Hegemony of Homogeneity: An Anthropological Analysis of Nihonjinron

General Editor: Yoshio Sugimoto

Lives of Young Koreans in Japan

Yasunori Fukuoka

Globalization and Social Change in Contemporary Japan

J.S. Eades Tom Gill Harumi Befu

Coming Out in Japan:The Story of Satoru and Ryuta

Satoru Ito and Ryuta Yanase

Japan and Its Others:

Globalization, Difference and the Critique of Modernity

John Clammer

Hegemony of Homogeneity:

An Anthropological Analysis of Nihonjinron Harumi Befu

First published in 2001 by

Trans Pacific Press

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ISBN 978-1-876843-05-2

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National Library of Australia Cataloging in Publication Data

Befu, Harumi.

Hegemony of homogeneity : an anthropological analysis of Nihonjinron.

Bibliography.

Includes index.

ISBN 978 1 876843 05 2.

1. National characteristics, Japanese. 2. Anthropology - Japan. 3. Japan - Civilization. I. Title. (Series : Japanese society series ; vol. 5).

915.2

Table of Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

1 Japan and the West: Mutual Misunderstanding

2 The Nature of the Beast

3 The Literature

4 Premises, Models, and Ideologies

5 Symbolic Vacuum

6 Civil Religion

7 Geopolitics, Geoeconomics

Notes

References

Index

For Kei

Preface

Academic interest in Nihonjinron, Japan’s dominant identity discourse, became noticeable abroad in the 1970s. In the 1980s a number of conferences and symposia began to be held on the topic. By now the term is part of the common vocabulary of those who work in Japanese studies. Yet we are not apprised of the full nature of this discourse.

My interest in the topic began in the late 1970s. I became concerned with stereotypic characterizations of Japan in the media, which amounted to Japan bashing at the time. I began to realize that such overseas characterizations of Japan were not entirely the fault of the foreign press – much of the blame was to be laid with the Japanese, as they produced voluminous and monolithic literature on who the Japanese are and what constitutes Japanese culture and society This realization is at the basis of this book, in which I review, analyze, and interpret the way the Japanese characterize themselves.

My first major effort in this direction was a conference I organized in 1978 with the support of the Social Science Research Council at Shakertown, Kentucky, in the United States. The focus of the conference was Japanese groupism, which is a central component of this discourse. About this time, I also spoke on Japanese groupism at the University of New Mexico and the Berkeley, Santa Barbara, and Los Angeles campuses of the University of California. I began to publish critiques of the notion of the Japanese groupism and other aspects of Nihonjinron from 1980 on. At first, I won very few converts. My first major allies were Yoshio Sugimoto and Ross Mouer in Australia. Their views resonated with mine wholeheartedly, and they invited me in the early 1980s for the inaugural conference of the Japanese Studies Association of Australia and two years later to a special conference in Japanese studies at Noosa Head, where I was able to air my views to receptive audiences.

In the first half of the 1980s I gave papers on Nihonjinron at the Centre nationale de recherche scientifique (in Paris, France – where Mary Picone graciously invited me as a research fellow), at a conference on Japan’s internationalization at Kwansei Gakuin University, which Mannari Hiroshi and I organized, and at the first of the sixteen annual symposia on Japanese civilization sponsored by the Taniguchi Foundation and organized by Dr. Umesao Tadao, then director-general of the National Museum of Ethnology in Japan. These papers have been published in conference proceedings and other sources.

In 1987, with the generous endorsement of philosopher Tsurumi Shunsuke, a collection of my papers on Nihonjinron was published in Japanese and was widely reviewed in mass media because of the interest of the general public in the topic. About this time Kwansei Gakuin professor Manabe Kazufumi and I began a series of collaborative works on Nihonjinron, beginning with a questionnaire survey in 1987 and analysis of the data in subsequent summers. Some of the results of this collaboration were presented at the triennial conference of the European Association for Japanese Studies held in Durham, Scotland, and elsewhere, and have been published in Kwansei Gakuin’s Annual Studies and Shakaigakubu Kiyō. Much of the data and analysis in this book derive from this collaborative work. By 1990 I began to think of Nihonjinron in relation to the concept of cultural nationalism and ethnicity. I organized a conference titled ‘Cultural Nationalism in East Asia’ and published its proceedings in a volume I edited.

