Youth Gangs and Street Children: Culture, Nurture and Masculinity in Ethiopia

INTRODUCTION

This book is based on six years of ethnographic research among homeless youth gangs and home-living street children in Addis Ababa. It has evolved over subsequent years of follow-up research and further reflection on the cumulative causes and consequences of persistent poverty and gross inequalities in Ethiopia. It attempts to combine theme, places and the voices of individual children and parents to elucidate the problem surrounding gang life and streetism,¹ without resorting to stereotyping and simplifications. It also deals with socio-economic factors that commonly affect their everyday well-being.

The rapidly expanding population of youth gangs and street children is one of the most disturbing phenomena in the urban centres of the developed and developing world. Such children are found in Bucharest, Rio de Janeiro, Cairo, Accra, Rome and London. Globally, youth gangs and street children are considered as children whose lives involve a constant state of destitution, violence and criminality. They are seen as a serious threat to society and in need of heavy-handed intervention, stabilization and control by a concerned adult world. As part of the ‘vulnerable’ categories of young lives, whose apparent plight require international attention, they have become a focal point for social and material development concerns. This has contributed to their institutional segregation within development agencies such as UNICEF, Save the Children and other NGOs.

The attribution of a negative signifier to a social group creates that social group. For example, in the UK, politicians, the media, academics and NGOs, through their constant advertising of the plight of children in order to raise funds, play a role in influencing our attitudes towards destitute children, street children and youth gangs. It is easy to spot the same rhetorical themes re-emerging. This is because the messages they promote can be conflicting and project a plethora of injustices. They range from poverty, to child neglect and abuse, to domestic violence, lack of good parenting by single mothers, poor health care, lack of clean water and sanitation, low education provision and more recently lack of leisure facilities and absentee fathers. The suggested solution has been a combination of more social welfare provision, ‘tough love’ and/or the long arm of the law. The recent alarming media coverage of youth gangs and knife murders in the UK attests to this. The British government has recently unveiled a £100 million ‘Youth Crime Action Plan’, which is meant to address antisocial behaviour, victim support and sentencing. The plan is also expected to tackle inadequate parenting and the problem of absentee fathers under its Family Intervention Projects (FIPS) ‘which work intensively with the most problematic families, and an incumbency on parents to ensure that their children serve community sentences or risk jail themselves’ (Guardian, 19 July 2008).

Familiar sights of Addis Ababa during my childhood years in the 1960s and 70s included donkeys carrying unendurably heavy loads on their backs while dodging cars in heavy traffic and peddlers and beggars swarming around pedestrians and cars. Child beggars then were few and far between among the street-living fraternity. The very young ones were there to guide their blind or severely handicapped parents to lucrative begging spots or potential clients. There were hardly any girls or women amongst them. Homeless youth gangs were nonexistent. Begging was not confined to the asphalted main roads; not a day passed without several beggars asking for leftover food alms at my Ethiopian mother's gate.

When I began my research in 1995, some things were the same and many had changed beyond recognition. Donkeys were still being used as beasts of burden and peddlers and beggars were a ubiquitous part of the scenery. However, nothing I had read or seen during my fleeting visits home during the 80s and early 90s had prepared me to cope with the explosion in the street children population, homeless beggars and youth gangs or the indescribable chaos caused by uncontrolled traffic jams once I was in the field as a researcher. In July 2001, I was obliged to stop my field work and leave Ethiopia. This was due to ill health and the emotional stress of doing field work among destitute children and their families without a pause or time to analyze my empirical data.

