Reservoir Engineering of Conventional and Unconventional Petroleum Resources

This book contains information and data obtained from reliable and highly reputable sources. The author and publisher have made reasonable and due diligent efforts in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental and/or consequential damages linked to or originating from the use of the information and data contained herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Name: Ezekwe, Nnaemeka

Title: Reservoir Engineering of Conventional and Unconventional Petroleum Resources

Description: Houston; TIGA Petroleum, Inc. 2020.

Identifiers: Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN): 2019919253

ISBN: 978-2-7333890-0-6 (Hardcover)

Subjects: Petroleum Engineering, Reservoir Engineering, Production Engineering

Copyright © 2019 Nnaemeka Ezekwe

All rights reserved. The publication is protected by copyright. No part of the publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, including but not limited to network storage or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording, or other means, now in existence or invented hereafter, or broadcast for distance learning, without the written permission from Dr. Nnaemeka Ezekwe.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names/symbols may be trademarks or registered trademarks. These are used only for identification and/or explanation without any intent to infringe.

Send all inquiries to:

Dr. Nnaemeka Ezekwe

TIGA Petroleum, Inc.

27 Treasure Cove Drive

Spring, Texas 77381

United States of America

Email: [email protected]

Website: http://www.tigapetroleum.com

ISBN-13: 978-1-7333890-0-6

ISBN-13: 978-1-7333890-1-3

ISBN-13: 978-1-7333890-2-0

ISBN-13: 978-1-7333890-3-7

ISBN-13: 978-1-7333890-4-4

Printed in the United States of America.

First Printing, January 2020

Dedication

To the enduring memory of my parents, Vincent Nweke and Rosaline Oriaku, for their commitment, courage, and sacrifices they made toward my education and those of my brother and sisters. This book is truly a testament that the seed they planted and nurtured have borne bountiful fruit for all.

Table of Contents

Title

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Chapter 1 Conventional and Unconventional Reservoirs

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Conventional Reservoirs Versus Unconventional Reservoirs

1.2.1 Conventional Reservoirs

1.2.2 Unconventional Reservoirs

1.2.3 Unconventional Reservoirs in the United States of America (USA)

1.2.4 Potential Resources in Unconventional Reservoirs in the World

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 2Porosity of Reservoir Rocks

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Total Porosity and Effective Porosity

2.3 Sources of Porosity Data

2.3.1 Direct Methods for Measurement of Porosity

2.3.2 Indirect Methods for Derivation of Porosity

2.4 Applications of Porosity Data

2.4.1 Volumetric Calculation

2.4.2 Calculation of Fluid Saturations

2.4.3 Reservoir Characterization

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 3Permeability and Relative Permeability

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Sources of Permeability Data

3.2.1 Permeability from Core Samples

3.2.2 Permeability from Pressure Transient Tests

3.2.3 Permeability from Well Logs Based on Empirical Correlations

3.3 Relative Permeability

3.4 Sources of Relative Permeability Data

3.4.1 Laboratory Measurements of Relative Permeability Data

3.4.2 Estimations from Field Data

3.4.3 Empirical Correlations

3.5 Three-Phase Relative Permeability

3.6 Applications of Permeability and Relative Permeability Data

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 4Reservoir Fluid Saturations

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Determination of Water Saturations

4.2.1 Clean Sands

4.2.2 Shaly Sands

4.2.3 Carbonate Rocks

4.2.4 Water Saturations from Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Logs

4.2.5 Uncertainties in Estimation of Water Saturation

4.3 Determination of Reservoir Productive Intervals

4.3.1 Net Sands, Net Reservoir, and Net Pay

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 5Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Properties of Reservoir Fluids

