facts necessary "care," in the form of rule or supervision by a member of the Islamic law or leading scholars. The rules are ultimately "more necessary even than prayer and fasting" in Islam, as it would protect Islam from deviation from traditional sharia law, and in so doing eliminate poverty, injustice, and "robbery" Muslim land by people who foreign non-believers.

The idea of this rule of Islamic jurists was spread through the Government of the Islamic book, mosque sermons, smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini, among Khomeini's opposition network of students (talabeh), former students (able clerics such as Morteza Motahhari, Mohammad Beheshti, Mohammad-Javad Bahonar, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Mohammad Mofatteh), and traditional business leaders (bazaari) in Iran. 118 Revolutionary Organization of Iran Other opposition groups, including constitutionalist liberals - the democratic, reformist Islamic Freedom Movement of Iran, headed by Mehdi Bazargan, and the more secular National Front. They are based in the middle class town, and wanted the Shah of Iran to comply with the Constitution of 1906 rather than to replace him with a theocracy, but a lack of cohesion and organization of Khomeini power. Marxists groups - primarily the communist Tudeh Party of Iran and guerrilla Fedaian - was very weak by government repression. Even so guerrillas do help play an important role in the final February 1979 overthrow delivering "the coup regime." The most powerful guerilla group - the People's Mujahedin - was leftist Islamist and opposed the influence of the clergy as reactionary. Large number of ministers who do not follow Khomeini. Top cleric Mahmoud Taleghani support the left, while perhaps the most senior cleric in Iran and influential - Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari - first remained aloof from politics and then came out to support the democratic revolution. Khomeini worked to unite this opposition behind him (with the exception of the unwanted `Marxist atheist`), focusing on the socio-economic regime (corruption and unequal income and development) Shah, while avoiding specific in the community general that may divide the groups, especially the plan to write rules that he believed most Iranians had become prejudiced against as a result of propaganda campaign by Western imperialists. In the post-Shah era, some revolutionaries who clashed with the theocracy and were suppressed by his movement complained of people fooled, but in the meantime anti-Shah unity is maintained. Some Events 1970-1977 In 1971, the anniversary of the 2500, the founder of the Persian Empire at Persepolis, organized by the Shah's regime, was attacked for its extravagance. "As a foreign reveals drinks forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, some were
118

Taheri, Amir (1985). The Spirit of Allah. Tehran: Adler & Adler.

starving." Five years later the Shah angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic Hijri to rise to the throne by Cyrus the Great. "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 royalist year 2535." Oil boom of the 1970s produced "alarming" increase in inflation and waste and "accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, city and country, along with the presence of tens of thousands of skilled foreign workers who are not popular. Iran many are also angry with the fact that the family shah is a leading beneficiary of the income generated by oil, and the line between state earnings and family earnings blurred. By 1976, the shah had accumulated upward of one billion dollars from oil revenue; family including 63 princes and princesseshad accumulated between five and twenty billion dollars, and the family foundation controlled approximately three billion dollars By mid-1977 economic savings measures measures to fight inflation disproportionately affected the thousands of poor and unskilled male migrants to the cities working construction. Cultural and religious conservatives, many went on to form the core of revolution demonstrators and "martyrs". All Iranians were required to join and pay fees to the new one political party, the party Rastakhiz - all other parties being banned. That the party is trying to fight inflation with populist "anti-profiteering" campaigns -. Fining and arrest merchants for high prices - angry and politicized merchants while black market fuel. In 1977 the Shah responded to the "polite reminder" interest political rights by the new American President, Jimmy Carter, to grant amnesty to some prisoners and allowing the Red Cross to visit prisons. Through 1977 liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the regime. That year also saw the death of the popular and influential modernist Islamist leader Ali Shariati. This both angered his followers, who considered him a martyr at the hands of SAVAK, and removed a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Finally, in October Khomeini's son Mostafa died of a heart attack, his death also blamed SAVAK. Next memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight. The Iranian Revolution Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution Casualties of the Iranian Revolution Revolutionary leaders Ruhollah Khomeini Ahmad Khomeini

Hussein-Ali Montazeri Ali Shariati Mahmoud Taleghani Mehdi Bazargan Sadegh Ghotbzadeh Ebrahim Yazdi Mortaza Motahhari Mohammad Beheshti Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani Mohammad Ali Rajai Abulhassan Banisadr Hassan Habibi Mohammad Javad Bahonar Mostafa Chamran Ali Khamenei Mehdi Karroubi Strong supporters of Mir-Hossein Mousavi Zahra Rahnavard Strong supporters of Mousavi Ardabili Mahdavi Kani Yadollah friend Revolutionary parties and organizations: Islamic Republic Party Freedom Movement of Iran Fighter Clergy Association Tudeh Party of Iran Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization OIPFG IPFG People's Mujahedin of Iran Muslim Student Followers of Imam Line Iranian guerrilla group Revolutionary administration and official institutions: Interim Government of Iran Islamic republic

Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Basij Installation Experts for Constitution Event Movement of 15 Khordad Black Friday Iran hostage crisis Cultural Revolution Ideology of the Iranian Revolution Islamic scholars Care Demonstration In Late 1977 The demonstration was one of militant anti-Shah was in October 1977, after the death of Khomeini's son Mostafa. Khomeini's activists numbered "perhaps 1100 some overall", but in the coming months they grew to a mass of several thousand demonstrators in most cities of Iran. The first victim suffered massive demonstrations against the Shah came in January 1978. Hundreds of Muslim students and religious leaders in the city of Qom angry over a story in the government-controlled press they felt was libelous. Troops were sent in to disperse demonstrations and killing several students (8:58 according to the government, 70 or more according to the opposition). According to the Shi'ite customs, memorial services (called Arba'een) was held 40 days after the person's death. In mosques across the nation, calls were made to honor the dead students. Thus on February 18 groups in a number of cities marched to honor the fallen and protest against the Shah. In May, government commandos burst into the home of Ayatollah Kazem Shariatmadari, a leading cleric and political moderate, and shot dead one of his followers in front of him. Shariat Madari leave quiet stance and joined the opposition to the Shah. Shah and the United States face a revolution, the Shah appealed to the United States for support. Because of Iran's history and strategic location, it is important for the United States. Iran shares a long border with the U.S. Cold War rival, the Soviet Union, and is the largest, most powerful country in the Persian Gulf's oil-rich. Shah had long been proAmerican, but the Pahlavi regime had also recently publicized uncertainty in the West for its human rights record. In the United States, Iran was not considered in danger of revolution.

A CIA analysis in August 1978, just six months before the Shah fled Iran, had concluded that the country is "not in a revolutionary or pre-revolutionary." Meeting Shah (left) with members of the Iranian government of the United States (U.S.): Alfred Atherton, William Sullivan, Cyrus Vance, Jimmy Carter, and Zbigniew Brzezinski, 1977.According history Nikki Keddie, the administration of President Carter followed "no clear policy "on Iran. U.S. Ambassador to Iran, William H. Sullivan, recalls that the U.S. National Security Advisor, Zbigniew Brzezinski "repeatedly assured Pahlavi that the U.S. supported him fully." On November 4, 1978, Brzezinski called the Shah to tell him that the United States would "back him to the hilt." But at the same time, some high-level officials in the State Department and White House staff believed the revolution was unstoppable but largely went unheard until Ambassador Sullivan issued the "thinking thought" telegram, which formally discussed policy options if the Shah failed to extinguish spirit. After visiting the Shah in the autumn of 1978, Treasury Secretary W. Michael Blumenthal complained, Shah emotional collapse, reporting, "You've got a zombie out there." Brzezinski and Energy Secretary James Schlesinger insisted in their assurance that the Shah would receive military support. Sociologist Charles Kurzman argues that instead of a doubt, or sympathetic to the revolution, Carter administration was consistently supported the Shah and urged the Iranian military to stage "last resort coup d'etat" even after the regime cause is hopeless. Many Iranians believe the lack of intervention and the sympathetic speech about the revolution by high-level American officials indicate the U.S. "was responsible for Khomeini's victory." Another position asserts that the Shah's overthrow was the result of a "sinister plot to topple the king nationalist, progressive and independent-minded." Summer By the summer of 1978 the level of protest has been on a steady state for four months about ten thousand participants in each major city (with the exception of Isfahan where protests were larger and Tehran where they were smaller). This amounted to a "network of mosques," almost fully mobilized "pious Iranian Muslims, but a small number of more than 15 million adults in Iran. Bad for the momentum of the movement, on June 17, 1978 40-day mourning cycle of mobilization of protest - where demonstrators were killed every 40 days as they mourn dead earlier demonstrations - ended with a call for calm and stay at home strike by moderate religious leader Shariatmadari. In order to appease discontent the Shah made appeals to the moderate clergy, firing his head SAVAK and promising free elections coming June.

But by August protests had "kick ... in high gear," and the number of protesters grew to the hundreds of thousands. Two factors blamed. In order to reduce inflation the Shah's regime cut spending, but cutting the lead to a sharp rise in layoffs - particularly among young people, workers, unskilled men living in urban slums. By summer 1978, these workers, often from traditional rural backgrounds, joined the street protests in large numbers. Fire Cinema Rex in Abadan Another factor is the August 1978 Cinema Rex Fire in Abadan where over 400 people died. Cinema has been a regular target of Muslim protesters but it is distrust of the regime and the effectiveness of communication skills enemies who many believed SAVAK had burned in an effort to trap the opposition. The next day 10,000 relatives and sympathizers gathered for a mass funeral and march shouting, 'burn the Shah', and 'the Shah is the guilty one.' Black Friday and Beyond Anti-Shah demonstrators, marching near shopping street in Tehran, Dec. 27, 1978.A new prime minister, Jafar Sharif-Emami, was installed at the end of August and reversed some policies Shah. Casinos were closed, the imperial calendar abolished, activity by political parties legalized in - to no avail. By September, the country rapidly destabilizing, and major protests were becoming a regular occurrence. Shah introduced martial law, and banned all demonstrations but on September 8 thousands of protesters gathered in Tehran. Security force shot and killed dozens, in what became known as Black Friday. The clerical leadership declared that "thousands have been massacred by Zionist troops," but in retrospect it has been said that "the main victims" of filming is "any hope for compromise" between the protest movement and the regime Shah's. Army is actually ethnic Kurds who have been fired on by snipers, and post the same revolutionary Martyrs Foundation of people killed as a result of demonstrations throughout the city on that day found a total of 84 dead. However, the mean time, the appearance of government brutality alienated many of the people of Iran and the Shah's allies abroad. By late summer 1978 the movement to overthrow had become "viable in the minds of many Iranians," boosting support that much more. General strike in October resulted crippled economy, with vital industries closed, "attached to the Shah's fate". By autumn popular support for the revolution was so powerful that those who still opposed it became reluctant to speak out, According to one source "victory may be dated to mid-November 1978." Military government headed by General Gholam Reza Azhari replaced conciliatory prime minister Sharif Emami.

Ayatollah Khomeini in Neauphle-le Chateau surrounded by journalists in an attempt to weaken Ayatollah Khomeini's ability to communicate with his supporters, the Shah urged Iraq deport Khomeini. Iraqi government work and on October 3, Khomeini left Iraq Kuwait, but not allowed to enter. Three days later, he went to Paris and took up residence in the suburbs Neauphle-le-Chteau. Although far from Iran, telephone connections with the home country and access to the international media is far better than in Iraq. Muharram protests On December 2, the Islamic month of Muharram, over two million people filled the streets of Tehran Azadi Square (then Shahyad Square), to demand the removal of the Shah and return of Khomeini. Mass demonstrations in TehranA week later on December 10 and 11, "total 69000000" anti-shah demonstrators marched throughout Iran. According to one historian, "even a discount for exaggeration, these figures may represent the largest protest event in history." More than 10% of the country marched in anti-shah demonstrations on 10 and December 11, 1978. In late 1978 the Shah was the prime minister and find a job offer to a series of liberal oppositionists. While "several months earlier they would be considered the appointment a dream come true," they now "considered it futile". Finally, in the last days of 1978, Dr. Shapour Bakhtiar, a long-time opposition leader, accepted and immediately submit expelled from the opposition movement." Victory Revolution and the Fall of the Monarchy By mid-December the position of the Shah had declined to the point where he "wanted only allowed to live in Iran." He was rejected by the opposition. At the end of December, "he agreed to leave the country temporarily; still he was rejected." On January 16, 1979 the Shah and the empress left Iran. Scenes of spontaneous joy followed and "within hours almost every sign of the Pahlavi dynasty" was destroyed. Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK, freed political prisoners, ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations, promised free elections and invited Khomeinists and other revolutionaries into a government "of national unity". After stalling for a few days Bakhtiar allowed Ayatollah Khomeini to return to Iran, asking him to create a Vatican conditions as in Qom and called on the opposition to help preserve the constitution.

Khomeini's return and fall of monarchy Monarchy On February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran on 1 certified French air force Boeing 747. The public is welcome several million Iranians was so large he was forced into a helicopter after the car he was being transported from the airport was overwhelmed by the crowd enthusiastically welcomed. Khomeini was now not only a revolutionary leader, he has been the so-called "semi-divine" figure, greeted as he descended from the plane with cries of 'Khomeini, O Imam, we respect you, peace to you. " Voluntary, now known chant "Islam, Islam, Khomeini, We Will Follow You," and even "Khomeini for King." On the day of his arrival Khomeini made clear fierce rejection Bakhtiar regime in a speech promising 'I shall kick their teeth.' Iranian Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan was an advocate of democracy and civil rights. He also opposed the cultural revolution and U.S. embassy takeover.Khomeini appointed his own competing interim prime minister Mehdi Bazargan on February 4, 'with the support of the nation' and ordered Iran to comply with Bazargan as a religious duty. Through care 'Velayat' I have the 'sacred law giver' [Prophet], I hereby announce Bazargan as the Ruler, and since I have appointed him, he must be obeyed. The country must obey him. This is not a normal state. It is a government based on Islamic law. Opposing this government means opposing the Islamic Sharia ... Revolt against God's government is a revolt against God. Revolt against God is blasphemy. As Khomeini's movement gained momentum, soldiers began to defect to his side. On February 9 about 10 pm a fight occurred between loyal Immortal Guards and the proKhomeini rebel Homafaran elements of Iran Air Force, Khomeini declared jihad on loyal soldiers who did not surrender. Revolutionaries and rebel soldiers gained the hand and began to take over police stations and military installations, distributing arms to the public. Final collapse of the provisional non-Islamic government came at 2:00 February 11 when the Supreme Military Council declared itself "neutral in the current political disputes ... in order to prevent further disorder and bloodshed." Revolutionaries took over government buildings, TV and radio stations, and palaces of Pahlavi dynasty. This period, from February 1 to 11, is celebrated every year in Iran as the "Decade of Fajr." February 11 "Day of Victory of the Islamic Revolution.", 1 a national holiday with state sponsored demonstrations in every city. Casualties of the Iranian Revolution The number of protesters and revolutionaries killed during the Revolution between 3,000 to 60,000. Ayatollah Khomeini stated that "60,000 men, women and children were martyred by

the Shah's regime," but estimates compiled by a researcher 1 (Emad al-Din Baghi) at the Martyrs Foundation (Bonyad Shahid) come only 2.781 were killed in the 1978 and 1979 clashes between demonstrators and the Shah's army and security forces, which if true means that Iran suffered remarkably few injuries compared to contemporary events such as the South African anti-apartheid movement. Consolidation of power by Khomeini: Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution From early 1979 to either 1982 or 1983 Iran was in a "revolutionary crisis mode". Economic and state apparatus had collapsed, military and security forces are in disarray. However, by 1982 Khomeini and his supporters had crushed the rival groups, defeated local rebellions and consolidated power. The event made both crisis and resolution of the Iranian hostage crisis, the invasion of Iran by Saddam Hussein's Iraq, and the president expelled Banisadr. Conflicts among observers revolution. Some people believe "what began as a genuine revolutionary and anti-dictatorial popular broad-based coalition of all the forces of the anti-Shah soon was transformed into an Islamic fundamentalist power-grab," [136] that except for his core supporters , members of the coalition thought Khomeini intended to be a spiritual guide than a ruler, Khomeini was his mid-70s, having never held public office, from Iran for over a decade, and have to question things like "speaker religious princes do not want to rule. " Another view Khomeini had "promote ideological, political and organizational hegemony," and non-theocratic groups never seriously challenged Khomeini's movement in popular support. Regime supporters themselves have claimed that Iranians who opposed Khomeini were "fifth columnists" led by foreign countries attempting to overthrow the Iranian government. Khomeini and his loyalists in the revolutionary organizations implemented design Khomeini's velayat-e faqih for 1 Islamic Republic led by himself as Supreme Leader by exploiting temporarily allies, (such as the Provisional Government of Mehdi Bazargan, Iran), and eliminating from Iran's political stage both they and their enemies one by one. Revolutionary Organization of Iran Shah and his wife fled the country on January 16, 1979. The bodies of the most important revolution Revolutionary Council, Revolutionary Guards, Revolutionary Tribunal, the Islamic Republic Party, and Revolutionary Committees (komitehs). While moderate Bazargan and the government (temporarily) reassured the middle class, it became clear they had no power over the bodies "Khomeinist" revolutionary,

especially Revolutionary Council ("real power" in the revolutionary state), and then the Islamic Republican Party. Not inevitable, overlapping authorities Revolutionary Council (which had the power to pass laws) and Bazargan government is the source of conflict, despite the fact that both have been approved by and / or put in place by Khomeini. This conflict lasted only a few months anyway. The provisional government fell shortly after American Embassy officials were taken hostage on 4 November 1979. Bazargan resignation received by Khomeini without complaint, saying "Mr. Bazargan ... a little tired and preferred to stay outside for a while." Khomeini later described his appointment of Bazargan as a "mistake." Revolutionary Guard, or Pasdaran-e Enqelab, was established by Khomeini on May 5, 1979 as a counterweight both to the armed groups of the left, and the Shah's army. Controllers eventually evolved into "large-scale" military force, to be "strong institutional revolution." Serving under the Pasdaran / is Mostaz'afin Baseej-e, ("oppressed Mobilization") volunteers in everything from earthquake emergency management to attacking opposition demonstrators and newspaper offices. Later Islamic Republican Party fought to establish theocratic government by velayat-e faqih. Thousands komiteh or Revolutionary Committees served as the "eyes and ears" of the new regime, and are credited by critics with "many arbitrary arrests, executions and confiscations of property". Also enforce requirements Hezbollahi regime (Party of God), "strong-arm thugs" who attacked demonstrators and offices of newspapers critical of Khomeini. Two major political groups formed after the fall of the shah that clashed with, and were eventually suppressed by, pro-Khomeini was a moderate religious Muslim People's Republican Party (MPRP) which was associated with Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari, and the secular leftist National Democratic Front (NDF). Khuzestan uprising Kurdish revolt in 1979 and 1979 in Iran Following the events of the revolution, Marxist guerrillas and federalist parties revolted in some regions comprising Khuzistan, Kurdistan and Gonbad-e Qabus, resulting in a battle between them and the team members revolution. This rebellion started in April 1979 and the last between a few months to the year, depending on the region.

The establishment of the Islamic Republic Referendum 12 Farvardin. On March 30 and 31 (Farvardin 10, 11) a referendum was held on whether to replace the monarchy with an "Islamic Republic" - a term that is not defined on the ballot. Khomeini called for a massive turnout and only the National Democratic Front, Fadayan, and several Kurdish parties opposed the vote. It was announced that 98.2% had voted in favor. Writing Constitution In June 1979, the Freedom Movement issued a draft constitution of the Islamic Republic that it has been working since Khomeini was in exile. They include Guardian Council veto unIslamic legislation, but had no caretaker government of laws. Leftist people found the draft too conservative and in need of major changes but Khomeini declared it `correct. To approve a new constitution and prevent leftist alterations, a relatively small 73 member House of Experts for Constitution was elected that summer. Critics complained that "vote fraud, violence against candidates and unwanted dissemination of false information" was used to produce an extreme rally dominated by clergy loyal to Khomeini. " Khomeini now rejected the constitution - notwithstanding accuracy - "100% on Islam" and Khomeini declared that the new government should be based on: In addition to the president, the new constitution included a more powerful post of guardian jurist ruler intended for Khomeini, with control of the military and security services, and power to appoint several top government and judicial officials. It increases the power and number of clerics on the Council of Guardians and gave it control over elections as well as laws passed by the legislature. The new constitution also reported extreme approved by referendum, but with more opposition and smaller work clothes. Hostage Crisis Helping to pass the constitution, suppress medium and otherwise radical revolution is holding 52 American diplomats hostage for over a year. In late October 1979, the Shah was exiled and dying has put the United States for cancer treatment. In Iran there was an immediate outcry and both Khomeini and leftist groups demanding the return of the Shah of Iran for trial and execution. On November 4, 1979 youthful Islamists, calling themselves Muslim Student Followers of Imam Line, invaded the embassy compound and seized its staff. Revolutionaries were reminded of how 26 years before the Shah had fled abroad while the Embassy-based American CIA and British intelligence organized a coup d'etat to overthrow the nationalist opponents.

