For the Least of These: A Biblical Answer to Poverty

FOREWORD

Arthur C. Brooks, PhD

The Christian Gospels make it abundantly clear that Jesus calls on us to care for the poor. What is not at all clear, however, is the best means by which Christians living in a modern, industrial society—particularly one in which the state has built a large, technocratic edifice ostensibly devoted to solving the problems of poverty—can and should carry out the Lord’s directive. This volume takes on the challenge of beginning to answer that question.

It is important to note that this is not a new discussion, but rather a very old one that began to fade from the public consciousness during the twentieth century. Throughout much of American history, poverty and the relief thereof were discussed in an explicitly moral or religious context. The care of the indigent was largely the function of the church and of mutual aid societies, many of which were founded and guided by explicitly religious precepts. Discussing poverty relief without also discussing religious institutions, faith, and Scripture would have been largely unfathomable to America’s founders.

The Progressive era changed all of this. Over the course of the twentieth century, the relief of poverty went from being the function of private religious and philanthropic charities to a function of the state—increasingly on the federal level—administered not by people giving their time, treasure, and talent to their fellow men out of compassion, religious duty, and moral obligation, but by the administrative state distributing the funds of others collected through taxation. For better or worse, this represents a massive change from what America’s founders—much less the ancient Israelites and early Christians – would have seen as philanthropy.

The spiritual implications of this change are profound. As Richard Turnbull discusses in chapter five, it has removed the principle of voluntarism from the equation; and without voluntary action, virtue is hollow.

This leaves Christians in a difficult position. While they are called to help the poor, it is unclear how they can best fulfill this injunction, particularly when the state claims to be doing this on their behalf. In an environment in which far too many aspects of life are politicized and in which people of faith are increasingly under attack, how can Christians fulfill their biblical responsibilities? What insights can they gain from economics and from faith that could help them be better stewards of the poor?

Beyond a proper orientation toward the government safety net and personal charity decisions, there are questions about our capitalist system as well. Should we oppose it as a force that harms the weak, support it as a vehicle for prosperity, or something else? The answer is actually quite simple: There has never been an economic system that does more for what Jesus called the least of these than capitalism and free enterprise.

Consider your life chances if you were born in London in the mid-eighteenth century. If you were one of the lucky few to make it to working age, you would work six or seven days a week, earning an income that paid for only the barest necessities of life. You would probably be illiterate and never stray more than a few miles from the place where you were born. You would work until your death, which was not unlikely to come at the hands of another Londoner or by one of the plagues that regularly swept the city. And if you had children, their lives would likely be no better than yours.

Capitalism, through the Industrial Revolution, changed all of this for the poor. Markets, trade, and capital accumulation lifted people by the millions out of grinding poverty. Scientific and engineering advances came on the back of this system. Childhood mortality plummeted. Class mobility increased. And enough wealth was created so that people could, through voluntary means, share with those who were left behind. Even the definition of poverty changed; today’s poor have access to medicines, technologies, and creature comforts that were unavailable to even the wealthiest titans of industry a century ago.

As Lord Griffiths and Dato Kim Tan discuss in chapter seven, we see a similar cycle playing out today in developing countries. In the past forty years, 80 percent of the world’s worst poverty—defined as people living on less than a dollar a day—has been eliminated. This is not because of the IMF, the World Bank, foreign aid, or global socialism. It is because wealthy countries have lowered trade barriers, and because countries like China and India, which were once committed to socialism, have embraced—albeit tentatively and imperfectly—markets and trade. Simply put, more capitalism has meant less poverty across the globe.

As an economist, the case for free enterprise as the best means for helping the poor could not be clearer. But as a Christian, it is not always evident how what one knows empirically about economics and what one believes about Christ’s teachings intersect and interact. I do believe—and I think readers of this book will as well—that it is insufficient to understand only the economics or only the theology of poverty alleviation. If we believe that we are called to help the poor, we must understand both. Properly understood, economics and faith have a great deal to teach one another.

This book, then, is an important resource for understanding what the Hebrew Bible and New Testament say (and do not say) about the poor. By putting in context and in conversation the ideas of both the ancient Israelites and the early Christians, we can better understand what it means to be commanded to care for the poor, the distinction between riches and wealth, biblical attitudes towards property rights and wealth redistribution, and the ways in which work is a holy act.

The later chapters of this book are devoted to discussing what practical solutions for poverty reduction, as informed by a Christian worldview, might look like. How does economic liberty reduce poverty? How do markets promote morality? How does a welfare state strip people of their agency? And what is the difference between charities that offer a handout versus a hand up? In other words, these chapters pull together what previous chapters have discussed concerning Christian faith and economic evidence that teach us about helping the poor and advance the discussion of what this means for us in practical terms and in our personal lives.

Jesus teaches that The poor you will always have with you. That is, poverty is not something that we can cure. But Christians can have compassion for the poor, and by applying faith through reason, can ameliorate suffering and help improve the chances of future generations.

INTRODUCTION

Anne Bradley, PhD & Art Lindsley, MDiv, PhD

Over two hundred years ago, Adam Smith, a moral philosopher and the father of modern economics, wrote his most famous work, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, in which he set out to understand why and how nations accumulate wealth. Smith’s book was written in 1776, on the eve of the most explosive growth and capital accumulation human history has ever known. Prior to this time, most of the human experience was a struggle to survive and was characterized by early death, disease, corruption, and oppression.

