Physics Notes

The World Communicates 1. The wave model can be used to explain how current technologies transfer information. 1.1 Energy Transformation in mobile phones: sound > electrical > radio EM > electrical > sound Built in microphones change sound waves into electrical signals Electrical signals are then digitised (binary) and transmitted as radio waves to base station Cable networks then carry signals as electrical impulses which have each been produced by radio energy

1.2 waves are carriers of energy They are formed as a result of vibrations within wave particles (oscillation) Transfer of energy is always from the source of vibration Can be 1D (waves that are either just longitudinal or transverse), 2D (transverse waves travelling from a point source of disturbance circular motion) or 3D (how light and sound travels everywhere in every direction in a spherical shape)

1.3 Mechanical waves require a medium for propagation. They vibrate (oscillate) through the medium. Whereas non mechanical waves (EM waves) do not, they are self-propagating through electric and magnetic fields. Their velocity is always 3 x 108 m/s.

1.4 Definitions: Medium - the object or matter through which mechanical waves oscillate Displacement - distance from normal to any point. Amplitude - the distance between the equilibrium and crest or trough. (the maximum size of the particle displacement from the normal) Period (T) - the time it takes (in seconds) for one complete vibration to occur T = 1/f Compression - the area in which the particles are compressed close together on longitudinal waves. Rarefaction - the area in which the particles are spread out on longitudinal waves

Crest- highest point on a transverse wave Trough - lowest point on a transverse wave Transverse waves - motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. 1.5 Longitudinal waves - motion is parallel to the direction of propagation Frequency - the amount of waves passing a point per second (Hz). 1 hertz is equal to 1 cycle or wavelength per second. f = 1/T, f = v/ Wavelength - the distance between 2 crest/troughs or 2 compressions/rarefactions. Velocity - how fast the wave transfers energy from the source. 1.6 Velocity = frequency x wavelength v=f 2. Features of a wave model can be used in account for the properties of sound. 2.1 Sound waves are vibrations or oscillations of particles in a medium. 2.2 The areas when displacement of the wave is above the equilibrium represent the zones of compressions The areas when displacement of the wave is below the equilibrium represent the zones of rarefaction.

2.3 2.4 2.5 Superposition is the addition of waves (amplitudes are added together) Echoes are sound waves reflected from surfaces. Heard when you are a good distance from a reflecting surface - 17m atleast is good. Adopted in SONAR technology including depth sounding Sound travels at 340m/s pitch is related to frequency volume is related to amplitude

Waves increase if they are in phase.

Waves decrease if they are out of phase.

If they are 180 degrees out of phase, they cancel each other out.

3. Recent technological developments have allowed greater use of the EM spectrum. 3.1 3.2 Most UV rays are absorbed by the ozone layer. Most Gamma and X-rays are absorbed by the Ionosphere IR and light usually make it through but about 30% is reflected back into space. EM waves travel at the speed of light which is 3 x 108 m/s They are always transverse waves Perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. Doesnt require a medium to propagate.

3.3 EM Wave & Detection method => Photographic film is best for most 3.4 I 1/d2 Intensity is proportional to 1 over distance squared. The closer you are to the energy source the more intense the energy. Gamma Rays Geiger counters & Thermoluminoscent detector X rays Geiger counters & electronic detectors and counters UV Photomultipliers, electronic photo detectors Visible light meters & photoreceptive cells in the eyes IR cameras and film that detect the difference in temperatures Microwaves antennas, aerials & materials that glow (fluorescent) Radio waves antennas & aerials

3.5

Amplitude Modulation Only amplitude varies Changing amplitudes are the codes for the information being carried Carrier waves and audio waves are added in an electric circuit called a modulator Resulting AM waves are amplified and transmitted from an antenna Radio receivers contain a demodulating circuit which removes carrier waves and sends the audio waves to the speaker.

Frequency Modulation Only frequency varies The information is coded into the different frequencies. Carrier + audio wave are combined in the modulator circuit Resulting FM wave increases in frequency to indicate a crest in the audio wave and decreases to indicate a trough in the audio waves.

Pulse Modulation: 3.6 Problems caused by limited range of EM spectrum for communication: Cost New technologies cant fit into bandwidth because old technology is occupying it. Carries information in digital form Changes between 2 states represented by 1s and 0s. Waves can be switched on and off or back and forth between the 2 states Optical fibres carry pulse modulated laser beams

Solution: Digital revolution as it transmits 4 times more data than analog in the same bandwidth.

4. Many communication technologies use applications of reflection and refraction of EM waves. 4.1

Law of reflection: <i = <r (Angle of incidence = angle of reflection)

Waves can be reflected from smooth flat mirror like surfaces or irregular/bumpy surfaces.

4.2 Reflections of light, radio waves and microwaves have helped in information transfer. The ionosphere could be used as it reflects these waves back to earth. Or Geosynchronous satellites which orbit the directly above the equator and sends information to people all over the world.

4.3 Application of reflection: Plane surface: Mirror The reflected image is upright and the same size as the original. Image also appears to be the same distance from the surface but on the other side.

Concave surface: Make-up/shaving mirror, torches or car headlights Reflected image depends on the position of the object in relation to the focal point. If its closer to the mirror than the focal point, the image is upright and magnified. If its further than the focal point, the image is inverted (upside down).

Convex surface: security mirrors in shops Image is upright and reduced in size Wider field of view than a concave or plane mirror.

Radio waves being reflected by the ionosphere:

4.4 -

Radio waves travel for long distances but eventually the curvature of the earths atmosphere gets in the way. Radio waves between 3 50 MHz are reflected, above 50 MHz passes straight through. Works best with longer wavelength AM signals. Shorter wavelength TV signals and FM radio doesnt work as well.

If the wave slows down as it enters the second medium, the wave bends towards the normal and the waves go closer together. If the wave speeds up as it enters the second medium, it bends away from the normal and the waves move further apart.

4.5 4.6 Snells Law As a wave moves from a less dense medium to a denser medium, it will slow down and move towards the normal. (<i greater than <r) As density increases, so does the refractive index? (check) Refractive index: the ratio of speed of an EM wave in a vacuum (c) (3 x 10 8 m/s) to that in matter (v) is known as the refractive index (n). n=c/v

4.7 As a wave enters a denser medium, it will slow down and bend towards the normal, eventually the transmitted ray will be tangent to the boundary and the angle of refraction will be equal to 90 degrees. This is known as the critical angle. For incident rays greater than the critical angle, all of the waves energy will be reflected at the boundary back into the incidence medium. This is known as total internal reflection. Condition necessary for total internal reflection is that the angle of incidence is greater than angle of refraction which is 90 degrees.

4.8 Optical fibres have central high refractive index region called core and a low refractive index outer region called cladding.

After the EM radiation enters the optical fibres, it is totally internally reflected at the interface between the core and the cladding. The light is trapped internally and continually moves forward through the optical fibre.

5. Electromagnetic waves have potential for future communication technologies and data storage technologies. 5.1 5.2 GPS 32 satellites orbiting the earth (controlled by the US air force) Each satellite constantly sends microwave signals identifying itself, its orbit details and the precise time the signal was sent out. To find your location, this information is used from 3 satellites and triangulated. Their point of intersection is where the receiver is. There may be more than one point of intersection but they are probably in space and therefore can be disregarded. Word is becoming digitised meaning all information is converted into digital code for processing, storage or transmission or communication. CD,DVD, Phone, Camera, Computer, Internet, MP3, ATM, GPS Waves are mainly used to move this data around.