Series Opinion Piece: Are The Current Approaches To Youth Development Effective in Meeting The Needs of Today's Adolescents?

Youth development refers to the services, guidance, and support provided to help young people effectively transition to adulthood, and prepare for their future education, employment, and personal development journey. It’s vitally important to ensure that every adolescent understands the world and themselves, feels supported in their academic, domestic and social environments, and is equipped with the appropriate skills, knowledge, and mindset to reach their full potential. These settings are interdependent in terms of effectively contributing to youth development. Understanding the interconnections between education, enrichment, engagement, and awareness is crucial, as is the fact that each has a distinctive approach to youth development and practice. This paper discusses the various factors that affect youth development, gives background information on their significance and current state, and assesses how well they are preparing the next generation. It will also emphasise the need of educational equity before offering a summary of how present youth development approaches are affecting adolescents and whether or not transformation is necessary and if so, where.

Introduction to Youth Development

In 2020, The Independent released an article showing that “half of school leavers do not feel prepared for working life.” Though it is tempting to blame the COVID-19 pandemic for this, which created immense challenges to youth services and development, this paper will show that research before its emergence revealed similar statistics, which could well be the same, or even greater, this year. As a result, it is evident that governments, organisations, and academic institutions must prioritise the long-overdue reform and transformation of youth development approaches and individual strategies. The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (2015), the European Consensus on Development, and even the Commonwealth Nations' Policy for Young People all emphasise the significance of education and youth support.

One popular educational model focuses on activities that foster strategies for positive development rather than on managing specific risks or problems. Known as the 5 Cs of Youth Development , it offers guidance on how to create responsible and successful adolescents by spotlighting Connection, Confidence, Competence, Character and Contribution. Later adding Caring, Curiosity and Control to form the 8 Cs of Youth Development.

The purpose of this piece is to assess four key approaches to youth development (education, awareness, enrichment, and engagement) that ultimately seek to enable adolescents to develop these characteristics and discuss how their success varies. It will utilise recent empirical research to outline the shortcomings and successes of the approaches thus far and outline how well they are presently meeting the developmental needs of today's adolescents. The piece will demonstrate that to improve effectiveness, it is essential to assess disparities in the quality of and level of investment into youth services across the country and ensuring that resources are better targeted at certain youth demographics that are currently overlooked.

The Educational Approach

In early 2022, over 500,000 4–17-year-olds responded to the Children’s Commissioner’s Big Ask survey and gave their views on the current state of education. Overall, there proved to be high dissatisfaction with the present structure, and frequent mention of the need for more motivated, skilled and passionate teachers. The report provided a summary which stated that children were frustrated as they felt that “their school didn’t believe in them and this was seen as a barrier to realising their potential.” Quality learning material was said to be the most important part of education in the first few years of secondary school; however, as they progress from Y9+, the need for greater emphasis on their personal academic interests becomes increasingly important.

Adolescents, according to Super's Career Development Theory (1953) , are in the phases of trying out new interests and developing a realistic self-concept. This necessitates the educational system's approach to be one based on a personalised journey that incorporates an individual's interests rather than a generic one that requires students to take the same route regardless of their differences and preference. However, the Social Market Foundation (SMF) highlights the need of "developing more ways of demonstrating merit," pointing out that the current assessment methods do not allow for skills and aptitudes to be tested and developed.

Kolb’s Experimental Learning Cycle expands on this implementation of learning styles by touching on how a student encounters experiences through observation and personal involvement with others. They then reflect upon their observations before establishing an interpretation and understanding. During abstract contextualisation, the knowledge is built upon, and the student applies what they have learned from their experience to solve practical problems. The learner cements the information they have learned by succeeding or repeating the cycle.

Although it is an innate learning cycle, many subjects that aren't focused on practical learning make it difficult for students to learn in this manner. In classroom-based subjects such as mathematics and English, the degree of practical-based learning heavily depends on the individual teacher’s personal interest in providing a varied teaching programme. It is not surprising, then, that these core subjects have the lowest pass rate when compared to others. Taking this into account, there is a strong argument that to be more effective, the education system needs to promote engagement in practical application of knowledge gained as a vital part of the learning process.

