Public Gardens and Livable Cities: Partnerships Connecting People, Plants, and Place

Public Gardens and Livable Cities

Partnerships Connecting People, Plants, and Place

Donald A. Rakow

Meghan Z. Gough

Sharon A. Lee

Cornell University Press Ithaca and London

We dedicate this book to all those public gardens, community institutions, and individuals striving to make their cities greener, more livable, and healthier environments for the future.

Contents

Foreword, by Scot Medbury

Introduction: Livable Cities and Public Gardens

1. Promoting Neighborhood Safety and Well-Being

2. Improving the Quality of Science Education

3. Access to Healthy Food and Promoting Healthy Lives

4. Training and Employment Programs

5. Initiatives to Promote Ecosystem and Human Health

6. Strategies for the Development of Successful Partnerships

Epilogue: A Look at the Future of Public Gardens

Appendix A: Public Gardens Featured in Case Studies

Appendix B: Case Study Garden Initiatives and Partnering Organizations

Appendix C: National and International Organizations Aligned with Public Gardens

Acknowledgments

Notes

Index

Foreword

Public gardens matter. In cities and towns across the United States, garden-based organizations of all types are becoming catalysts for community revitalization. A new mandate has emerged: to foster and strengthen connections among the communities that surround them. In tandem with libraries and museums, public gardens are transforming themselves into third place community centers, providing common ground for diverse groups of people. At the same time, these organizations are reaching beyond their fences and gates to help build greener, more sustainable neighborhoods, involving themselves in a broad range of community partnerships and renewal projects. These community outreach activities and those taking place at the gardens themselves reveal an entirely new dimension of the mission of public gardens, one that may ultimately prove to be their most relevant and lasting civic contribution of all.

This essential book captures the spirit of these new collaborations, drawing from examples in cities across the United States that involve some of our most admired public gardens.

Traditional Roles

The mission and focus embodied today by American public gardens are an outgrowth of a long and somewhat complex history. While important and influential traditions can also be found in early civilizations in Asia, Africa, Mesoamerica, and elsewhere, gardens in the US have been mostly shaped by European antecedents. Public gardens in Europe evolved in part from the medicinal or physic gardens of the early Renaissance. These early gardens in turn gave rise to the first botanic gardens, which served as cradles of scientific discovery (and sometimes as instruments of economic imperialism, as in the company gardens of the colonies). Over time, and in parallel with the creation of the first public parks in the nineteenth century in both Europe and North America, the mission of public gardens—and the size of their audiences—has expanded incrementally, leading directly to the multifaceted institutions we find today.

Contemporary Roles

Most contemporary public gardens in the United States embrace a diverse set of roles that are continuing to evolve in response to changing needs. Urban gardens seem to perform a particularly crucial function, serving as places of natural sanctuary and inspiration for harried urbanites as well as a refuge for plants and wildlife in the face of increasingly fragmented and scarce habitat. Contemporary public gardens also represent places of culture and art, featuring architecture, landscape architecture, planting design, and sculpture, even serving as venues for the performing arts and for changing exhibitions. Some public gardens continue to be centers of excellence in scientific research and have expanded from a traditional focus on plant taxonomy to other areas of research, such as ecology and conservation and even environmental psychology.

Public gardens have a key role in helping to create new generations of environmental stewards and educators, while also fostering environmental literacy throughout their communities. Watching a flower become a seed, and a seed become a plant, is a new miracle for every child who has the opportunity to experience it. Ask anyone working in the public garden field today how they first became interested in plants and nature, and it is likely that every one of them will reference a childhood experience in a natural or naturalistic setting like a garden. The educational experiences and programs offered by contemporary public gardens are not merely important; they can be considered essential, as the survival of our planet may ultimately depend on people learning to care both about and for the natural environment.

Another key aspect of public gardens today is the recent trend in modeling and interpreting environmental sustainability. Many institutions have expanded their remit to become leaders in environmental conservation, highlighting sustainability in their operations and in the construction of new gardens and facilities, with some even helping to reclaim brownfield sites. Plant conservation has become an essential role too. A nationwide network of public gardens—the Center for Plant Conservation—collectively works to help save the most endangered species from extinction, bringing needed research and visibility to the plight of threatened native plants.