Holding companies hostage is very popular and continued for months even after the death of Shah. As Khomeini explained to Banisadr President in the future, This action has many benefits. This has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people's vote without difficulty. With great publicity the students produce documents from the American embassy or "nest of spies," showing moderate Iranian leaders had met with U.S. officials (similar evidence of high ranking Muslim who has done so as not to see the light of day). Among the victims of the hostage crisis was Prime Minister Bazargan and government who resigned in November unable to enforce the government's order to release the hostages. Prestige of Khomeini and the hostage taking was further enhanced with the failure of the hostage rescue attempt, many credited to divine intervention. It ended with the signing of the Algiers Agreement in Algeria on January 19, 1981. Hostages were formally released into United States custody the following day, just minutes after the new American president Ronald Reagan was sworn. Hostages held at the U.S. embassy in Tehran for 444 days. Repression of Opposition In early March, Khomeini announced, "do not use this term, 'democratic.' That is the Western style, "giving pro-democracy liberals (and later leftists) a taste of disappointments to come. Consecutive National Democratic Front was banned in August 1979, while the government was disempowered in November, the Republican Party of Muslims banned in January 1980, the People's Mujahedin of Iran guerillas came under attack in February 1980, the first university purge has begun in March 1980, and leftist Islamist challenged Banisadr expelled in June 1981. After the revolution human rights groups estimate the number of casualties suffered by protesters and prisoners of the new regime a few thousand. The first implemented is a member of the old regime - senior generals, followed by over 200 senior civil Shah, as punishment and to eliminate the danger of coup d'etat. A short test of the defense lawyers, judges, transparency or opportunity for the accused to defend themselves, were held by revolutionary judges such as Sadegh Khalkhali, Sharia judge. By January 1980 "at least 582 people have been executed." Among those executed was Amir Abbas Hoveida, former Prime Minister of Iran. Between January 1980 and June 1981, when Bani-Sadr was impeached, at least 900 executions occur, for everything from drug and sexual offenses' corruption on earth, `from

plotting counter-revolution and spying for Israel to membership in opposition group. In the 12 months after that Amnesty International documented the death penalty in 2946, with several thousand more killed in the next two years according to the anti-regime Mujahedin guerrilla Iranians. Press Coverage In mid-August, shortly after the election of the constitution-writing assembly, several dozen newspapers and magazines opposing Khomeini's idea of theocratic rule by jurists were shut down. When protests were organized by the National Democratic Front (NDF), Khomeini angrily denounced them saying, "we thought we were dealing with human beings. It proved we were not." After the revolution every few thousand corrupt elements executed in public and burnt, and the story ends. They are not allowed to publish newspapers. 119 Hundreds were injured by "rocks, clubs, chains and iron bars" when Hezbollahi attack protesters, and not long after, a warrant was issued for the arrest NDF leaders. Islamic People's Republican Party Kazem Shariatmadari In December the moderate Islamic Muslim People's Republican Party (MPRP), and spiritual leader Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari had become a rallying point for Iranian one who wanted democracy not theocracy. Riots broke out in Shariatmadari Azeri home region with members of the MPRP and Shariatmadari followers seized Tabriz television station, and use the "broadcast demands and grievances." The regime reacted quickly, sending Revolutionary Guards to retake the TV station, mediators to defuse complaints and activists to stage a massive pro-Khomeini counter-demonstration. The party was suppressed and in 1982 Shari'atmadari "demoted" from the rank of Grand Ayatollah and his many followers clerical removed. Left Islam Banisadr expelled in January 1980 was elected president of Iran. Though an adviser to Khomeini, he is a leftist who clashed with another ally of Khomeini, theocratic Islamic Republic Party (IRP) - the power control in the new parliament Banisadr in 1958. At the same time, erstwhile revolutionary allies of Khomeini - the modernist Muslim Mujahedin of Iran guerillas (or Mek) - is being suppressed by Khomeini's revolutionary organizations. Khomeini attacked Mek as monafeqin (hypocrites) and kafer (unbelievers) Hezbollahi people
119

Moin, Baqer (2000). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. Thomas Dunne Books. P 219.

attacked meeting places, bookstores, newsstands leftist Mujahideen and other driving them underground. Universities were closed to purge their opponents of theocratic rule as a part of "Cultural Revolution", and 20,000 teachers and nearly 8,000 military officers deemed too Western have been rejected. By mid-1981 matters came to a head. An attempt by Khomeini to forge a reconciliation between Banisadr and IRP leaders had failed and now it is Banisadr which are a rallying point "for all in doubt and opposition" theocracy, including Mek. When the leaders of the National Front called for a demonstration in June 1981 in favor of Banisadr, Khomeini, leader threatens death penalty for apostasy "if they did not repent." Iran Freedom Movement leaders have been forced to make and publish an open apology to support Barisan appeal. Those attending the rally were menaced by Hezbollahi and Revolutionary Guards and intimidated into silence. Mek respond with a campaign of violence against the IRP. At June 28, 1981, 1 IRP office bombing that killed around 70 high-ranking officials, cabinet members and members of parliament, including Mohammad Beheshti, the secretary-general of the party and head of the judicial system in the Islamic Republic. The regime responded with thousands of arrests and hundreds of executions. In spite of these and other murders hoped for a massive rebellion and armed struggle against Khomeiniists been destroyed. Mek bombing not only violent opposition Khomeinist regime. In May 1979, the Furqan Group (Thunder-i Furqan) assassinated an important lieutenant of Khomeini, Morteza Motahhari. 120 Impression History of the Islamic Republic of Iran Differing views on the impact of the revolution. For some, it is "the most important event, hope, and deep in the whole history of contemporary Islam," while other Iranians believe that the revolution was a time when "for a few years, we all lost our minds", and that "promises to us heaven, but ... created a hell on earth. " International Initial impact is huge revolution. In the non-Muslim world, it changed the image of Islam, generating much interest in Islam - both sympathetic and hostile and even speculation that

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the revolution might change "the world balance of power more than any political event since Hitler's conquest of Europe." The Islamic Republic positioned itself as a revolutionary beacon under the slogan "not East and West" (ie non-Soviet or American / West European models), and called for the overthrow of capitalism, American influence, and social injustice in the Middle East and the rest of the world. The leader of the revolution in Iran give and get support from non-Muslim causes in the Third World - eg Sandinistas in Nicaragua, IRA in Ireland and anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa. even point in favor of non-Muslim revolutionaries over Islamic causes such as the neighboring Afghan Mujahideen. Persian Gulf and the Iran-Iraq War In the region, Iranian Islamic revolutionaries called specifically for the overthrow of the monarchy and their replacement with Islamic republics, many small alarm fled Sunni Arab neighbors Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Persian Gulf States - most of them are monarchies and all of they have quite a large Shiite population. It is one of these regimes that the Iran-Iraq War, which killed hundreds of thousands and dominated life in the Islamic Republic for the next eight years, has occurred. Although Iraq invaded Iran, most of the wars that took place after Iran have returned most of the land back and after the Iraqi regime had offered a truce. Khomeini rejected, announcing the only condition for peace was that "the regime in Baghdad must fall and must be replaced by the Islamic Republic," but ultimately the war ended with no Islamic revolution in Iraq. In September 1980, the Arab Nationalist and Sunni Muslim-dominated regime of Saddam Hussein, Iraq's neighbors to attack Iran in order to take advantage of revolutionary chaos and destroy the revolution in its infancy. Iran was "galvanized" and Iranians rallied behind their new government helping to stop and then reversing the Iraqi advance. By early 1982 Iran back almost all the territory lost to the invasion. As the hostage crisis, the war served in part as an opportunity for the regime to strengthen revolutionary spirit and revolutionary groups. [210] such as the Revolutionary Guard and committees at the expense of the remaining allies-turned-opponents. Although most costly and destructive, the war "rejuvenate [d] the drive for national unity and Islamic revolution" and "prevent debate and dispute grunt" in Iran.

Relationship with the West / US-Iran In other countries in the Middle East and the Islamic world, especially in the early years, it sparked a passion and doubled opposition to western intervention and influence. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia (1979), Egypt (1981), Syria (1982), and Lebanon (1983). Although ultimately only the Lebanese Muslims succeeded, other activities have a longer term effect. Ayatollah Khomeini's 1989 fatwa calling for the murder of Indian-born British citizen Salman Rushdie had international impact. Islamic revolutionary government itself is credited with helping establish Hezbollah in Lebanon and the Supreme Council of Islamic Revolution in Iraq. On the other hand, at least one observer thinks that despite great effort and expense the only countries outside Iran the revolution had a "measure of lasting influence" in Lebanon and Iraq. Others claimed destroy the Iran-Iraq War "mortally wounded ... the ideal spread Islamic revolution," or the pursuit of ideology rather than a "nationalist, pragmatic" foreign policy has weakened the Islamic Republic "place as a great regional power" of Iran. Iran National Indoor Expand the revolution has brought education and health care for the poor, and particularly governmental promotion of Islam, and eliminate secularism and American influence in government. Little change has occurred in terms of political freedom, governmental honesty and efficiency, economic equality and self-sufficiency, or even popular religious devotion. Opinion election and observers reported dissatisfaction extensive, including "fracture" between the revolutionary generation of young Iranians who find "impossible to understand what their parents are so passionate about."

Literacy Development Humans have continued to increase under the Islamic Republic which uses Islamic principles, By 2002 illiteracy rates dropped by more than half. Maternal and infant mortality rate has also significantly cut the population growth has been encouraged, but not discouraged after 1988. Overall, Iran's Human development Index rating has increased significantly from 0.569 in 1980 to 0.732 in 2002, on par with neighbor Turkey. Government and Politics of Iran Iran has chosen governmental bodies at the national, provincial and local. Although these bodies are lower than theocracy - which has veto power over who can run for parliament (or

Islamic Consultative Assembly) and whether the bill can become law - they have more power than equivalent organs in Shah's government. Iran's Sunni minority (about 8%) has seen some unrest. Despite Iran's non-Muslim minorities that small does not have the same rights, five of the 290 parliamentary seats allocated to their communities. Definitely not protected have been members of the Baha'i Faith, which was declared a heretic and subversive. More than 200 Baha'is have been executed or killed, and many more were imprisoned, lost their jobs, pensions, businesses, and educational opportunities. Baha'i holy places have been confiscated, damaged or destroyed. More recently, Bah's in Iran have been deprived of education and work. Several thousand young Bahai members between the ages of 17 and 24 were expelled from universities for no particular reason. Whether the Islamic Republic has brought more or less severe political repression disputed. Grumbling once done about the tyranny and corruption of the Shah and the court is now directed against "the mullahs." SAVAK has been replaced by the Revolutionary Guards, and other religious revolutionary enforcers. Violations of human rights by the theocratic regime is said by some people to even worse than during the monarchy, and in any case very grave. Reports of torture, imprisonment of dissidents, and the murder of prominent critics have been made by human rights groups. Refinery operated by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, without official permission, "no books or magazines published, no cassettes are distributed, no movies are shown and no cultural organization is established. All forms of popular music that bans men and women are not allowed to dance or swim with one another." Women's Rights in Iran Women, especially those from traditional backgrounds - participated on a large scale in demonstrations leading up to the revolution. Since the revolution university enrollment and the number of women in public service and higher education has risen (to the alarm. Several regime authorities), and some women have been elected to the Iranian parliament. However, the ideology of the revolution against equal rights for women. In 1967 the founder of the Islamic Republic, Family Protection Law was repealed, female government workers began to observe the Islamic dress code, women were barred from becoming judges, beaches and sports sex-segregated, the marriage age for girls was reduced to 13 and married women were barred from attending regular schools. Women who began immediately to protest and have won some reversals of policies in the years since. Inequality of women in inheritance and other areas of the civil code remain. Segregation of sexes, from "classroom to ski slopes to public buses", is strictly enforced. Girl caught by

revolutionary officials in a mixed-sex situation can be subject to virginity tests. All forms of physical contact in public is illegal, in imprisonments, or death consequences. Women can also be fined, beaten, or even death if they are found to have engaged in sexual intercourse before marriage, or recreational sex during marriage, except for the sole purpose of producing and reproducing children. Iran's economy Iran's economy has not grown rapidly since the revolution. Dependence on petroleum exports is still strong. Per capita income fluctuates with the price of oil. Reported falling at a point 1/4 of what it was before the revolution and has not yet reached pre-revolution levels. Unemployment among Iran's youth has steadily increased, with economic sanctions and internal corruption to blame. Gharbzadegi ("westoxification") or western cultural stubbornly remains, brought by music recordings, videos, satellite dishes, fast food, and bacon products. One postrevolutionary opinion poll found 61% of students in Tehran chose "Western artists" as their role models with only 17% choosing "Iran's officials." 121 Conclusion Despite economic growth, the opposition against the Shah Mohammad Reza, and how he used the secret police, SAVAK, to control the country. Strong opposition to the Shah's Shi'a, and nations come close to a civil war situation. The opposition was led by the Ayatollah Khomeini, who lives in exile in Iraq and later in France. His message was distributed through music cassettes, which were smuggled into Iran in small numbers, and then copied, and spread throughout the country. This is the beginning of the Iranian revolution. On 16 January 1979, the Shah left Iran. Shapour Bakhtiar as the new prime minister with the help of the Supreme Military Council can not control the situation in the country again. Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran on February 1. Ten days later Bakhtiar went into hiding, eventually to find exile in Paris. Shah began the process of supporters, and hundreds were executed. On April 1, after a landslide victory in the national referendum in which only one option is offered (Islamic Republic: Yes or No), Ayatollah Khomeini declared an Islamic republic with a new constitution that reflects the ideals of Islamic government. Ayatollah Khomeini became supreme spiritual leader (Valy-e-Faqih) Iran. Then many demonstrations were held to protest the new regulations, such as excessive regulations on
121

Political Inclinations of the Youth and Students, Asr-e Ma, n.13. April 19, 1995 in Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini (2001), pp. 18990.

women's dress code. On November 4: Iranian Muslim Students stormed the U.S. embassy, taking 66 people, the majority of Americans, as hostages. 14 were released before the end of November. In November: the republic's first prime minister Mehdi Bazargan resigned. In 1980 expelled Beni Sadr was elected to president. On September 22: Iraq's massive attack on Iran, with the belief that Iran's military is too weak to fight back. Iraq claimed the territory inhabited by Arabs (Southwestern Iran's oil-producing region called Khouzestan), and the rights of Iraq over the Shatt el-Arab (Arvandroud). Some battles have been won in favor of Iraq, but Iran's military that supposedly weak defense startling success. In 1981, on January 20, hostage in the U.S. Embassy has been released, after long negotiations, in which the United States admit to transfer money, as well as the export of military equipment to Iran. In June, Beni Sadr was removed from power by the Ayatollah Khomeini, and fleed to France in July. Former Prime Minister Mohammad Ali Rajai elected president. On 30 August, President Rajai and Prime Minister were killed in the bombing. In October, Hojatoleslam Seyed Ali Khamenei was elected president. Press Hashemi Rafsanjani. Khamenei was one of the founders of the Islamic Republican Party, which dominated the Council (the state legislature) after the 1979 revolution. He was appointed to the Council of the Islamic Revolution in 1979, and between 1979 and 1981, he was a member of the Council, served as deputy defense minister, commander of Revolutionary Guards, and representation on the Supreme Council of Defence. He also served several times as secretary-general of the Islamic Republican Party. By the summer of 1982, early gains Iraqi territory was recaptured by the Iranian military that hard to Revolutionary Guards. Iraqi forces were driven out of Iran. War assigned to shoot a boat in the Persian Gulf, in an attempt to affect the other country's oil exports. As required by the constitution, he resigned the presidency in 1989. On August 20, 1988, the armistice was signed between Iran and Iraq. Both sides accepted UN Resolution 598. Following the death on June 3, 1989 of a heart attack Ayatollah Khomeini, Khamenei took over the role of the great spiritual leaders. Assembly of Experts (Ulama) met in emergency session on June 4 and was elected President Khamenei the new Valy-e-Faqih (supreme spiritual leader), at the same time to encourage his clergy status. And Hojatoleslam Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, speaker Majles (parliament) was elected president. He graduated in 1950 as Hojatoleslam, Shiite clerical rank just below the scholar. Opposed, like his mentor, the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, Rafsanjani became the chief agent of the exiled Khomeini in Iran, has been arrested several times, and spent three years in prison (1975-1977) for activity.

Bibliography Benard, Cheryl and Khalilzad, Zalmay (1984). "The Government of God" Iran's Islamic Republic. Columbia University Press. P 18. Moin, Baqer (2000). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. Thomas Dunne Books. P 219. Political Inclinations of the Youth and Students, Asr-e Ma, n.13. April 19, 1995 in Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini (2001), pp. 18990. Taheri, Amir (1985). The Spirit of Allah. Tehran: Adler & Adler. The political thought of Ayatullah Murtaza Mutahhari By Mahmood T. Davari. Retrieved 2012 May 25 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution.

Chapter 9 Iraq - Iran war, 1980-1988

Introduction Iran-Iraq War (also known as the First Persian Gulf War and by various other names) was an armed conflict between the armed forces of Iraq and Iran, which lasted from September 1980 to August 1988, making the longest conventional war of the 20th century. Initially referred to in English as the "Persian Gulf War" before the "Gulf War" of 1990. The war began when Iraq invaded Iran, launching one simultaneous attack by air and land into Iranian territory on 22 September 1980 following a long history of border disputes 1, and Shi'ite Muslim rebellion concern among the majority of Iraq's Shiite-length block is influenced by the Iranian Revolution. Iraq also meant to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Although Iraq hoped to take advantage of the revolutionary chaos in Iran and attacked without formal warning, they are only limited progress into Iran and quickly repelled by the Iranians who back almost all the territory lost in June 1982. For the next six years, Iran is an attack. Despite calls for a ceasefire by the Security Council of the United Nations, the war continues to occur until August 20, 1988. The war ended with a ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in the Security Council of the United Nations (UN) Resolution 598 which was accepted by both sides. It took several weeks for the Iranian armed forces to evacuate Iraqi territory to honor pre-war international borders between the two countries (see the 1975 Treaty of Algeria). The last prisoners of war were exchanged in 2003. War came at a great cost in lives and economic damage-half a million Iraqi and Iranian soldiers as well as civilians are believed to have died in the war with many more injured, but it carries no compensation or change in boundaries. The conflict is often compared to World War I, that the tactics used closely resemble those that conflict, including large scale trench warfare, machine guns operated posts, bayonet charges, use of barbed wire across trenches, human wave attacks across the land, not No man, and extensive use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas by the Iraqi government against Iranian troops and civilians as well as Iraqi Kurds. At that time, the Security Council of the United Nations issued a statement that "chemical weapons were used in war." However, the UN statement was never made clear that it was only Iraq that was using chemical weapons, so it has been said that "the international community remained silent as Iraq's weapons of mass destruction against Iraq and Iraqi Kurds." 122

Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) Iran-Iraq War permanently changed the course of Iraqi history. It strained Iraqi political and social life, and lead to severe economic dislocations. Viewed from a historical perspective,
122

Brogan, P. (1989). World Conflicts Why and Where They Are Happening, Bloomsbury: London.

the outbreak of hostilities in 1980, in part, just another phase of the ancient Persian-Arab conflict that has driven the border disputes of the 20th century. However, many observers believe that Saddam Hussein's decision to attack Iran is personal miscalculation based on ambition and a sense of vulnerability. Saddam Hussein, despite significant progress in developing Iraqi countries, fearing that the new leadership of the Iranian revolution would threaten Iraq SunniShia balance and would exploit Iraq's geostrategic vulnerabilities - Iraq's minimal access to the Persian Gulf, for example. In this case, Saddam Hussein's decision to attack Iran have previous history; ancient kings of Mesopotamia, fearing internal divisions and foreign conquest, also engaged in frequent battles with people in the highlands. Iran-Iraq war are diverse and include religious schism, border disputes, and political differences. Conflict contributed to the outbreak of hostilities between centuries-old Sunniversus-Shiite and Arab dispute-versus-Persian religious and ethnic, to personal animosity between Saddam Hussein and the Ayatollah Khomeini. Above all, Iraq launched a war in order to strengthen the growing power in the Arab world and to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Phebe Marr, an analyst who observed the affairs of Iraq, stated that "the war is over immediately as a result of poor judgment and political miscalculation on the part of Saddam Hussein," and "the decision to invade, taken at the time of Iran's weakness, is Saddam ". Iraq claimed the territory inhabited by Arabs (Southwestern Iran oil producing region called Khouzestan), and the rights of Iraq over the Shatt el-Arab (Arvandroud). Iraq and Iran have engaged in fighting border for years and was revived dormant waterway Shatt al Arab dispute in 1979. Iraq claims to channel 200 yards to shore up Iran as a territory, while Iran insisted that the thalweg - a line of water running down the street last negotiated in 1975, is the official border. The Iraqis, especially the Baath leadership, considers the agreement in 1975 as only an armistice, not a final solution. The Iraqis have also considered the Iranian revolution Islamic agenda as threatening their pan-Arabism. Khomeini, more bitter eliminated from Iraq in 1977 after 15 years in Najaf, vowed to avenge Shia victims of Baathist repression. Baghdad became more confident, however, as they look once invincible Imperial Iranian Army disintegrate, because most of the top officials were sentenced to death. In Khuzestan (Arabistan to the Iraqis), Iraqi intelligence officers incited riots over a labor dispute, and the Kurdish region, a new rebellion cause severe disturbances Khomeini government. For example Baathists plan their military campaigns, they have every reason to feel confident. Not only is there a lack of leadership cubic Iran, but the Iranian armed forces, according to intelligence estimates of Iraq, also lack of spare parts for their equipment made in America. Baghdad, on the other hand, possessed equipped and trained forces. Have high moral conduct. Against Iranian forces, including the Pasdaran (Revolutionary Guards) troops, led by religious mullahs who had little or no military, the Iraqi people can gather twelve complete mechanized division, equipped with the latest Soviet equipment. With the buildup of Iraqi forces by the end of the 1970s, Saddam Hussein has amassed 190,000 man army, coupled with 2200 tanks and 450 aircraft.

