Hardness of Heart in Biblical Literature: Failure and Refusal

Hardness of Heart in Biblical Literature

Failure and Refusal

Charles. B. Puskas

Hardness of Heart in Biblical Literature

Failure and Refusal

Copyright © 2022 Charles. B. Puskas. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401.

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paperback isbn: 978-1-6667-3650-2

hardcover isbn: 978-1-6667-9486-1

ebook isbn: 978-1-6667-9487-8

Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

Names: Puskas, Charles. B. [author].

Title: Hardness of heart in biblical literature : failure and refusal / by Charles. B. Puskas.

Description: Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2022 | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: isbn 978-1-6667-3650-2 (paperback) | isbn 978-1-6667-9486-1 (hardcover) | isbn 978-1-6667-9487-8 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Bible—Theology | Sin—Biblical teaching | Bible—Criticism, interpretation | Repentance | Israel (Christian theology)

Classification: bs680.s57 p87 2022 (print) | bs680.s57 (ebook)

09/09/22

Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA, and used by permission.

Table of Contents

Title Page

Abbreviations

Preface

Introduction

Chapter 1: Old Testament

Lexical Terms and Equivalents16

The Hardening of Non-Israelites

The Hardening of the Israelites

Old Testament Summation

Chapter 2: New Testament

Lexical Terms and Equivalents

The Hardening of Gentiles

The Hardening of Israel

The hardening of believers

New Testament Summation

Conclusion

Appendix: On Natural and Grafted Branches (Romans 11:17–24)

Some Recent Discussion on the Topic

Locating Jenson’s Statements Using a Grid (provided by R. Kendall Soulen)

Christian and Jewish Scholars on Romans 11

Concluding Thoughts

Bibliography

Abbreviations

Abbreviations for journals (JBL, NTS), periodicals (BA), major reference works (NIDB), and series (LCL, NIGTC) follow those of The SBL Handbook of Style: for Ancient Near Eastern, Biblical and Early Christian Studies,

2

nd ed., B. J. Collins, Project Director, et al. Atlanta: SBL Press,

2014

, and also The Chicago Manual of Style.

15

th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

2003

. I cite the abbreviations below that are most frequently used in my book.

Modern Publications and Series

ANF The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885–87. 10 vols. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994

ACNT Augsburg Commentary of the New Testament. Minneapolis, MN

ANRW Aufstieg uns Niedergang der römischen Welt. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1972–

AYB Anchor Yale Bible

AYBD Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992

BDAG Bauer, Danker, Arndt, and Gingrich, eds. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000

BDB Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (1907)

BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1997

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

DOTP Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch. Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2003

DSS Dead Sea Scrolls

EncJud Encyclopedia Judaica. 16 vols. Jerusalem: Macmillan, 1972

EDEJ Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism. Edited by J. J. Collins et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010

FOTL The Forms of the Old Testament Literature

GKC Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by H. Gesenius, E. Kautzsch, and A. Cowley. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1922

HALOT Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Edited by Ludwig Koehler et al. Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000

ICC International Critical Commentary

IDBSupp The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Supplementary Volume. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976

JANT Jewish Annotated New Testament, eds. A.-J. Levine and M. Z. Brettler. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JEA Journal Egyptian Archaeology

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

LCL Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

LSJ H. G. Liddell, R. Scott, and H. S. Jones, eds. A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983

NA²⁸ Novum Testamentum Graece. 28th ed. by Nestle and Aland et al. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012

NAC New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman

NET Bible The NET Bible. 2007. www.bible.org

NETS A New English Translation of the Septuagint. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007

NHL Nag Hammadi Library

NIB New Interpreter’s Bible. 12 vols. Nashville: Abingdon, 1994–2004

NICNT New International Commentary of the New Testament

NICOT New International Commentary of the Old Testament

NIDB New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. 5 vols. Nashville: Abingdon, 2006

NIV New International Version

NJB New Jerusalem Bible

NJPS Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures. The New JPS translation

NLT New Living Translation. Tyndale House

NovT Novum Testamentum

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NTS New Testament Studies

OCD Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2012

PRSt Perspectives in Religious Studies

RB Revue biblique

RGRW Religions in the Greco-Roman World

RevQ Revue de Qumran

RSV Revised Standard Version

SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series

SNTMS Society of New Testament Monograph Series

ST Systematic Theology, by Robert W. Jenson. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001

SUNT Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. 10 vols. Edited by Gerhard Kittel et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–76

TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. 17 vols. Edited by Helmer Ringgren et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975–2018