The long-term field study was not intentional. Every time I thought that I had captured the essence of who they were, further revelations and their actions shattered the certainty of my deductions. This was partly due to the inconsistency of their life circumstances and their passage from infancy to childhood and then adulthood. The vulnerable pre-teen street boys I knew entered puberty as sexually active teenagers, right before my eyes. As soon as I established the type of violence meted out to them by members of the public and the police, I was confronted by the violence amongst them, which was more frequent and lethal as well as being emotionally damaging to the children. Membership in a gang did not provide the homeless children with a long-lasting affective and economic support group as depicted in the literature on street and homeless children (see Sharf et al. 1986; Swart 1988; Aptekar 1988). The ones I worked with were not only at odds with one another most of the time, but frequently went in and out of groups. Chapters 4 and 5 include detailed analysis of the type of crime and violence the youth gang members I worked with were involved in as well as the retribution they suffered at the hands of their own comrades, members of the public and the police. Furthermore, seemingly dependent children were not only socializing their parents but had taken over adults’ role in the public as well as the domestic sphere. They were active entrepreneurs themselves teaching their parents, siblings and even adult street workers the tricks of trading in the informal sector as well as parenting their parents and siblings. This book is about how the above-mentioned phenomena occurred in their homes and in the street.

In Ethiopia, the public assumes that street children are more or less outside the direct guidance, moral inculcation and economic dependence of their parents. This is in spite of the fact that most of them, if not all, live with their biological families. Worse still, they perceive homeless youth gang members who do not live with their families as being juvenile delinquents, prostitutes, drug abusers, petty thieves, vagrants, dropouts or deviants. During the six years I was in the field, members of my family, friends, the police and even the street-trading fraternity advised me to disassociate myself from their company because I risked being robbed or physically attacked. I suffered occasional acts of violence from adult beggars, unemployed youths or neighbours who felt that I was not paying equal attention to their plights. At the beginning of my field work, most of the gang members I met regularly lied to me. I have provided examples in chapters 3, 4 and 5. However, the street children and their families, including the female and male gang members I worked with, treated me with overwhelming kindness. None of the parents and children I worked with physically or verbally attacked or robbed me.

There were more than three hundred international and local NGOs based in Addis Ababa in 1995, many of which were purporting to help street children. Numerous foreign NGOs were operating without having registered themselves as non-governmental voluntary organizations. Many of their internationally recruited staff were working without the required work permit. They would enter the country on a tourist visa and every six months would fly to Eritrea and re-enter the country with a new tourist visa. The government was aware of this anomaly. Throughout 1996 and 1997, they closed down NGOs operating illegally in the country. During the same period, several NGOs working with street children were duplicating each other's projects and undercutting each other by producing hard-hitting pamphlets with the most heartfelt pleas in order to attract funding from Western donors. As Naila Kabeer (1994: 72) put it: ‘There is an intimate relationship between the world-view of powerful developmental agencies and the kinds of knowledge that they are likely to promote, fund and act upon.’ There is also a growing alarm and distaste about the ‘iconography of African children's misery’, which is used by NGOs and others to solicit donations and promote their campaign. Africans, including those living in Diaspora, agree that this is unacceptable because this masks the underlining political and economic factors causing this misery and thus prevents effectively addressing it. It also mutes the voices of the Africans impeding them from speaking for themselves or choosing the way they wish to represent themselves globally. I knew several children who had simultaneously registered themselves with different NGOs helping street children in the same area. Although the sums raised by the NGOs based in Ethiopia must have been considerable, in terms of the practical steps to eliminate poverty and streetism, they barely scratched the surface of the problem. In chapter 3, I have indicated how NGOs’ agendas were partly influenced by the action of the children and their parents who at times went to any length in order to create an image of themselves, which they perceived NGOs’ agents wanted to hear, in order to benefit from development projects. I have provided additional commentary on the role of international humanitarian agencies’ efforts to help children and families living in difficult circumstances in the concluding ‘Discussion and Conclusion’ chapter.

Poverty and Streetism in Ethiopia

The origin of street children in Ethiopia has been rightly attributed to the onset of urbanization after the birth of Addis Ababa as the capital city of Ethiopia in 1887 (see Andarkatchew 1976, 1992; Zenebe 1996; Tedla 1999). Streetism has also been correlated with civil strife, famines and social change (see MOLSA et al. 1993; Central Statistical Commission 2002; UNICEF 2003). Whether these are the underlying causes for the unprecedented levels of childhood poverty, prevailing violence against children or the proliferation of street children in modern Ethiopia is a moot point. Poverty and begging preceded urbanization. Furthermore, there has never been a time in recorded history when Ethiopia and Ethiopians were not either at odds with each other, with their geographical neighbours or repulsing European or Muslim invaders. As indicated in chapter 1, famines, wars, insurrections, social change and social conflict are part of Ethiopia's ancient and modern history (see Bahru 1986, 1991; Turton 2006; W. James et al. 2002; Marsden 2007). Even though they have contributed to underdevelopment, they are not the sole cause for poverty and streetism in Ethiopia.