In addition, the area across the Shatt al Arab pose any major obstacles, especially for the military, equipped with Soviet river-crossings. Iraqi commanders correctly assumed that crossing sites Khardeh and Karun rivers were lightly armored mechanized division defended against them, moreover, the Iraqi intelligence sources report that the Iranian military in Khuzestan, which formerly included two parts which are distributed among Ahvaz, Dezful, and Abadan, now consists of only a few ill-equipped battalion-sized formations. Tehran further disadvantaged because the area was controlled by 1 Regional Corps headquarters in Bakhtaran (formerly Kermanshah), whereas control operations were directed from the capital. In the years after the overthrow of the shah, only a few units were operative company-sized tanks, and other armored equipment has been poorly maintained. For planners Iraq, uncertainty only air force capabilities against Iran, which is equipped with some of the most sophisticated aircraft made in America. Although the implementation of the air force commander and pilot, importantly, Iranian air force has demonstrated its strength during local riots and demonstrations. Air forces are also active in the failed attempt to rescue American hostages at the U.S. in April 1980 United. This show of force was impressed Iraqi decision makers to the extent that they decided to launch a massive air assault prior to the Iranian air bases in joint ventures with the state of Israel to work in June 1967 Arab-Israeli War.

Iraq offense, 1980-1982 Despite concerns of the Iraqi government, the eruption of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 did not immediately destroy the Iraqi-Iranian rapprochement that has been around since 1975 Algiers Agreement. As a sign of Iraq's desire to maintain good relations with the new government in Tehran, President Bakr sent a personal message to Khomeini offering "greetings of the people after the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran." In addition, by the end of August 1979, the Iraqi authorities extended an invitation to Mehdi Bazargan, the first president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, to visit Iraq with the aim of improving bilateral relations. Fall moderate Bazargan government in late 1979, however, and the rise of militant Islam teaches expansionist foreign policy bitter Iraq-Iran relations. Major events affecting the rapid deterioration in relations occurred during the spring of 1980. In April, Iran supported ad missionary trying to kill Iraqi foreign minister Tariq Aziz. Shortly after the failed grenade attack on Tariq Aziz, The missionary was suspected of attempting to kill a leader of Iraq, the Ministry of Culture and Information Latif Jasim Nayyif. In response, the Iraqis immediately rounded the members and supporters of The missionary and sent home to thousands of Shiite Iran comes from Iran. In the summer of 1980, Saddam Hussein ordered the death penalty is considered Advertise missionary leader Ayatollah Sayyid Muhammad Baqr as Sadr and his sister. In September 1980, the border clashes erupted in the center near Qasr-e Shirin, the exchange of artillery fire by both sides. A few weeks later, Saddam Hussein officially cancel the agreement in 1975 between Iraq and Iran and announced that the Shatt al Arab was returning to Iraqi sovereignty. Iran rejects this action and the increasing hostility as the two

sides exchanged bombing raids into the territory of each other, starting what became a protracted war, and very expensive. Baghdad originally planned a quick victory on Tehran. Saddam expected invasion in Arabic, this oil-rich Khuzistan Arab revolt against Khomeini's Islamic fundamentalist regime. This revolt did not materialize, however, and the Arab minority remained loyal to Tehran. On September 22, 1980, the formation of the Iraqi MiG-23s and MiG21s attack Iran at Mehrabad air base and Doshen-Tappen (both near Tehran), and Tabriz, Bakhtaran, Ahvaz, Dezful, Urmia (sometimes named as Urumiyeh), Hamadan, Sanandaj, and Abadan. Their aim is to destroy the Iranian air force on the ground - the lessons learned from the ArabIsraeli War of June 1967. They managed to destroy runways and fuel depots and ammunition, but many Iranian aircraft inventory is maintained. Iran's defense was caught by surprise, but the attack failed because the jet Iran Iraq were protected in a special hangar strengthened and as a bomb designed to destroy runways not totally incapacitate Iran's huge airport. In a few hours, Iranian F-4 Phantom took off from the same base, managed to strike targets of strategic importance close to the major cities of Iraq, and came back with very little loss. At the same time, six Iraqi soldiers entered the Iranian part of the three angles in a surprise attack was initially successful, where they drove as far as eight kilometers inland and occupied 1,000 square kilometers of Iranian territory. As a diversionary move in front of the north, the mountains of Iraq mechanized infantry overwhelmed the border garrison at Qasr-e Shirin, a border town in Bakhtaran (formerly known as Kermanshhan) Province, and occupied territory 30 kilometers east of the Zagros mountains basis. This area is strategically important because major highways impassable Baghdad-Tehran. At the center, Iraqi forces captured Mehran, in the Zagros Mountains of western plains Ilam Province, and pushed eastward to the mountain base. Mehran occupy an important position in the north-south main street, close to the Iranian border. The main thrust of the attack was in the south, where the five parts of Khuzestan armor and mechanized attack on two axes, one crossing over the Shatt al Arab near Basra, which led to the siege and eventual occupation of Khorramshahr, and the second title for Susangerd, which has Ahvaz, basic army major in Khuzestan, as objectives. Iraqi armored units easily crossed the Shatt al Arab waterway and entered the Khuzestan province of Iran. Dehloran and several other cities have been targeted and rapidly occupied to prevent reinforcements from Bakhtaran and Tehran. By mid-October, a full division advanced through Khuzestan toward Khorramshahr and Abadan and the strategic oil fields nearby. Other parts toward Ahvaz, the provincial capital and the site of the air base. Supported by heavy artillery fire, the army made rapid and significant advance - almost 80 yards in the first few days. In the battle for Dezful in Khuzestan, where the main air base is located, the local Iranian military commanders requested air support to avoid defeat. Therefore, President Bani Sadr was released from prison authorized many pilots, some of them were suspected of still loyal to the shah. With the increased use of air forces of Iran, Iraq progress quite limited.

The main advantage of the last Iraqi region occurred in early November 1980. On 3 November, the Iraqi forces reached Abadan but were repulsed by a Pasdaran units. Although they are surrounded on three sides Abadan and occupy part of the city, the Iraqi people are not able to overcome stiff resistance; parts of the city still under the control of Iran has resupplied by boat at night. On 10 November, Iraq captured Khorramshahr after a bloody fight from house to house. This victory is a high price for both sides, about 6,000 victims in Iraq and even more so for Iran. Iraqi attacks on Iranian troops disorganized and demoralized led many observers to think that Baghdad would win the war in a few weeks. Indeed, Iraqi forces have captured the Shatt al Arab and not seize strip 48 kilometers across the territory of Iran. Iran may have prevented Iraq victory quickly by a rapid mobilization of volunteers and loyal Pasdaran power consumption further. Besides registering drivers Iran, the new revolutionary regime also recalled the old imperial military veterans, although many experienced officers, most of whom were trained in the United States, have been excluded. Furthermore, the Pasdaran and Basij (so-called by Khomeini's "Army of Twenty Million" or People's Militia) took at least 100,000 volunteers. About 200,000 soldiers were sent to the front by the end of November 1980. They are ideologically committed troops (some members even carried their own shrouds forward in anticipation of martyrdom) that fought bravely despite inadequate armor support. For example, on November 7 commando unit plays an important role in sea and air, in attacks on Iraq's oil export terminals at Mina al Bakr and Al Faw. Iran hopes to reduce Iraq's financial resources by reducing oil production. Iran also attacked the northern channel in the early days of the war and persuade Syria to close the Iraqi pipeline that crosses its territory. Iranian opposition at the start of the Iraq invasion was unexpected strong, but it is not good and not equally successful in all areas. Iraq easily advanced in the north and center of the Pasdaran and crush resistance scattered. Iraqi troops, however, faced resistance tireless in Khuzestan. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein may think that the Arabs are about 3 million Khuzestan would join Iraq against Tehran. Instead, many associated with the Iranian armed forces organized and not organized and fighting in the war in Dezful, Khorramshahr, Abadan. Soon after capturing Khorramshahr, the Iraqi army lost their initiative and started digging along those lines first. Tehran rejects a settlement offer and held the line against the superior military power of Iraq. It refused to accept defeat, and slowly start counteroffensives series in January 1981. Both volunteer and regular armed forces eager to fight, the latter saw an opportunity to regain lost prestige because of their association with the shah regime. Iran's first major response fails, however, for reasons of political and military. President Bani Sadr was involved in a power struggle with major religious figures and politicians eager to gain support among the armed forces of direct involvement in military operations. Lack of military expertise, he started his premature attack by three armored regiments fixed without the help of the Pasdaran. He also failed to take into account that the land near Susangerd, muddied by the previous rainy season, will make it difficult resupply. Due to tactical decisions, Iranian forces have surrounded on three sides. In a long exchange of fire, many

Iranian armored vehicles were destroyed or had to be abandoned because they are either stuck in the mud or need minor repairs. Fortunately for Iran, however, Iraqi forces failed to follow up with another attack. Iraqi military to stop Iran Karun River and the limited military stocks, launched human wave "attacks, which used thousands of Basij (Popular Mobilization Army or People's Army) volunteers. After Bani Sadr was removed as president and chief commander of Iran acquiring 1 The primary victory, when, as a result of Khomeini's initiative, the army and the Pasdaran suppressed their rivalry and work together to force Baghdad to lift the long siege of Abadan in September 1981. Iranian team beat Iraq in the Qasr-e Shirin in December 1981 and January 1982. Iraqi armed forces were affected by their refusal to maintain a high casualty rate and is therefore reluctant to start a new attack

Despite the success of Iraq caused significant damage to Iran's missile vulnerable and fuel dumps in the early days of the war, the Iranian air force existed at the beginning of the air war. One reason is that the Iranian plane can carry two or three times as many bombs or rockets from their Iraqi counterparts. Furthermore, Iranian pilots show considerable expertise. For example, Iran's air force attacked Baghdad and major Iraqi air base as early as the first weeks of the war, who are trying to destroy the system of supply and support. Attack on Iraqi oil field complex and air base at Al Walid, base of the T-22 and Il-28 bombers, was a coordinated attack. Target is more than 800 kilometers from the Iranian air bases near the Urumiyeh, so 4s F had to refuel in midair for a mission. Iranian air force depending on F-4s and F-5s to attack and some F-14s as a scout. Although Iran was using Maverick missiles effectively against ground targets, lack of spare airplane forcing Iran to replace helicopters for close air support. Helicopter that served not only as gunships and soldiers but also as a carrier transport emergency supplies. In the mountainous area near Mehran, helicopters proved advantageous in finding and destroying targets and maneuvering against antiaircraft guns or man portable missile. Operations during Operation Karbala Karbala Five and Six, Iran reportedly involved in a massive operation carried by helicopter in the south and center, respectively. Chinooks and smaller Bell helicopters, such as the Bell 214A, accompanied by a Marine Cobra choppers. In confronting the Iraqi air defenses, Iran will realize that the low-flying two, three or four next F-4s could hit targets almost anywhere in Iraq. Iranian pilots overcome Iraqi SA-2 and SA-3 antiaircraft missiles, using U.S. tactics developed in Vietnam, they were less successful against Iraqi SA-6s. Western-made air defense system Iran seems to be more effective than its counterpart from Iraqi Soviet-made. However, Iran experienced difficulty in handling and maintaining Hawk, Rapier, and Tigercat missiles and instead use antiaircraft guns and missile-man portable.

Withdrawal of Iraq, 1982-1984 Iranian high command passed from regular military leaders to clergy in mid-1982. In March 1982, Tehran launched Operation undeniable victory, which marked a major turning point, as Iran penetrated "impenetrable" lines of Iraq, Iraqi forces split, and to force Iraq to withdraw. Iraqi forces near Susangerd line break, separating Iraqi units in northern and southern Khuzestan. Within a week, they managed to destroy most of the three parts of Iraq. This operation, a combined military efforts, Pasdaran, and Basij, was a turning point in the war because the strategic initiative transferred from Iraq to Iran. In May 1982, Iranian units finally back Khorramshahr, but with high casualties. After this victory, Iran maintains pressure on the balance of forces of Iraq, President Saddam Hussein announced that Iraqi units would withdraw from Iranian territory. Saddam ordered the production of the international border, believing that Iran will agree to end the war. Iran does not accept this as the final production of the conflict, and to continue the war in Iraq. In late June 1982, Baghdad has expressed a willingness to negotiate a settlement of the war and to withdraw its troops from Iran. Iran refused. In July 1982, Iran launched Operation Ramadan on Iraqi territory, near Basra. Although Basra was within Iranian artillery, the clergy used "human-wave" attacks by the Pasdaran and Basij against the defense of the city, seem to wait coup to topple Saddam Hussein. Tehran uses Pasdaran forces and Basij volunteers in one of the largest land battle since 1945. Between the age of just nine to more than fifty, these soldiers are quite enthusiastic but untrained hit minefields and fortifications to clear safe passage for tanks. All the attacks faced by the Iraqi artillery fire and received heavy toll. Iran maintains immmense number of victims, but they allow Iran to recover some territory before the Iraqis can fend off most of the attacking forces. By the end of 1982, Iraq has been resupplied with new Soviet materiel, and ground war entered a new phase. Iraq used newly acquired T-55 tanks T-62 tanks, BM-21 Stalin Organ rocket launcher, and the Mi-24 helicopter gunships to provide three types of Soviet defense line, filled with obstacles, minefields, and a strong defensive position. Combat Engineer Corps proved to be effective in building bridges across water obstacles, in laying minefields, and in providing new lines and fortifications. During 1983, the two sides showed their ability to absorb and to cause severe damage. Iraq, in particular, proved adroit at building strength in defense and flood low-lying areas to stymie Iran's core, preventing the progress of machine units. Both sides also have difficulty in effectively using their shields. Maneuver rather than shield them, they tend to dig in and use their tanks as artillery pieces. Furthermore, the two sides failed to master tank gunsights and fire controls, making themselves vulnerable to antitank weapons. In 1983, Iran launched a major three, but to no avail, humanwave offensives, with huge losses, along the border. On February 6, Tehran, using 200,000 "last reserve" Pasdaran troops, attacked the 40-kilometer near Al Amarah, about 200 miles southeast of Baghdad. Supported by air, armor and artillery support, the core six Iran is strong enough to penetrate. In response, Baghdad using massive air attacks, with more than 200 methods,

many of which were flown by helicopter attack. More than 6,000 Iranians were killed on that day, at the same time achieve gains just minutes. In April 1983, the Mandali-Baghdad Northcentral sector witnessed fierce fighting, repeatedly attack Iran halted by machine parts and Iraqi infantry. Casualties are very high, and by the end of 1983, about 120,000 Iranians and 60,000 Iraqis have been killed. Despite this loss, in 1983 Iran held a distinct advantage in order to launch and eventually win the attrition war. Starting in 1984, the goal changed from controlling Baghdad military region Tehran Iran denies any major gains in Iraq. Furthermore, Iraq's attempt to force Iran to the negotiating table with a variety of ways. First, President Saddam Hussein tried to increase the workforce and economic costs of war into Iran. For this purpose, Iraq buying new weapons, especially from the Soviet Union and France. Iraq also completed the construction of what became known as the "killing zone" (which consists mainly of artificial flooding areas near Basra) to stop Iranian units. In addition, according to Jane's Defence Weekly source etc., Baghdad concentration of chemical weapons against Iranian soldiers and launched attacks on many economic centers. Despite Iraqi determination to halt further progress of Iran, Iranian units in March 1984 captured the Majnun Islands, an oil field that has economic and strategic value. Second, Iraq turned to diplomatic and political means. In April 1984, Saddam Hussein proposed to meet Khomeini personally in a neutral location to discuss peace talks. But Tehran rejected the offer and restated his refusal to negotiate with President Hussein. Third, Iraq tried to involve the major powers as a means to end the war. Iraqis believe that this objective can be achieved by attacking Iranian shipping. Initially, Baghdad using borrowed French Super Etendard aircraft armed with Exocets. In 1984 Iraq's plane back to France and bought about 30 Mirage F-1 fighters equipped with Exocet missiles. Iraq launched a series of attacks on the new shipping on February 1, 1984. Slip War, 1984-1987 In 1984 it was reported that some 300,000 Iranian soldiers and 250,000 Iraqi soldiers were killed or wounded. Most of the foreign military analysts feel that Iran is not Iraq and the efficient use of modern equipment. Frequently, sophisticated equipment was left unused, when modern mass attack, wins the battle for any party. Tanks and armored cars dug out and used as artillery pieces, and not maneuvered to lead or to support the attack. William O. Staudenmaeir, a seasoned military analyst, reported that "the views of computerization of land in Iraq the tanks are rarely used. More low accuracy of the T-62 World War II standards." In addition, both parties often leave heavy equipment in a war zone because of their lack of technical skilled staff needed to carry out minor repairs. Analysts also pointed out that the armies of the two states show little coordination and a number of units in the field were left to fight their own especially. In this protracted war attrition, soldiers and officers alike failed to show initiative or professional expertise in combat. Difficult decisions, which should get immediate attention, has been referred by the commander of the section to the mother for action. Except for the predictable bursts on important anniversary, by the mid 1980's stalemated war.