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Phase Diagrams

5.2.1 Single-Component Systems

5.2.2 Binary Systems

5.2.3 Multicomponent Systems

5.2.4 Retrograde Behavior of Gas-Condensate Systems

5.3 Gas and Gas-Condensate Properties

5.3.1 Ideal Gas Equation

5.3.2 Real Gas Equation

5.3.3 Gas Gravity

5.3.4 Reduced Temperature and Pressure

5.4 Pseudo-Critical Properties of Gas Mixtures

5.4.1 Composition of Gas Mixtures Known

5.4.2 Correction for non-Hydrocarbon Gas Impurities

5.4.3 Composition of Gas Mixture Unknown

5.5 Wet Gas and Gas Condensate

5.5.1 Recombination Method

5.5.2 Correlation Method

5.6 Correlations for Gas Compressibility Factor

5.7 Gas Formation Volume Factor (FVF)

5.8 Gas Density

5.9 Gas Viscosity

5.10 Gas Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility

5.11 Correlations for Calculation of Oil PVT Properties

5.11.1 Bubble Point Pressure

5.11.2 Solution Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR)

5.11.3 Oil Formation Volume Factor (FVF)

5.11.4 Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility of Oil

5.11.5 Oil Viscosity

5.12 Correlations for Calculation of Water PVT Properties

5.12.1 Water Formation Volume Factor (FVF)

5.12.2 Density of Formation Water

5.12.3 Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility of Formation Water

5.12.4 Viscosity of Formation Water

Nomenclature

Subscripts

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 6Reservoir Fluid Sampling and PVT Laboratory Measurements

6.1 Overview of Reservoir Fluid Sampling

6.2 Reservoir Type and State

6.2.1 Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs

6.2.2 Undersaturated Gas Condensate Reservoirs

6.2.3 Saturated Oil Reservoirs

6.2.4 Saturated Gas Condensate Reservoirs

6.3 Well Conditioning

6.4 Subsurface Sampling Methods and Tools

6.4.1 Conventional Bottomhole Samplers

6.4.2 Pistonned Bottomhole Samplers

6.4.3 Single Phase Samplers

6.4.4 Exothermic Samplers

6.5 Wireline Formation Testers

6.5.1 Oil-Based Mud Contamination of WFT Samples

6.5.2 Formation Pressures from WFT

6.5.3 Capillary Effects on WFT Formation Pressures

6.5.4 Effects of Supercharging on WFT Formation Pressures

6.5.5 Comments on Applications of WFT Pressure Data

6.6 PVT Laboratory Measurements

6.6.1 Fluid Composition

6.6.2 Constant Composition Expansion (CCE)

6.6.3 Differential Liberation (DL)

6.6.4 Constant Volume Depletion (CVD)

6.6.5 Separator Tests

6.6.6 Viscosity Measurements

6.7 Applications of Laboratory PVT Measurements

6.7.1 Calculation of Oil FVF and Solution GOR

6.7.2 Calculation of Gas Compressibility Factor, Gas FVF, and Total FVF

6.7.3 Calculation of Oil Compressibility Factor

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Appendix 6ATypical Reservoir Fluid Study for a Black Oil Sample

Appendix 6BTypical Reservoir Fluid Study for a Gas Condensate Sample

Chapter 7PVT Properties Predictions from Equations of State

7.1 Historical Introduction to Equations of State (EOS)

7.2 van der Waals (vdW) EOS

7.3 Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) EOS

7.4 Peng-Robinson (PR) EOS

7.5 Phase Equilibrium of Mixtures

7.6 Roots from Cubic EOS

7.7 Volume Translation

7.8 Two-Phase Flash Calculation

7.8.1 Generalized Procedure for Two-Phase Flash Calculations

7.9 Bubble Point and Dew Point Pressure Calculations

7.10 Characterization of Hydrocarbon Plus Fractions

7.11 Phase Equilibrium Predictions with Equations of State

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Superscripts

Abbreviations

References

Problems

Chapter 8The General Material Balance Equation

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Derivation of the General Material Balance Equation (GMBE)

