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    Regents Geometry Power Pack Revised Edition
    Regents Geometry Power Pack Revised Edition
    Regents Geometry Power Pack Revised Edition
    Ebook2,057 pages18 hours

    Regents Geometry Power Pack Revised Edition

    By Barron's Educational Series and Andre, Ph.D. Castagna

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    About this ebook

    Barron’s two-book Regents Geometry Power Pack provides comprehensive review, actual administered exams, and practice questions to help students prepare for the Geometry Regents exam.

    This edition includes:
    • Two actual Regents exams online

    Regents Exams and Answers: Geometry 
    • Five actual, administered Regents exams so students have the practice they need to prepare for the test
    • Review questions grouped by topic, to help refresh skills learned in class
    • Thorough explanations for all answers
    • Score analysis charts to help identify strengths and weaknesses
    • Study tips and test-taking strategies

    Let's Review Regents: Geometry 
    • Comprehensive review of all topics on the test
    • Extra practice questions with answers
    • Two actual, administered Regents Geometry exams with answer keys
    • Topics covered include basic geometric relationships (parallel lines, polygons, and triangle relationships), an introduction to geometric proof transformations, similarity and right triangle trigonometry, parallelograms, and volume (modeling 3-D shapes in practice applications).
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherBarrons Educational Services
    Release dateJan 5, 2021
    ISBN9781506277677
    Regents Geometry Power Pack Revised Edition

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      Regents Geometry Power Pack Revised Edition - Barron's Educational Series

      Regents Power Pack

      Geometry

      Revised Edition

      © Copyright 2021, 2020, 2018, 2017, 2016 by Kaplan, Inc., d/b/a Barron’s Educational Series

      All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the non-exclusive, non-transferable right to access and read the text of this eBook on screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of the publisher.

      Published by Kaplan, Inc., d/b/a Barron’s Educational Series

      750 Third Avenue

      New York, NY 10017

      www.barronseduc.com

      ISBN: 978-1-5062-7767-7

      10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

      Let’s Review Regents:

      Geometry

      Revised Edition

      Andre Castagna, Ph.D.