Opportunities to give courses on Nihonjinron at Tübingen and Humboldt Universities in Germany and at Aahus University in Denmark allowed me to receive reactions to my ideas on Nihonjinron from European students, which I found to be quite different from those of North American students. They gave me valuable insights and taught me to appreciate diverse ways of thinking about Japan and Nihonjinron.

This book is a result of accumulation of ideas that have evolved over the years. These ideas continue to evolve and change. But at the turn of the century and the millennium, this is as good a time as any to pause, take stock, and present them to my English reading audience.

Acknowledgments

Academic enterprise, like most others, involves much support in diverse ways. I am grateful to all the support extended to me over the many years before this book was completed.

All the opportunities made available to me to present different aspects of Nihonjinron have been important in developing and revising my ideas. Such opportunities were given me at the kind invitation of numerous institutions, including the University of New Mexico, the Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Santa Barbara campuses of the University of California, and Tokyo University, where I spoke to the faculty and students. The Nordic Institute for Asian Studies generously arranged a lecture tour through Scandinavian countries for me to speak on Japan, including aspects of Nihonjinron, at Bergen, Lund, Gothenberg, Oslo, Stockholm, and Helsinki Universities. Opportunities to speak to Australian audiences were provided with the kind invitation of Yoshio Sugimoto and Ross Mouer in the early 1980s. About this time, Mary Picone kindly secured funds for me to spend a month in Paris to concentrate on research, freeing me of administrative and teaching duties. In Japan my colleague Nakano Takashi used his resources on my behalf to have the academic publishing house Ochanomizu Shobō fund a mini-conference on the group orientation of the Japanese on Lake Yamanaka at the foot of Mount Fuji. Other venues where I was given a forum to present my ideas on Nihonjinron include the University of Tampere in Finland, Meiji University, Kwansei Gakuin University, the International Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto, and Kyoto Jinruigaku Kenkyūkai. I am grateful to all these institutions for allowing me to speak on Nihonjinron and to test out my ideas.

I benefited from having time off from my regular duties at Stanford University to concentrate on my research. These leaves were taken at the National Museum of Ethnology, Kwansei Gakuin University, Stanford Humanities Center, and East-West Center in Hawaii. These leaves also gave me opportunities to present my ideas to diverse audiences and receive their input.

Among the sources of financial support were Social Science Research Council for allowing me to organize a conference on the group orientation in Japan, Stanford University Center for East Asian Studies for hiring research assistants and for funding travel to conferences to present my ideas on Nihonjinron, Stanford Humanities Center and the East-West Center for providing time for research on Nihonjinron, the Fulbright Hayes fellowship program and the National Endowment for the Humanities for funding time in Japan for collecting material for research on Nihonjinron, and Kyoto Bunkyo University’s Institute for Cultural and Human Research for its support in the final stages of completion of the manuscript.

I am indebted to numerous people who directly assisted me at various stages of completing the manuscript, among whom are Tominaga Masatoshi, Honda Mari, Fukui Ikuko, and Iiri Makiko, as well as Teshima Keiko for painstaking bibliographic search and Hilary Powers for her patient and superb professional editing of the manuscript.

Finally but hardly the least, I owe special thanks to Yoshio Sugimoto for his encouragement and support to publish the manuscript through Trans Pacific Press.

The last three chapters of this book were updated and extensively revised from papers published elsewhere, as follows:

Chapter Five: ‘Symbols of Nationalism and Nihonjinron.’ In Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan, eds. R. Goodman and K. Refsing. London: Routledge, 1992, pp. 26–46.