8.2.1 Development of Terms in the Expression of Eq. (8.1)

8.3 The GMBE for Gas Reservoirs

8.4 Discussion on the Application of the GMBE

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Problems

Chapter 9Gas Reservoirs

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Volumetric Gas Reservoirs

9.2.1 Volumetric Calculations for Dry Gas Reservoirs

9.2.2 Volumetric Calculations for Wet Gas and Retrograde Gas Condensate Reservoirs

9.2.3 Material Balance for Volumetric Dry Gas, Wet Gas, and Retrograde Gas Condensate Reservoirs

9.3 Gas Reservoirs with Water Influx

9.3.1 Volumetric Approach

9.3.2 Material Balance Approach

9.3.3 The Cole Plot

9.3.4 The Havlena-Odeh Straight Line Method

9.4 Water Influx Models

9.4.1 Fetkovich Aquifer Model

9.4.2 Carter-Tracy Aquifer Model

9.5 Geopressured Gas Reservoirs

9.5.1 The Ramagost and Farshad Method

9.5.2 The Roach Method

9.6 Case Histories of Two Gas Reservoirs

9.6.1 The Case History of Red Hawk Reservoir

9.6.2 The Case History of West Cameron 580 Reservoirs

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Appendix 9ACorrelations for Estimating Residual Gas Saturations for Gas Reservoirs Under Water Influx

Appendix 9BDimensionless Pressure for Finite and Infinite Aquifers

Appendix 9CDimensionless Pressure for Infinite Aquifers

Chapter 10Oil Reservoirs

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Oil Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

10.3 Gravity Drainage Mechanism

10.4 Volumetric Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs

10.4.1 Volume Calculations Above Bubble Point Pressure

10.4.2 Volume Calculations Below Bubble Point Pressure

10.5 Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs with Water Influx

10.5.1 Volumetric Method

10.5.2 Material Balance Method

10.6 Volumetric Saturated Oil Reservoirs

10.6.1 Volumetric Method

10.6.2 Material Balance Method

10.7 Material Balance Approach for Saturated Oil Reservoirs with Water Influx

10.8 Case History of Manatee Reservoirs

10.8.1 Reservoir Geology

10.8.2 Rock and Fluid Properties

10.8.3 Reservoir Pressure and Production Data

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Problems

Chapter 11Production Forecasting for Conventional and Unconventional Reservoirs

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Flow Regimes

11.3 Arps’ Decline Equations

11.3.1 Range of Values for Arps’ b Parameter

11.3.2 Effective and Nominal (Exponential) Decline Rates

11.3.3 Type Curves for Analysis of Production Data

11.3.4 Normalized Rates and Pressures

11.3.5 Flowing Material Balance

11.3.6 Diagnostic Plots

11.3.7 Transient Decline Models

11.3.8 Construction of Type Wells for Production Forecasting

11.3.9 Analyses of Well Production Data Using a Step-by-Step Procedure

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Problems

Appendix 11 Data for Examples 11.1 and 11.2

Chapter 12Fluid Flow in Petroleum Reservoirs

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Fluid Types

12.2.1 Incompressible Fluids

12.2.2 Slightly Compressible Fluids

12.2.3 Compressible Fluids

12.3 Definition of Fluid Flow Regimes

12.3.1 Transient Flow

12.3.2 Pseudosteady-State (PSS) Flow

12.3.3 Steady-State (SS) Flow

12.4 Darcy Fluid Flow Equation

12.5 Radial Forms of the Darcy Equation

12.5.1 Steady-State Flow, Incompressible Fluids

12.5.2 Average Permeability of Parallel Beds

12.5.3 Average Permeability of Serial Concentric Segments

12.5.4 Pseudosteady State, Incompressible Fluids

12.5.5 Steady-State Flow, Compressible Fluids

12.6 Derivation of the Continuity Equation in Radial Form

12.7 Derivation of Radial Diffusivity Equation for Slightly Compressible Fluids

12.8 Solutions of the Radial Diffusivity Equation for Slightly Compressible Fluids

12.8.1 Constant Terminal Rate Solution

12.8.2 Constant Terminal Pressure Solution

12.9 Derivation of the Radial Diffusivity Equation for Compressible Fluids

12.10 Transformation of the Gas Diffusivity Equation with Real Gas Pseudo-Pressure Concept

12.11 The Superposition Principle

12.11.1 Applications of Constant Terminal Rate Solutions with Superposition Principle

12.11.2 Applications of Constant Terminal Pressure Solution with Superposition Principle

12.12 Well Productivity Index

12.13 Well Injectivity Index

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Appendix 12AChart for Exponential Integral

Appendix 12BTabulation of pD vs tD for Radial Flow, Infinite Reservoirs with Constant Terminal Rate at Inner Boundary