Furthermore, the method used to gauge students' grasp and understanding of knowledge has remained based on regular examination. Regardless of the teaching style they encounter in class, during the secondary years, students are shown and told content they need to learn and then made to regurgitate the information back through annual exams and written assignments. This only benefits those who can show their level of knowledge through reading and writing in a solitary environment and disadvantages those who are more verbal or auditory learners.

The lack of inclusive, varied and applied teaching styles is possibly a reason why, according to the OECD, “44% of all upper secondary school students opted for Vocational Education & Training (VET) programs over A Levels.”

This indicates that students have struggled with education’s traditional teaching approach and favour the more active, hands-on approach provided by BTECs, T-Levels, and apprenticeships. In a recent study attempting to understand how students felt about the current education system, they expressed significant concern about the harmful impact of excessive exam use during GCSEs. The study concluded that “exams are a source of significant stress and anxiety for many young people at school, who feel under pressure to succeed.” Too much stress has been associated with loss of interest at one end of the scale and significant depression at the other. 

Based on the study’s evidence, it is readily apparent that education must change in order to provide an environment of success where stress is reduced and support is increased. There is also the question of how relevant assessments and subject content are in today’s society. Simon Jenkins, a renowned author and newspaper columnist, wrote an article in the Guardian talking about the tiresome lack of progress that teaching style has had. He highlighted how exams “have become a teaching and assessing tool, not an education” and points out that “employers seek qualities of personality, presentation and general knowledge”, which education fails to incorporate. These life skills are best learnt through the natural use of project-based learning, group discussion and hands-on activities. Most curricula, however, rarely use them since they are primarily concerned with teaching knowledge required for termly exams, which seek to inaccurately estimate a student's success potential based on their academic abilities rather than holistic development. IPPR mentions this by referring to this teaching style as ”teaching to the test,” the phrase meaning that teachers are teaching how to pass exams rather than how to learn and develop workplace skills. However, contrary to the IPPR's argument, it can be argued that the education system is bound to this strategy due to the demand from Ofsted to demonstrate that their students are excelling academically. As a result, schools are forced to prioritise exams and spoon-feed techniques to pupils in order for them to achieve the greatest possible results and maintain their reputation and rating.

The main objective of education is to instill knowledge and understanding in order to provide youth with the chance to thrive personally and academically and prepare them for their Post-18 journey.

The main objective of education is to instill knowledge and understanding in order to provide youth with the chance to thrive personally and academically and prepare them for their Post-18 journey. Currently, the narrow variation in teaching styles and heavy focus on high-stakes exams has meant that the academic approach is not proving effective in meeting the needs of today’s youth.

The Awareness Approach

The second most important role of schools is to have a positive impact on a student's social development through social awareness, wellbeing support and career readiness. This generally occurs through the use of mentoring, PSHE and career exposure. In recent years, the government's call for schools to dedicate more time to these areas has resulted in a national emphasis on preparing students for life after secondary school. Furthermore, it has resulted in organisations such as Drink Aware, NSPCC, and Mind, as well as companies such as Barclays through their LifeSkills & Digital Eagles projects, providing schools with free tools to use in their PSHE sessions.

Over the last ten years, PSHE has become a non-statutory recommended component in schools. The UK Government defends this by highlighting that it allows “teachers the flexibility to deliver high-quality PSHE.” As a result, it can offer relevance for a school that may need to concentrate on some issues more than others, such as drug abuse or sexual harassment. However, this flexibility and hands-off stance are fraught with numerous weaknesses. Referring back to the 8 C's of Development, PSHE is critical in helping students develop compassion for their local and global community, as well as emotional and behavioural control. It holds great importance in today's society because it attempts to cover a wide range of subjects including mental health, financial literacy, drug and alcohol awareness, and sex education. The main goal being, to prepare students to make informed decisions throughout their lives. However, unlike all other subjects, PSHE has no set timetables and set-out curriculum. The government only makes recommendations on what should be taught based on their interpretation of what personal, social, health, and economic education entails. As a result, the depth and breadth in which schools approach PSHE and how they present it inevitably varies. This is a major issue because many schools will provide extensive PSHE education while others will barely scratch the surface.