In early 1984, Iran has begun Operation Dawn V, which aims to break the 3rd Army Corps Iraq and 4th Army Corps near Basra. Early in 1984, about 500,000 Pasdaran and Basij forces, using shallow boats or on foot, moving to within a few kilometers of strategic waters of the Basra-Baghdad. Between February 29 and March 1, in one of the biggest battles of the war, the two sides clashed and are more than 25,000 deaths each other. Without armor and air support themselves, Iran facing Iraqi tanks, mortars, and helicopter gunships. Within a few weeks, Tehran opened another front in shallow lakes Hawizah Marshes, just east of Al Qurnah, Iraq, near the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Iraqi forces, using Soviet-made helicopter gunships France, imposed severe injuries to five Iranian brigades (15,000 men) in this war Majnun. Lack of equipment to open a safe passage through Iraqi minefields, and having too little tank, again using the instructions Iranian human wave tactics. In March 1984, the Eastern European journalist claimed that he "saw tens of thousands of children, summoned together in groups of about twenty to prevent the faint-hearted from deserting, make such an attack." Iran makes little, if any, progress despite these sacrifices. Perhaps as a result of this performance, Tehran, for the first time, use the regular army units, 92 Armored Division, at the Battle of the Marshes, a few weeks later. In the four weeks between February and March 1984, Iraqis were reported killed 40,000 Iranians and lost 9,000 of their own men, but is also regarded as unacceptable ratio, and in February the Iraqi command ordered the use of chemical weapons. Despite Iraq's denials, between May 1981 and March 1984, Iran charged Iraq with forty chemical weapons. 1984 closed with some of the Majnun Islands and some regions of Iraq in the hands of Iran. Casualties notwithstanding, Tehran maintains military posture, while Baghdad has reevaluate the whole strategy. The main development in 1985 was increased targeting population centers and industrial facilities by both fighters. In May, Iraq began aircraft attacks, long-range artillery attacks, and missile attack surface-to-surface in the cities of Tehran and other major Iranian. Between August and November, Iraq invaded Khark Island 44 times in a futile attempt to destroy the installation. Iran responded by launching air strikes and missile attacks on Baghdad and other Iraqi cities. In addition, systematic Tehran periodic stop-and-search operations, which were carried out to verify the contents of the cargo ship in the Persian Gulf war and seize equipment destined for Iraq. Iraqi Air Force's strategic bombing campaign first, so-called war cities, aimed violate public morals and interfere with military targets. Two Iraqi efforts early in 1985, from March 14 to April 7 and May 25 to June 15, was reported to be highly effective. Resistance of Iran Air Force is ignored does not exist, Iraqis hit air bases and military and industrial targets across Iran (in Tabriz, Urmia, Rasht, Bakhteran, Hamadan, Tehran, Isfahan, Dezful, Ahvaz, Kharg, Bushehr, and Shiraz). Although Iraq's lumbering old Tu-16 bombers were getting through, maybe with the MiG-25 and Mirage F-1 escort, as the Iraqis hit targets far as Kashan, more than 360 kilometers from their own base. Iranian daily Kayhan official confirmed this, reporting that Tehran was bombed by "Tupolevs (Tu-16 Badger and Tu-22 Blinder bombers) flying at very high altitudes." Load bombing Iraq, suffered by nearly 600 small aircraft battle of Iraq, has fallen in Tehran in an effort to destroy the Iranian. Iraq boasted a 180-plane

raids on the capital of Iran. Antiwar feeling in Tehran is at a high level all the time, as the Iraqis hit the city average of two times a day and two times, six times. Hit among the Baghe Saba Revolutionary Guard barracks, Tehran's main power station, Army Staff College, Military Academy, the main military barracks, and Abbas Abbad Force Base. Locomotive works south of Tehran and heavy industrial areas near Javadieh also hit, and even three military airports that are supposed to protect the city-Mehrabad, jey, and Qual'eh Murgehhave been repeatedly attacked with impunity. Iraqi air force and STIKES 'Scud' in the cities of the Islamic Republic of Iran refuse to find a comparable response. Iran Iran-Iraq War starting with SSM but failed to import 'Scud B' SS1 (R-17Es) in 1985 from Libya and in 1986 from Syria. Revolutionary Guard Corps, which took over their weapons used against Iraq between 1985 and 1988. Iran 'Scud B' used by Syria, Libya and North Korea possibility of major cities, including Baghdad and Basra. During the war's first cities, the depth of Iran's strategic missile prevent Iraq from achieving key targets such as Tehran. However, in 1988, Iraq has developed a variety of advanced 'Scud', al-Hussein, and took Iran by surprise by the attack on urban conurbations key. In the spring of 1988, Iraq launched up to 200 SSMS against Tehran, Qom and Isfahan. Although only 2000 people have been killed in these attacks, they cause panic population and hundreds of thousands fled the cities. During the war, Iranian leaders often exaggerated their capabilities in the field of missiles. Although the 'Scud B' they can hit Baghdad, less precision weapons or destructive power to do great damage. In addition, Iran is not able to match the quantity of Iraqi missiles. Iraq release 'Scud B' 361 in Iran from 1982 to 1988 and an estimated 160 al-Hussein in Tehran early in 1988. Instead, Iran release 117 'Scuds' during the war, including a possible 60 that are released in Baghdad. The only major ground offensive, involving about 60,000 Iranian soldiers, took place in March 1985, near Basra, once again, the attack did not take exception to prove serious harm. However, in 1986, Iraq suffered heavy losses in the southern provinces. On 9 February, Iran launched a successful surprise attack amphibians across the Shatt al Arab and captured the abandoned Iraqi oil port of Al Faw. Occupation of Al Faw, a logistical achievement, involving 30,000 regular Iranian military rapid self contained. Saddam Hussein vowed to eliminate the bridgehead "at all costs," and in April 1988 the Iraqis succeeded in regaining the Al Faw peninsula. Later, in March 1986, the UN secretary general, Javier Perez de Cuellar, formally accused Iraq's use of chemical weapons against Iran. Citing a report of four chemical warfare experts that the UN had been sent to Iran in February and March 1986, the Secretary-General called on Baghdad to end grave abuses of 1925 Geneva Protocol on the use of chemical weapons. UN report concluded that "the Iraqi army has been using chemical warfare against Iranian forces" weapons used included both mustard gas and nerve gas. The report also states that "the use of chemical weapons appear to be greater in 1981 than in 1984." Iraq attempted to deny the use of chemicals, but the evidence, in the form of severe burn injuries much flown to hospital Europe, is very encouraging. According to a British representative at the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva in July 1986, the "Iraqi chemical warfare was responsible for about 10,000 victims." In March 1988, Iraq once again be the main use of

chemical warfare while retaking Halabjah, a Kurdish city in northeastern Iraq, near the Iranian border. Failed in 1986, to dislodge Iran from Al Faw, Iraq went on the attack they captured the city of Mehran May, the only loss in July 1986. 1986 saw another small hit-and-run attacks by both sides, while the Iranians had gathered nearly 500,000 troops to another "final offensive," promised that did not happen. But the people of Iraq, maybe for the first time since the outbreak of hostilities, embark integrated air strike campaign in July. Heavy attack on Khark Island forced Iran depends on the installation while further south in the Gulf at Sirri Island and Island Larak. Afterward, Iraqi jets, refueling in midair or use Saudi military base, hit Sirri and Larak. Both belligerents also attacked 111 neutral ships in the Gulf in 1986. Meanwhile, to help defend itself, Iraq has built an impressive fortress along the 1,200 mile front war. Iraq devote special attention to the southern city of Basra, where concrete-roofed bunkers, tanks and artillery-firing positions, minefields, barbed wire and stretches, all protected by flood-made lake 30 kilometers long and 1800 meters wide, was built. Most visitors to the area recognize the effective use of engineering Iraq battle to erect these barriers. By the end of 1986, rumors of Iranian attack on Basra manifold end. On 08 January 1987, Operation Karbala Five began with Iranian units pushing westward between Fish Lake and the Shatt al Arab. This annual "final assault" city Duayji arrested and charged 20,000 victims of Iraq, but at the cost of 65,000 victims of Iran. In this intensive operations, Baghdad also lost 45 aircraft. Try to capture Basra, Tehran launched several attacks, some of them disguised as a diversion attack operations and Operation Karbala Karbala Six Seven. Iran eventually cancel operations Karbala Five on February 26, 1987. Despite Iran's insistence about to break the last line of defense east of Basra, Iraq, Tehran could not score a decisive breakthrough required to win outright victory, or even to get a relative gain over Iraq.

In late May 1987, just when the war seemed to have reached a complete stalemate on the southern front, reports from Iran indicate that the conflict has intensified in Iraq's northern front. This assault, Operation Karbala Ten, is a joint effort by the Iranian and Iraqi units Kurdish rebels. They surrounded the garrison at Mawat, endangering Iraq's oil fields near Kirkuk and the northern oil pipeline to Turkey. Believing that it can win the war simply by holding the line and impose an unacceptable loss of attacking Iran, Iraq initially adopted static defensive strategy. This was successful in that drove successive Iranian offensives until 1986 and 1987, when the Al-Faw peninsula was gone and Iran's army at the gates of Al-Basrah. Embarrassed by the loss of the peninsula and the second largest threat to the city, Saddam ordered a change in strategy. From defensive posture, where operations only annoying part is the counter-attack to relieve forces under pressure or exploit failed attack Iran, Iraq adopted an offensive strategy. More decision-making authority-was entrusted to senior military commanders. This change also showed the Iraqi military capability maturity and an increase in the effectiveness of the

armed forces. The success of this new strategy, including changes in doctrine and procedures attendant, virtually eliminating Iran's military capability. Because of the ongoing war, Iran is getting short of spare parts for aircraft damaged and had lost a large number of airplanes in combat. As a result, by late 1987 Iran had become less able to mount an effective defense against the Iraqi air force resupplied, not to mention the aerial counter-attack. 123 Tank War, 1984-1987 Most of Iraq's export capacity was lost during the Iran-Iraq war, whether war-related damage or for political reasons. In 1982, for example, Syria (allied with Iran at the time) closed 500-mile, 650,000-bbl / d capacity Banias pipeline, which has become an important route in Iraq to the Mediterranean Sea and European oil market. By 1983, Iraq's export capacity is only 700,000 barrels, or less than 30% of field capacity in operation at the time.

Revenue shares fell after the Iranian Revolution of Iran 1978/79 shortly after, followed by the Iran-Iraq War for many years of the 1980s and have not recovered since]. All onshore crude oil production and output of Iran Forozan field (which is mixed with the raw stream from Abuzar and Doroud fields) exported from Kharg Island terminal located in the northern Gulf. The original capacity of the terminal 7 million bbl / d was nearly wiped out by more than 9,000 bombing raids during the Iran-Iraq War. Tanker war seems likely to precipitate a major international event for two reasons. First, about 70 percent of Japanese, 50 percent of Western Europe, and 7 percent of U.S. oil imports come from the Persian Gulf in the early 1980s. Second, attacks on tankers involved neutral shipping and the vessels of war states. Tanker war had two phases. The first phase of a relatively obscure beginning in 1981, and publicized second phase began in 1984. The first phase of a relatively obscure beginning in 1981, and publicized second phase began in 1984. As early as May 1981, Baghdad has unilaterally declared a war zone and had officially warned all ships heading to or returning from Iranian ports in the northern zone of the Gulf to stay away or, if they go, to proceed at risk their own. The main target in this phase is the port city of Khomeini and Bandar-e-e Mashur; very little ship was hit outside this zone. Although the nearby port of Iraq, the Iraqi navy did not play an important role in the operation. Instead, use the Super Frelon helicopter Baghdad equipped with Exocet missiles or Mirage F-1s and MiG-23s to destroy the target. Naval operations come to a standstill, presumably because Iraq and Iran have lost much of their ships, by early 1981; lull in the fighting lasted for two years. In March 1984, the tanker war entered its second phase when Iraq begin a sustained naval operations in its own maritime exclusion zone declared in 1126-kilometers, extending from
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the mouth of the Shatt al Arab to Iran's port of Bushehr. In 1981, Baghdad had attacked Iranian ports and oil complexes as well as neutral tankers and ships sailing to and from Iran, in 1984 Iraq expanded the so-called tanker war by using Super-Etendard combat aircraft armed with French Exocet missiles . In March 1984 the Iraqi Super Etendard Exocet fired missiles at the southern Greek tanker Khark Island. That until the attack of March, Iran had not intentionally attacked the ships public Gulf.Neutral merchant ships became favorite targets, and long-range Super-Etendards flying sorties farther south. Merchant ships were attacked seventy-one in 1984 alone, compared with 48 in the first three years of the war. Iraq's motives in increasing the tempo included a desire to break the deadlock, possibly with cut Iran's oil exports and by thus forcing Tehran to the negotiating table. Repeated Iraqi efforts failed to put Iran's oil export terminal in Khark Island major commissions, however. The new wave of invading Iraq, however, cause Iran to retaliate. In April 1984, Tehran launched its first attack against public commercial shipping carrier attack India. Iran attacked a Kuwaiti oil tanker near Bahrain on May 13 and then a Saudi tanker in Saudi waters five days later, making it clear that if Iraq continued to interfere with Iranian shipping, no Gulf country will be safe. Most observers assume that the Iraq invasion, however, overcome the invasion of Iran by three to one. Iranian counter-attack was largely ineffective due to the limited number of aircraft equipped with long-range antiship missiles and ships with surface-surface long-range missiles had been deployed. Moreover, despite repeated Iranian threats to close the Strait of Hormuz, Iran itself dependent on sea lanes for vital oil exports. These ongoing attacks reduce Iran's oil exports in half to reduce shipping in the Gulf by 25 per cent, lead, Lloyd's of London insurance rate increase on the tanker, and slow the Gulf oil supplies to the whole world, even more so, the Saudi decision in 1984 to Iranian Phantom jets shoot down the intruding in Saudi territorial waters play an important role in ending both attempts to internationalize the war is being fought tankers. Iraq and Iran accept the moratorium in 1984, sponsored by the UN on the attack civilian targets, and Tehran later proposed an extension of the moratorium, including Gulf shipping, Iraq rejected the proposal unless it is for their own including the Gulf ports. Iraq began ignoring the moratorium soon after its entry into force and increase air attacks on tankers serving Iran and Iranian-oil-exporting facilities in 1986 and 1987, attacking even vessels that belonged to the conservative Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Iran responded by increasing attacks on shipping serving Arab ports in the Gulf. Considering most Kuwaiti ship target in the counter-attack, the government of Kuwait to seek shelter from the international community in the fall of 1986. Soviet Union responded first, agreeing to charter several Soviet tankers to Kuwait early in 1987. Washington, who was approached first by Kuwait and which had postponed its decision, eventually followed Moscow's leadership. Malaysian American involvement was signed by May 17, 1987, the Iraqi missile attack on the USS Stark, which thirtyseven crew members were killed. Baghdad apologized and claimed that the attack was a mistake. Ironically, Washington using the Stark incident to blame Iran for the growing war and sent its own ships to the Gulf escorting Kuwaiti tankers 11 "reflagged" with the American flag and had American crews. Iran did not attack the U.S. naval directly,

but it uses various forms of harassment, including mines, hit and run attacks by small patrol boats, and periodic stop and search operations. Several times, Tehran release Silkworm missiles made in China on the Kuwait Al Faw peninsula. When Iranian forces hit the reflagged tanker Sea Isle City in October 1987, Washington retaliated by destroying 1 oil platform in the Rostam field and the Sea in the United States Navy., Air, and Land (Seal) commandos to blow up to 1 1 2 nearby. Within a few weeks Stark incident, Iraq continued raids on tankers but moved offensive further south, near the Strait of Hormuz. Washington played a key role in drafting the UN Security Council Resolution 598 on the Gulf War, which was approved unanimously on 20 July; Western attempts to isolate Iran has been frustrated, however, as Tehran rejected the resolution because it did not meet the requirement that Iraq should be punished for initiate conflict. In early 1988, the Gulf crowded theater of operations. At least ten Western navies and eight regional navies patrolling the area, the site of a weekly event where merchant ships were crippled. Arab Ship Repair Yard in Bahrain and his counterpart in Dubayy, United Arab Emirates (UAE), can not keep up with the repairs required by the ships damaged in the attack.

Great Power involvement gradually Iran's military gains in Iraq after 1984 is a major reason for the increased involvement of major powers in the war. In February 1986, the Iranian units captured the port of Al Faw, which has oil facilities and is one of Iraq's main oil exporting ports before the war. In early 1987, the two major powers have expressed an interest in the security of the region. Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Vladimir Petrovsky visit Middle East countries expressed concern over the effects of the Iran-Iraq War. In May 1987, the United States Assistant Secretary of State Richard Murphy also toured the Gulf Arab states friendly to emphasize the commitment of the United States in the region, the first commitment has to be suspect due to the transfer of Iranian weapons Washington, formally as one incentive for them to assist in the release of American hostages held in Lebanon. In other diplomatic efforts, the two great powers that support the resolution of the Security Council of the United Nations to apply end of the war. War appears to be entering a new phase in which the great powers have become more involved. For example, the Soviet Union, which had ended military supplies to both Iran and Iraq in 1980, resumed large-scale arms shipments to Iraq in 1982 after Iran banned the Tudeh and tried and executed many of the leaders. After that, though neutral admit, the Soviet Union was the main supplier of advanced weapons into Iraq. In 1985 the United States began to secretly direct and indirect negotiations with Iranian officials that resulted in some shipments of arms to Iran.

At the end of spring 1987, the great powers become more directly involved because they fear that the fall of Basra might lead to a pro-Iranian Islamic republic in a large population of Shiite southern Iraq. They also worry about the war ship tanks intensified. Special Weapons To avoid defeat, Iraq seek every possible weapon. This includes developing a self-sustaining capability to produce meaningful quantities of military chemical warfare agents. In defense, chemical weapons integration offers many solutions and Posdoran Basif lightly armed. Chemical weapons are effective when used alone in the troop rally and artillery support. When conducting offensive operations, routine support Iraq attack with chemical fire in the fire and integrated into the defensive front, command posts, artillery positions, and logistics facilities. During the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq developed the ability to produce, store, and use of chemical weapons. Chemical weapons, including H-series blister and G-series nerve agents. Iraq build these agents into various types of ammunition, including rocket offensive, artillery shells, aerial bombs, and warheads at Al Hussein variant of the Scud missile. During the Iran-Iraq war, Iraqi warplanes attack user Bime mustard-filled and filled 250 kilogram bombs and mustard-filled 500 kilogram bombs on Iranian targets. Other reports indicate that Iraq may have also mounted spray tank to an unknown number of helicopters or falling 55-gallon drums filled with agents not known (probably mustard) from low altitude. Iran launched a failed attack on Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor on 30 September 1980. On June 7, 1981, Israel began air strikes on Iraq's Osirak reactor similar, destroy it. Iraq has launched seven air strikes on Iran's nuclear reactor at Bushehr between 1984 and 1988 during the Iran-Iraq War, which eventually destroyed the facility. In response to the Iranian missile attacks against Baghdad, some 190 missiles were fired by the Iraqi people in a six week period at Iranian cities in 1988, during the War of Cities'. Iraqi missile attack caused little damage, but their warheads have a psychological and political Iraq inspired at the same time cause nearly 30 percent of the population fled the city of Tehran. Capital rocketing threat Iran with missiles capable of carrying chemical warheads have been mentioned as an important reason why Iran accept disadvantageous peace agreement. War Termination Four main battle takes place from April to August 1988, in which the people of Iraq that is routed or beat Iran. In the first attack, named Blessed Ramadan, the Iraqi Republican Guard units and regular Army recaptured the Al-Faw peninsula. 36-hour battle was conducted by means of sophisticated military with two main thrusts, supported by heliborne and amphibious landings, and low levels of fixed-wing attack sorties. In this struggle, the people of Iraq effectively use chemical weapons (CW), using nerve and blister agents against Iranian command and control facilities, gun positions, and logistics points. Three subsequent operations followed much the same pattern, although they are somewhat less complex. After training, Iraq launched an attack against Iran a successful team in Lake Fish and Shalamjah area near Al-Basrah and recaptured the oil-rich Majnun Islands. Further north,

the last major engagement before the August 1988 cease-fire, armored and mechanized forces penetrated deep into Iraq Iran, Iranian forces beat and capture a large amount of armor and artillery. In the autumn of 1988, the people of Iraq in Baghdad displayed Iranian weapons arrest of more than three-quarters of Iran's inventory of armor and artillery pieces and nearly half of the armored personnel carrier. Iran-Iraq war for nearly eight years, from September 1980 to August 1988. It ended when Iran accepted United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 598, which led to the August 20, 1988 cease fire. Casualty figures are uncertain, though estimates suggest more than one and a half million victims of war and war-related - perhaps as many as a million people died, many more injured, and millions have become refugees. Iran acknowledged that nearly 300,000 people die in war; estimate the Iraqi dead range from 160,000 to 240,000. Iraq suffered about 375,000 victims, equivalent to 5.6 million for the size of the United States population. Another 60,000 were taken prisoner by Iran. Iran may have included the loss of more than 1 million people were killed or maimed. Without reducing either the horrors of war, the loss of Iran in the eight year Iran-Iraq war seem modest compared with those of the European participants in the four years of World War I, to shed some light on Iran tolerance limit to martyrdom. War claimed at least 300,000 Iranian lives and injured more than 500,000, of the total population by the end of the war is almost 60 million. During the Great War, the loss is more than 1.7 million Germans were killed and more than 4.2 million injured (out of a total population of over 65 million). German losses, compared with the total population of the country, at least five times higher than Iran. France suffered more than 1.3 million deaths and 4.2 million injuries. Percentage of the pre-war population of dead or injured is 9% from Germany, 11% from France, and 8% in Great Britain. At the end, there is almost no issues usually blamed for the war has been resolved. When it ended, the conditions that existed at the beginning of the war remained virtually unchanged. Although Iraq won the war militarily, and has significant military advantage over Iran in 1989, the 1991 Persian Gulf War reduced Iraq's ability to the point where rough parity existed between Iran and Iraq and conditions similar to those found in 1980. UN ceasefire arranged simply put an end to the fighting, leaving the two isolated states to pursue the arms race with each other, and with other countries in the region. Iraqi military machine of more than one million men with arms wide CW, extended range Scud missiles, air force and one of the major forces in the larger world - emerged as a major force armed in the Persian Gulf region. In the Middle East, only Israel Defense Forces have better capabilities. Ayatollah Khomeini died on June 3, 1989. Assembly of Experts - an elected body of senior clerics - pick out the president of the republic, Ali Khamenei, to be his successor as national religious leader in what proved to be a smooth transition. In August 1989, Ali Akbar

Hashemi Rafsanjani, the speaker of the Senate, was elected President by a large majority. Write new regime has given priority over national interests of Iran Islamic doctrine. 124 Conclusion Various humanitarian issues unresolved from the Iran-Iraq war, including the failure to identify fighters were killed in clashes and exchange information about those who were killed or disappeared. Iran agreed to release the 5584 Iraqi POW in April 1998, and news organizations reported occasional meetings throughout the remainder of the year between Iranian officials and the Iraqi government to achieve final agreement on the remaining POWs held by each side. The Iranian government pledged to resolve the remaining issues with Iraqi POW in 1999. And search operations along the Iran-Iraq has begun to identify the remains of those missing in action.