Appendix 12CTabulation of pD vs tD for Radial Flow, Finite Reservoirs with Closed Outer Boundary and Constant Terminal Rate at Inner Boundary

Appendix 12DTabulation of pD vs tD for Radial Flow, Finite Reservoirs with Constant Pressure Outer Boundary and Constant Terminal Rate at Inner Boundary

Appendix 12ETabulation of QD vs tD for Radial Flow, Infinite Reservoirs with Constant Terminal Pressure at Inner Boundary

Appendix 12FTabulation of QD vs tD for Radial Flow, Finite Reservoirs with Closed Outer Boundary and Constant Terminal Pressure at Inner Boundary

Chapter 13Well Test Analysis: Straightline Methods

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Basic Concepts in Well Test Analysis

13.2.1 Radius of Investigation

13.2.2 Skin and Skin Factor

13.2.3 Flow Efficiency and Damage Ratio

13.2.4 Effective Wellbore Radius

13.2.5 Drawdown Well Tests

13.2.6 Buildup Well Tests

13.2.7 Wellbore Storage

13.3 Line Source Well, Infinite Reservoir Solution of the Diffusivity Equation with Skin Factor

13.4 Well Test Analyses with Straightline Methods

13.4.1 Slightly Compressible Fluids

13.4.2 Compressible Fluids

13.5 Special Topics in Well Test Analyses

13.5.1 Multiphase Flow

13.5.2 Wellbore Storage Effects

13.5.3 Wellbore Phase Redistribution Effects

13.5.4 Boundary Effects

13.5.5 Multilayered Reservoirs

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 14Well Test Analysis: Type Curves

14.1 Introduction

14.2 What Are Type Curves?

14.3 Gringarten Type Curves

14.3.1 Unit-Slope Line

14.4 Bourdet Derivative Type Curves

14.5 Agarwal Equivalent Time

14.6 Type-Curve Matching

14.7 Procedures for Manual Application of Type-Curve Matching in Well Test Analysis

14.8 Stages of the Type-Curve Matching Procedures

14.8.1 Identification of the Interpretation Model

14.8.2 Calculation from Interpretation Model Parameters

14.8.3 Validation of the Interpretation Model Results

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Problems

Appendix 14ACharacteristic Shapes of Pressure and Pressure-Derivative Curves for Selected Well, Reservoir, and Boundary Models

Appendix 14BData for Example 14.1

Appendix 14CCalculation of Pressure Derivatives

Chapter 15Well Test Analysis: Hydraulically Fractured Wells and Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Hydraulically Fractured Wells

15.3 Definition of Dimensionless Variables for Fractured Wells

15.4 Flow Regimes in Fractured Wells

15.4.1 Fracture Linear Flow

15.4.2 Bilinear Flow

15.4.3 Formation Linear Flow

15.4.4 Pseudo-radial Flow

15.5 Fractured Well Flow Models

15.5.1 Finite Conductivity Vertical Fracture

15.5.2 Infinite Conductivity Vertical Fracture

15.5.3 Uniform

Flux Vertical Fracture

15.6 Fractured Well Test Analysis: Straightline Methods

15.6.1 Bilinear Flow

15.6.2 Procedure for Application of Straightline Methods on Well Test Data During Bilinear Flow Regime

15.6.3 Formation Linear Flow

15.6.4 Procedure for Application of Straightline Methods on Well Test Data During Formation Linear Flow Regime

15.6.5 Pseudo-Radial Flow

15.6.6 Procedure for Application of Straightline Methods on Well Test Data During Pseudo-Radial Flow Regime

15.7 Fractured Well Test Analysis: Type-Curve Matching

15.7.1 Identification of the Interpretation Model

15.7.2 Calculation from Interpretation Model Parameters

15.7.3 Validation of the Interpretation Model Results

15.7.4 Procedure for Analysis of Well Test from Hydraulically Fractured Wells

15.8 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

15.9 Naturally Fractured Reservoir Models

15.9.1 Homogeneous Reservoir Model

15.9.2 Multiple Region or Composite Reservoir Model

15.9.3 Anisotropic Reservoir Model

15.9.4 Single Fracture Model

15.9.5 Double Porosity Model

15.10 Well Test Analysis in Naturally Fractured Reservoirs Based on Double Porosity Model

15.11 Well Test Analysis in NFRs: Straightline Methods

15.12 Well Test Analysis in NFRs: Type Curves

15.13 Procedure for Analysis of Well Test from NFRs Assuming Double Porosity Behavior

15.13.1 Identification of Flow Periods

15.13.2 Calculation of Fracture and Reservoir Parameters from Type Curves

15.13.3 Validation of Results with Straightline Methods

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 16Well Test Analysis: Deconvolution Concepts