Very few of my contemporaries in Ethiopia had any doubt that the country was imploding in the late 1960s and early 70s. It was not whether the Imperial Regime of Emperor Haile Sellassie would be overthrown but when. In 1974, when the revolution happened, it took the form of a USSR-backed brutal Marxist military dictatorship that lasted seventeen years (see W. G. Dawit 1989 for a detailed analysis of this period in Ethiopian history). As put by one of my school friends who now lives in Diaspora: ‘The Soviets hijacked our revolution and the revolution ate its children.’ There was still a sense of doom and the feeling that the country was going to implode while I was carrying out field work from 1995 to 2001. In March 2001, a peaceful students’ demonstration at the University of Addis Ababa complaining about the closure of their student magazine was met by brutal repression. This triggered street riots all over Addis Ababa by disaffected citizens and the hundreds of unemployed youths, which resulted in the death of many and a new wave of educated Ethiopians joining the earlier 1974–1980 exodus to the West in search of a better life.

The first decade of the new millennium saw the continuation of the 1998 Ethiopian/Eritrean cross-border war; Ethiopian soldiers were embroiled in the Somali civil war; and there was an uneasy truce with Sudan and civil unrest in the north and south of the country. The nationalist/separatist movements I was familiar with during my early childhood in the late 1960s, namely the Afar Liberation Movement, the Oromo Liberation Front and the Ogaden Liberation Front, had now been joined by the Gambella Peoples’ Liberation Front and many others. Political instability continues to afflict Ethiopia, thus impeding any international aid efforts and the government in power to focus on economic and social development.

Rural poverty due to droughts and famine spurring rural to urban migration is often cited as contributing to the proliferation of street children in Addis Ababa (see Andarkatchew 1976; Ottaway 1976; Solomon and Aklilu 1993; Fitsum 1994; Tedla 1999; MOLSA 1993; Central Statistical Commission 2002). As I shall demonstrate in chapter 1, there are written records of droughts and famines dating back to the first half of the ninth century (see R. Pankhurst 1961, 1968). In June 2008, once again the world media zoomed their lenses on starving Ethiopian children and women, this time around the agriculturally fertile southern states. The crisis warranted a cover story in Time Magazine (18 August 2008), with the ubiquitous iconographic picture of a distraught Ethiopian mother with a starving child in her arms. Over a year later, the UK based Independent on Sunday's front page news ‘Millions facing famine in Ethiopia’ dated 30 August 2009, had a poignant picture of a starving Ethiopian child with leading articles inside entitled: ‘Twenty Five Years after Band Aid’ and ‘Our Ship is Sinking: We must act now’. It attributed the present tragedy and looming famine primarily to climate change. The caption under the picture of the Ethiopian ambassador to the UK quotes him as saying: ‘the international community isn't living up to its promises’. In the words of one of my former students at the University of Addis Ababa who wishes to remain anonymous:

The Ethiopian political leadership is busy disputing the number of people without food, which they claim is exaggerated and they suspect the NGOs are behind it. The vice prime minister was heard arguing that it is 5.4 million that are food insecure and not 6 million! I would say that one hundred starving Ethiopians are too many! What were they doing at the so-called ‘Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency’? The government keeps telling us that our economy is growing. I cannot help wondering what they mean when they say it is growing. The more we are told our economy is growing, the tougher life is getting for my folks and the streets are still full of child and adult beggars. (July 2008)

The views expressed in the literature on street children address different dimensions associated with streetism, including poverty and civil strife. Much remains to be understood about the everyday lives of such children on whose behalf myriad NGO projects are launched. Furthermore, available information treats the street children as undifferentiated groups and delves into the children's street-based activities with minimal or no reference to home life / school life or life after the street. There is even less information about how they interact with one another, their families and mainstream society. In chapters 3, 4 and 5 I explore the social world of Ethiopian street children living at home and gangs of homeless girls and boys living in loose-knit social groups. The chapters include invaluable information about the role NGOs, teachers, church groups and the police play in their lives.