Evidence provided by the 2012 Ofsted PSHE report showed that PSHE education was good or better in 60% of schools and required improvement or was inadequate in 40%. As a result, PSHE education was at an exceedingly low overall level. Furthermore, RSE (relationships and sexual education) has been given greater priority over PSHE. Although it is undeniable that RSE holds great importance in today's society, it can be argued that the material covered in PSHE is equally essential because it provides important life skills.

Additionally, the relevance of PSHE material contributes to its effectiveness in meeting the needs of today's adolescents. Unlike other subjects, where the content holds long-term relevance, PSHE is linked to current societal issues and developments. That is, it must address present-day issues such as toxic masculinity, climate change, poverty, and political awareness in order to stay relevant and effective. However, because it lacks an official or maintained curriculum, it is currently unable to adequately benefit youth. An article from Tes, mentioned a teacher who said that “current trends in popular culture...demonstrate the subject’s relevance to the classroom.”This demonstrates the overall call for PSHE to become its own statutory subject so that it does not lose its effectiveness on youth.

PSHE must address current societal issues in order to stay relevant and effective.

The emergence of PSHE has also led to more schools developing a Careers Department. Careers and employability exposure is extremely important, especially for those in Yrs 10-13, as it ignites an interest in Post-18 life as well as providing academic motivation and empowering those of low socioeconomic status who may not have access to vocational guidance. GCSEs and A levels/B-Techs give students the qualifications they need in later life. However, careers awareness provides an abundance of important skills, from employability and housing to student life and budgeting. However, referring to the Schools for All study on secondary school experiences, numerous students commented that they had been “given no careers advice or guidance.” This demonstrates the variation in emphasis from school to school, as many students would say they have an abundance of career support, whereas in others, career support is almost non-existent. As a result, while it has proven effective in many schools on a national level, it is obvious that it will not be able to completely meet the needs of adolescents until the Careers Department becomes a fully established and functioning part of all school life. Peer mentoring is also important in the approach to social development. 

Mentoring is frequently used in workplaces and organisations to support employees. Peer mentoring builds on this by involving older students, typically in years 10-13, in mentoring students in lower years. This is intended to provide young students with support and advice for their academic, personal, and emotional development. At the same time, it also enables them to have a role model who has a greater wealth of experience around peer pressure, exam stress and the challenges that come with adolescents, compared to their parents or teachers. Peer mentorship is used in schools to minimise bullying and disruptive behaviour by encouraging pupil-to-pupil emotional interaction. The initiative also benefits mentors by helping them to acquire important skills such as emotional intelligence and conversation. It naturally encourages students to open up about their feelings and discuss ways of dealing with difficult situations.

The impact of peer mentoring, however, is ultimately determined by the school's grasp of what it entails and how it should be implemented. Mentoring is addressed by the Inclusive School Communities, as is the importance of having teachers present to provide a structured and engaging but comfortable setting for mentoring to take place. Schools should also provide mentor training so that there is a clear wellbeing and safety framework for the mentorship process. They make a point of mentioning how “without a proper level of support from school staff, peer mentoring relationships between students are likely to drift without benefit.” Mentoring can be extremely beneficial for students who have strained relationships with teachers or family members because it provides them with a secure person in whom they can place their confidence. However, if the mentoring plan is not correctly launched, it can lead to social distrust in their own peers, which can be equally damaging to them. This means that mentoring without the presence and supervision of teachers is likely to be a waste of time and resources. This provides explanation as to why some schools are hesitant about trying it, mainly due to the fact that they lack qualified staff in this area.

Peer mentoring naturally encourages students to open up about their feelings.

PSHE, peer mentoring and careers education play significant roles in youth awareness. They work to build on the skills and knowledge that may not be touched upon in the classroom and help to create the positive school culture that is needed for students to thrive. However, these methods risk failing to be effective due to their imbalanced presence in school as well as varying levels of passion from school to school in these areas. Therefore, the current approach is not able to meet the needs of today’s adolescents as its current status and quality is not sufficient enough to be effective.