      Mathematics Teacher

      Albany High School

      Albany, New York

      Table of Contents

      Cover

      Title Page

      Copyright Information

      Dedication

      Preface

      Chapter 1: The Tools of Geometry

      1.1 The Building Blocks of Geometry

      1.2 Basic Relationships Among Points, Lines, and Planes

      1.3 Brief Review of Algebra Skills

      Chapter 2: Angle and Segment Relationships

      2.1 Basic Angle Relationships

      2.2 Bisectors, Midpoint, and the Addition Postulate

      2.3 Angles in Polygons

      2.4 Parallel Lines

      2.5 Angles and Sides in Triangles

      Chapter 3: Constructions

      3.1 Basic Constructions

      3.2 Constructions that Build on the Basic Constructions

      3.3 Points of Concurrency, Inscribed Figures, and Circumscribed Figures

      Chapter 4: Introduction to Proofs

      4.1 Structure and Strategy of Writing Proofs

      4.2 Using Key Idea Midpoints, Bisectors, and Perpendicular Lines

      4.3 Properties of Equality

      4.4 Using Vertical Angles, Linear Pairs, and Complementary and Supplementary Angles

      4.5 Using Parallel Lines

      4.6 Using Triangle Relationships

      Chapter 5: Transformations and Congruence

      5.1 Rigid Motion and Similarity Transformations

      5.2 Properties of Transformations

      5.3 Transformations in the Coordinate Plane

      5.4 Symmetry

      5.5 Compositions of Rigid Motions

      Chapter 6: Triangle Congruence

      6.1 The Triangle Congruence Criterion

      6.2 Proving Triangles Congruent

      6.3 CPCTC

      6.4 Proving Congruence by Transformations

      Chapter 7: Geometry in the Coordinate Plane

      7.1 Length, Distance, and Midpoint

      7.2 Perimeter and Area Using Coordinates

      7.3 Slope and Equations of Lines

      7.4 Equations of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

      7.5 Equations of Lines and Transformations

      7.6 The Circle

      Chapter 8: Similar Figures and Trigonometry

      8.1 Similar Figures

      8.2 Proving Triangles Similar and Similarity Transformations

      8.3 Similar Triangle Relationships

      8.4 Right Triangle Trigonometry

      Chapter 9: Parallelograms and Trapezoids

      9.1 Parallelograms

      9.2 Proofs with Parallelograms

      9.3 Properties of Special Parallelograms

      9.4 Trapezoids

      9.5 Classifying Quadrilaterals and Proofs Involving Special Quadrilaterals

      9.6 Parallelograms and Transformations

      Chapter 10: Coordinate Geometry Proofs

      10.1 Tools and Strategies of Coordinate Geometry Proofs

      10.2 Parallelogram Proofs

      10.3 Triangle Proofs

      Chapter 11: Circles

      11.1 Definitions, Arcs, and Angles in Circles

      11.2 Congruent, Parallel, and Perpendicular Chords

      11.3 Tangents

      11.4 Angle-Arc Relationships with Chords, Tangents, and Secants

      11.5 Segment Relationships in Intersecting Chords, Tangents, and Secants

      11.6 Area, Circumference, and Arc Length

      Chapter 12: Solids and Modeling

      12.1 Prisms and Cylinders

      12.2 Cones, Pyramids, and Spheres

      12.3 Cross Sections and Solids of Revolution

      12.4 Proving Volume and Area by Dissection, Limits, and Cavalieri’s Principle

      12.5 Modeling and Design

      Answers and Solutions to Practice Exercises

      Glossary of Geometry Terms

      Summary of Geometric Relationships and Formulas

      About the Exam

      Appendix I: The Geometry Learning Standards

      Appendix II: Practice and Test-Taking Tips

      June 2018 Regents Exam

      Cover

      Title Page

      Copyright Information

      Dedication

      Preface

      About the Exam

      Test-Taking Tips

      A Brief Review of Key Geometry Facts and Skills

      1 Angle, Line, and Plane Relationships

      2. Triangle Relationships

      3 Constructions

      4 Transformations

      5 Triangle Congruence

      6 Coordinate Geometry

      7 Similar Figures

      8 Trigonometry

      9 Parallelograms

      10 Coordinate Geometry Proofs

      11 Circles

      12 Solids

      Glossary of Geometry Terms

      Regents Examinations, Answers, and Self-Analysis Charts

      August 2017 Exam

      June 2018 Exam

      August 2018 Exam

      June 2019 Exam

      August 2019 Exam

      The Geometry Learning Standards

      Guide

      Cover

      Table of Contents

      Start of Content

      © Copyright 2021, 2020, 2018, 2017, 2016 by Kaplan, Inc., d/b/a Barron’s Educational Series

      All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the non-exclusive, non-transferable right to access and read the text of this eBook on screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of the publisher.

      Published by Kaplan, Inc., d/b/a Barron’s Educational Series

      750 Third Avenue

      New York, NY 10017

      www.barronseduc.com

      ISBN: 978-1-5062-7207-8

      10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

      Dedication

      To my loving wife, Loretta, who helped make this endeavor possible with her unwavering support; my geometry buddy Eva; and my future geometry buddies Rose and Henry.

      Preface

      This book presents the concepts, applications, and skills necessary for students to master the Geometry Common Core curriculum. Topics are grouped and presented in an easy-to-understand manner similar to what might be encountered in the classroom. Both students preparing for the Regents exam and teachers planning daily classroom lessons will find this book a valuable resource.

      Special Features of This Book

      Aligned with the Common Core

      This book has been rewritten to reflect the curriculum changes found in the Common Core—both in content and in degree of critical thinking expected. The Geometry Common Core curriculum has placed more emphasis on transformational geometry, especially as applied to congruence. This emphasis has been integrated throughout the book in each chapter. Example problems and practice exercises can be found throughout this book. These demonstrate higher-level thinking, applying multiple concepts in a single problem, making connections between concepts, and demonstrating understanding in words.

      Easy-to-Read Format

      Topics are arranged in a logical manner so that examples and practice problems build on material from previous chapters. This format complements the presentation of material a student may see in the classroom. The format makes this book an excellent resource both for improving understanding throughout the school year and for preparing for the Regents exam. Numerous example problems with step-by-step solutions are provided, along with many detailed figures and diagrams to illustrate and clarify the topic at hand. Each subsection begins with a Key Ideas summary of the major facts the student should take away from that section. Math Facts can be found throughout the book and provide further insight or interesting historical notes.

      Review of Algebra Skills

      The first chapter of this book contains a review of practice problems of the algebra skills required to work through some of the problems encountered in geometry. Although many geometry problems involve pure reasoning, logic, and application of geometric principles, students can expect to encounter numerical problems in which they must apply equation-solving skills learned in previous years.

      An Introduction to Proofs

      A step-by-step guide to writing accurate geometry proofs can be found in chapter 4. Students are provided with the opportunity to develop the skills needed to write proofs by starting with just a small handful of geometric concepts and tools. The scaffolding provided in this chapter will help students develop the skills and confidence needed to meet the demands of the Common Core curriculum successfully. Both the two-column and paragraph formats of proofs are presented.

      A Wide Variety of Practice Problems and Two Actual Regents Exams

      The practice problems at the end of each subsection feature a range of complexity. Basic application of skills, including applying a formula or recalling a definition, lead into multistep problem solving and critical analysis. Problems that ask students to put their understanding in writing can also be found in each chapter. These practice problems include a large number of multiple-choice questions, similar to what can be expected on the Regents exam. The answers to all Check Your Understanding problems are provided. Two actual Regents exams with answer keys are included. These give students valuable experience with the style, format, and length of the Geometry Common Core Regents exam.

      A Detailed Description of the Exam Format and Study Tips

      The format of the exam, point distribution among topics, and scoring conversion are thoroughly explained. Students can use this information to help focus their efforts and ensure that they thoroughly master topics with high point value. Study tips and advice for test day are provided to help students make the most of their study time.

      The Common Core Standards

      A complete list of the Geometry Common Core standards can be found in Appendix I. All teachers should be thoroughly familiar with the content of these standards.

      What’s Not in This Book

      This review book does not provide proofs for all the theorems found within it. In fact, it shows fewer proofs than the typical geometry textbook. The theorems and proofs that were included in this work are those that:

      illustrate the level of complexity expected of students

      demonstrate specific strategies and approaches that a student may be expected to apply

      are specifically required within the Common Core geometry learning standards

      Students are strongly encouraged to read and understand the proofs that are included here carefully. They should be able to complete on their own any proof noted to be specifically required by the Core Curriculum. Of course, rote memorization of these proofs is strongly discouraged. Instead, students should familiarize themselves with the tools and strategies used in proofs and then be able to work through the proofs by applying their critical thinking and geometry skills.

      Who Will Benefit from Using This Book

      Students who want to achieve their best-possible grade in the classroom and on the Regents exam will benefit. Students may use this book as a study guide for both their day-to-day lessons and for the Regents exam.

      Teachers who would like an additional resource when planning geometry lessons aligned to the Common Core will benefit.

      Curriculum and district administrators who want to ensure their math department’s curriculum is aligned to the Common Core will benefit.