TJ Trinity Journal

TPI Trinity Press International

WJK Westminster John Knox

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

Books of the Bible

Col Colossians

1–2 Chron 1-2 Chronicles

1–2 Cor 1–2 Corinthians

Dan Daniel

Deut Deuteronomy

Eccl Ecclesiastes

Eph Ephesians

Exod Exodus

Ezek Ezekiel

Gal Galatians

Gen Genesis

Heb Hebrews

Hos Hosea

Isa Isaiah

Jas James

Jer Jeremiah

John Gospel of John

Josh Joshua

Judg Judge

1–2 1–2 John

1–2 Kgs 1–2 Kings

Luke Gospel of Luke

Mark Gospel of Mark

Matt Gospel of Matthew

Mic Micah

1–2 Pet 1–2 Peter

Phil Philippians

Prov Proverbs

Ps(s) Psalms

Rev Revelation

Rom Romans

1–2 Sam 1–2 Samuel

1–2 Thess 1–2 Thessalonians

1–2 Tim 1–2 Timothy

Zech Zechariah

Apocrypha and Old Testament Pseudepigrapha

2 Bar. 2 Baruch (Syriac Apocalypse)

3 Bar. 2 Baruch (Greek Apocalpse)

1 En 1 Enoch (Ethiopic Enoch)

2 En. 2 Enoch (Slavonic Apocalypse)

3 En. 3 Enoch (Hebrew Apocalypse)

2 Esd 2 Esdras

1–2 Macc 1–2 Maccabees

Odes Odes of Solomon

Pss. Sol. Psalms of Solomon

Sir Sirach/Ecclesiasticus

T. Adam Testament of Adam

Wis Wisdom of Solomon

Rabbinica and Targumim

m. Mishnah

b. Babylonian Talmud

y. Jerusalem Talmud

Ber. Berakot

Ketub. Ketubbot

Meg. Megillah

Mek. Mekilta

Pesaḥ. Pesaḥim

Sifre Sifra or Sipre

Tanḥ Tanḥuma

Tg. Ket. Targum Ketubim (Targum Writings)

Tg. Neb. Targum Nebiim (Targum Prophets)

Tg. Onq. Targum Onqelos

Tg. Ps.-J. Targum Pseudo-Jonahtan

Yad. Yadayim

Zebaḥ. Zebaḥim

Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) and Related Texts

CD Cairo Genizah copy of the Damascus Document

1Q Qumran Cave 1

1QpHab Pesher Habakkuk

1QIsaa Isaiaha (HT from Lexham Press, 2010)

1QM Milḥamah or War Scroll

1QS Serek Hayaḥad, or Rule of the Community

4Q Qumran Cave 4

4QFlor Florilegium, or Midrash on Eschatology

4Q254 Commentary on Genesis

Other Writings of Antiquity

Ap. John Apocryphon of John (Secret Book of John)

Corp. herm. Corpus hermeticum

Euripides, Bacch. Bacchae (Bacchanals)

Eusebius, Hist. eccl. Historia ecclesiastica

Herm. Man. Shepherd of Hermas, Mandates (older numbering: 7.1)

Herm. Sim. Shepherd of Hermas, Similitudes (8.7.6)

Hippolytus, Haer. Refutatio omium haeresium

Hyp. Arch. Nature of the Rulers

Ign. Pol. Ignatius, To Polycarp

Ign. Smyrn. Ignatius, To the Smyrnaeans

Josephus, Ant. Jewish Antiquities

Josephus, J.W. Jewish War

Justin, 1 Apol. Justin Martyr, First Apology

Philo, Opif. De opificio mundo (On the Creation of the World)

Plato, Symp. Plato, Symposium

Protr. Protrepticus (Exhortation to the Greeks) by Clement of Alexandria

Three Forms Three Forms of First Thought (Trimorphic Protennoia)

General Abbreviations

adj. adjective

adv. adversus

Aram. Aramaic

AT Author Translation

BCE before the Common Era

bk(s). book(s)

ca. circa around, about

CE Common Era

cent. Century

cf. confer, compare

ch(s). chapter(s)

ed(s). editor(s); edition; edited by

Eng. English

ET English translation

ep. epistula

e.g. exempli gratia, for example

esp. especially

et al. et alii, and others

fr. fragmentum, fragmenta

Ger. German

Gk. Greek

Heb. Hebrew

HT Hebrew text

IMV imperative mood

Ind. Indicative mood

i.e. id est, that is

Lat. Latin

MT Masoretic Text of Hebrew Bible

n note

n.s. new series

NT New Testament

par(r). parallel(s)

pl. plural

OT Old Testament

repr. reprinted

rev. revised

sing. singular

trans. translated by

vs. versus

v(v). verse(s)

vol(s). volume(s)

Preface

This book is a thoroughgoing revision of earlier research completed in partial fulfillment of the comprehensive exam for my doctoral program at Saint Louis University. The theme had interested me because it is included in Acts 28:26–28, quoting Isaiah 6:9–10, a key text in my doctoral dissertation: The Conclusion of Luke-Acts: The Literary Function and Theological Significance of Acts 28:16–31, published as Charles B. Puskas, The Conclusion of Luke-Acts (Pickwick, 2009). The dissertation was written under the direction of the Rev. Dr. Robert F. O’Toole, S.J., my Doktorvater, who also read the proofs of my revision. It is to him that this current book is dedicated.