Adding to an already broad scope of responsibilities, over the last two decades an entirely new direction for public gardens—community revitalization—has found significant momentum across North America. It is this movement that forms the focus of this book. Public gardens have seized the opportunity to contribute substantively to strengthening the social and ecological fabric of their surrounding communities, in part through taking their programs out into neighborhoods and schools. At the same time, these institutions are reimagining the place of their garden spaces in their communities, becoming even stronger magnets for community interaction by underscoring a fundamental commitment to diversity and inclusion.

This new focus on community revitalization has especially resonated in US cities, where the need for greening projects and citizen engagement on environmental issues is particularly strong. With half of the world’s population now living in cities, these pioneering efforts by public gardens are developing program and partnership models that can be replicated in other cities in the United States and, in some cases, anywhere in the world.

The potential for public gardens to serve as agents of community revitalization has been recognized and supported by a broad range of both public and private funders. Through their generous financial support, these community leaders and public agencies have encouraged public gardens to provide their surrounding communities with wide-ranging benefits, including neighborhood safety and beautification projects, STEM education and teacher-training programs in the public schools, initiatives in food security and nutritional awareness, economic empowerment, and environmental protection and sustainability. The social, educational, environmental, and economic reach of North American public gardens has grown substantially over the past several decades and can be expected to continue to increase, especially in strategic partnership with other nonprofit organizations and government agencies.

As with all partnerships, joint programming has sometimes presented public gardens with challenges they had not fully anticipated or were not otherwise prepared to overcome. Similarly, governmental agencies and other types of nonprofit organizations are entering new, uncharted territory by developing collaborations with public garden partners. There is a tangible need for all stakeholders to learn from models of effective partnerships in support of community well-being. There is also a need for the operation and outcomes of these partnerships to be formally evaluated, in order to identify and share best practices and thereby inspire even more public gardens to enter into community collaborations.

In an effort to address some of these needs, this book brings together case studies from leading public gardens in urban and suburban areas across the United States, as well as the results of national surveys and interviews with public garden professionals and community leaders. The book aspires to make a significant contribution to the emerging literature on nonprofit collaborations. Staff at public gardens as well as at governmental and nonprofit organizations will find excellent guidance and inspiration to develop productive collaborations for the further advancement of the communities they serve.

Frontiers

Additional frontiers await public gardens as their community commitments develop and mature. Many gardens are working hard to put themselves on the greenest footing possible, so that they can model sustainability in all its forms for their entire community. This is leading to partnerships in street tree stewardship and urban composting and recycling, to innovations in the management of stormwater, and to projects that showcase efforts to reduce energy consumption and demonstrate new sources of energy, among many other examples.

A particularly exciting leadership opportunity exists in helping to maintain and even re-create places for native plants in cities. Research shows that native birds and insects prefer native plants, and if these native animals are going to persist over time, it will be in part through efforts to maintain and even create habitat for them in proximity to where people live.

Most importantly, public gardens can bear witness to the effects of climate change and share strategies that will help foster resilient communities.

Public gardens matter. Together, we might all make it through the challenges of the present.

Scot Medbury

Executive Director, Quarryhill Botanical Garden

Former President and CEO, Brooklyn Botanic Garden

Introduction

Livable Cities and Public Gardens

Over half of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to two-thirds by 2050. Currently, North America is the most urbanized region in the world, with 82 percent of its population living in urban areas.¹ Our future world will be a largely urban one, as people gradually relocate from rural to urban areas and total population growth increases. This urbanization trend has provoked renewed interest in understanding the relationship between the built environment, the natural environment, and the livability of urban areas.

Cities have long been seen as hubs of knowledge, culture, and innovation, and a number of theories and approaches have been proposed to sustain and build on those traditional perceptions. One theory is that cities spur innovation because of their organizational climate; in other words, cities are dense urban environments with diverse collections of industries that share knowledge and people to create new ideas and solutions.²

As urban areas in the United States continue to grow, our demographic makeup is changing and so are the demands on our cities. We are more racially and ethnically diverse than even a decade ago, and older adults represent a growing proportion of the population. Some residents and business owners reveal their livability preferences by voting with their feet, relocating to places that better meet their needs; but for many, relocating is not a viable option.³ Society is hopeful that cities will adapt and meet changing and diverse preferences, but the question remains: who will lead the effort to make cities more livable, and how?