16.1 Introduction

16.2 What Is Deconvolution?

16.3 The Pressure-Rate Deconvolution Model

16.3.1 The von Schroeter et al. ³ Deconvolution Algorithm

16.4 Application of Deconvolution to Pressure-Rate Data

16.5 Examples on the Application of the von Schroeter Deconvolution Algorithm to Real Well Test Data

16.6 General Guidelines for Application of von Schroeter Deconvolution Algorithm to Pressure-Rate Data from Well Tests

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 17Well Test Analysis: Diagnostic Fracture Injection Tests in Unconventional Reservoirs

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Typical DFIT Profile

17.3 Simple Fracture Orientation Models

17.4 Design, Planning, and Execution of DFIT

17.4.1 Selection of Test Interval

17.4.2 Injection Rates and Volumes

17.4.3 Selection of Shut-in Methods

17.4.4 Selection of Equipment for DFIT

17.4.5 Modeling DFIT with a Hydraulic Fracture Model

17.4.6 Other DFIT Execution Guidelines

17.5 Analyses of Diagnostic Fracture Injection Tests (DFITs)

17.5.1 Diagnostic Analyses

17.5.2 Before Closure Analysis (BCA)

17.5.3 After Closure Analysis (ACA)

17.6 Procedure for DFIT Analyses

Nomenclature

Subscripts

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Appendix 17A Input Data For Example 17.1

Appendix 17B Diagnostic Plots Data For Example 17.1

Appendix 17C BCA and ACA Plots Data For Example 17.1

Chapter 18Immiscible Fluid Displacement

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Basic Concepts in Immiscible Fluid Displacement

18.2.1 Rock Wettability

18.2.2 Capillary Pressure

18.2.3 Relative Permeability

18.2.4 Mobility and Mobility Ratio

18.2.5 Fluid Displacement Efficiency

18.2.6 Volumetric Displacement Efficiency

18.2.7 Total Recovery Efficiency

18.3 Fractional Flow Equations

18.3.1 Fractional Flow Equation for Oil Displaced by Water

18.3.2 Fractional Flow Equation for Oil Displaced by Gas

18.4 The Buckley-Leverett Equation

18.5 The Welge Method

18.5.1 Water Saturation at the Flood Front

18.5.2 Average Water Saturation Behind the Flood Front

18.5.3 Average Water Saturation after Water Breakthrough

18.6 Summary

Nomenclature

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 19Secondary Recovery Methods

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Waterflooding

19.2.1 Waterflood Patterns

19.2.2 Waterflood Design

19.2.3 Recommended Steps in Waterflood Design

19.2.4 Waterflood Management

19.2.5 Management of Waterflooded Reservoirs

19.3 Gasflooding

19.3.1 Applications of Gasflooding

19.3.2 Gasflood Design

19.3.3 Recommended Steps in Gasflood Design

19.3.4 Gasflood Management

19.3.5 Management of Gasflood Reservoirs

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 20Low Salinity Waterflooding

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Laboratory Displacement Experiments Using Sandstone Cores

20.3 Field Tests in Sandstone Reservoirs

20.4 Laboratory Displacement Experiments Using Carbonate Cores

20.5 Field Tests in Carbonate Reservoirs

20.6 Mechanisms for LSE

20.6.1 Mechanisms for LSE in Sandstone Cores and Reservoirs

20.6.2 Mechanisms for LSE in Carbonate Cores/Reservoirs

20.7 Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Installing LSWF Projects