The Enrichment Approach

The youth enrichment approach includes healthy character and relationship building and the development of non-academic talent. Co-curricular activities (non-formal learning) in school, youth centres and clubs all contribute to youth enrichment because they provide students with opportunities to grow in themselves, discover their potential, and develop social and emotional skills. Erikson’s Stages of Development explains how social interaction and relationships affect human development and progress. That is why youth work and engagement provisions and programmes must be successful.

Through co-curricular activities, schools have created means of youth enrichment to be incorporated into school life. These chances are significant because they provide additional educational and developmental opportunities beyond academics. Structured school-based extra-curricular activities have been proven to contribute to higher attendance and attainment levels, as well as improved academic performance. This implies that a plethora of co-curricular options provided students with the motivation and drive to succeed academically in order to achieve their objective. However, it appears that there are numerous factors that make it difficult for schools to provide these activities. A report by the Social Mobility Commission highlighted the fact that "schools with a higher proportion of low-income pupils tend to face challenges and pressures which other, more affluent schools to not have." This raises the issue of how disparities in funding, academic pressures, and external factors such as Ofsted's emphasis on academics and the socioeconomic status of the local community affect a school's capacity to provide non-academic opportunities.

Consequently, charities and independent bodies have had to provide enrichment on behalf of schools, out of school hours. Although partnerships like these are essential for young people to have access to opportunities, it means that schools are delegating more of their responsibilities to other organisations. Inspections will determine that schools no longer need as much funding as they formerly did, and as a result, funding will likely decrease to reflect the workload. Because of this vicious cycle, the delegation of responsibilities to external organisations increases, and the funding for non-academic activities follows in accordance. Consequently, non-academic enrichment opportunities are becoming increasingly limited, threatening youth development even further.

Richard Adams mentioned a study conducted by Demos in 2015 which highlighted a concern that the lack of non-formal learning has put disadvantaged children “at risk of not developing key skills important for success.” The study also pointed out that teachers agreed, “their students would benefit from further opportunities.” This provides evidence that the government is not taking enough measures to ensure that students are benefiting from informal, non-academic learning and schools generally want to see this happen more. Therefore, co-curricular at its current condition is not meeting the needs of today’s youth as there is very little opportunity to participate in these activities.

Non-academic enrichment opportunities are becoming increasingly limited, threatening youth development.

Additionally, youth centres and spaces are important for youth enrichment as they provide educational and recreational activities for teenagers in the local community. Youth are able to form positive relationships with peers and get involved in enriching activities that will support their growth. Centres also provide a much-needed safety net for adolescents affected by negative domestic circumstances and access to informal but professional support from youth workers and trained staff. An article from Youth & Policy helps to address the large extent of work undertaken by youth centres and services. It talks about a London borough in which the main youth service provider “currently has 14 sites across the borough and engages with 5,000 young people per year.” It is important to note that youth services, at the same time as providing a space for youth, naturally work to provide interventions that will reduce their involvement in anti-social behaviour. The same study released a quantitative survey which brought to light that most respondents (74%) identified youth clubs as a youth service that was needed.

However, most youth services, including the prementioned, receive little or no funding from central government and have to rely on the local authority, partnerships with the local police force or independent funding and youth organisations. This threatens their ability to survive because they must compete against each other for grants and resources, as well as the employment of experienced youth workers and space for service expansion. Notably, the average local government spending cut on youth services has been 40% over the last three years (according to APPG), and 760 youth centres have been forces to closed since 2013 (according to Unison). This raises serious concerns about the future of youth services and the well-being of adolescents.

Youth clubs and performance development programs complement the youth enrichment approach. They give adolescents the chance to find and develop their talents in a variety of areas such as sports, creative arts, and public speaking. Following Erikson's model, this allows youth to define themselves based on their skills and traits, allowing them to gain confidence in their personal qualities. These clubs also provide a safe and supportive atmosphere in which they can experiment with new opportunities and establish a growth mindset. Many schools differ in the number of clubs available to students, but outside of school, there are numerous opportunities for youth to join local or national clubs and activities. Keeping this in mind, youth organisations are proving to be successful and effective in meeting the needs of youth; however, the fault lies in youth actively seeking out and participating in these opportunities. There are numerous clubs accessible for youth, as well as many national bodies such as The Football Association, National Speech & Debating Association, and others that initiate local projects and annual events to encourage youth participation in enrichment activities.