Chapter Six: ‘Civil Religion in Contemporary Japan: The Secular Theology of Nihonkyo and Nihonjinron.’ In Acta Universitatis Temperensis, ser. B, vol. 42: Transient Societies: Japanese and Korean Studies in a Transitional World, eds. Jorma Kivistō, et al. [Tampere: Tampere University Press], 1993, pp. 18–50.

Chapter Seven: ‘Swings of Japan’s Identity.’ In Cultural Encounters: China, Japan, and the West: Essays Commemorating Twenty-Five Years of East Asian Studies at the University of Aarhus, eds. Søren Clausen, Roy Starrs, and Anne Wedell-Wedellsborg. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1995, pp. 241–267.

Japanese names are written with the surname first, followed by the given name. Long vowels are indicated with a macron over the vowel, except for words that are commonly used in English such as Shinto, Tokyo, and Kyoto.

1 Japan and the West:

Mutual Misunderstanding

Throughout much of the period after the Second World War, Japan has been a target of criticism from the world, in particular from the Western world, over political and economic issues. Public officials, businesspeople, and the media pundits abroad, especially in the United States, have accused Japan of dumping goods, cutting prices unfairly, making much of the Japanese market inaccessible for foreign investment because of its excessive regulations and labyrinthine distribution system, and not giving foreign businesses such as construction fair access to the Japanese market. At worst, Americans and other foreigners have accused Japan of racism, ethnocentrism, and parochialism for keeping economic benefits to itself.

Japan has responded to these criticisms in good part by accommodating the demands, but also in part by accusing Western countries of not understanding the special situation of Japan arising out of its unique history and culture, be it patterns of communication, manners of business negotiation, industrial organization, or government-business relationship. Japanese culture and American culture are obviously different from each other, and cross-cultural understanding does require effort on each side. But the heat seems to be on the Japanese side, having to excuse itself and explain itself. In this effort, Japan has often resorted to ‘cultural exceptionalism’ as a defensive explanation. Because foreigners accuse Japan, or the Japanese, as a collective entity, the response assumes the same monolithic approach. That is, irrespective of variations within Japan and regardless of differences among the Japanese, Japanese culture is said to have certain uniform characteristics, and the Japanese are supposed to behave and think in a certain monolithic manner. These Japanese responses are drawn from a vast reservoir – well known to most Japanese – of presuppositions and presumptions, propositions and assertions about who the Japanese are and what Japanese culture is like.

Terminology

This reservoir of knowledge on characteristics of Japanese culture, people, society, and history is often glossed as Nihon bunkaron, Nihonjinron, Nihon shakairon, and Nihonron. Literally, these terms refer respectively to propositions about Japanese culture, Japanese people, Japanese society, and Japan itself. However, the terms are used interchangeably rather than to designate distinctive subfields of the genre, and thus a book advertised as a piece in Nihon bunkaron (culture) may deal with society and national character, or a book about the Japanese national character (Nihonjinron) may be advertised as a piece in bunkaron (dealing with culture). Like other popular terms used in everyday conversation, these are vague and nebulous in meaning, given to ambiguity. The whole genre can be regarded as one dealing with Japan’s identity, attempting to establish Japan’s uniqueness and to differentiate Japan from other cultures. In this book we shall use the term Nihonjinron because of its relative prevalence in English parlance, even though in Japanese, Nihon bunkaron is the most popular term.

In Nihonjinron and other terms in this genre, ron translates as ‘theory,’ ‘view,’ ‘interpretation,’ and the like. It does not necessarily, though it might, denote well-researched scholarly theory. For instance, ‘evolutionary theory’ in biology is called shinkaron. None but a small percentage of Nihonjinron propositions can be equated in theoretical sophistication with the theory of evolution. Rather, its more commonsensical usage is notably applicable in this context, where ron should be understood to have a broad and vague meaning referring to generalizations, in this case, about Japan, Japanese culture, Japanese society, and the Japanese people, much as the term ‘theory’ is used in English common parlance.