Methodology

There is still controversy over the most appropriate approach for conducting social and cultural studies of urban environments. Recent writings on research in the urban context affirm that attempts to establish single discipline–based, universal definitions of the ‘city’ and ‘urban social behaviour’ are misplaced. The trend is to use a multi-disciplinary approach combining ethnographic and mathematical analysis or a family of methodologies and insights involving comparative analysis, case studies, situational analysis and social network (see Sanjek 1974; Nestmann and Hurrelmann 1994; Andranovich and Riposa 1993; White 1993; Rogers and Vertovec 1995; Smith 2001; Wang and Hofe 2007). This is in accordance with Clyde J. Mitchell's (1966) conclusion that analysts from various disciplines are likely to select, from the total set of diacritical features of the city, those that are theoretically pertinent for analysis in terms of a specific discipline.

Questionnaire interviews may be invaluable for need assessment or to make a brief socio-economic survey of a targeted group of people. They are less useful when it comes to extracting information on the role of culture/nurture/environment in explaining streetism or the origins of street children in Ethiopia. Besides, the bias and error of needs assessments and brief socio-economic surveys and other quantitative procedures are sometimes more subtle and therefore more troublesome to spot because the overall perspective they reflect is often that of a global view. My quest was further complicated by the fact that I did not have a firm idea of what I should look into. My original interest was influenced by what is generally written about street children and non-street children. It was aimed at securing information about what I, at that time, assumed to be important to their way of life in the street. These were the so-called ‘rule-governed cultural world’ created by children (see Opie and Opie 1959; Stone and Church 1968; Glassner 1976; Spier 1976; Goode 1986; Fine and Standstrom 1988); their secret lore and language (see Opie and Opie 1959; Hardman 1973a, 1973b); as well as their social networks (see Aptekar 1988; Swart 1988; Ennew 1994a). Since I did not have a prior experience or knowledge of youth gangs I was able to just observe their actions and record their narrative free of any assumptions.

Narratives tell us much about culture and the nature of culture, but narratives have no meaning without reference to their sources. Besides, as Alan Bennett (1997: 41) so succinctly put it, ‘One cannot overstate the untidiness of human speech or reproduce it accurately on the page.’ This is because people interact with one another not only in accordance with their position in the social space but also with the mental disposition through which they apprehend this space. People respond to other people and to their environment based on their definition of the situation. Since the children's actions did not always accord with the idealized worldview found in their narratives, I soon realized that the type of narrative I required could neither be derived from answers to specific questions nor extracted from questionnaire-based data. Even an insight into the above-mentioned issues called for a thorough understanding of the social meaning behind any sort of account the street children might give about their personal experiences. In order to analyze the problem of streetism, I needed to establish the necessary background knowledge about their social, work and leisure activities at home and in the street. I would also have to delve into the reality behind the contemporary social constructions of childhood within their social environment. In other words, I had to acquire an insight into the activities, attitudes, habitual practices and basic axioms of the street children and their families.

There were numerous methodological implications and differentiating elements to take into account when carrying out field work amongst youth gangs and the street children coming from heterogeneous, multi-ethnic and/or mixed backgrounds (see Aptekar and Heinonen 2003). Faced with a multi-site approach to participant observation in an urban setting, and in order to obtain qualitative responses to my queries, I was obliged to consider the street children and their families that I was to work with as a group for all practical purposes. I had to search in their life styles and narratives for common features that might comprise a shared stock of social norms and customs. In other words, I had to establish ‘their common culture’ without blurring their ethnic essence or diminishing the significance of their diversity. A common determinant of this ‘common culture’ was the strong sense of yilunta or honor, shame and family pride which permeated their narratives and actions that I define and discuss in chapter 2.