      Chapter

      One

      The Tools of Geometry

      1.1 The Building Blocks of Geometry

      Key Ideas

      The building blocks of geometry are the point, line, and plane. The definitions of the other geometric figures can all be traced back to these three. We can think of the point, line, and plane as analogous to the elements in chemistry. All compounds are built up from the elements in the same way that the geometric figures are built up of points, lines, and planes. Along with definitions, we also look at the notation used for each. The ability to interpret vocabulary and notation is important for success in geometry.

      Point, Lines, and Planes

      A point is location in space. It is zero dimensional, having no length, width, or thickness. Points are represented by a dot and named with a capital letter, as shown by Point A in Figure 1.1a. Don’t let the dot confuse you—points are infinitely small. Even the smallest dot you can draw is two-dimensional.

      Figure 1.1

      Points, lines, and planes

      A line is a set of points extending without end in opposite directions. Lines can be curved or straight. In this book, we will use the term line to refer to straight lines. Lines are one dimensional. They have an infinite length but have no height or thickness. They are represented by a double arrow to indicate the infinite length. They are named with any two points on the line as shown in Figure 1.1b or with a lowercase letter as shown in Figure 1.1c. Three or more points may also be used if we want to indicate the line continues straight through multiple points as in Figure 1.1d.

      A plane is a set of points that forms a flat surface. Planes are two-dimensional. They have infinite length and width but no height. A tabletop or wall can represent a portion of a plane. Remember, though, that the plane continues infinitely beyond the boundaries of the tabletop or wall in each direction. Planes are named with any three points that do not lie on the same line, as shown in Figure 1.1e, or with a capital letter, as shown in Figure 1.1f.

      Example 1

      Name the following line in 7 different ways.

      Solution:

      ModifyingAbove upper F upper G With left-right-arrow comma ModifyingAbove upper G upper H With left-right-arrow comma ModifyingAbove upper F upper H With left-right-arrow comma ModifyingAbove upper G upper F With left-right-arrow comma ModifyingAbove upper H upper G With left-right-arrow comma ModifyingAbove upper F upper G upper H With left-right-arrow comma ModifyingAbove upper H upper G upper F With left-right-arrow

      Example 2

      Name the plane in two different ways.

      Solution: Plane QRS, plane Z

      Example 3

      How many points lie on ModifyingAbove upper J upper K upper L With left-right-arrow question-mark

      Solution: An infinite number. Every line contains an infinite number of points. We just show a few of them when representing and naming a line.

      Rays and Segments

      A ray is a portion of a line that has one endpoint and continues infinitely in one direction. A ray is named by the endpoint followed by any other point on the ray. When naming a ray, an arrow is used. The endpoint of the arrow is over the endpoint of the ray. Figure 1.2 illustrates ray ModifyingAbove upper A upper B With right-arrow with endpoint A and ray ModifyingAbove upper B upper A With right-arrow with endpoint B.

      Figure 1.2

      Rays ModifyingAbove upper A upper B With right-arrow and ModifyingAbove upper B upper A With right-arrow

      When two rays share an endpoint and form a straight line, the rays are called opposite rays. We say the union of the two rays forms a straight line.

      A line segment is a portion of a line with two endpoints. It is named using the two endpoints in either order with an overbar. Figure 1.3 illustrates segment ModifyingAbove upper F upper G With bar or ModifyingAbove upper G upper F With bar . The length of a segment is the distance between the two endpoints. The length of ModifyingAbove upper F upper G With bar can be referred to as FG or |FG|. In some situations, we may wish to specify a particular starting point and ending point for the segment by using a directed segment. For example, a person walking along directed segment FG would begin at point F and walk directly to point G.

      Figure 1.3

      Segment ModifyingAbove upper F upper G With bar or ModifyingAbove upper G upper F With bar

      Remember that an infinite number of points are on any line, ray, or segment even though they are not explicitly shown in a figure. Also remember that lines, rays, and segments can be considered to exist even though they are not explicitly shown in a figure.

      Example 1

      Name each segment and ray in the figure.

      Solution: Segments ModifyingAbove upper S upper T With bar and ModifyingAbove upper T upper U With bar , rays ModifyingAbove upper U upper V With right-arrow and ModifyingAbove upper S upper R With right-arrow

      Example 2

      If ModifyingAbove upper Q upper P With bar has a length of 5, what is the length of ModifyingAbove upper P upper Q With bar ?

      Solution: ModifyingAbove upper P upper Q With bar also has a length of 5 because ModifyingAbove upper P upper Q With bar and ModifyingAbove upper Q upper P With bar are the same segment.

      Angles

      An angle is the union of two rays with a common endpoint. The common endpoint is called the vertex. Angles can be named using three points—a point on the first ray, the vertex, and a point on the second ray. The vertex is always listed in the middle. Alternatively, one can use only the vertex point or a reference number. Figure 1.4 shows the different ways to name an angle.

      Figure 1.4

      Naming angles

      Angles are measured in degrees. One degree is defined as StartFraction 1 Over 360 EndFraction of the way around a circle. Halfway around the circle is 180°, and one-quarter around is 90°. The measure of an angle can be specified using the letter m. For example, m∠RST = 30°. Angles can be classified by their degree measure.

      Acute angle—an angle whose measure is less than 90°.

      Right angle—an angle whose measure is exactly 90°.

      Obtuse angle—an angle whose measure is more than 90° and less than 180°.

      Straight angle—an angle whose measure is exactly 180°.

      Figure 1.5 shows examples of each type of angle. The square positioned at the vertex of the right angle is often used to specify a right angle.

      Figure 1.5

      Classification of angles

      Math Fact

      Our definition of the degree as StartFraction 1 Over 360 EndFraction of a rotation around a center point has been used since ancient times. No one knows for sure why StartFraction 1 Over 360 EndFraction was chosen. One theory is that it originated with ancient Babylonian mathematicians, who used a base-60 number system instead of the base-10 system we use today. They divided a circle into 6 congruent equilateral triangles with 60° central angles. Then the ancient Babylonians subdivided each central angle into 60 parts. Another theory is that the circle was divided into 360 parts because one year is approximately 360 days. Either way, 360 is a convenient number to partition the circle with because 360 is divisible by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10.