Bibliography Brogan, P. (1989). World Conflicts Why and Where They Are Happening, Bloomsbury: London. Bulloch, J & Morris, H. (1989). The Gulf War Its Origins, History and Consequences, Methuen: London,. Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988. Retrieved 2012 May 26 from

http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/iran-iraq.htm Karsh, E. (2002). The Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988, Osprey: London.

124

Ibid

Chapter 10 Gulf War, 1990-1991 Introduction Persian Gulf War (August 2, 1990 - 28 February 1991), named Operation Desert Storm (January 17, 1991 - 28 February 1991), commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a UN team is authorized a combination of 34 countries led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and conquest of Kuwait. War is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf War, Gulf War I, or the Iraq War, before the term "War on Iraq" to be identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War (also referred to in the U.S. as "Operation Iraqi Freedom" ). The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi troops that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. U.S. President George HW Bush deployed American forces to Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. Various nations joined the coalition. The bulk of the armed forces in the coalition were from the United States, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order. Around U.S. $ 36 billion cost of U.S. $ 60 billion was paid by Saudi Arabia. The war marked the beginning of live news on the front line in the fight, with priority U.S. network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast images on board the American bombers during Operation Desert Storm. Initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with aerial bombardment on 17 January 1991. This was followed by a ground assault on February 23. This is a decisive victory for the coalition forces, which freed Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. The coalition ceased their initial, and declared a cease-fire 100 hours after the ground campaign started. Air and ground battle was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on the border of Saudi Arabia. However, Iraq launched Scud missiles against targets combined forces in Saudi Arabia and against Israel.

Background Throughout much of the Cold War, Iraq had allies of the Soviet Union, and there is a history of friction between it and the United States. United States with respect to the position of the Israeli-Palestinian politics of Iraq, and the peaceful nature of rejection between Israel and Egypt. The United States also does not like Iraqi support for militant groups such as Abu

Nidal, which led the U.S. to develop a list of entries in the State Sponsors of Terrorism on December 29, 1979 Arabs and Palestinians. U.S. remained officially neutral after the invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran-Iraq War, although it provides resources, political support, and aircraft some "non-military". In March 1982, however, Iran began Operation Victory successful counteroffensive - is undeniable, and the United States to increase support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing submission. In the U.S. effort to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Supposedly this is due to the increase in records regime, although former United States Assistant Secretary of Defense Noel Koch later stated, "No one has any doubts about Iraq's continued involvement in terrorism ... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran." With Iraq's newfound success in the war, and Iran rejects peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record dramatically in 1982. When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal to Syria at the request of the United States in November 1983, the Reagan administration had sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet President Hussein as a special envoy and to cultivate ties. By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in August 1988, Iraq is a lot of debt-ridden and tension in society has increased. Most of the debt owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq urged both nations to forgive the debts, but they refused. Iraq-Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as a territory of Iraq. After achieving independence from the United Kingdom in 1932, the Iraqi government immediately declared that Kuwait was entitled to the territory of Iraq, as it has been linked to the creation of the British Basra Kuwait after World War I and thus stated that Kuwait is one of British imperialist invention . Kuwait has become the first part of the province of the Ottoman Empire. from Basra, Iraq claimed something that made it the right Iraqi territory. The ruling dynasty, al-Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate treaties in 1899 which was given the responsibility for foreign affairs to Britain. Britain draw the border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq a virtual land. Iraq's attempts to obtain further provisions in this region has been rejected by Kuwait. Iraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding OPEC oil production quotas. In order for a cartel to maintain the desired price $ 18 per barrel, the discipline required. United Arab Emirates and Kuwait are consistently overproducing and the second was at least in part to repair the damage caused by the invasion of Iran in the Iran-Iraq War and to pay scandal economic losses. The result is the first decline in oil prices - as low as $ 10 per barrel -. With 1 resulted in the loss of $ 7 billion a year to Iraq, similar to the 1989 balance of payments deficit struggled revenue to support the cost basis for the government, let alone repair the

damaged Iraqi infrastructure. Jordan and Iraq both looked more discipline, with little success. The Iraqi Government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant-drilling across the border into Iraq's Rumaila oil field. At the same time, Saddam find a close relationship with the Arab states that supported Iraq in the war. This is supported by the United States, who believe that the relationship with the proWestern Iraqi Gulf countries will help bring and keep Iraq in the U.S. sphere of influence. In 1989, it emerged that Saudi Arabia-Iraq relations, strong during the war, will be maintained. Non-intervention pact and not aggressive signed between the countries, followed by Kuwait-Iraq agreement for Iraq to provide Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although demand for Umm Qasr Iraq Kuwait lease was rejected. Development projects supported by Saudi Arabia have been affected by a large debt Iraq, even with the demobilization of 200,000 troops. Iraq also look to increase production to become an exporter of weapons, although the success of these projects has also been hindered by the obligations of Iraq in Iraq, dissatisfaction with OPEC controls installed. Iraq's relations with its Arab neighbors Egypt in particular - is degraded by mounting violence in Iraq to the expatriates, working during the war, by unemployed Iraqis, among them soldiers demobilized. These events have not taken outside the Arab world because of events that move quickly in Eastern Europe. United States, however, began to condemn Iraq's human rights record, including the well-known use of torture. Britain also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft, 1 journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer. Gerald Bull's Murder, 1 a nuclear scientist, and the arrest of several men at London Heathrow Airport for allegedly trying to smuggle parts needed for Iraq's nuclear capabilities 1, is a symptom slide 1 in Iraqi relations with the West. For parts, Iraq invaded arrest alleged smugglers' as part of the "Western-Zionist plot" to facilitate the Israeli attack on Iraq. Following the declaration by Saddam that "binary chemical weapons" to be used against Israel if it uses military force against Iraq, Washington stop financing part. UN mission to the territories occupied by Israel, where Palestinian riots resulted in death, has been vetoed by the United States, Iraq deeply skeptical of making U.S. foreign policy aims in the region, combined with U.S. dependence on Middle East energy reserves . In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23th, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border, and the U.S. naval fleet in the Persian Gulf have been placed on high alert. Saddam believe one conspiracy has developed an anti-Iraq-Kuwait has begun negotiating with Iran, and Syria (Iraq rivals) have arranged to visit Egypt. On 15 July 1990, the government of Saddam put out protest combined with

the Arab League, including the cost of the policy move Iraq $ 1 billion a year, that Kuwait still use Rumelia oil fields, that the loans made by the UAE and Kuwait can not be treated as debt to "Arab brothers" who. Discussion in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, between the Arab League by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, was held on July 31 and led Mubarak to believe that peace can be established courses. On July 25th, Saddam Hussein met with April Glaspie, the American ambassador, in Baghdad. According to one Iraqi transcript of the meeting, the delegation Glaspie to Iraq, "We have no opinion of the Arab-Arab conflicts." According to Glaspie's own account, he said in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq, "that he had served in Kuwait 20 years before; 'then, as now, we do not take a position on Arab affairs'." Glaspie equally believe that the war will not happen. 125 Invasion of Kuwait Jeddah is the result of negotiations Iraqi request for $ 10 billion to cover the lost revenue from the Rumaila; Kuwait bullish response is to offer a $ 9 billion, so do not give all he wanted Saddam. Iraq's response was immediately ordered the invasion. On August 2, 1990, Iraq launched the invasion by bombing Kuwait City, the Kuwaiti capital. Despite saber-rattling Iraq, Kuwait does not have the power alert; standing army on 19 July. At the time of the invasion, Kuwait reliable force numbered 16,000 men, organized into. 3 shield, an arm of the infantry and 1 artillery brigade under strength. Iraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first major unit ready to start the attack on the stroke of midnight. Iraqi attack had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack entering Kuwait's far west, but then turning and driving east, cutting off the capital city from the southern half of the country. Kuwaiti armored battalion Commander, 35 Armoured Brigade, deployed them against the Iraqi attack and was able to conduct a robust defense (Battle of the Bridges), near Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City. Pre-war strength Kuwait Air Force Kuwait is around 2,200 staff, with 80 aircraft and 40 helicopters. Random plane to fulfill energy attack, but about 20% were lost or captured. An air battle with the Iraqi air force helicopter has occurred over Kuwait City, inflicting heavy losses on the Iraqi elite troops, and some battle sorties flown against Iraqi ground forces. 126

125 126

Finlan, Alastair (2003). The Gulf War 1991. Osprey.

Cooper, Tom; Sadik, Ahmad (16 September 2003). "Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990". Air Combat Information Group. Retrieved 17 April 2010. http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_213.shtml.

The main thrust Iraq into Kuwait city was conducted by commandos used by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases. The Iraqis attacked Dasman Palace, the Royal Residence Emir of Kuwait, Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M-84 tanks. In the process, the Iraqis killed Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber AlSabah, the Emir of Kuwait's youngest brother. In the past 12 hours, most of the resistance was over in Kuwait and the royal family fled, leaving Iraq to control most of Kuwait. After two days of intense fighting, most of Kuwaiti Armed Forces either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard, or had escaped to neighboring Saudi Arabia. Emir and prime minister who can go out and head south along the highway refuge in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi ground forces consolidated their control on Kuwait city, then headed south and stationed along the border of Saudi Arabia. After the decisive Iraqi victory, Saddam Hussein initially installed a puppet regime known as the "Provisional Government of Free Kuwait" before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid as the governor of Kuwait on August 8. War Diplomatic way Within hours of the invasion, Kuwaiti and U.S. delegations requested a meeting of the UN Security Council, which passed Resolution 660, condemning the invasion and demanding the withdrawal of Iraqi troops. On 3 August the Arab League passed its own resolution, which called for a solution to the conflict from within the League, and warned against outside intervention, Iraq and Libya are only two countries in the Arab League which opposed a resolution for Iraq withdraw from Kuwait. PLO against Arab nations of Yemen and Jordan - which borders Iraq's Western allies and the country dependent on economic support - also opposed military intervention from countries non-Arab, Arabs, Sudan also aligned itself with Hussein. On 6 August UN Resolution 661 put economic sanctions on Iraq. Security Council of the United Nations Resolution 665 followed soon after, allowing naval blockade to enforce the economic sanctions against Iraq. It said the use of "measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary ... to halt all maritime shipping in and out to check and verify their cargoes and destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661." President Bush visited American troops in Saudi Arabia on Thanksgiving Day, 1990. From the beginning, U.S. officials insisted on total Iraqi pullout from Kuwait, without any

connection to other Middle Eastern problems, fearing any concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come. On August 12, 1990, Saddam Hussein called for compromise via Baghdad radio and the former Iraqi News Agency. Hussein "propose that all cases of occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the region, settled simultaneouly". Specifically, he called for Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in Palestine, Syria and Lebanon, Syria withdrew from Lebanon, and "mutual withdrawal by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for the situation in Kuwait." He also called for the replacement of U.S. troops that mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to the invasion of Kuwait by "Arab force", as long as the power does not involve Egypt. In addition, he called for "immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions" and normalization of relations with Iraq. From the beginning of this crisis, President Bush strongly opposed to "bridge" of any of the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait and the Palestinian issue. Saddam Hussein retained some of the West, with video footage shown on state televisionOn August 23 Saddam Hussein appeared on state television with Western hostages that he has refused exit visas. In the video he asks British boy named Stuart Lockwood whether he is getting milk, and went on to say, through the interpreter, "We hope your presence as guests here will not be too long. Your presence here, and in places others, is meant to prevent the scourge of war. " Another Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990 was delivered to National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official. Formally presented to the White House that Iraq would "withdraw from Kuwait and allow foreigners to leave" provided that the UN lifted sanctions, allowed "guaranteed access" to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti island of Bubiyan and Warbah. ", And allowed Iraq to" gain Full control of the oil field that extends slightly alRumila into Kuwaiti territory ". The proposal also "include the offer to negotiate first oil deal with 'satisfactory to both the United States national security interests,' develop a joint plan 1 'to alleviate Iraq's economical and financial' and 'jointly work on the stability of the bay." In December 1990, Iraq made a proposal to withdraw from Kuwait provided that their forces are not attacked as they left, and that a consensus has been reached regarding the ban on WMD in the Palestinian region. The White House rejected the proposal. Yasser Arafat, the PLO stated that neither he nor Hussein insisted that solving the Israel-Palestinian issue should be a pre-condition to resolve the issues in Kuwait, though he has acknowledged the "strong link" between these problems.

Ultimately, the U.S. stuck to a hard line position that there would be no negotiations until Iraq withdrew from Kuwait and that they should not give concessions Iraq, so that they give the impression that Iraq benefited from the military campaign. Also, when Secretary of State James Baker met with Tariq Aziz in Geneva for last minute peace talks in early 1991, Aziz reportedly made no concrete proposals and did not outline any hypothetical Iraqi moves. On 29 November 1990 the UN Security Council passed resolution 678 which gave Iraq until January 15, 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline. On January 14, 1991, France has proposed that the Security Council of the United Nations calls "fast production and large-scale" from Kuwait along with a statement to Iraq that Council members would bring "active contribution" to the solution other problems in the region, "in particular, the Arab-Israeli conflict and in particular to the Palestinian problem by creating, at the appropriate time, an international conference" to assure "the security, stability and development of this region of the world." French proposal was supported by Belgium (currently a rotating member of the Security Council), Germany, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and several non-aligned countries. United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, refused. American UN Ambassador Thomas Pickering stated that the French proposal was unacceptable, because it went beyond previous UN Security Council resolutions on the Iraqi invasion. Military means "Operation Desert Shield" redirects here. For operation in 2006 by the Iraqi insurgency, see Operation Desert Shield (Iraq). One of the main concerns to the West is a great threat Iraq poses to Saudi Arabia. Following the conquest of Kuwait, the Iraqi army was within easy draw Saudi oil fields. Control of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, have given Hussein control over the majority of the world's oil reserves. Iraq also had a number of grievances with Saudi Arabia. Arabia, which has lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during the war with Iran. Arabia in support of Iraq, as they feared the influence of Shia Iran's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority. After the war, Saddam felt he should not repay the loans due to the help he has given Saudi Arabia by fighting Iran. F-15Es placed in Operation Desert Shield. Once, after the conquest of Kuwait, Hussein began verbally attacking the Saudi government. He argues that the U.S. supported Saudi state is invalid and caregivers are not eligible holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of Islamic groups that recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack Saudi Arabia. Acting in accordance with the policy Carter Doctrine, and out of fear the Iraqi army could launch an attack on Saudi Arabia, U.S. President George HW Bush quickly announced

that the United States would launch a mission "of defense" to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under Operation Desert Shield codename. Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990 when U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to king, King Fahd, who had earlier called for U.S. military assistance. This "state-owned defense" doctrine quickly abandoned when, on August 8, Iraq declared Kuwait to be the 19th province of Iraq and Saddam Hussein named his cousin, Ali Hassan al-Majid as the military governor. U.S. Navy sent two naval battle groups built around the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USS Independence to the Gulf, where they finished on August 8. The U.S. also sent the battleship USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin to the region. A total of 48 U.S. Air Force F-15s from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, landed in Saudi Arabia, and immediately commenced round the clock air patrols Arabia-Kuwait border and Iraq to discourage further Iraqi military advances. They were joined by 36 F-15 A-Ds from the 36th TFW at Bitburg, Germany. Bitburg contingent was based at Al Kharj Air Base, approximately 1 hour southeast of Riyadh. TFW 36 are responsible for 11 confirmed Iraqi Air Force aircraft shot down during the war. There are also two Air National Guard units stationed at Al Kharj Air Base, the South Carolina Air National Guard (169th Fighter Wing) flew bombing missions with 24 F-16 flew 2,000 combat missions and lost 4 million pounds of weapons, and the New York Air National Guard 174th Fighter Wing from Syracuse flew 24 F16s on bombing missions. Military buildup continued from there, eventually reaching 543,000 troops, twice the number used in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Much of the material was shipped by air or brought to areas that organize through Sealift ship immediately, allowing quick buildup. Creating A Series Alliance A UN Security Council resolutions and Arab League resolutions were passed with respect to the invasion of Kuwait by Saddam Hussein's Iraq. One of the most important was Resolution 678, passed on November 29, 1990, which gave Iraq withdrawal deadline until January 15, 1991, and authorized "all necessary means to uphold and implement Resolution 660," and a diplomatic formulation authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to comply. H. Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. and President George HW Bush visit U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia on Thanksgiving Day, 1990.The United States assembled a combination of opposing forces to participate in the invasion of Iraq, which consists of teams from 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Portugal, Qatar, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Spain, Syria,

United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom and the United States itself. U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf was designated to be the commander of coalition forces in the Persian Gulf region. Although they did not contribute any forces, Japan and Germany made financial contributions totaling $ 10 billion and $ 6.6 billion respectively. U.S. troops represented 73% of the 956,600 coalition troops in Iraq. Many coalition forces were reluctant to join. Some felt that the war is internal Arab affair, or did not want to increase U.S. influence in the Middle East. However, in the end, many countries have been persuaded by Iraq's belligerence towards other Arab states, offers of economic aid or debt forgiveness, and threats to withhold aid. Justification for Intervention Cheney meets with Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence and Aviation in Saudi Arabia to discuss how to deal with aggression KuwaitThe United States and the United Nations (UN) gave several public justifications for involvement in the conflict, the most famous being the Iraqi violation of Kuwaiti territory integrity . In addition, the United States moved to support its allies Saudi Arabia, which is important in this region, and as a major supplier of oil, great geopolitical importance. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, the first several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested U.S. military assistance. During a speech in a special joint session of the U.S. Congress given on 11 September 1990, U.S. President George HW Bush summed up the reasons with the following statement: "Within three days, 120,000 Iraqi troops with 850 tanks had poured into Kuwait and moved to south to threaten Saudi Arabia. It was then that I decided to act to check that aggression. The Pentagon claimed that satellite photos showing the formation of Iraqi forces along the border is the source of this information, but this was later proved to be false. A reporter for the Saint Petersburg Times acquired two commercial Soviet satellite images made at the time in question, which showed nothing but empty desert. However, serious questions are raised later when it was revealed that the satellite image is actually an image of Soviet soldiers, not private commercial image, and it will be impossible for the Soviets to share the image source without compromising the security of classified images. The images were, in fact, no different magnification of the original image source area in question, but separate images taken at any time and in different locations. Soviets have invested heavily in Iraq and made various attempts to stop the combination of attacking Iraq, through diplomacy and through deceptive propaganda, and in this case it is the Christian Science