Livability is a popular concept in public discussions about cities and refers to the extent to which a particular living environment can satisfy its residents’ economic, social, and cultural needs, promote their health and well-being, and protect ecological functions. While the characteristics of what residents identify as essential to a livable community will vary from community to community, often they include a sense of safety, good public schools, well-paying jobs, and access to food, parks, and green spaces. For some residents, those characteristics may also include the architecture and street aesthetics, cultural amenities, and walkability.

Livability is distinguished from sustainability mainly by the scale and context of a particular time and place.⁴ Sustainability adopts a long view of actions and policies and the ways in which development, according to a report by the World Commission on Environment and Development, meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.⁵ Livability, on the other hand, focuses on current conditions and interventions, incorporating the environmental, economic, and equity priorities on a narrower spatial scale relevant to individual people, neighborhoods, and communities in geographically smaller areas. Efforts to enhance livability are primarily community based and driven by issues of local concern that reflect changing conditions.

A long-standing strategy to enhance the livability of urban areas is to forge connections between people to activate change. These efforts typically adopt a strengths-based approach that, as a starting point, focuses on what is working well, and then builds on the resources, skills, and experience available in a community. Many public gardens excel in identifying community needs and collaborating with partners to address those needs. Such partnerships are the focus of much of this book.

Collaborations are increasing in all community sectors as a strategy to spur innovation to meet challenges in such areas as economic development, education, community capacity building, and environmental sustainability. Through cross-sector partnerships, organizations benefit from shared areas of knowledge, resources, and abilities that no single sector possesses. A municipal government, in response to growing constituent demands coupled with fiscal strains, might forge partnerships with businesses and nonprofit and community organizations to provide more effective remedies to a public problem so that collectively they fulfill functions typically undertaken by a single sector.⁶ The prevalence of such partnerships suggests that organizations are increasingly interdependent as they seek out the necessary and complementary resources to support community sustainability initiatives not achievable by a single organization acting alone.⁷

By working across sectors, institutions, and neighborhoods, urban innovators are constructing ways to enhance the ecological, economic, and social life of cities to improve their livability. A couple of decades into the twenty-first century, each sector benefits from increased livability through civic reforms and place-based policies that target underperforming areas, such as deteriorating downtown business districts and disadvantaged regions.⁸ In this cyber age, in which competitive advantage is less dependent on infrastructure to attract and retain businesses and residents, cities are increasingly investing in their livability. U.S. News and World Report annually produces an analysis of the most populous metropolitan areas to identify the best places to live.⁹ Several factors are considered in its rankings, including job market and affordability, as well as such quality-of-life factors as crime rates, education quality, and satisfaction with the social, physical, and community aspects of daily life.

Community-based interventions known as placemaking have been used for decades in the United States to enhance livability by rethinking urban public spaces, a practice informed by listening to and observing the local users of those spaces.¹⁰ Place-based approaches depend on involving residents and capitalizing on the existing assets in communities, such as public transit stops, parks, historic landmarks, and underutilized structures, and their potential to connect people and the public spaces they share. Today, placemaking is increasingly popular with designers, planners, and private organizations such as the Project for Public Spaces that, as a means to reinvent public spaces, advocate supporting grassroots efforts to leverage the physical, cultural, and social identities that define a place.¹¹ The long-term involvement in and management of these public spaces by residents, or place-keeping, is a critical component to ensuring the longevity of the environmental, social, or economic assets of the place.¹²

Placemaking, place-keeping, and similar place-based interventions seek to achieve a dual outcome: one that invests in the physical improvements of public spaces and simultaneously invests in the capacity of local residents to initiate ideas, make decisions, and commit to the implementation of improvements to the public spaces in their neighborhoods. In practice, however, the notion can conjure up negative reactions from individuals exposed to placemaking led by those with top-down conceptions of what a place ought to look like, instead of by the unique assets of the local place and its residents.

At the core of livability efforts is a tension between improving the quality of life for current residents and the threat that these interventions may actually expedite the process of gentrification,¹³ as well as the displacement of lower-income residents who can no longer afford to live in the neighborhood.¹⁴ For decades researchers have investigated the role of neighborhood revitalization in the displacement of residents and the proliferation of racially patterned neighborhood change, with mixed results.¹⁵ There is general agreement, however, that gentrification has been either an intentional tool or an unintended consequence of revitalization that has targeted neighborhoods with concentrated poverty and people of color.¹⁶ Given this context, community-based interventions aimed at increasing livability in communities must be rooted in social equity and involve the voices, talents, and spirit of those local communities.