      Example 1

      Name one angle and two rays.

      Solution: angle upper S upper R upper T , ModifyingAbove upper R upper S With right-arrow , ModifyingAbove upper R upper T With right-arrow

      Example 2

      Name each angle in 3 ways, and classify each angle.

      Solution:

      ∠R, ∠SRT, ∠TRS; acute angle

      ∠E, ∠DEF, ∠FED; obtuse angle

      ∠I, ∠HIJ, ∠JIH; right angle

      Adjacent Angles

      Angles that share a common ray and vertex but no interior points are adjacent angles. In Figure 1.6, ∠ABC and ∠CBD are adjacent angles. ∠ABC and ∠ABD are not to be considered adjacent because they share interior points in the region of ∠CBD.

      To avoid confusion, always use three vertices or a reference number when naming adjacent angles. Using the vertex alone would be ambiguous.

      Figure 1.6

      Adjacent angles ∠ABC and ∠CBD

      Example 1

      Name 3 pairs of adjacent angles.

      Solution: ∠AOB and ∠BOC, ∠BOC and ∠COA, ∠COA and ∠AOB

      Polygons

      A polygon is a closed figure with straight sides. They are named for the number of sides.

      Be familiar with these common polygons.

      Triangle—3 sides

      Quadrilateral—4 sides

      Pentagon—5 sides

      Hexagon—6 sides

      Octagon—8 sides

      Decagon—10 sides

      The intersection of two sides in a polygon is called a vertex (plural is vertices). The vertices are used to name specific polygons by listing the vertices in order around the polygon. They can be called out either clockwise or counterclockwise but must always be stated in continuous order—no skipping allowed.

      Figure 1.7 shows some polygons with their names. We can list the vertices of the triangle in any order since it would be impossible to skip a vertex. For the quadrilateral, the name EFGD is valid but EFDG is not. For triangles, we often precede the vertices with the triangle symbol, ∆, so triangle ABC would be referred to as ∆ABC.

      Figure 1.7

      Triangle ABC (or ΔABC), quadrilateral DEFG, pentagon HIJKL

      When all the sides of a polygon are congruent to one another (equilateral) and all the angles of the polygon are congruent to one another (equiangular), we refer to that polygon as regular. So a square is an example of a regular quadrilateral, while a rectangle may have two sides with lengths different from the other two.

      Example

      Sketch hexagon RSTUVW. Name each side and each angle.

      Solution:

      Sides

      ModifyingAbove upper R upper S With bar comma ModifyingAbove upper S upper T With bar comma ModifyingAbove upper T upper U With bar comma ModifyingAbove upper U upper V With bar comma ModifyingAbove upper V upper W With bar comma ModifyingAbove upper W upper R With bar

      Angles ∠R, ∠S, ∠T, ∠U, ∠V, ∠W

      Classifying Triangles

      Triangles can be classified by their angle lengths and measures as shown in Figure 1.8 below.

      Figure 1.8

      Triangle classifications

      Classifying triangles by sides:

      Scalene—no congruent sides, no congruent angles

      Isosceles—at least two congruent sides, two congruent angles

      Equilateral—three congruent sides, three congruent angles

      Classifying triangles by angles:

      Acute—all angles are acute

      Right—one right angle

      Obtuse—one obtuse angle

      Example 1

      ∆ABC has side lengths AB = 2, BC = 1, and AC = 1.7. ∠A measures 30°, ∠B measures 60°, and ∠C measures 90°. Classify the triangle.

      Solution: ∆ABC is a right acute triangle.

      Four special segments can be drawn in a triangle, and every triangle has three of each. These special segments are the altitude, median, angle bisector, and perpendicular bisector, shown in Figure 1.9.

      Figure 1.9

      Special segments in triangles

      Altitude—a segment from a vertex perpendicular to the opposite side

      Median—a segment from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side

      Angle bisector—a line, segment, or ray passing through the vertex of a triangle and bisecting that angle

      Perpendicular bisector—a segment, line, or ray that is perpendicular to and passes through the midpoint of a side

      Example 2

      In ∆ABC, ModifyingAbove upper B upper D With bar is drawn such that D lies on ModifyingAbove upper A upper C With bar and ModifyingAbove upper B upper D With bar is perpendicular to ModifyingAbove upper A upper C With bar . What special segment is ModifyingAbove upper B upper D With bar ?

      Solution: ModifyingAbove upper B upper D With bar is an altitude. It has an endpoint at a vertex and is perpendicular to the opposite side of the triangle.

      Example 3

      In triangle ∆ABC, ModifyingAbove upper A upper D With bar is drawn such that ∠BAD and ∠CAD have the same measure. What special segment is ModifyingAbove upper A upper D With bar ?

      Solution: ModifyingAbove upper A upper D With bar is an angle bisector of ∆ABC.

      Check Your Understanding of Section 1.1

      A. Multiple-Choice

      In ∆FGH, K is the midpoint of . What type of segment is ?

      median

      altitude

      angle bisector

      perpendicular bisector

      The side lengths of a triangle are 8, 10, and 12. The triangle can be classified as

      equilateral

      isosceles

      scalene

      right

      The side lengths of a triangle are 12, 12, and 15. The triangle can be classified as

      equilateral

      isosceles

      scalene

      right

      The angle measures of a triangle are 72°, 41°, and 67°. The triangle can be classified as

      obtuse

      right

      isosceles

      acute

      A pair of adjacent angles in the accompanying figure are

      ∠ABD and ∠CBD

      ∠ABC and ∠CBA

      ∠CBD and ∠ABC

      ∠ABD and ∠ABC

      Which is not a valid way to name the angle?