Monitor, not Saint Petersburg Times that broke the story, as erroneously reported in the article This and other publications. Gen. Colin Powell (left), General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., and Paul Wolfowitz (right) listen as Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, addressing reporters regarding the 1991 Gulf War.Other justifications for foreign involvement included Iraq's history of human rights abuses under President Saddam. Iraq is also known to possess biological weapons and chemical weapons, which Saddam had used against Iranian troops during the Iran-Iraq War and against its own Kurdish population in the Al-Anfal Campaign. Iraq is also known to have a nuclear weapons program, but a report from January 1991 have been reclassified in part by the CIA on May 26, 2001. Although there are human rights abuses committed in Kuwait by the forces attacking Iraq, the most famous in the United States is the creation of a public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to influence opinion supporting the U.S. military intervention. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the United States to hire a public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $ 11 million, paid by the Kuwaiti government. Among the many other ways the United States influenced opinion (distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to U.S. soldiers deployed in the region, 'Free Kuwait T-shirts and speakers to college campuses, and dozens of video news releases to television stations) firm, arranged for appearance before a group of members of the U.S. Congress in which a woman identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers draw baby incubators and letting them die on the floor. The story was an influence in tipping public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congress said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. Senate votes to support military action in 52-47. A year after the war, however, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. Women who had testified was found to be a member of the Kuwaiti Royal Family, in fact the daughter of Kuwait's ambassador to the U.S.. He never lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion. Contact details of the Hill & Knowlton public campaign, including the incubator testimony, were published in a John R. Second Front MacArthur: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (Berkeley, CA: University of CA Press, 1992), and came to the attention of people around when the Op-ed by MacArthur was published in the New York Times. This prompted re-examination by Amnesty International, which initially was promoted accounts claiming greater numbers of babies torn from incubators than the

original fake testimony. After finding no evidence to support, the organization issued a retraction. President George HW Bush, then repeat the incubator allegations on television. At the same time, Iraqi forces have committed some crimes that are documented during the occupation of Kuwait, such as the summary execution without trial of three brothers after their bodies were stacked in a pile and left to decay in a public street. Iraqi troops also ransacked and looted private Kuwaiti homes, one residence was repeatedly defecated. Resident later commented, "everything is violence for the sake of violence, destruction for the sake of destruction ... Imagine a surrealistic painting by Salvador Dal". Early battles: Air Campaign An F-14A Tomcat from VF-32, two EA-6B Prowlers, and KC-135 Stratotanker during the Gulf War Desert Storm. The onset of extensive aerial bombing campaign on 17 January 1991. Coalition flew over 100,000 sorties, dropping 88,500 tons of bombs, and widely destroying military and civilian infrastructure. Air campaign was commanded by USAF Lieutenant General Chuck Horner, who briefly served as Commander-in-Chief -. Ahead of the U.S. Central Command while General Schwarzkopf was still in the United States. A day after the deadline set in Resolution 678, the coalition launched a massive air, which began the general offensive called Operation Desert Storm. The first priority for Coalition forces was the destruction of the Iraqi air force and anti-aircraft facilities. Sorties were launched mostly from Saudi Arabia and the six Coalition aircraft carrier battle (CVBG) in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. An Iraqi T-54A or Type 59 tank lies in ruins after the Allied bombing attack during Operation Desert next target combination Storm.The command and communication facilities. Saddam Hussein had closely micromanaged the Iraqi forces in the Iran-Iraq War, and initiative at lower levels is not recommended. Coalition planners hoped that Iraqi resistance would quickly collapse if deprived of command and control. The third and largest phase of the air campaign targeted military targets throughout Iraq and Kuwait: Scud missile launchers, weapons research facilities, and naval forces. About one-third of the Coalition airpower devoted to attacking Scuds, some of which were on trucks and therefore difficult to find. About U.S. and British special forces teams had covertly inserted into western Iraq to help in the search and destruction of Scuds. Iraqi antiaircraft defenses, including MANPADS, is surprisingly ineffective against coalition aircraft and the coalition suffered only 75 aircraft losses in over 100,000 sorties, 44 of which are the result of Iraqi action. Two of these losses are the result of aircraft colliding

with the ground while avoiding Iraqi ground fired weapons. One of these losses is authentic air-air victory. Iraqi missile attacks this section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012) Scud Transporter Installer Launcher (TEL) with missile in a vertical position.The Iraqi government made no secret that it would attack Israel if attacked. Before the start of the war, Tariq Aziz, Iraq's English-speaking Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister of the State, was asked after the failed peace negotiations the U.S. and Iraq in Geneva, Switzerland by a reporter. "Mr. Minister of Foreign Affairs, if war starts ... will you attack Israel?" His answer was, "Yes, of course, yes." Five hours after the first attacks, Iraq's state radio broadcast a voice identified as Saddam Hussein declaring that "The great duel, the mother of all battles has begun to dawn of victory nears as this great showdown begins." Iraq responded by launching eight Al Hussein missiles at Israel the next day. Missile attacks on Israel during the war to continue. A total of 42 Scud missiles fired by Iraq into Israel during the seven weeks of the war. The Iraqis hoped that they would provoke a military response from Israel. It is expected that many Arab nations would withdraw from the coalition, as they would be reluctant to fight alongside Israel. Following the attack, the Israeli Air Force jets were deployed to patrol the airspace north of Iraq, and Israel is ready to respond with military force, as the basis for forty years before had always been a reaction. However, President Bush urged Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to respond and remove the Israeli jets, afraid if Israel attacked Iraq, and the Arab states will either be left out of the coalition or join Iraq. It is also feared that if Israel uses Syrian or Jordanian airspace to attack Iraq, they will intervene in the war on Iraq or Israeli attack. Israel has promised that the Coalition will be sending Patriot missiles to defend Israel if it does not respond to the Scud attacks. Israeli civilians taking shelter from Scud missiles targeting Israel rocketsThe fairly ineffective, as firing at extreme range resulted in a dramatic reduction in accuracy and capacity. Missile attack killed two Israeli civilians and causing several others to suffer a fatal heart attack. About 230 Israelis were injured. Of the injuries, 10 are considered moderate injuries, while one was considered a severe injury. Widespread property damage resulted, and some 4000 Israelis were left homeless. It is feared that Iraq would be fired missiles filled with nerve agents or sarin. As a result, the Israeli government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people inject themselves with the antidote for nerve gas.

After Al-Hussein to strike the U.S. response Barracks. In threat Scuds on Israel, the United States quickly send Patriot missile air defense artillery battalion to Israel along with two batteries of MIM-104 Patriot missiles to protect civilians. Coalition air forces are also widely implemented in "Scud hunts" in the Iraqi desert, trying to find the camouflaged trucks before they fired their missiles at Israel or Saudi Arabia. On the ground, also infiltrated the Iraqi special forces, tasked to find and destroy Scuds. As soon as the special operations were combined with air patrols, the number of attacks dropped sharply, then rose slightly as Iraqi forces aligned to the combination of tactics. At one point, Israeli commandos have been loaded into the helicopter ready to fly to Iraq, but the mission was called after a phone call from United States Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, reported that up to Coalition efforts to destroy Scuds and stressed that Israeli intervention could endanger U.S. troops. Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed Patriot missiles in both Turkey and Israel to counter the Scud threat. Dutch Ministry of Defense later stated that the military use of the Patriot missile system was largely ineffective, but the psychology is high, even though the Patriot missiles caused more injuries, and property damage from Scuds themselves did. It has been suggested that the strong construction techniques used in Israeli cities, coupled with the fact that Scuds just launched at night, played an important role in limiting the number of casualties from Scud attacks. Three Scud missiles and a coalition Patriot that serves hit Ramat Gan on January 22, 1991, injuring 96 people, and possibly causing the deaths of three elderly people who died of a stroke. In addition, 47 Scud missiles were fired into Saudi Arabia, and one missile was fired at Bahrain and another at Qatar. Missiles have been released in both military and civilian targets. A Saudi civilians have been killed, and 78 others were injured. No injuries were reported in Bahrain or Qatar. Saudi government to remove all of the people and expatriates to use a gas mask if Iraqi missiles with chemical or biological warheads. Government broadcasting signal and the 'all clear' message on television to warn people during scud attack. On February 25, 1991, Scud missile hit U.S. Army barracks of the 14th Quartermaster Team, of Greensburg, PA, stationed in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 soldiers and wounding more than 100.

Battle Of Khafji Military Operations During the Liberation Khafji On January 29 Iraqi forces attacked and occupied the lightly defended Saudi city of Khafji with tanks and infantry. Battle of Khafji ended two days later when the Iraqis were driven back by the Saudi Arabian National Guard and United States Marine Corps, supported by Qatari power. Coalition forces provided close air support and used extensive artillery fire. Heavy Casualties on both sides, although Iraqi forces suffered more dead and captured than the allied forces. Eleven Americans were killed in two separate friendly fire incidents, an additional 14 U.S. pilots were killed when an American gunship AC-130 was shot down by a missile surface-to-air Iraq (SAM), and two American soldiers captured in battle. Saudi and Qatari forces had a total of 18 people were killed. Iraqi forces in Khafji had 60-300 dead and 400 captured. Khafji was a strategically important city immediately after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Iraqi reluctance to commit several armored division to the occupation, and the subsequent use of Khafji as a launching pad into the initially lightly defended east of Saudi Arabia is considered by many academics. A strategic mistake [citation needed]. Not only would Iraq have gotten the majority of Middle Eastern oil supplies, but it will find itself better able to threaten the subsequent U.S. deployment along superior defensive lines. Land Campaign Movement of ground troops 24 to 28 February 1991 during Operation Desert Coalition forces dominated the air Storm.The with their technological advantages, but the army is considered to be more evenly matched. Allied forces have a significant advantage to operate under the protection of air supremacy that has been achieved by their air forces before the start of the main ground offensive. Allied forces also had two key technological advantages: Coalition tanks main battle, such as the U.S. M1 Abrams, British Challenger 1, and Kuwaiti M-84AB much Chinese Type 69 and domestically built T-72 tanks used by the Iraqis, with crews better trained and armored doctrine better well developed. The use of GPS made it possible for Coalition forces to navigate without reference to roads or other fixed signs. Along with air reconnaissance, allowed them to fight the battle of maneuver rather than a battle of encounter: they knew where they were and where the enemy, so that they could attack a specific target rather than searching on the ground for the enemy.

Liberation of Kuwait American decoy attacks by air attacks and naval gunfire the night before the liberation of Kuwait were designed to make the Iraqis believe the main coalition ground attack would focus on Central Kuwait. U.S. tanks from the 3rd Armored Division along the line of departure. Iraqi Type 69 tanks on the road to Kuwait City during the Gulf War. Two Iraqi tank is left near Kuwait City on 26 February 1991.For months, American units in Saudi Arabia are under Iraqi artillery fire almost constant, as well as threats from Scud missile or chemical attacks. On February 23, 1991, the 1st Marine Division, 2nd Marine Division, and 1st Armored Light Infantry crossed into Kuwait and headed for Kuwait City. They face the trenches, barbed wire, and minefields. However, this position is less defended, and were overrun in the first few hours. Several tank battles took place, but apart from that, Coalition troops face minimal resistance, as most Iraqi troops surrendered. General pattern is that the Iraqi people will have to make a short presentation before submitting. However, Iraqi air defenses shot down nine U.S. planes. Meanwhile, a team from the Arab countries move to Kuwait from the east, facing little resistance and suffering few. Despite the success of Coalition forces, it was feared that the Republican Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to send British armored forces into Kuwait 15 hours ahead of schedule, and to send American forces after the Republican Guard. Coalition advance was preceded by a barrage of heavy artillery and rocket fire, after which 150,000 troops and 1500 tanks begin their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counter-attack (counter attacked) U.S. troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam himself. Despite fierce fighting, the United repulsed Iraq and continue to advance towards Kuwait city. Kuwait army was deployed to liberate the city. Iraqi troops offered only light resistance. Kuwait lost one soldier killed and one plane shot down, and quickly to liberate the city. On 27 February, Saddam ordered a retreat from Kuwait, and President George HW Bush declared it releases. However, Iraqi units in Kuwait International Airport appeared not get the message, and resisted intense. U.S. Marines had to fight for hours before getting the airport, after which Kuwait was declared secure. After four days of fighting, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. As part of a Scorched-earth policy, they set fire to nearly 700 oil wells, and placed land mines around the wells to make fire fighting more difficult. Early Step Into Iraq Iraqi T-62 was knocked out by the 3rd Armored Division fireThe phase of land has been given the official war Operation Desert Sabre.

The first units to move into Iraq were three patrol squadrons B British Special Air Service, call signs Bravo One Zero, Bravo Two Zero, and Bravo Three Zero, in late January. This eight-man patrols landed behind Iraqi lines to gather intelligence on the movements of Scud missile launchers portable, which can not be detected from the air, because it was hidden under bridges and camouflage netting during the day. Other objectives included the destruction of the launchers and their fiber-optic communications arrays located in pipelines and relayed coordinates to the TEL operators that were launching attacks against Israel. Operations were designed to prevent any possible Israeli intervention. Due to the lack of sufficient ground cover to carry out their assignment, One Zero and Three Zero abandoned their operations, while Two Zero remained, and then tolerate, with only Sergeant Chris Ryan escaping to Syria. Elements of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Battalion 5th CAV U.S. Army Cavalry Division 1 direct attack into Iraq on February 15, 1991, followed by one in force on 20 February that led directly through 7 parts of Iraq that has caught ready required. From February 15 to 20, the Battle of Wadi Al-Batin took place inside Iraq, this was the first of two attacks by 1 Battalion 5th Cavalry 1st Cavalry Division. It is hypocrisy attack, designed to make the Iraqis think that a coalition invasion would take place from the south. Intense Iraqi people against, and America finally withdrew as planned back into the Wadi Al-Batin. Three American soldiers were killed and nine wounded as well with only 1 M-2 IFV turret destroyed, but they had taken 40 prisoners and destroyed five tanks, and managed to fool the people of Iraq. This attack led the way for the XVIII Airborne Corps sweep behind CAV 1 and attack Iraqi forces to the west. On February 22, 1991, Iraq agreed to a proposed ceasefire agreement with the Soviets. The agreement called for Iraq to withdraw troops pre-invasion positions within six weeks following a total cease-fire, and called for monitoring the ceasefire and withdrawal overseen by the Security Council of the United Nations. Coalition rejected the proposal, but said that retreating Iraqi forces will not be attacked, and gave 24 hours for Iraq to begin producing power. On 23 February, fighting resulted in the arrest 500 Iraqi soldiers. On 24 February, the British and American armored forces crossed the Iraq border / Kuwait and entered Iraq in large numbers, taking hundreds of prisoners. Iraqi resistance was light, and 4 Americans were killed. Entering the Allied Forces Iraq Destroyed Iraqi civilian and military vehicles on the Highway of Death. Aerial view of the tanks destroyed Iraqi T-72, BMP-1 and Type 63 armored personnel carriers and trucks on Highway March 8, 1991. Oil is the result of a fire caused Scorched earth policy of Iraqi

military forces retreating from KuwaitShortly later, the U.S. VII Corps, full strength and spearheaded by the 3rd Squadron of the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment (3/2 ACR), launched an attack into Iraq early on shield February 24, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. At the same time, the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps launched a sweeping "left-hook" attack across the largely desert without warranty of southern Iraq, led by the 3rd Armoured Cavalry Regiment (3rd ACR) and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanical). The left wing of this movement was protected by armored French Daguet Section 6. French forces quickly overcome Iraqi Infantry Division 45, suffered minor injuries and taking a large number of prisoners, and took office block to prevent Iraqi counter-attack on Confederate flank. Right-wing movements have been protected by the British 1st Armoured Division. When the allies had penetrated deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, launching a flank attack against the elite Republican Guard before it could escape. Iraq resisted competition from digging in position and moving vehicles, and even mounted armored charges. In contrast to many previous commitments, the destruction of the first Iraqi tanks did not result in large-scale surrender. The Iraqis suffered massive losses and lost dozens of tanks and vehicles, while American casualties is relatively low, with a single Bradley knocked out. Allied forces pressed another ten kilometers into Iraqi territory, and captured their objective within three hours. They took 500 prisoners and inflicted heavy losses, defeating the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. An American soldier was killed by Iraqi land mine, another five by friendly fire, and 30 wounded in the battle. Meanwhile, British forces attacked the Iraqi Medina Division and a major Republican Guard logistics base. In nearly two days of some of the fiercest battles of war, the British destroyed 40 enemy tanks and captured an the commander. Meanwhile, American troops attacked the village of Al Busayyah, meet fierce resistance. They were not injured, but destroyed much of the military equipment and take prisoners. On February 25, 1991, Iraqi forces fired missiles shot at the American barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Missile attack killed 28 American military personnel. The combination of advances is faster to do a lot of the U.S. generals had expected. On February 26, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they had set the oil fields on fire (737 oil wells were burned). Long convoy of retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main highway Iraq-Kuwait. Although they were retreating, this convoy was bombed so extensively by Coalition air forces that came to be known as the Highway of Death.

Hundreds of Iraqi soldiers were killed. Forces from the United States, the United Kingdom, and France continued to pursue retreating Iraqi troops on the border and back into Iraq, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad before withdrawing back to the Iraqi border with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. One hundred hours after the ground campaign started on 28 February, President Bush declared a ceasefire, and he also declared that Kuwait was liberated. Analysis of Postwar Military Although it is said in Western media at the time that Iraqi troops numbered approximately 545,000 to 600,000, most experts today believe that both the qualitative and quantitative descriptions of the Iraqi army at the time were exaggerated, as they included both temporary and additional support element. Many young Iraqi army, under-resources, and poorly trained conscripts. Coalition committed 540,000 troops, and a further 100,000 Turkish troops were deployed along the Turkish-Iraqi border. This resulted in significant dilution of military force to compel Iraq to use forces along the border. This allowed the main thrust by the U.S. to possess not only a very significant technological advantage, but also superiority. Widespread support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war equipped Iraq with military equipment from the world's major arms dealers. This causes a lack of standardization of this large heterogeneous force, which supplements suffer from poor training and poor motivation. The majority of Iraqi armored forces old Chinese Type 59s and Type 69s, Soviet-made T-55s from the 1950s and 1960s, and some poor quality Asad Furthermore will the tank (domestic tank mounted on the hull of the T-72 with the Polish- other parts are still used the original mix). These machines are not equipped with the latest equipment such as thermal sights or a laser range Finders, and their effectiveness in modern combat is very limited. The Iraqis failed to find an effective countermeasure to the thermal sights and the sabot rounds used by the Coalition tanks. This equipment allows them to engage and destroy Iraqi tanks from more than three times the range that Iraqi tanks could appoint a tank mix. Iraqi crews used old, cheap steel Penetrators advanced Chobham Armour of the United States (U.S.) and British tanks, with ineffective results. The Iraqis also failed to exploit the advantages that can be gained from using urban warfare delete in Kuwait City which could be a big sacrifice for the invading forces. Urban combat reduces range where battles were fought, and can negate some of the advantages of technology complete powers.