Overall, the current youth enrichment approach is failing to meet the needs of today's youth. Lack of school funding and the emphasis on academics has resulted in a significant decrease in the number of co-curricular activities offered. Leigh Middleton, CEO of the National Youth Agency mentions how the number and quality of youth services have fallen nationally, “at the same time as the needs of young people have increased.” Additionally, youth centres, particularly in areas of high ASB, have been forced sacrifice resources, which has resulted in many teenagers becoming isolated or trapped in toxic relationships, without access to confidential support. Although many activities are provided by national organisations to benefit young people, funding and grants must be distributed in such a way that young people are involved in enrichment pursuits and out of school. They also require a safe environment where they can seek advice from easily accessible youth specialists and connect with their peers, forming healthy relationships and friendship networks. Currently, such opportunities are too imbalanced and are being forced to be prioritised over one another.

Lack of school funding and the emphasis on academics has resulted in a significant decrease in the number of co-curricular activities offered.

The Engagement Approach

This approach, which aims to involve youth with their local communities and society is potentially the most forgotten and, for that reason, the least prioritised. Ultimately, youth are the generation that will take on the challenges, achievements, and mistakes that the previous generation left behind. As a result, young people must be actively included in community work, social policy, and decision-making roundtables. The aforementioned 8 C's of Development proposed that in order for youth to become responsible and successful individuals, they must acquire compassion, curiosity, and contribution. These characteristics are formed through involvement with those around them through volunteering, advocacy, and participation at the local or national levels.

Over the last decade, organisations such as the European Youth Parliament (functioning in the UK as EYPUK), National Citizen Service (NCS), and British Youth Council (BYC) have seen rapid growth and impact. Furthermore, cadet-based organisations such as the Army, Police, Air & Sea Cadets, Boys' & Girls' Brigade, Scouts, and many others have played an important role in increasing the amount of voluntary work and community involvement that youth participate in. However, the major problem is that many students either can’t access these opportunities or don’t see their participation as worthwhile.

A research report on volunteering and young people by the Institute for Community Studies (in 2022) provided evidence showing that volunteering in young people was high for those aged 11-13 (average of 62%) before dropping rapidly at 14+. This indicates that other factors, such as exams, are to blame for the decline in volunteer numbers. It goes on to discuss how involvement in clubs and activities increases the likelihood of volunteering, demonstrating that youth are either hesitant or unable to figure out how to volunteer but are passionate participators once engaged. This implies that, as the majority of teenagers use social media, organisations and groups promoting youth volunteering should have a presence on these platforms to reach and involve them. On the other hand, the popular annual NCS Summer program has grown immensely over the last few years (with exception to years impacted by COVID-19) seeing 92,000 young people partake in 2019 and 600,000 to date. The program, which involves a week of volunteering in the local community, has proven to be highly effective in supporting local charities and raising volunteer awareness among young adults. Initiatives like this which take a strategy that appeals to and interests young people are more likely to result in increased volunteerism.

According to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCROC), young people have the right to participate in decision-making as it guarantees their rights to express and have their opinions considered in decisions that affect them, as well as to receive and give information and ideas. Because of the effect it has had on youth, many organisations have formed youth advisory boards to hear what youth have to say about major issues. However, many of organisations and local authorities fail to grasp the way in which youth can be involved in decision-making. Those who have used social platforms to engage youth have succeeded immensely as a result.

The Decision-Making Participation Model by Professor Laura Lundy outlines how this initiative helps to build stronger, more inclusive communities and holds importance as it balances young people’s social rights and responsibilities. According to the model, youth should be provided with a safe place in which they can express themselves and their views. They should be assisted and kept up to date on current events so that they can understand issues and speak out about what they believe. Youth require an openminded audience that listens to their views which are given due weight and acted upon. Many corporations work to apply this by involving youth advisory boards in their process and development plans. Many boards such as the Edge Foundation Youth Network, BYC’s Youth Forum and NCS Changemakers have enabled young adults to take an active role in improving education curricula and community initiatives.