      ∠STR

      ∠RST

      ∠TSR

      ∠1

      Which of the following can be used to describe the figure?

      ∠Q

      ∠FCQ and ∠GDC

      intersects at Q

      intersects at Q

      Which of the following represents the three angles in ∆FLY?

      ∠FLY, ∠LYF, ∠YLF

      ∠FLY, ∠LYF, ∠YFL

      ∠FLY, ∠LYF, ∠LYF

      ∠LFY, ∠YFL, ∠YLF

      Which of the following has a length?

      a ray

      a line

      a segment

      an angle

      and are always

      parallel segments

      perpendicular segments

      segments with reciprocal lengths

      the same segment

      Which of the following has an infinite length and width?

      a point

      a line

      a segment

      a plane

      B. Free Response—show all work or explain your answer completely

      Sketch adjacent angles ∠DEF and ∠FEG.

      Name all segments shown in the corresponding figure:

      Name all angles shown in the corresponding figure.

      1.2 Basic Relationships Among Points, Lines, and Planes

      Key Ideas

      Geometric building blocks can be arranged in a number of ways relative to one another. These arrangements include parallel and perpendicular for lines and planes, and collinear for points. The relationships may be definitions, postulates, or theorems. A definition simply assigns a meaning to a word. A postulate is a statement that is accepted to be true but is not proven. A theorem is a true statement that can be proven.

      Postulates and Theorems

      A definition assigns a meaning to a word using previously defined words. For example, A triangle is a polygon with three sides. Definitions provide only the minimum amount of information needed to define the word unambiguously. Properties that can be proven using the definition are not part of the definition. For example, in the definition of a triangle, we would not mention the fact that the angles in a triangle sum to 180°. That is a theorem that can be proven.

      A postulate or an axiom is a statement that is accepted to be true but cannot be proven. When proving a theorem, we cannot rely entirely on previously proven theorems because we need to start somewhere. Postulates are that starting point. Some of the postulates may seem obvious, so obvious in fact that the best one could do is to restate the postulate in different words. For example, Exactly one straight line may be drawn through two points is a postulate. It is obviously true but cannot be proven using more fundamental postulates.

      A theorem is a statement that can be proven true using a logical argument based on facts and statements that are accepted to be true. If points, lines, and planes are the building blocks of geometry, then theorems are the cement that binds them together. Theorems often express the relationships among the geometric figures and their measures that are the heart of geometry. An example of a theorem is the diagonals of a square are perpendicular. When proving a theorem, we may call upon previously proven theorems, postulates, and definitions.

      Congruent

      The term congruent is similar to the term equal. However, congruent applies to geometric figures while equal applies to numbers. Figures that have the same size and shape are said to be congruent. The symbol for congruent is ≅.

      As often happens in mathematics, there are different approaches to determining if two figures are congruent. Since congruent figures have the same size and shape, we can compare lengths and angle measures. Two segments are congruent if their lengths are equal. Two angles are congruent if their angle measures are equal. Polygons are congruent if all pairs of corresponding angles and sides have the same measure. Circles are congruent if their radii are congruent. Alternatively, congruence can be established through transformations. Two figures are congruent if a set of rigid motion transformations map one figure onto the other. The transformation point of view is one that is emphasized in the Common Core and is discussed in detail in Section 5.

      Keep in mind the difference in notation between congruent and equality. If two segments, and , are congruent, we state that fact with . Since the segments are congruent, we know their lengths are equal, which we state with CD = EF. Note the difference in symbol, ≅ versus =. In addition, we use the overbar when referring to the segment and just the endpoints when referring to its length.

      Congruence of segments and angles can be specified in a sketch using tick marks for segments and arcs for angles. Sides with the same number of tick marks are congruent to one another, and angles with the same number of arcs are congruent to one another. Figure 1.10 shows a parallelogram with two pairs of congruent sides and two pairs of congruent angles. The pair of long sides each have one tick mark and are congruent, while the pair of short sides each have two tick marks and are congruent. The same is true for the two pairs of angles but using arcs. Figure 1.11 shows the congruent markings for a square. All four sides are congruent, so each side has one tick mark. The four angles are congruent, but they are also right angles, so the right angle marking can be used in place of the arcs.

      Figure 1.10

      Congruent markings in a parallelogram

      Figure 1.11

      Congruent and right angle markings in a square

      Collinear and Coplanar

      A set of points that all lie on the same line is described as collinear. Figure 1.12a illustrates collinear points L, M, N, O. Points that are not collinear are described as noncollinear. Points R, S, and T in Figure 1.12b are noncollinear. Any two given points will always be collinear since a straight line can always be drawn through two points. This is a consequence of our first postulate.

      Figure 1.12

      Collinear and noncollinear points

      Postulate 1

      There is one, and only one, line that contains two given points.

      Extending to three dimensions, a set of points that all lie on the same plane is described as coplanar. Figure 1.13 illustrates coplanar points L, M, N, O. Points that do not lie on the same plane are noncoplanar. Any three given points will always be coplanar.

      Figure 1.13

      Coplanar points L, M, N, O

      Postulate 2

      There is one, and only one, plane that contains three given points.

      In addition to points, lines may also be coplanar. Coplanar lines are lines that are completely contained within the same plane. Remember, both the plane and the lines continue forever in their respective dimensions.

      Intersecting, Parallel, Perpendicular, and Skew

      Coincide simply means to lie on top of one another. Two lines or planes that coincide are essentially the same. Intersecting means to cross one another. Intersecting lines always cross at a single point, called the point of intersection. Figure 1.14 shows lines r and s intersecting at point M. The intersection of two planes is always a single line, called the line of intersection. Figure 1.15 shows planes ABC and ABD intersecting at .