The Iraqis also tried to use Soviet military doctrine, but the implementation failed due to lack of skill of their commanders, and the preventive coalition air attack communication centers and bunkers. Type 69 main battle tanks Iraq war stand on the battlefield after being destroyed by the Allied Forces during Operation Desert Storm. Iraqi Tank Type 69 near Kuwait City during the Gulf War. Tanks Iraq sits on the road after abandoned during the Gulf War. Iraqi T-62 destroyed near Ali Al Salem Air Base during Operation Desert Storm, 18 April 1991. Tanks destroyed Iraqi T-72 in southern Iraq. Colin Powell, then head of U.S. President George HW Bush and his advisors on the progress of the ground war. Oil storage tank at a refinery that was attacked by a combination of aircraft during Operation Desert Storm continues to burn days after the air attack. Type 69 tanks after the invasion of Iraq by the United Kingdom Armored 1 Division during Operation Desert Storm. Type 69 Iraqi tanks in the limelight United Kingdom Armored Division 1. The main fight tanks in Al Pass Mutla Iraq, destroyed by Army Tiger Brigade and air force attack during Operation Desert Storm. End of Active Hostilities Public and combined armed forces of Saudi Arabia Kuwait waving flags as they celebrate the retreat of Iraqi forces from Kuwait as a result of Operation Desert Storm. Persian Gulf Veterans National Medal U.S. militaryIn Iraqi territory was occupied by the coalition, the peace conference was held where a ceasefire agreement negotiated and signed by both parties. At the conference, Iraq was approved to fly armed helicopters on the border while, ostensibly for government transit due to the damage done to public infrastructure. Soon after, these helicopters and many Iraqi armed forces were used to fight the rise of the Shia in the south. Rebellion encouraged by the broadcast "Voice Free Iraq" on 2 February 1991, which broadcast from a radio station run the CIA from Saudi Arabia. Arabic service of the Voice of America supported the revolt, stating that the rebellion was large, and that they would soon be liberated from Saddam. 127 In the North, Kurdish leaders took American statements that they would support the uprising to heart, and began fighting, hoping to trigger a coup d'etat. However, when no American support came, Iraqi generals remained loyal to Saddam and brutally crush the
127

Hawley., T. M. (1992). Against the Fires of Hell: The Environmental Disaster of the Gulf War. New York u.a.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Kurdish rebellion. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Kurdish areas of Turkey and Iran. These events later resulted in no-fly zone established in Northern and Southern Iraq. In Kuwait, the Emir was restored, and suspected Iraqi collaborators were repressed. Eventually, over 400,000 people were expelled from the country, including a large number of Palestinians, due to PLO support of Saddam Hussein. Yasser Arafat did not apologize for the support of Iraq, but after his death the Fatah under the authority of Mahmoud Abbas will formally apologized in 2004. There is some criticism of the Bush administration, as they chose to allow Saddam Hussein to remain in power instead of pushing to capture Baghdad and overthrowing the government. In co-written 1998 book, A World Transformed, Bush and Brent Scowcroft argued that such a course will be broken alliances, and will have a lot of unnecessary political and human costs associated with it. In 1992, U.S. Secretary of Defense during the war, Dick Cheney, made the same point: I would guess if we had gone in there, we still have power in Baghdad today. We will run the country. We will not be able to get everyone out and bring everybody home. And the final point that I think needs to be made is this question of the victim. I do not think you can do all that without additional U.S. casualties are significant, and while the sudden everyone was impressed with the low cost of conflict (1991), for the 146 Americans who were killed in action and for their families, it was not a cheap war. And the question in my mind is, how many additional American casualties Saddam (Hussein) worth? And the answer is, not that damned many. So, I think we got it right, both when we decided to expel him from Kuwait, but also when the president made the decision that we'd achieved our objectives and we were not going to go get bogged down in the problems of trying to take over and govern Iraq. - Dick Cheney128 Instead greater military involvement itself, the United States hoped that Saddam Hussein was overthrown in a coup d'etat interior. The Central Intelligence Agency to use its assets in Iraq to organize the revolt, but the Iraqi government defeated the effort. On March 10, 1991, 540,000 American troops began to move out of the Persian Gulf War combined involvement. Combined forces of Egypt, Syria, Oman, France and Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm goods. Gulf War Coalition

128

Bolkom, Christopher; Pike, Jonathan. " Attack Aircraft Proliferation: Areas for Concern". Retrieved 4 December 2005. http://www.fas.org/spp/aircraft/part08.htm.

Coalition members include Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States. Germany and Japan provided financial assistance and donated military hardware, but did not send direct military assistance. This later became known as checkbook diplomacy. United Kingdom British Army Challenger 1 main battle tank during Operation Desert Storm.The United Kingdom do the largest contingent of any European nation that participated in the combat operations of the war. Operation Granby was the codename for the operations in the Persian Gulf. British Army regiments (mainly with the British Armoured Division 1), the Royal Air Force squadrons and Royal Navy vessels deployed on the Gulf. Royal Air Force, the use of a variety of aircraft, operating from airbases in Saudi Arabia. Almost 2,500 armored vehicles and 43,000 troops were shipped for action. Chief Royal Navy vessels deployed to the bay including some Broadsword-class frigates, and Sheffield-class destroyers, other RN and RFA ships were also deployed. Light aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal is not deployed to the Gulf area, but was deployed to the Mediterranean Sea. British Special Forces, SAS, have been deployed in some of squadrons. The story of the most widely known of their involvement is Bravo Two Zero. Patrol member Andy McNab and Chris Ryan both wrote books about their experiences, Bravo Two Zero and That Got Away (So named because Chris Ryan was the only member of the patrol to successfully avoid capture). France French and American soldiers inspect Iraqi Type 69 tank destroyed by the French 6th Light Armored during Operation Desert Storm.The second largest European contingent of France, which committed 18,000 troops. Operation on the left flank Air Corps United States (U.S.) XVIII, the main French army force The 6th Light Armoured, including troops from the French Foreign Legion. Initially, the French operated independently under national command and control, but coordinated closely with the Americans, Arabia and CENTCOM. In January, the Division was placed under the tactical control of the U.S. Air Corps (U.S.) XVIII. France

also deployed several combat aircraft and naval units. French called their contribution Daguet operations. 129 Canada Canada is one of the first nations to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the coalition led. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group. Destroyers HMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan to join the maritime interdiction supported by HMCS Protecteur supply. Canadian Task Group led coalition forces in the Persian Gulf maritime logistics. A fourth ship, HMCS Huron, arrived in-theater after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait. Following the adoption of the United Nations (UN) authorized force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed CF-18 Hornet and Sikorsky CH-124 Sea King squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, Canada's CF-18s were integrated into the coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking ground targets. This is the first time since the Korean War that the Canadian military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF-18 Hornet to win an official during a conflict is an aircraft involved in the Battle of Bubiyan beginning of the Iraqi Navy. Canadian governments in the Middle East is Commodore Ken Summers. Australian contribution to the 1991 Gulf War Australia contributes Naval Task Group, which formed part of the multi-national fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, under Operation Damask. In addition, medical teams were deployed aboard a U.S. hospital ship (U.S.), and naval clearance diving facilities participated in de-mining Kuwait's port following the end of combat operations. Australia is a member of the international coalition which contributed military forces to the 1991 Persian Gulf War. While the Australian team did not see combat, they have played an important role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait, as well as other small support contributions to Operation Desert Storm. After the end of the Persian Gulf War, Australia deployed a medical unit on Operation Habitat northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort.

129

Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum.

Public crash The increasing importance of air attacks from both warplanes and cruise missiles led to controversy over the number of civilian deaths caused during the initial stages of the war. In the first 24 hours of the war, more than 1,000 sorties were flown, many against targets in Baghdad. Heavy bombing of the city is a target, because it is the seat of power for President Saddam Hussein and the Iraqi military command and control. This ultimately led to civilian casualties. In a note the incident, two USAF stealth planes bombed the fort in Amiriyah, causing the death of 408 civilians in the shelter at the time. Half burned and disfigured body was later broadcast, and controversy arose on the status of the bunker, with some stating that it is the public sanctuary, while others insist that it is the center of Iraqi military operations, and that the public has been deliberately moved there to act as human shield. An investigation by Beth Osborne Daponte estimate the amount of civilian deaths at about 3,500 from bombing, and some 100,000 of the effects of war. Exact numbers of Iraq Victims of Iraq's battle is not known, but it is believed to have been heavy. Some estimate that Iraq suffered between 20,000 and 35,000 deaths. [100] A report commissioned by the U.S. Air Force, estimated 10.000 to 12.000 Iraqi combat deaths in the air campaign, and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war. This analysis based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports. Saddam Hussein's government and provide public high casualty figures bring support from Islamic countries. The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300 civilians died during the air campaign. According to the Defense Alternatives study project, 3664 Iraqi civilians, and between 20,000 and 26,000 military personnel, were killed in the conflict, while 75,000 Iraqi soldiers were injured. Reported that the U.S. military suffered 148 battle-related deaths (35 friendly fire), with one pilot listed as MIA (bodies were found and identified in August 2009). Another 145 Americans died in non-combat accidents. In the United Kingdom suffered 47 deaths (9 friendly fire), France two, and the other countries, not including Kuwait, suffered 37 deaths (18 Arabia, Egypt 1 6 UAE, and 3 Qatar). At least 605 Kuwaiti soldiers still missing 10 years after their capture. Single largest loss of life among Coalition forces happened on February 25, 1991, when Iraqi Al Hussein (missile) hit a U.S. military barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 U.S. Army reserves from Pennsylvania. In all, the combination of 190 soldiers have been killed by Iraqi fire during the war, 113 of whom are American, from a total of 358 deaths

combined. A total of 44 soldiers were killed and 57 wounded, by friendly fire. 145 soldiers dead shells explode, or non-combat accidents. The largest accident among Coalition forces happened on March 21, 1991, C-130H Royal Saudi Air Force crashed in heavy smoke on approach to Ras Al-Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers were killed. Number of coalition wounded in combat seems to have been 776, including 458 Americans. 190 Coalition troops were killed by Iraqi combatants, the rest of the 379 deaths combined from friendly fire or accidents. This number is lower than expected. Among the American dead three female soldiers. The death toll among Coalition forces engaging Iraqi combatants was very low, a large number of deaths caused by accidental attacks from units related to another. Of the 148 American troops who died in battle, 24% were killed by friendly fire, a total of 35 service personnel. A further 11 died in detonations associated weapons. Nine British service personnel were killed in a friendly fire incident when a United States Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt II attacked a group of two Warrior IFVs. Controversy Gulf War Many returning soldiers reported illnesses combined result of their actions in the Gulf War, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. There is widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of illness and the reported birth defects. Some factors considered as possibilities include exposure to uranium, chemical weapons, anthrax vaccines given to deploying soldiers, and / or infectious diseases. Home Michael Donnelly, a former USAF officer during the Gulf War, helped publicize and support the rights of veterans syndrome in this case. Uranium effects Health considerations Fish of diminishing uranium (DU) has been used in the Gulf War in tank kinetic energy Penetrators and 20-30 mm cannon cannon. Heavy metals, DU is pyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic. Many have cited the use during the Gulf War as a contributing factor civil population to a few examples of health issues in both veterans of the conflict and its environs. However, scientific opinion on the risks mixed.

Highway Deaths On the night of February 26 to 27, 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of about 1,400 vehicles. Patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed retreating forces and convey information to the DDM-8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Vehicles and then attacked the soldiers retreated, the 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris-the Highway of Death. Chuck Horner, Commander of U.S. and allied air operations has written: February 26, 1991, the people of Iraq completely gave up and began to withdraw from occupied Kuwait, but the air force and Iraqi military caravan stopped hijackers fled towards Basra. The event was later called by the media "Highway of Death." Certainly many of the vehicles dead, but not so many Iraqis dead. They will have learned to scamper out into the desert when we started attacking aircraft. However, some people support home one choose to believe that we are cruel and unusual punish our enemies already whipped. By February 27, the talk was to the end of hostilities. Kuwait is free. We are not interested in governing Iraq. So the question became "How do we stop the killing." Bulldozer attack Another incident during the war highlighted the question of Iraq combat deaths on a large scale. This is the "bulldozer assault", where two brigades of the 1st Infantry Division (machine) has to deal with a range of large and complex trench, as part of the many fortified "Saddam Hussein Line." After some deliberation, they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers just plow and bury Iraqi soldiers defending. One newspaper story reported that the U.S. commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered, escaping live burial during the two-day strike 24 to 26 February 1991. Patrick Day Sloyan Newsday reported, "Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks covered them with mounds of sand. I came through right after the main company, '[Col. Anthony] Moreno said.' What you are seeing is a bunch of buried trenches with human arms and the things that come out of them ... ' However, after the war, the Iraqi government claimed to have found only 44 bodies. In his book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson says that the U.S. military tried to cover this event. After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade, said: "I know people like to plant a sounds pretty nasty, but it would be much nastier if we had to put our troops in trenches and clean them with bayonets. "

The expulsion of Palestinians from Kuwait 1991 Kuwait expulsion policy was a response to alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and the PLO with Saddam Hussein, who had earlier invaded Kuwait. Before the Gulf War, Palestinians about 30% of Kuwait's population of 2.2 million. Migration occurred in one week in March 1991, following Kuwait's liberation from Iraqi occupation. Kuwait expelled about 450,000 Palestinians from its territory, an event, which has become the second largest displacement of Palestinian Arabs ever, and related as an ethnic cleansing. By 2006, only a few had returned to Kuwait and today the number of Palestinians living in Kuwait is less than 40,000 (under 3% of the population). Infrastructure Coalition bombing On June 23, 1991 edition of the Washington Post Iraqi civilians, reporter Bart Gellman wrote: "Many targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the defeat of the Iraqi military .... Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society .. .. They deliberately did great harm to the ability to support itself as an industrial society .... Iraq ". In edition Oxford Group Jan / February 1995 Foreign Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: he Iraqi people, who are not consulted about the attack, has paid the price for their government's madness .... Iraq to understand the validity of military action to drive their army from Kuwait, but they have difficulty understanding the rationale for the use of airpower Allied to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed), refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes, telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement and aluminum factories, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies. Abuse During the conflict coalition crew shot down over Iraq were displayed as POWs on TV, with the signs of abuse. Among the testimonials some poor treatment, Royal Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters both claimed that they were tortured during this time. Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements against the war in front of television cameras. Member of the British Forces Special group named Bravo Two Zero captured in addition to providing information about the first Iraqi Supply line of Scud Missiles to coalition forces, only one, Chris Ryan, avoided arrest while the other surviving members of the violent

persecution. Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was molested by a Blackhawk Pak him after he was riding was shot down while searching for downed F-16 pilot. Operation Southern Watch Since the Gulf War, the U.S. has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops stationed in Saudi Arabia - the figure rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in Iraq, Operation Southern Watch enforced no fly zone over southern Iraq set up after 1991, oil exports through the shipping lanes Persian Gulf were protected by the U.S. Fifth Fleet, based in Bahrain. Since Saudi Arabia houses the holiest sites in Islam (Mecca and Medina) Islam in the presence of many soldiers remain disappointed. The continued presence of U.S. troops after the Gulf War in Saudi Arabia was one of the stated motivations behind the September 11 terrorist attacks, the Khobar Towers bombing, as well, the date chosen for the 1998 United States embassy bombings (7 August), was eight years to the today that American troops were sent to Saudi Arabia. Osama Bin Laden interpreted the Prophet Muhammad as banning "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia". In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for American soldiers out of Saudi Arabia. In an interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai December 1999, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca" and consider this first provocation to the entire Muslim world. Gulf War sanctions UN Security Council Resolution 661 of the United Nations On August 6, 1990, after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items humanitarian needs, is to be determined by the committee Security Council sanctions. From 1991 until 2003 the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation poverty, widespread malnutrition. At the end of the 1990s the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. According to UN estimates, between 500,000 and 1.2 million children died during the years of the sentence. Draining Qurna Marshes Qurna Marshes draining the irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately after the Gulf War, to drain a large swamp in the Tigris-Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3000 square kilometers, the large complex of wetlands were almost completely

emptied of water, and the local Shiite population moved, following the Gulf War and the 1991 revival. By 2000, the United Nations Environment Programme United Nations estimates that 90% of the marsh has been lost, resulting in desertification over 7,500 square miles (19,000 km2). Many international organizations such as the UN Human Rights Commission, the Supreme Council of Islamic Revolution in Iraq, the International Wildfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, and Middle East Watch described the project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through water diversion tactics . Spill Gulf War On January 23, Iraq dumped 400 million U.S. gallons (1,500,000 m3) of crude oil into the Persian Gulf, causing an offshore oil spill the largest in history at the time. It has been reported as natural resources deliberate attack to keep U.S. Marine forces from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt). Approximately 30-40% of this came from Allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets. Kuwait Oil Fires Kuwait oil fire caused by a burning Iraqi army 700 oil wells as part of the Scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after the capture of the country but being driven by Coalition forces. The fire began in January and February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991. The resulting fire burned for hazard control sending crews deletion. Land mines have been placed in areas around the oil wells, and the military clearance is necessary before the fires can be extinguished. Place around 6 million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil were lost each day. Finally, delete the private contract fire crews, with a total cost of U.S. $ 1.5 billion to Kuwait. At that time, however, the fire had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution. Cost War to the United States was calculated by the Congress of the United States $ 61,100,000,000 About $ 52 billion of the amount was paid by different countries around the world: $ 36 billion by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf; $ 16 billion by Germany and Japan (which sent no combat force because their constitution). About 25% of Saudi Arabia's contribution was paid in-kind services to the troops, such as

food and transportation. U.S. troops represented about 74% of the energy mix, and the global cost is higher. Impact On Developing Countries Away from the effects of the Gulf of America itself, resulting in economic disruptions after the crisis affected many countries. ODI undertook a study in 1991 to assess the impact on developing countries and the response of the international community. Briefing Paper finalized on the day that the conflict ended draw on their findings which had two main conclusions: Many developing countries were severely affected and while there is a considerable response to the crisis, the distribution is highly selective. ODI elements about the 'cost' which included Oil imports, remittance flows, resettlement costs, loss of export earnings and tourism. For Egypt the cost totaled: 1bn - 3% of GDP. Yemen has been hit hard by the cost of 1 billion - 10% of the GDP, while the cost Jordan 2bn, 32% of GDP. International response to the crisis on developing countries came with the channeling aid through the Gulf Crisis Financial Coordination Group. They were 24 countries, comprising most of the OECD countries plus some Gulf countries: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait. The members of this group agreed to disperse 14bn in development assistance. The World Bank responded by accelerating an existing project loan payments and adjustments. The International Monetary Fund adopted two lending facilities - Facilities Enhancement Structure Adjustment (Esau) and compensation & Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF). European Community offers 2 billion clarification needed help. Media coverage examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (January 2010) Media coverage of the Gulf War Persian Gulf War was a war of heavy television. For the first time people around the world can watch live pictures of missiles hitting their targets and fighters take off from aircraft carriers. Allied forces were keen to demonstrate the accuracy of their weapons. In the United States, the "big three" network anchors led the network news coverage of the war: ABC's Peter Jennings, Dan Rather CBS, and NBC, Tom Brokaw anchoring their evening news when air strikes began on January 16, 1991. ABC News correspondent Gary Shepard, reporting live from Baghdad, told Jennings lonely city. But, moments later,

Shepard was back in the air as flashes of light appear on the horizon and tracer fire was heard on the ground. On CBS, viewers were watching a report from correspondent Allen Pizzey, who was also reporting from Baghdad, when the war began. Rather, after the report was finished, announced that there were unconfirmed reports of flashes in Baghdad and heavy air traffic at bases in Saudi Arabia. "NBC Nightly News", correspondent Mike Boettcher reported unusual air activity in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Moments later, Brokaw announced to the audience that the air attack had started. Still, it was CNN which gained popularity for their coverage, and indeed war coverage is often cited as one of the historical events in the development network. CNN correspondents John Holliman and Peter Arnett and CNN anchor Bernard Shaw relayed audio reports from the Al-Rashid Hotel as the air strikes began. Network has convinced the Iraqi government to allow installation of permanent audio circuit in their temporary bureau. When the phone all the other Western TV correspondents went dead during the bombing, CNN is the only service able to provide live reports. After the initial bombing, Arnett remained behind and was for a time, only American TV correspondent reporting from Iraq. In Britain, the BBC devoted the national FM radio stations speech BBC Radio 4 18h rolling news format to create Radio 4 News FM. The station was short lived, ending shortly after President Bush declared a ceasefire and the liberation of Kuwait. However, it paved the way for the introduction of the then Radio Five Live. Two BBC correspondent John Simpson and Bob Simpson (who, despite sharing a family name, is not related), challenging their editor and remained in Baghdad to report on the progress of the war. They are responsible for the report, including "famous cruise missile that traveled down the road and turn left at the traffic light." 130 Newspapers around the world also covered the war and Time magazine published a special issue dated 28 January 1991, the headline "WAR IN BAY WATERS" emblazoned on the cover over a picture of Baghdad taken as the war began. U.S. policy regarding media freedom was much more restrictive than in the Vietnam War. This policy was stated in the Pentagon document entitled Annex Foxtrot. Most of the press information came from briefings organized by the military. Only selected journalists were allowed to visit the front line or conduct interviews with soldiers. They appear to be always carried out in the presence of officers, and subject to the approval of both the first by the military and censorship afterward. This was ostensibly to protect sensitive information from lowered into Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military
130

Hiro, Dilip (1992). Desert Shield to Desert Storm: The Second Gulf War. NY: Routledge.

experience of the Vietnam War, in which public opposition in the United States increased during the war. It not only limits the information in the Middle East, the media also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic picture as Ken Jarecke image of a burnt Iraqi army pulled from the American AP wire while in Europe has given extensive coverage. At the same time, the coverage of this war was new in the instantaneousness (that said, unlike any other news ever done). About halfway through the war, the Iraqi government decided to allow live satellite transmission from the country by Western news organizations, and U.S. journalists returned en masse to Baghdad. Tom aspell NBC, Bill Blakemore ABC, and Betsy Aaron CBS News filed reports, subject to acknowledged Iraqi censorship. Throughout the war, footage of incoming missiles published immediately. British crew from CBS News (David Green and Andy Thompson), equipped with satellite transmission equipment traveled with the front line forces and, having transmitted live TV pictures that occur in the course of fighting, the day before the forces in Kuwait City, broadcasting live television from the city and covering the entrance of the Arab force the next day. Alternative media outlets provided views in opposition to the Gulf War. Deep Dish Television compiled segments from independent producers in the U.S. and abroad, and produced a series of 10-hour distributed internationally, called the Gulf Crisis TV Project. The first program of this series War of Oil and Power was compiled and released in 1990, before the war broke out. News World Order was the title of another program in the series, it focuses on media accomplices in promoting the war, as well as the American reaction 'to the media coverage. In San Francisco, as a local example, Paper Tiger Television West produced a weekly cable television show with emphasis on large-scale demonstrations, action artist, lectures, and protests against mainstream media coverage at newspaper offices and television stations. Local media outlets in cities across the country show the same opposition media. Justice organizations and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) critically analyzed media coverage during the Gulf War in articles and books and many, such as the 1991 Gulf War Coverage: The Worst Censorship was at Home131

131

Yusufzai, Rahimullah (26 September 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian (London). Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080119011449/. Retrieved 30 June 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,558075,00.html.