My experience in choosing a field site, identifying and making contact with the families of street children, was far from idyllic. It was exacerbated by the fact that there are no settled, stable reference populations of street children in any one location of the city. They can be found in practically every part of Addis Ababa. Besides, the street children and their families do not form a homogenous group where each individual's social position is defined by age, gender or birth position. As in most capital cities the world over, the population of Addis Ababa, as opposed to its rural counterpart, is heterogeneous. The street children and their families live in socially diverse communities, scattered about the city. They come from different backgrounds, with differences in ethnicity, norms, social values, languages and a multitude of household compositions. Apart from a brief history of the city, chapter 1 includes a methodological account linked to urban based multi-site field work amongst destitute children and their families.

Far from creating social tension, urbanization has encouraged the intermingling between the various ethnic and religious groups. Inter-marriage across ethnic, and even religious lines, is common. Some street children's mothers have several offspring from different fathers coming from the various regions of Ethiopia. The above-mentioned diversity notwithstanding, poverty and the overcrowded living conditions found in Addis Ababa bring about some kind of uniformity to the way the poor live and socialize their children. I found that economic and social factors if conceptualised in terms of occupation, habitat, language, religion and eating habits create uniformity in their lives and life styles. Midway through my field work, I identified three themes, which encapsulated their ‘common culture’. These were the concept of yilunta (shame, honour and family pride). This promotes hegemonic masculinity within the ‘wider Ethiopian’ culture and accounts for the gendered nature of how Ethiopian children are socialized and how gang members operate. Central to my analysis on youth gangs was also the concept of reciprocity, because what mattered most in their interaction with one another was what they did for each other and not what they said about each other. I used Michael Carrither's (1992) sociality theory as a method of enquiry in order to shift the emphasis from the intractable nature of culture and explore the context in which the children experienced girlhood, boyhood and streetism. Finally, research with vulnerable children, especially one dealing with the sensitive topics of gang life, sexuality, theft and violence requires the researcher to face up to the ethical, practical and moral issues in carrying out field work. Throughout the book, I have addressed the issues of reflexivity and positionality including the moral and ethical dilemma I faced working with the children and their families as well as their reaction to my presence in their midst.

Participant observation meant following the children around in the streets and visiting them at home. In short, it was more like a continuous form of chitchat and loitering with intent than a series of question and answer sessions. I have therefore concentrated on their real life experiences by giving a voice to the children and parents, mostly as first person narratives and/or by contextualising matters narrated by others. This was in addition to observing what they actually do and how they go about doing it. Clifford Geertz's (1973) ‘thick description’ method made it possible for me to provide the details of the complex facets of streetism and avoid giving a too superficial snapshot of the children and their families. That is, an ethnographic method, which privileges engaged listening and descriptive writing in order to represent the enigmatic and shifting nature of social existence.

Culture

According to anthropologists, our understanding of the symbolic notion of culture is that of a human construct, which is based on the most insubstantial and refractory of bases: the inter-subjective and shared world of meaning of a particular population. The implication is that a multitude of diverse cultures exists worldwide. Culture matters. This is expressed through the dilemma still facing scholars writing culture (Clifford and Marcus 1986), working with (Appadurai 2008), against (Abu-Lughod 2006) or instead of (Carrithers 1992, 2009) culture as a concrete concept embodying our lived-in experiences. Notwithstanding the many definitions or the various ways it is used, there is no escaping the confines of culture. Its enduring strength is in its role in helping us distinguish between cultures, the difference between the self and the others, and even as an explanation of how people function. Furthermore, culture provides us with the framework that enables us to project the existence of a commonly held worldview. It facilitates the use of terms such as beliefs, values, norms, custom, tradition and even religion interchangeably or as a clear demarcation. In short, it allows us to shift convincingly from the conjectured to the positive thus turning what is socially constructed into a ‘reality’.

The Amharic word for culture is bahil.² Further exploration of culture by Dr. Girma Getahun, an Ethiopian lexicographer and researcher, shows that this definition limits itself to one of several definitions of the same term in English. He sent me an e-mail explaining that ‘bahil’ generally refers to traditions, customs, habitual practices, ways of life, etc. It does not convey the meaning of cultivation, erudition, refinement of taste and manner,