      Figure 1.14

      Intersecting lines

      Figure 1.15

      Intersecting planes

      Postulate 3

      The intersection of two lines is a point.

      Postulate 4

      The intersection of two planes is a line.

      Postulate 5

      Intersecting lines are always coplanar.

      Perpendicular

      Perpendicular is a special case of intersecting, where the lines or planes intersect at right angles. The symbol for perpendicular is ⊥. In Figure 1.16, line r ⊥ line s. In Figure 1.17, plane R ⊥ plane S. The small square at the right angle in Figure 1.16 is a symbol for a right angle. Segments and rays are perpendicular if the lines that contain them are perpendicular. Note that our definition of perpendicular involves right angles, not a 90° measure. Perpendicular lines lead us to right angles, and the right angles lead us to the 90° measure.

      Figure 1.16

      Perpendicular lines

      Figure 1.17

      Perpendicular planes

      Parallel

      Parallel lines are lines that never intersect and are coplanar. You can recognize parallel lines by the way they run in the same directions like a pair of train tracks. We use the symbol || for parallel. In Figure 1.18, line r || line s. Segments and rays are parallel if the lines that contain them are parallel. The and are coplanar part of the definition is important because it distinguishes parallel from skew. Planes can be parallel as well, as shown in Figure 1.19. Parallel planes never intersect.

      Figure 1.18

      Line r || line s

      Figure 1.19

      Plane R || Plane S

      Skew Lines

      Skew lines are lines that are not coplanar. Like parallel lines, skew lines will never intersect. However, unlike parallel lines, skew lines run in different directions. In Figure 1.20, line and line are skew. We do not have a special symbol for skew.

      Figure 1.20

      Skew lines and

      Math Fact

      Even though and are not connected with arrows in Figure 1.20, a line still exists that passes through each of the two pairs of points. Any two points can be used to specify a line. The same goes for planes. Plane ACGE slices diagonally through the prism even though we do not see the points connected in the manner seen in plane EFG. Any three points can be used to specify a plane.

      If you look at any pair of lines, one and only one of the following must be true. They can coincide, intersect, be parallel, or be skew. Any pair of planes will coincide, be parallel, or intersect. We do not use the word skew to describe planes.

      Examples

      For examples 1–5, use the figure of the cube below.

      Identify 3 segments parallel to .

      Identify 4 segments perpendicular to .

      Identify 4 segments skew to .

      Identify 1 plane parallel to plane EFG.

      Identify 4 planes perpendicular to plane EFG.

      Solutions to examples 1–5:

      , , and are parallel to .

      , , , and are perpendicular to .

      , , , and are skew to .

      Plane ABC is parallel to plane EFG.

      Planes EAB, FBC, GCD, and HDA are perpendicular to plane EFG.

      Check Your Understanding of Section 1.2

      A. Multiple-Choice

      Lines that are coplanar but do not intersect can be described as

      perpendicular

      parallel

      skew

      congruent

      The intersection of two planes is

      1 point

      1 line

      2 points

      2 planes

      Line r intersects parallel planes U and V. The intersection can be described as

      2 parallel lines

      1 line

      2 intersecting lines

      2 points

      Points A, B, and C are not collinear. How many planes contain all three points?

      one

      two

      three

      an infinite number

      In the figure of a rectangular prism, which of the following is true?

      Points E, H, D, and A are coplanar and collinear.

      is skew to , and .

      , and .

      , and skew to .

      Which parts of the accompanying figure are congruent?

      , ∠I ≅ ∠G, and ∠H ≅ ∠F

      , , and ∠I ≅ ∠G

      , , and ∠I ≅ ∠G

      and ∠H ≅ ∠F

      and intersect at point L. Which of the following is not true?

      Points J, K, and M are collinear.

      and are coplanar.

      Points J, K, and L are collinear.

      Points J, K, L, and M are coplanar.

      Given points F, G, H, and I with no three of the points collinear, what is the maximum number of distinct lines that can be defined using points F, G, H, and I?

      4

      5

      6

      8

      Lines r and s intersect at point A. Line t intersects lines r and s and points B and C, respectively. Which of the following is true?

      Lines r, s, and t must all be perpendicular.

      Line t must be skew to lines r and s.

      Points A, B, and C must be collinear.

      Lines r, s, and t must all be coplanar.

      If ∠J ≅ ∠L, which must be true?

      m∠J = m∠L

      ∠J ⊥ ∠L

      ∠J || ∠L

      m∠J + m∠L = 180°

      B. Free Response—show all work or explain your answer completely

      In the triangular prism,

      name a segment skew to

      name two planes containing

      name a pair of parallel planes

      Points M, N, and P are contained in both planes S and T. Juan states that the three points must be collinear, but his friend Carla disagrees and says they do not have to be. Who is correct? Explain your reasoning.

      A stool has three legs, but one of the legs is shorter than the other two. When the stool is placed on a flat floor, will all three legs touch the floor? Explain why or why not.

      1.3 Brief Review of Algebra Skills

      Key Ideas

      Certain algebra skills show up frequently in our study of geometry. They are tools used to complete the evaluation of geometric relationships. Procedures for operations with radicals, solving linear equations, multiplying polynomials, solving quadratic equations, and solving proportions as well as word problem strategies are briefly reviewed.

      Operations with Radicals

      The square root of a number is the number that when multiplied by itself results in the original number. It is represented with the square root, or radical, symbol . The number under the radical symbol is the radicand. An example of a radical expression is . The 3 is the coefficient, and the 5 is the radicand.

      Adding and Subtracting Radicals: Add or subtract the coefficient if the radicands are the same, otherwise the radicals cannot be combined. For example, only the terms can be combined in the following equation.