This ambiguity in the meaning of the term ron can become a convenient ploy for Nihonjinron writers: an impressionistic essay on Japan without any methodological or scientific rigor, for example, can be legitimately admitted as a ron – a piece in Nihonjinron – and then be conveniently understood (or misunderstood, as the case may be) to have scholarly status as a scientific theory. Indeed, there is erudite, scholarly Nihonjinron, carried out by scholars in their ivory towers to identify the essence of Japanese culture or society; but the vast majority of discourse in Nihonjinron is for popular consumption. In this book we focus on the latter type of Nihonjinron because our interest is in examining popular forms of cultural identity – what men and women on the street think about their cultural identity, not what an obscure scholar might write for a small audience of fellow scholars. We shall explore the distinction between these two types of Nihonjinron later.

Quest for Identity

One reason that makes the question ‘Who are we, the Japanese?’ particularly germane is that most Japanese are themselves very much interested in their national identity and have articulated their interest in a variety of ways, notably in published media, so much so that Nihonjinron may be called a minor national pastime.

Search for one’s identity is not unusual. The question ‘Who are we?’ haunts all of us at one time or another. It is a particularly pressing issue in a rapidly changing and complex society where one’s identity cannot be simply taken for granted: as society changes, the former definition of self-identity no longer suffices and a new one must be created. Also, the availability of so many alternative lifestyles and values to choose from creates a crisis in identity formation in the postmodern world.

The search for identity may be an individual matter, as when a young woman tries to be independent in a society fraught with male chauvinism or an orphaned man tries to locate himself in a kinship nexus. Or this search may be of a broader, cultural nature. ‘Who are the Jews?’ or ‘What constitutes American-ness?’ for example, are recurring questions that generations of Jews or Americans have tried to answer. In this book, the topic is the identity of the Japanese.

Although a more detailed examination is reserved for later chapters, it should be mentioned at least in passing here that Nihonjinron writings share a singular objective: to demonstrate unique qualities of Japanese culture, Japanese society, and the Japanese people. What defines the genre of Nihonjinron is the fact that its assertions and generalizations have to do with the nature of Japanese culture in general, society in general, or national character in general. As such, little or no attention is given in writings of this genre to internal variation, whether along the line of region, class, gender, rural or urban settings, or any other criterion. Consequently, broad generalizations of an essentialized Japan abound in this genre.

This book is about Nihonjinron in its various guises. It examines the sources of information propagated in this genre, the producers and the consumers, contents of this discourse, validity of the propositions in this discourse, its basic premises, the ‘religious’ ramifications of Nihonjinron, the popularity of this discourse in relation to the demise of symbols of Japan’s national identity, and finally the changing nature of this discourse in Japan’s modern history.

Let me make it absolutely clear at the beginning. I am not trying to defend any Nihonjinron proposition, some of which, such as belief in the importance of ‘blood’ for learning the Japanese language, are indeed outlandish. Nor is it the purpose of this book to make judgments about Nihonjinron writings, as critics like Roy Andrew Miller (1982) and Peter Dale (1986) have done, for example. My purpose, rather, is to analyze Nihonjinron as a cultural phenomenon as critically and objectively as I can, in short, to engage in the anthropology of Nihonjinron.

Because our concern is how the Japanese themselves create their own identity, how they maintain it, what assertions of uniqueness they espouse, and how they feel about such assertions, we are interested in examining the Nihonjinron literature produced by Japanese. That is, we are not primarily interested in foreigners’ discourse on the Japanese identity, although many a foreigner has written on the topic. Many indeed have cashed in on this lucrative publishing field through publication of Japanese translations of their works. Once translated, these foreigners’ works can be read by any Japanese, and thus such works become part of the genre to be examined here. This situation will be elaborated in Chapter Three, on the literature of Nihonjinron.

Enumeration of Traits

In Chapter Two, we will discuss the all-encompassing nature of Nihonjinron. We shall see how wide-ranging its arguments are, some claiming identity of the Japanese through history, some from environment, still others from rural community structure, language, psyche, philosophy, esthetics, and literature. Almost every type