Youth should be provided with a safe place in which they can express themselves and their views.

The youth engagement approach, conclusively, is very new to society and one that is still majorly in its infancy. The statistics shown by the prementioned study indicate that volunteering among young adults is still at a very low level. Additionally, the inclusion of youth in decision-making has not yet been fully accessible to all young people so, therefore, has a long way to go. Although many thousands of adolescents participate in panels and organisations such as the British Youth Council, this is a remarkably small proportion of the total number of teenagers in the UK. Therefore, it would be naïve to suggest that the youth engagement approach is meeting the current needs and wants of youth in its current state. However, its independence from state management, and ability to rely on support from non-governmental organisations, have enabled this approach to remain the most successful approach compared to others and the work done by bodies such as NCS, suggest that it is likely to see rapid growth in the future.

Equity in youth development

Many researchers have pointed out that disparities in youth development opportunities exist across the United Kingdom. This indicates that, while current approaches are proving partially effective at meeting the needs of today's adolescents, certain demographics of youth are missing out from these opportunities. It has been identified that there are four groups of youth in the UK who are often overlooked and do not have access to the same provisions and support as their peers; youth in rural regions, those affected by antisocial behaviour and low socio-economic status, those who are struggling in school and young people in care. This lack of equal opportunities lends credence to the notion that the UK is still prioritising certain groups of young people over others.

The previous article by the NYA highlighted how “young services are vastly underfunded and, in some rural areas, non-existent.” Millions of young people in rural areas lack access to youth groups, activities, and quality education because most funding is directed towards major cities and high-status areas. NYA’s report also showed that schools in these regions often have a small selection of academic options for students entering their post-16 years, with a heavy focus on mathematics, English and agricultural courses. This is very different in comparison to urban regions whose schools provide a plethora of varying courses such as the Arts and STEM. 

The Rural Services Network brought to light that “Rural pupils, on average, are achieving better grades in Maths and English GCSEs but fewer go on to higher education than their city counterparts.” This indicates that, although young people in rural areas excel in these subjects, they have remained behind in their overall academic development. The likely reason being that they are unable to take advantage of other opportunities, courses and a greater choice of post-16 options. In spite of the fact that the requirements of youth in urban areas are being met, those of youth in rural areas have been neglected as a result of this unequal approach.

Although young people in rural areas excel in the core subjects, they have remained behind in their overall academic development.

In addition, there is seen to be an imbalanced amount of funding in regions facing heavy levels of gang culture and anti-social behaviour (ASB). At the same time, youth involvement in ASB and gang-related violence has seen an upward trajectory in the last few years. To combat this, heavily impacted urban areas require more effective programmes and initiatives. Local governments, police forces, and youth services are increasing their pressure on the government to reach the promised funding levels and provide extra resources. New Local, a think tank that focuses heavily on this topic, released a survey in which found “75% of council chiefs believe that they do not have enough funding.” Without proper funding, local bodies are unable launch effective ASB prevention programmes and, therefore, improve the quality of youth development for adolescents in the region. Research shows that adolescents who are affected by ASB are more likely to show poor performance and interest in their education and personal growth and, as a result, have poor educational outcomes. That is why it is imperative that substantial and effective measures are implemented in these regions.

Many counties have found success with partnership initiatives, such as Leicestershire, where the police force has partnered with Leicester Riders and LCFC to provide youth with accessible and engaging sporting opportunities, which has helped in significantly reducing their time on the streets and participation in anti-social behaviour. Similarly, the Northumbria Police Force's own diversionary project, which saw BMX sessions rolled out across the county, was equally successful in reducing ASB. These key examples show that local partnerships play a major role in providing diversions from crime. However, in the absence of central government funding, councils must rely on the goodwill of local bodies to fund initiatives, which frequently results in more short-term solutions to long-term problems. This, in itself, is ineffective and does not address the wider implications that anti-social behaviour has on adolescents.