20.8 Brief Case History of Claire Ridge LSWF Project

20.8.1 An Overview of Clair Ridge Field

20.8.2 Low Salinity Coreflood Tests

20.8.3 Reservoir Modeling and Analysis

20.8.4 Selection of Water Injection Facilities

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 21Enhanced Oil Recovery

21.1 Introduction

21.2 EOR Processes

21.3 EOR Screening Criteria

21.3.1 EOR Screening Criteria for Miscible Gas Injection Processes

21.3.2 EOR Screening Criteria for Chemical Flooding Processes

21.3.3 EOR Screening Criteria for Thermal Processes

21.4 Miscible Gas Injection Processes

21.4.1 Basic Concepts on Miscibility for Gas Displacement Processes

21.4.2 First-Contact Miscibility (FCM)

21.4.3 Multiple-Contact Miscibility (MCM)

21.4.4 Vaporizing Gas Drive MCM Process

21.4.5 Condensing Gas Drive MCM Process

21.4.6 Combined Condensing/Vaporizing (CV) Gas Drive MCM Process

21.5 Methods for Determination of MMP or MME for Gasfloods

21.5.1 Analytical Techniques for Estimation of MMP or MME

21.5.2 Experimental Methods

21.6 Types of Miscible Gas Flooding

21.6.1 Nitrogen/Flue-gas Miscible Gas Flooding

21.6.2 Hydrocarbon (HC) Miscible Gas Flooding

21.6.3 Carbon Dioxide Gas Flooding

21.6.4 Types of Miscible Gas Injection Strategies

21.7 Chemical Flooding Processes

21.7.1 Polymer/Surfactant Flooding

21.7.2 Alkali/Surfactant/Polymer (ASP) Flooding

21.7.3 Polymer Flooding

21.7.4 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR)

21.8 Thermal Processes

21.8.1 Steamflooding Methods

21.8.2 Steamflood Models

21.8.3 Management of Steamflood Projects

21.8.4 In-Situ Combustion (ISC)/High Pressure Air Injection (HPAI)

21.9 Implementation of EOR Projects

21.9.1 Process Screening and Selection

21.9.2 Quick Economic Evaluation of Selected Processes

21.9.3 Geologic and Reservoir Modeling of Selected Processes

21.9.4 Expanded Economic Evaluation of Selected Processes

21.9.5 Pilot Testing

21.9.6 Upgrade Geologic and Reservoir Models with Pilot Test Data/Results

21.9.7 Final Detailed Economic Evaluation

21.9.8 Field-Wide Project Implementation

21.9.9 EOR Process Project Management

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 22Geologic Modeling and Reservoir Characterization

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Sources of Data for Geologic Modeling and Reservoir Characterization

22.2.1 Seismic Data

22.2.2 Outcrop and Basin Studies

22.2.3 Well Log Data

22.2.4 Core Data

22.2.5 Formation Pressures and Fluid Properties Data

22.2.6 Pressure Transient Test Data

22.2.7 Reservoir Performance Data

22.3 Data Quality Control and Quality Assurance

22.4 Scale and Integration of Data

22.5 General Procedure for Geologic Modeling and Reservoir Characterization

22.5.1 Generation of Geologic Surfaces or Horizons

22.5.2 Structural Modeling

22.5.3 Stratigraphic Modeling

22.5.4 Correlation and Assignment of Well Log Data

22.5.5 Property Data Modeling

22.5.6 Uncertainty Analysis

22.5.7 Upscaling of Geologic Model to Reservoir Flow Model

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

References

Additional References

Problems

Chapter 23Reservoir Simulation

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Derivation of the Continuity Equation in Rectangular Form

23.3 Flow Equations for Three-Phase Flow of Oil, Water, and Gas

23.4 Basic Concepts, Terms, and Methods in Reservoir Simulation

23.4.1 Grid Systems

23.4.2 Timesteps

23.4.3 Formulations of Simulator Equations

23.4.4 Material Balance Errors and Other Convergence Criteria

23.4.5 Numerical Dispersion

23.4.6 Well Model

23.4.7 Model Initialization

23.4.8 History Matching

23.4.9 Predictions

23.4.10 Uncertainty Analysis

23.5 General Structure of Reservoir Flow Models