      Multiplying and Dividing Radicals: Multiply or divide the coefficients and then multiply or divide the radicands.

      Simplifying Radicals—A radical is said to be in simplest form when the following 3 conditions are met.

      No perfect square factors appear in the radicand.

      No fractions appear in the radicand.

      No radicals appear in the denominator.

      Remove perfect square factors from the radicand by factoring the radicand using the largest perfect square factor. Then take the square root of the perfect square factor. In the radical expression below, 12 is factored into 4 · 3. Then is simplified to 2.

      Fractions in the radicand can be rewritten as the quotient of two radicals as shown below.

      Remove radicals in the denominator by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the radical in the denominator. This is called rationalizing the denominator.

      Math Fact

      Taking the square root and squaring are inverse operations. Taking the square root of a number and then squaring it results in the original number, as in .

      Example 1

      Express in simplest radical form

      Solution:

      Example 2

      Express in simplest radical form

      Solution:

      Math Fact

      Expressing radicals in simplest radical form make it easier to compare radical expressions. In geometry, we often want to determine if two measures are equal or satisfy a particular inequality. Once all the radicals have been completely simplified, comparing radicals is just a matter of comparing the coefficients. Radicals will frequently show up when working with solving quadratic equations, when using the Pythagorean theorem, or with the distance formula.

      Solving Linear Equations

      Linear equations are equations that involve the variable raised to the first power only. They can be solved using the following steps.

      Apply the distributive property to terms with parentheses.

      Eliminate fractions by multiplying both sides by the denominator of any fraction, or the greatest common denominator if there are several fractions.

      Combine like terms on each side of the equal sign.

      Isolate the variable by undoing additions/subtractions and then multiplications.

      Example 1

      Solve 8x + 6 = 2x + 4(x + 5)

      Solution:

      Example 2

      Solve 

      Solution:

      Multiplying Polynomials

      When multiplying monomials, multiply the coefficients and multiply the variables. When multiplying powers of the same variable, use the rule keep the base and add the powers.

      Example 1

      Multiply

      Solution:

      When multiplying binomials, use the double distributive property by applying the vertical method, box method, FOIL (first-outer-inner-last), or any other technique you may have learned.

      Example 2

      Multiply (4x + 2) (5x + 6)

      Solution: Use FOIL.

      Example 3

      Multiply (3x − 7)(x + 2)

      Solution: Use the vertical method.

      Factoring and Solving Quadratic Equations

      Quadratic equations have second-order, or , terms as the highest power of x. Solving quadratic equations requires factoring. The procedure is as follows:

      Get all terms on one side.

      Factor.

      Apply the zero product rule.

      Solve for x.

      Math Fact

      The zero product rule states that if a product of factors equals zero, then each factor may be individually set equal to zero and solved to find a solution to the equation.

      Some Factoring Methods

      Greatest Common Factor: If a common factor exists among all terms, divide all terms by that factor. Put the new terms inside parentheses, and move the divided factor outside the parentheses. If a factor is still not linear, use another method on that factor.

      Example 1

      Solve

      Solution:

      Grouping with a = 1: For the quadratic equation , find numbers and such that and . The equation factors to . From here, apply the zero product theorem.

      Example 2

      Solve

      Solution:

      Difference of Perfect Squares: Quadratics in the form factor into Once factored, set each factor equal to zero and solve for x.

      Example 3

      Solve

      Solution:

      Completing the Square: Completing the square can be used on any trinomial with the form .

      Rewrite the equation as

      Add the quantity to both sides of the equation.

      Factor the left side, which will be a perfect square.

      Take the square root of both sides, and solve for x.

      Remember, there will be a positive and negative root when taking the square root. So there will be two solutions.

      Example 4

      Solve

      Solution:

      Quadratic Formula: The solution to any quadratic equation of the form can be found using the quadratic formula.

      Example 5

      Solve

      Solution:

      Math Fact

      Some geometric relationships result in a quadratic equation that must be solved in order to find the measure of an angle or segment. The quadratic will give two solutions, and both must be checked for consistency with the problem. Lengths or angle measure in this course will always be positive. If either solution results in a negative length or angle, that solution is thrown out. If both solutions lead to an acceptable answer, the problem has two solutions. Two solutions often correspond to a situation where two different geometric configurations could lead to the relationship modeled in the equation.

      Solving Proportions

      A proportion is an equation involving two ratios. They can be solved using the fact that the cross products must be equal.

      Example 1

      Solve

      Solution:

      Example 2

      Solve

      Solution:

      Word Problem Strategies

      Word problems in geometry may involve phrases that describe a relationship between two figures or measures. Some common phrases and their algebraic translations are shown below.

      The following are some good general strategies for solving word problems:

      Make a sketch and label it.

      Underline or highlight key words and definitions, such as bisector, midpoint, and so on.

      Underline phrases to be translated into mathematical expressions.

      Identify what the question is asking—the value of a variable, the measure of an angle or segment, an explanation or justification, and so on.

      Example 1

      Write an expression that represents 12 less than double a number.

      Solution: Let the number equal .

      Example 2

      Three integers are in a 4 : 7 : 9 ratio. If their sum equals 60, what are the numbers?

      Solution: Let the integers equal 4x, 7x, and 9x.

      Check Your Understanding of Section 1.3

      A. Multiple-Choice

      is equal to

      110

      330

      440

      660

      is equivalent to

      The solution to is

      x = 0

      x = 1

      x = 2

      x = 3

      The solution to is

      x = 3

      x = 6

      x = 9

      x = 12

      The solution to the equation x² − 12x + 20 = 0 is

      x = −2, x = 10

      x = 2, x = 10

      x = −4, x = −5

      x = −20, x = 12

      When factored, x² − 36 is equal to

      (x² + 6)(6 − 12)

      (x − 6)²

      (x + 6)(x − 6)

      (x + 6)²

      The length of a segment is given by the solution to x² + 5x − 50 = 0. What are the possible lengths?