The hardness of heart pronouncement has always intrigued me: Who initiated it? Why was it uttered? By whom, to whom, and for what reason? Of what does this unreceptivity consist? Can a change of heart take place?

The appendix to this book is derived from an academic paper that I delivered at the Upper Midwest Regional Meeting of the AAR/SBL/ASOR, Luther Seminary, St. Paul, April 4–5, 2014. I have included it here, because the issues discussed there are directly related to Israel’s hardening and the incorporation of the church in God’s history of salvation highlighted in Romans 9–11.

A productive lexical-thematic study benefits from both the synchronic (literary context) and diachronic (historical development) approaches.¹ Because this motif is found in texts (biblical and extrabiblical), I have also sought to understand the world of the text (lexical semantics, narrative, rhetoric, intertextuality), with attention to the world behind the text (sources, traditions, redactions), and consideration for the world in front of the text (e.g., ideal reader, reception history).² Other interdisciplinary approaches have been included (psychological, sociological, philosophical, theological). Special thanks to my readers for their input and suggestions: Mark Reasoner, Roy Harrisville, III, Edgar Kellenberger, Matthew Neumann, David Penchansky, Robert F. O’Toole, S.J. Many thanks to my editor, Robin Parry, for recommending my book for publication. I remain responsible for all of its final contents.

1

. Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics,

80

–

81

cited in Thiselton, Thiselton on Hermeneutics,

197

–

98

.

2

. Tate, Biblical Interpretation, xv-xxi,

173

–

212

; on the significance of and post-modern challenges to this well-known three-dimensional approach, see Thiselton, Thiselton on Hermeneutics,

607

–

24

,

635

–

38

.

Introduction

What is this hardness of heart phenomena of which Scripture speaks? Is it a breakdown in communication,¹ or is it something else? Sometimes the people addressed are noncompliant—for a variety of different reasons, sin being one of them. At the same time there may also be a communication failure involving the messenger, the message, and the intended or ideal audience.

Every speaker, teacher, or preacher has on some occasion encountered an audience that was either unreceptive to or unsympathetic with what he or she had to say. One dominant response to this communication breakdown given by both the prophets of Israel and New Testament authors was to declare that they have hardened their hearts to the message or God has hardened them.

Who became hardened and why? How is this communication failure conveyed? Was it compensation for some deficiency in communication? What were the (short- or long-term) consequences of such a disposition? Was there any hope for a change of heart?

The implications of such a study are not only significant for understanding key issues in biblical criticism and theology, but are relevant for anyone concerned with (a) communication issues between an addresser and addressees² and (b) for (illustrative purposes) understanding oppositional behavior and the psychology of resistance.³

Amélie Oksenberg Rorty stated well the hardness of heart as a natural propensity among many people:

Nothing is easier, nothing more natural than sliding the slippery slope to corruption, and from there to the hardened heart that allows people to redescribe their wrong doing so that they can accept it as reasonable and confirm it as justified. This is the banal journey charted by Hannah Arendt, the journey from regretful lapses of decency to unrepentant corruption.⁴

Søren Kierkegaard saw the hardness of heart as related to the sin of double-mindedness (Jas 1:8; 4:8; Ps 12:2; cf. Rom 7:15) and contrary to the purity of heart (Matt 5:8; Ps 86:11; Wis 1:1), which is to will one thing:

In truth to will one thing can therefore mean only to will the good, because any other one thing is not a one thing and the person willing who wills only that must therefore be double-minded, because the one who craves becomes like that which he craves. Or would it be possible that a person by willing evil could will one thing even if it were possible that a person could harden himself to willing only evil? Is not evil, just like evil people, at odds with itself, divided in itself?⁵

Kierkegaard’s plea is for genuine openness and honesty. It is a striving for betterment, and not a struggle to reach some unattainable ego ideal (see my note 5). It is a challenge to stop leading a double life of false pretense that is insincere and dishonest.

For Friedrich Schleiermacher, Gemūth (rather than Herz) is used to convey the pious heart. The religious or pious person is the one who has an open heart—a harmonious and integrated interior life that is so because it is also finely attuned to its world and receptive to the divine activity working in and through that world.⁶ There can also exist in the heart (Gemūth again) preparations for sin, a heart far from God (cf. Mark 7:6; Isa 29:13), that is impious, unattuned, narrow-minded, one-sided, and isolated.⁷

The hardening phenomena in the biblical literature⁸ surfaces in different ways with different expressions. All of them seem to concern some theological or ethical problem or crisis. In my study I will indicate the following occurrences. Non-Israelites are usually hardened as enemy stand-ins so that YHWH⁹ can carry out God’s Heilsgeschichte¹⁰ in and for Israel. When the extreme apostasy of certain individuals among God’s people is unexplainable on a natural level the conclusion