Public Gardens as Anchor Institutions

It is clear that partnerships are essential as cities look to leverage their assets to stimulate livable communities. The ingredients for making such places do not exist in one organization, agency, or place within a city, because none has the diversity of resources or capabilities to navigate the complexity of services, innovations, or challenges alone. What cities do have at their disposal is a strong network of civic, cultural, and knowledge assets known as anchor institutions. Examples include universities, libraries, parks, hospitals, and cultural institutions. These nonprofits are rooted to their physical locations and, by definition, have an economic self-interest in helping to ensure that the communities in which they are located are healthy, safe, and generally livable.

Unfortunately, it is the cultural institutions, including museums, performing arts centers, zoos, and public gardens, that are often overlooked as potential partners in initiatives to address community concerns. Public gardens in particular are only briefly recognized as partner anchor institutions in community development literature.¹⁷ Present throughout the United States, these botanical gardens, arboreta, conservatories, display gardens, and historic landscapes are mission-based living museums with professional staff and researchers who maintain collections of plants for display, conservation, and education. Although some see public gardens only as emerald oases that are lovely to visit, their much larger mission is to connect people to plants, which they have long accomplished through outreach initiatives that include education programs, the establishment of school and community gardens, and research into plants best suited to urban environments.

Today, if one looks closely at how cities are implementing livability initiatives such as increased fresh food access, supporting job training in urban horticulture, or using plants to cool areas with high concentrations of impervious surfaces, one will almost always find a public garden at the table. The scientific knowledge and horticultural skills of public gardens can be instrumental for communities trying to restore waterfronts and streams or needing help controlling stormwater or promoting urban ecological restoration.

In his examination of people and nature, E. O. Wilson found that as children’s understanding and ability to value natural systems are nurtured, their natural affinity for life, what he terms biophilia, is likewise enhanced.¹⁸ Because our experiences with nature vary based on access, education, and opportunity, nature can be meaningful to individuals in different ways, but it can also serve as a common connection across difference.

Like other anchor institutions, public gardens are frequently trusted resources with strong ties to the local community. Given their scientific knowledge, technical expertise, and long-standing presence in many cities, public gardens can use plants as the connectors between disparate groups in a community. Their positive reputations in their communities have contributed to their success in mobilizing local involvement and resident leadership in community-based initiatives.¹⁹ At the heart of community-based initiatives are people who are examples of what David Brooks refers to as the nation’s weavers of social infrastructure.²⁰ Weavers are those who talk to neighbors and reach out to strangers to address common issues. Because they are well-known or neutral presences in a community, public gardens can serve as hubs where such weavers can come together to learn, debate, and plan ways to contribute to community livability.

Increasingly, public gardens recognize that they must offer more than a welcome mat at their entrances. To have a real impact on improving the livability of the communities around them, gardens must form partnerships with various local parties, including individuals, representatives from municipalities and nonprofit organizations, and entities such as schools, community centers, and religious institutions.

A thorough grasp of the unique roles public gardens play in communities today is predicated on understanding the complex web of social, political, and economic factors that have driven their evolution and their impact on urban history in the United States. The strong and sometimes conflicting American ideals of land ownership and stewardship, economic prosperity and success, relief for the poor, and the promise of upward social mobility contribute to the cultural fabric in which public gardens have traditionally operated.

The public garden movement in the United States began with the early recognition of botanical gardens as keys to economic development. In the agrarian world of eighteenth-century America, botanical gardens were seen as vital to the economic stability of the emerging democracy. For the country’s founders, such institutions were scientific resources where new varieties of plants could be studied and used to improve domestic agriculture, on which the economic health of the nation depended, while the physical health of its citizens was based on identifying and supplying plants with medicinal value. With few laws or treaties governing international trade, botanical gardens were deeply involved in the unencumbered extraction of plant species from foreign lands.

The involvement of botanical gardens in the livability of cities came largely in response to the challenges associated with nineteenth-century urbanization. Although there was tremendous overall population growth in the US between 1800 and 1900,²¹ urban growth proceeded much more rapidly than did the growth of the total population. To put this in perspective, in 1800 the population of the largest US city, New York, was well under one hundred thousand, and by 1900 its population was over three million.

Much of the nineteenth-century economic growth resulted from the Industrial Revolution, which introduced more