According to an Institute for Fiscal Studies study, there was a £6,500 difference between public and state education spending per student in 2020–21. This has contributed to the attainment gap as students who attend a state school receive a reduced, watered-down curriculum and scholastic experience compared to those who attend a public school in the same area. Additionally, the disparity between direct and indirect state funding granted to public and state schools has meant that students face different adolescent experiences than their peers due to factors beyond their control. They receive various levels and forms of academic learning, extracurricular activities, and opportunities for personal growth because their parents cannot afford to send them to a private school or because they live in an area that happens to receive insufficient state support. The fact that money is still a determining factor in academic accomplishment indicates that we still aren’t providing equal opportunities and educational attainment prospects remain dependent on an individual’s socioeconomic status.

This evaluation does not support the abolishment of public schools as doing so would place even more strain on already oversubscribed state schools. Equity, or at least equality, in education necessitates more funding for state schools, greater incentives for teachers to view state and public schools as equally rewarding career routes, and support for schools in providing non-formal education. At a closer level it can also be seen that schools are more likely to provide funding and extra support for students who keep their head down and let those with behavioural challenges fend for themselves. For equity to exist inside a school's walls, this must change. However, as The Centre for Social Justice (CSJ) pointed out, recent government efforts have resulted in significant gains in schools with limited resources. They mention the DfE’s Essential Life Skills programme which resulted in sustainable "positive changes in pupil behaviour attendance and aspirations." This implies that the DfE has made proactive steps to alleviate current educational inequity, and programmes like this hold potential for the neglected being prioritised.

Schools are more likely to provide funding and extra support for students who keep their head down and let those with behavioural challenges fend for themselves.

Drawing to a close

Bringing together all four approaches to youth development, it has been demonstrated that they hold varying degrees of effectiveness in meeting the requirements of today's adolescents.

Education, which is supposed to provide academic progression, fails to account for various learning styles and sticks to a one-size-fits-all approach. This, coupled with the pressure and widespread use of high-stakes exams, means that not all students are able to advance academically in a stress-free, tailored, and supportive environment. Furthermore, schools vary in the amount of PSHE, mentoring, and careers exposure they provide, all of which play an important role in properly preparing students for their future. Because of its uneven presence in schools and the government's optional recommendations, the youth awareness approach risks becoming a burden rather than a benefit.

Education fails to account for various learning styles and sticks to a one-size-fits-all approach.

The youth enrichment approach has an uneven degree of effectiveness due to a general lack of non-academic pursuits accessible in schools and competition for funding among youth centres. Enrichment benefits children by allowing them to form healthy relationships with peers who share similar interests and develop life skills. However, a lack of government funding, is causing many centres to close and a forced emphasis on academics in schools, youth are unable to socialise healthily in enjoyable and supportive spaces. Those who have come from adversely impacting domestic environments cannot seek and refuge and support. However, the increased work of external organisations such as Sports Associations and extra-curricular event providers means that local communities are receiving more support to meet these requirements.

As previously stated, the current youth engagement approach is too new to properly benefit youth; however, the increasing presence of volunteering opportunities and participation in decision-making makes it likely to be effective in the coming years. More access to these and a diversity of ways to participate will help to cement this. In addition to transforming existing approaches, there is a need for overlooked youth to be prioritised. Funding is the most important element influencing schools, rural areas, and ASB-affected areas, which means that independent bodies, authorities, and the government must continue to support youth-serving organisations.

The Social Market Foundation’s opinion poll showed that “a third of 16–25-year-olds say that they feel ill-equipped to compete in the job market,” with CSJ commenting that, according to the Confederation of British Industry's Education and Skills survey (2019), “44% of employers believed that young people leaving school... were not work ready.” These surveys clarify the ineffectiveness of existing approaches to youth development in preparing adolescents for adulthood. Young adults are pessimistic about their future prospects, and the professional community agrees that they have not been adequately prepared with the skills and mindset to succeed in the workplace.

Youth have the greatest need for a vision, passion, and definition of themselves and their potential. Current approaches to youth development must prioritise these, ensuring that all adolescents have the right guidance and opportunities to achieve their full potential and be actively involved in matters that affect them.