      5 only

      5 or 10

      5 or −10

      10 only

      8

      Which expression represents 6 less than twice the measure of ∠1?

      2 · m∠1 − 6

      2 − 6 · m∠1

      6 − 2 · m∠1

      6 · m∠1 − 2

      B. Free Response—show all work or explain your answer completely. All answers involving radicals should be in simplest radical form

      Solve 3x² − 27 = 0 by any method.

      Solve x² + 6x − 8 = 0 by completing the square.

      Is less than, greater than, or equal to ? Justify your answer.

      If AB is 3 greater than four times CD and the sum of the lengths is 33, find each length.

      The measures of ∠A and ∠B sum to 180°, and m∠A is 9° greater than one-half m∠B. Find the measure of each angle.

      The sides of a triangle are in a 3 : 5 : 6 ratio. If the perimeter has a length of 56, what is the length of the shortest side?

      The measures of two angles sum to 90°, and they are in a ratio of 2 : 3. Find the measure of each angle.

      Solve for x:

      Solve for x:

      Chapter

      two

      Angle and Segment Relationships

      In this section, we explore some of the basic relationships involving the measures of angles and segments. Algebraic modeling and equation solving will be applied to find the measure of a missing angle or the measure of a segment. These relationships represent the building blocks that will be used to explore more complex problems, theorems, and proofs.

      2.1 BASIC ANGLE RELATIONSHIPS

      Key Ideas

      Basic theorems and definitions used to solve problems involving angles include:

      The sum of the measures of adjacent angles around a point equals 360°.

      Supplementary angles have measures that sum to 180°.

      Complementary angles have measures that sum to 90°.

      Vertical angles are the congruent opposite formed by intersecting lines and are congruent.

      Angle bisectors divide angles into two congruent angles.

      The measure of a whole equals the sum of the measures of its parts.

      Sum of the Angles About a Point

      The measures of the adjacent angles about a point sum to 360°. In Figure 2.1, m∠1 + m∠2 + m∠3 + m∠4 = 360°.

      Figure 2.1

      Sum of the angles about a point = 360°

      Example

      Find the measure of each angle in the accompanying figure.

      Solution:

      Supplementary Angles, Complementary Angles, and Linear Pairs

      Supplementary angles are angles whose measures sum to 180°. The angles may or may not be adjacent. Two adjacent angles that form a straight line are called a linear pair. They are supplementary. Figure 2.2 shows a linear pair. Multiple adjacent angles around a line also sum to 180°, as shown in Figure 2.3.

      Figure 2.2

      Linear pair

      Figure 2.3

      Adjacent angles around a line

      Complementary angles are angles whose measures sum to 90°. As with supplementary angles, complementary angles may or may not be adjacent. Complementary angles are illustrated in Figure 2.4.

      Figure 2.4

      Complementary angles

      Example 1

      intersects at B. If m∠ABD = (4x + 8)° and m∠CBD = (2x + 4)°, find the measure of each angle.

      Solution: The angles form a linear pair and are supplementary.

      Example 2

      In the accompanying figure, m∠1 = (x + 16)° and m∠2 = (3x + 6)°. Find the measure of each angle.

      Solution: The angles are complementary.

      Vertical Angles

      When two lines intersect, four angles are formed. Each pair of opposite angles are congruent and are called vertical angles. In Figure 2.5, ∠1 and ∠3 are vertical angles and are therefore congruent. Also, ∠2 and ∠4 are vertical angles and are therefore congruent. Vertical angles show up frequently in geometry. So always be on the lookout for them. Once you know the measure of any one of the four vertical angles formed by two intersecting lines, you can easily calculate the measures of the other three using the supplementary angle relationship for a linear pair.

      Figure 2.5

      Vertical angles

      Example

      In Figure 2.5, m∠1 = 150°. Find the measure of each of the other angles.

      Check Your Understanding of Section 2.1

      A. Multiple-Choice

      Two complementary angles measure (12x − 18)° and (5x + 23)°. What is the measure of the smaller angle?

      5°

      42°

      48°

      90°

      Two supplementary angles measure (7x + 11)° and (14x + 1)°. What is the measure of the smaller angle?

      40.5°

      67°

      108°

      123°

      and intersect at O. If m∠DOC = (8x − 30)° and m∠BOA = (6x + 12)°, what is m∠DOA?

      138°

      51°

      42°

      21°

      What is the value of x in the accompanying figure?

      97°

      98°

      117°

      136°

      Find the measure of ∠FIM.

      58°

      98°

      102°

      112°

      Two lines intersect such that a pair of vertical angles have measures of (5x − 57)° and (3x + 21)°. Find the value of x.

      39

      27

      12

      6.5

      and m∠CFE = 42°. Find m∠DFA.

      132°

      138°

      142°

      144°

      Lines and intersect at P. Which of the following is not necessarily true?

      ∠APC and ∠CPB are supplementary.

      ∠BPC ≅ ∠APD

      ∠APC ≅ ∠BPD

      ∠APC ≅ ∠BPC

      B. Free Response—show all work or explain your answer completely

      In the accompanying figure, , intersects at point O, and m∠JOH = 31°. Find the measures of ∠KOG and ∠IOH.

      Two supplementary angles are congruent. What is the measure of each?

      The measure of ∠A is 15° greater than twice the measure of ∠B. If ∠A and ∠B are complementary, what are the measures of ∠A and ∠B?

      intersects at R. If the measure of ∠QRU increases by 15°, what is the change in the measure of ∠SRT and ∠SRU?

      2.2 BISECTORS, MIDPOINT, AND THE ADDITION POSTULATE

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