Conclusion First, it is necessary to look at the background of the turbulent history of this region of the World. Although we tend to call the conflict 1990-1991 Gulf War is not the first Gulf war in the region. From 1980 to 1988 a bloody war against neighboring Iraq against Iran. In 1980, Iraq attacked a border dispute over the ownership of the Shatt Al Arab waterway which borders both countries. For the increasingly shaky Iraq against Iran numerical stronger, but the technology is lower. In 1988, Iraq changed tactics and the use of chemical weapons, massive artillery bombardments and Republican Guard make rapid progress rolling back when the war ended Iran until they've got 500 miles of territory. Water canal clogged with mud and debris it is now useless. War left Iraq with debt mainly to Kuwait worth more than $ 80 billion. It is this chemical tactics and artillery bombardment, the Confederate forces during the Gulf War and then expect, and this debt, the seeds of future conflict that. By 1990, Iraq was in severe financial trouble is the low oil prices and Iraq depend on this as the main source of income. It accuses Kuwait overproducing and flooding the market with cheap oil. Kuwait agreed to lower production, but this failed to calm Sadamm Hussain. He has a second complaint with Kuwait that Rumalia oilfield in northern Kuwait. Iraq owes half of this oil field and want another, so they accused Kuwait of stealing oil half of Iraq's oil fields. With the Western powers focused on Europe and the end of the Cold War gave some much attention to the Iraqi threat to Kuwait "Rich, vulnerable small states". Even when the conflict looks likely thought that if they did not attack it will be limited objectives such as oil wells, (this is what Gen Schwarzkopf believe). Intelligence agencies to predict the attack is only the CIA and then it was on the day before the Iraqis invaded, (not use a lot). On August 2, 1990 100,000 Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait, led by three Republican Guard division. It is organized by Heli-bounds and amphibious attack, the Special Forces landing on the main site and ground controllers disguised as civilians occur in the future to order Armour. Resistance quickly disintegrate. Saddam Hussein, then make the first big mistake, his troops stopped at the border of Saudi Arabia. He had 130,000 men and 800 tanks in 1200 to only 72,000 rifles Arab, if he had invaded it provoked strong international response, but the airport and port and Arabs in hand, it will be the release of any very difficult indeed. Maybe he can not afford to support military logistics? Maybe he was afraid of retaliation? No one knows, but this is likely to be the only chance to win the war. By December 1990, it is clear the people of Iraq have dug in, and the whole combination of the following building stupid he left their forces in Saudi Arabia without persecution.

Bibliography Bolkom, Christopher; Pike, Jonathan. "Attack Aircraft Proliferation: Areas for Concern". Retrieved 4 December 2005. http://www.fas.org/spp/aircraft/part08.htm. Cooper, Tom; Sadik, Ahmad (16 September 2003). "Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990". Air Combat Information Group. Retrieved 17 April 2010. http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_213.shtml. Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. Finlan, Alastair (2003). The Gulf War 1991. Osprey. Gulf War. Retrieved 2012 May 28 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War Hawley., T. M. (1992). Against the Fires of Hell: The Environmental Disaster of the Gulf War. New York u.a.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Hiro, Dilip (1992). Desert Shield to Desert Storm: The Second Gulf War. NY: Routledge. Iraqi Gulf War. Retrieved 2012 May 28 from http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_gulf1990.html#iraqi

Yusufzai, Rahimullah (26 September 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian (London). Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080119011449/. Retrieved 30 June 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,558075,00.html.

Chapter 11 The Palestinian Intifada, 1987-1991 Introduction Intifada Intifada (Arabic intifadat) (variant spelling: Intifadeh, Intifada) means "shaking" or "shook up." It is often used to rise in the modern era include: * March Intifada - uprising against the British presence in Bahrain March 1965. * Zemla Sahara Intifada against Spanish rule from 1970. * First Intifada, the Palestinian uprising against Israeli Arabs from 1987 to about about 1991. * 1990s Intifada, the rise in Bahrain demanding democratic rule. * 1991 uprisings in Iraq against Saddam Hussein. * Cedar Revolution or Independence Intifada, the events in Lebanon after the assassination Rafiq Hariri in 2005. * Independence Intifada, demonstrations and rioting in Morocco and Western Sahara early May 2005. * French Intifada, is sometimes used to denote the riots in France in the fall of 2005. * Second Intifada or Al-Aqsa Intifada, violent Palestinian-Israeli conflict that began in September 2000. This chapter is about the First Intifada, the most famous, and was probably named for many others. Since the Six Day War Israel occupied Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. After some initial violence in 1970, the occupied territories are silent. Open borders. Israel went shopping in the West Bank and Gaza. Thousands of Palestinians to work in Israel every day. From Israel's point of view, it seems as though reality can last forever. However, the Palestinian people are not satisfied with the job. They see their land slowly disappear, especially after the right-wing Likud party took power in 1977. Israel has not implemented such a solution for the region within the framework of the signed peace with Egypt - the negotiations came to nothing. Jordan handwashing Palestinian territory in 1987 and the medium has lost its influence there. PLO has failed to achieve anything for the Palestinians. The bulk of the Palestinian people, especially in the West Bank, is in favor of compromise

with Israel, rather than the sterile and grandiose dreams "liberate Palestine" (which, liquidating Israel) offered by the PLO. Palestinian Intifada claimed that the brutal repression of the protest againstIsrael including extra judicial killings, mass detentions, house demolitions, indiscriminate torture, deportations, land theft and other abuses. Egyptian production if their demands to leave Gaza and the West Bank, Jordan may have influenced events. Palestinians, especially in Gaza, has a very high birthrates - a remarkable even for the poor. Israeli occupation has led to a rise in the standard of living stable, but around 1987, there was a recession and some increase in unemployment. Palestinians feel abandoned by their Arab allies. On the one hand, the PLO has failed to destroy Israel and establish a Palestinian state in place as they promised. Instead, the PLO had managed to damage Israel's efforts to resettle refugees and blocked Israel tried to call elections in the territory. When Israel was holding local elections and did not like the results, they fired several mayors. For many Palestinians it seems they may certainly remain politically impotent forever unless they take their own destiny in their hands. 132 Imam using Friday sermons to incite the Israeli government. It may be that the founders of the Hamas extremists in 1987 played a role in popularizing the "resistance." Similarly, there are few incidents of violence against Palestinians Israeli public. The first intifada began in December 1987 according to the official history, although there is no clear peak in Israel that followed the date of death is "official" and may be associated with. For some reason, the exact date varies according to different accounts. On December 6, 1987ref Ref, (or December 4 ref ref)) 1 plastic salesman Israel, Shlomo Sakal, fatally stabbed while shopping in Gaza. On December 6, there seems to be a riot in Gaza. Two to four days after the stabbing (December 6 or 8 suitable for different accounts), four residents of Jabalya refugee camp in Gaza have been killed in a road accident. Rumors spread that the four were killed by the Israelis as a deliberate act of revenge. Massive riots occurred in Jabalya in the morning of December 9. The 17-year-old threw a Molotov cocktail at the military patrol and was killed by IDF soldiers. Death called a trigger large-scale riots that swept the West Bank, Gaza and Jerusalem. Unlike the Second Intifada, the first Intifada turned out to be planned, and there is less violence. PLO is quite weak in the occupied territories. It is headquartered in Tunis and is concerned with the survival of the organization after being expelled from Lebanon. Hiltermann, Joost R. (1991). Behind the Intifada: Labor and Women's Movements in the Occupied Territories (1993 reprint ed.). Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. Retrieved 2012 May 30 from http://books.google.com/books?id=m2fdWT3CuyQC.

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The first intifada characterized mainly by pamphlets and throwing stones, especially because the Palestinians do not have a lot of weapons. Doubt that many Palestinians have the philosophy of non-violence involved, and they generally support the violent attacks carried out by militant organizations. The image below may be quite common first Intifada.133

Palestinians in the first Intifada organization Palestinians in the first Intifada organization Palestinian organization - the militant group first played little or no role in the first intifada, which has attracted the PLO by surprise. Sari Nusseibeh Fatah (Once Upon a Country 1) related that he and other partners will set up an underground printing press and distribution network, but there is no organized source of weapons. One group that may have been known as the "National Integrated Leadership rebellion was" put "communiqus" and calls to action that has been followed by the Palestinians. The demonstration proved evolved from a random mob to events more regularly. Hamas and Islamic Jihad initiated incidents of violence and kidnapping soldiers, and in fact, 1987 marks the out come of Hamas as a terrorist group. Some events may have accelerated the Intifada including 19 April, 1988 PLO leader Abu Jihad assassination by agents of Israel's massacre, on May 20, 1990 at least 7 Palestinians wait to work at the bus stop in Israel by Ami Popper, Israeli extremists have been dishonorably discharged from the IDF.

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Intifada. Retrieved 2012 May 30. http://mideastweb.org/Middle-East-Encyclopedia/intifada.htm

Death in the first Intifada Overall Palestinians suffered about 2,000 deaths in this period, and Israel in the neighborhood of 160-300. Approximately 886 Palestinians were killed according to figures Betselem the 1987-1991 period, which is often regarded as the Intifada "official". Until the signing of the Oslo agreement, have been killed in all of 1100. Approximately an additional 1,000 Palestinian deaths as murder allegedly by Palestinian collaborators (Zachary Lockman, Joel Beinin (1989) Intifada: Palestinian Revolt Against Israeli Occupation South End Press, pp. 38), although some claim that this murder is really reply revenge killing or tribal warfare. The exact numbers depend on who does the counting and reporting and the calculated. As can be seen in the table below, there appear to be inconsistencies and unexplained dramatic between Btselem report (Btselem group Human Rights 1 Israel accused of having a proPalestinian bias) and that reported by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA). However, these differences are not systematic, since Btselem over-report the death of the First Intifada, Israel while under-reporting, and the opposite is true during the Intifada. Data for Palestinian deaths before 1988 are not available. It is very interesting that there is no dramatic increase in mortality Israel proper in the first Intifada, and the two sources agree that there is no substantial decrease in the death of Israel in 1992, when there were supposedly no Intifada. Please note that Betselem only provide data from December 9, 1987 and up. We do not have figures for the entire year either to Palestine or Israel from Betselem. During the "official" end of the Intifada in 1991, a total of 84 Israelis were killed by Betselem. In the 2 years following the "quiet", 95 Israelis have been killed! Within two years after the first full year of the Oslo process, 120 Israelis were killed. In less than 3 months at the end of 1993, after the signing of the Oslo agreement, 19 Israelis were killed. According to Israeli figures, it is less dramatic. 121 Israelis were killed from 1987 to 1991, but only 110 if we exclude deaths before the start of the Intifada - 110 deaths in 4 years full-year average of 28. In the following two years, another 79 Israelis were killed - almost 40 per year. During the year 1995-96, 85 Israelis were killed according to Israeli deaths From the point of view, there is no way to determine the end of the first and beginning of the Intifada should be relaxed, because there is no such term. 1991 was relatively low point, but the number of deaths is not as low as it is in the quietest years in 1980. For Palestinian deaths, 1990 and 1991 is relatively low points, but after years of producing more deaths. Again, looking only at death, the numbers do not support the idea that the First Intifada really began or ended at a certain point, even if 1991 is the year of the quietest in the Intifada.

Intifada process, whatever it was, was not associated with the violence. Palestinians. who has shown no particularly those who have killed Israelis and have not been adjusted proven terrorist groups. 1988, the first full year of the Intifada, has no unusual number of Israeli deaths. 1985 saw 27 Israeli deaths as reported by the Israeli Ministry of Foriegn Affairs. , 1983, 21. In 1980, 16 Israelis died, the same number as in 1988. 1994, the first full year of the Oslo peace process, is worse than any of the previous in terms of Israeli deaths. We do not have figures for deaths prior to the start of Arab First Intifada. 134 Violent Incidents Within the First Intifada This is the record of major violent incidents in this period and earlier. The first major attack in 1987 occurred before the beginning of the Intifada should be, although it might have inspired. Frequency and impact of these incidents do not seem to be much worse than those that occurred in previous years. There are however, a period of calm compared in Israel after Misgav Am attack, until 1987. This may reflect the neutralization of the militant organization by the peace process with Egypt. During the Intifada "official", there are two major terrorist incidents in Israel. This is the exception rather than the 1980s, but rarely as bad as the unending flow of attack before the 1980's. July 22, 1968 - Rome, Italy Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) carry loot 1, remove the El Al flight to Algiers. 32 Jewish passengers held hostage for 5 weeks. September 4, 1968 - Tel Aviv, Israel 1 killed and 71 wounded by 3 bombs exploded in the city center. October 1968 - Hijacking planes El Al travel to Algeria. November 22, 1968 - Jerusalem, Israel 12 killed and 52 wounded by car bomb in Mahaneh Yehuda market. Dec 26, 1968 - Athens, Greece 1 killed and 1 wounded in shooting attack El Al aircraft at the airport, which is run by the PFLP. February 18, 1969 - Zurich, Switzerland A pilot and three passengers were killed by the terrorists who attacked the El Al Boeing 707 on the runway.

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King, Mary Elizabeth (2007). A Quiet Revolution: The First Palestinian Intifada and Nonviolent Resistance. New York: Nation Books.

February 21, 1969 - Jerusalem, Israel 2 killed and 20 injured by a bomb detonated in a crowded supermarket. Oct 22, 1969 - Haifa, Israel 4 killed and 20 injured in a terrorist bombing in 5 apartments. February 10, 1970 - Zurich, Switzerland 1 killed and 11 wounded by 3 Arab terrorists who unsuccessfully tried to seize one El Al flight at Zurich airport. May 22, 1970 - Avivim, Israel Terrorists attacked a school bus killing 12 (9 of them are children), and wounding 24. September 6, 1970 - Dawson's Field, Jordan 3 aircraft holds 400 passengers was hijacked and taken to the airport by the PFLP Jordan. Hostages freed in exchange for terrorists held in Germany, Switzerland and England. May 8, 1972 - airport LOD, Israel 1 and 5 passengers who were killed during the Israeli military rescue operation by Israeli commandos on a hijacked plane Belgium; 4 Palestinian Black September terrorists killed. Hostages were released. May 30, 1972 - LOD airport 26 were killed and 78 others were injured after a fire PFLP and the Japanese Red Army terrorists open the passenger terminal. September 5, 1972 - Munich, Germany 11 members of the Israeli Olympic wrestling team and one German policeman were killed by Fatah terrorists after a failed rescue attempt by West German authorities. April 11, 1974 - Kiryat Shemona, Israel | 18 killed, 8 of them were children, by PFLP terrorists detonated their explosives during a failed rescue attempt by Israeli authorities. May 15, 1974 - Maalot, Israel 27 killed, 21 of them were children, and 78 wounded by PFLP terrorists in a school, after a failed rescue attempt. Mar 5, 1975 - Tel Aviv, Israel Terrorists take over the Savoy hotel, 4 people were killed. July 4, 1975 - Jerusalem, Israel 14 killed and 80 wounded in a bombing attack Zion Square, where a bomb hidden in a refrigerator. June 27, 1976 - Entebbe, Uganda An Air France plane was hijacked by a group of joint German / PFLP terrorists, the flight diverted to Entebbe airport. About 258 passengers and crew hostage until all non-Israeli

passengers were released. All the terrorists have been killed, and three passengers and operations leader Lieutenant-Colonel Jonathan Netanyahu. August 11, 1976 - Istanbul, Turkey 4 killed and 20 wounded by PFLP and the Japanese Red Army terrorist attack at the airport in Istanbul. Mar 11, 1978 - Glilot intersection 36 killed, and more than 100 injured in bus hijacking by Palestinian terrorist gang led by women. April 7, 1980 - Kibbutz Misgav-Am, Israel | children's homes Terrorist attack on the kibbutz, leaving 3 dead, one of them is a child. June 3, 1982 - London, England Abu Nidal organization was trying to kill Israeli ambassador to London, Shlomo Argov, severely injuring him. Oct 7, 1985 - PLFP attack Achille Lauro ship on the way to Israel, killing one of the passengers (an American). September 6, 1986 - Istanbul, Turkey Abu Nidal organization Neveh Shalom synagogue attack, killing 22 people. November 25, 1987 - Northern Border, Israel (near Kiryat Shemona) 2 Palestinian terrorists crossed into Israel from Lebanon on hang gliders, killing six Israeli soldiers and wounded eight. August 21, 1988 - Haifa 25 injured in bomb attack in Haifa shopping center. July 6, 1989 - Tel Aviv 14 Islamic Jihad militants were killed when a bus driving (Bus 405) into a ravine outside Jerusalem-Tel Aviv highway. March 17, 1992 Buenos Aires The bombing of the Israeli Embassy by "Islamic Jihad" in Buenos Aires, Argentina: 29 killed, 242 wounded.

First Intifada Fatalities

Israeli Deaths Year MFA Btselem Palestinian Deaths

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

16 14 6 21 9 27 14 11 16 40 33 21 34 45 65 29 56 12 31 22 19 34 61 74 46 75 22 310 305 145 104 138 180 152 45 74

Israeli reaction to the First Intifada Given the nature of the challenges undramatic Palestinians, Israel's response is totally inexplicable. Israel killed a large number of Palestinians in the early part of the Intifada, and most of them were apparently killed in protests and riots. It is easy to claim it is due to

cruelty or insensitive, but most aspects of policy are not actually productive. Palestinians Brutalization and mass arrests can only sow the seeds of the next Intifada. Israel's continuing announcements and official rhetoric about "terrorism" is also strange. There are many demonstrations, but no deaths have been in many more than the previous year. Perhaps there are many more non-fatal violent attack. However, it is in Israel's interest to downsize Intifada, since the more publicity it has, the more it seems that the Palestinian "David" was successfully challenged the Israeli "Goliath." Large number of Palestinian deaths bring condemnation UN (Security Council Resolution 605) early in the Intifada. It helps to draw world attention to the plight of Palestine and created growing antiIsrael lobby and the anti-occupation throughout the world. Mass arrests and administrative detentions in the first Intifada is a breeding ground for terrorism. Israel captured about 120,000 Palestinians in this period and held by them for various periods. Some parties have committed serious offenses. It is unlikely that 120,000 Palestinians are responsible for less than 200 Israeli deaths. 15 year old go to the "demonstration." He has no particular ideology. Each person is throwing stones, so he threw stones. He was arrested and imprisoned for several months. He "graduated" as a member of a terrorist group with a violent ideology and revenge. -Ami Isseroff, November 11, 2008. 135 Conclusion The First Intifada (also known as simply "Intifada" is the Palestinian uprising against the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territory, which lasted from December 1987 to 1993. Uprising began in Jabalia refugee camp and quickly spread throughout Gaza, the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Palestinian actions primarily included nonviolent civil disobedience and resistance, and it is the first time that Palestinians act together and as a nation. There are general strikes, boycotts on Israeli products, refusal to pay taxes, graffiti, and the causeway, but the Palestinian demonstrations that included stone throwing by youths against the Israel Defense Forces (Israeli Defence Force) defined violence much. Intra-Palestinian violence was a prominent feature of the Intifada, with widespread executions of alleged Israeli collaborators. While Israeli forces killed about 1100 Palestinians and Palestinians killed 164 Israelis, Palestinians killed about 1,000 other Palestinians as alleged contributory, although less than half had any proven contact with the Israeli authorities.

135

Ibid

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