The question raised by Adam Smith is one that still plagues us today. Why do sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Latin America, and countries in South Asia remain poor while the developed world thrives? We believe Adam Smith’s question has an answer, but that some societies have failed to implement the necessary biblical and economic principles that must undergird a flourishing society. Thus, to answer the question, we must start with Scripture.

Christians understand that wealth is not an end in and of itself, but a necessary means of giving people choice, access to vital goods and services (like clean water and medical care), and an opportunity to serve and care for others. It is simply no accident that if you are reading this book, you live in the richest time in human history and are likely one of the richest people in human history. The World Bank has never been as optimistic about global poverty elimination as it is today. In China alone, since 1978 over 600 million have been lifted out of extreme poverty. Global poverty rates have been halved since 1990 and are on pace to be halved again. The only way this has been possible is by embracing the biblical principles of private property, the rule of law, ingenuity, productive work, and well-functioning global markets that encourage and reward our God-given creativity and talents.

For the Least of These: A Biblical Answer to Poverty was written to provide an alternative perspective for addressing the problem of poverty from both a biblical and economic point of view, presenting a framework that will allow us to become better stewards of the earth’s scarce resources and simultaneously to bring about a flourishing society.

The Bible calls on us to care for the poor, demonstrating Christ’s love as well as our own. All too often, however, Christians turn to the secular state as the answer for poverty rather than grasping their own responsibility and realizing that the best long-term solution is to enable people to use their gifts to serve others and to exchange goods and services through market trade. Government is impersonal and bureaucratic in the way it addresses poverty, and, as such, often destroys rather than elevates the God-breathed dignity of the poor. By contrast, the local church and nonprofit organizations are better positioned to adapt aid to the unique needs of specific individuals because they are closer to those they are trying to help, and are thus more knowledgeable and nimble in how they act.

The Bible not only calls on believers to care for the poor, it provides many reasons to do so. There are many specific biblical commands in regard to this, and they are often mentioned. Believers must obey. What is not often mentioned, however, is that a central reason for helping the poor is that they are made in the image of God. As such, we should desire that each person not only survives but thrives and flourishes in every area. This does not only mean that we should provide food for the starving; it also extends to creating opportunities for education, the development of gifts, and the resources to start small businesses, all of which will enable the poor to provide for their families and, eventually, to create jobs for others. Thus, the best way of alleviating long-term poverty is not giving people money (and welfare, etc.), but providing opportunities through markets for them to provide for themselves. In the last twenty years, twenty-five countries have virtually eliminated poverty within their borders in this fashion. However, in the United States—a country with one of the world’s highest per capita incomes—the trend is toward an increasing dependence on federal and state aid. Because a biblical and economic framework was ignored or unknown when adopting these programs, we have created dependencies that are enslaving the poorest to a life of food stamps and welfare checks with no hope of personal fulfillment. These programs—managed by a secular, bureaucratic state, and in spite of the best of intentions—are unable to address individuals as unique and special, created in the image of God with intrinsic dignity. As such, they trap the poorest among us in a lifelong cycle of despair because we are not embracing the biblical narrative of work and its value for personal fulfillment, honoring Christ, and creating value through service to others.

In situations of desperate need, aid must necessarily be provided, and there may be a place for government to provide a safety net so that people do not starve and health needs do not go unaddressed. But this is not a sufficient condition for poverty alleviation. We must make sure that people do not starve, but we must also make sure that they live in an opportunity society, where they can be contributors to the common good. The biblical role of the state is one that guards human rights, upholds a rule of law, and protects private property. The government does this in its call to punish the evildoer (Romans 13:4). In other words, government’s role is more negative (to prevent evil) than positive (to provide goods and services). Some relevant biblical and economic questions here are: How much should and can the church do? How much is the government able to do? What can markets do? There is certainly a role for government, the church (and nonprofit organizations), and markets in bringing about a flourishing society. The question is, in what proportion?

The first section of this book will carefully examine the biblical passages on poverty, looking occasionally at wrong deductions or false understandings held by some. It will also shed some light on the questions mentioned in the previous paragraphs about the role of the church, government, and markets. In the next section, we get a historical perspective on how the church has addressed poverty, how markets can be a significant part of the solution, and whether markets are moral. In the final section, we will look at practical applications of the previous sections and how these extensions can be utilized to alleviate poverty.

We hope that each section can contribute to your understanding. This book could be a text for a course, or individual chapters could be used for assigned reading on different topics. Certainly, it is acceptable to read chapters that particularly interest you. However, it is important to read the earlier chapters as a foundation for the later ones. Above all, we want this to be a biblical perspective on poverty.

Our desire is that you might be stimulated to think deeply about the problem of poverty through biblical glasses. But it ought not to stop there. Reading this book is meant to lead to prayer about what you should do to respond to this concern. Each person has a different calling. Some may be called to work full-time addressing these issues. Others may be motivated to contribute money and resources. Still others may be moved to set up businesses that employ people in need. Search for what your response should be to the challenge of Scripture.

PART 1

A Biblical Perspective on the Poor

CHAPTER 1

WHO ARE THE POOR?

Glenn Sunshine, PhD

At first glance, the Bible demonstrates that God cares about the poor and about how they are treated. Scripture clearly warns of the dangers of wealth and has harsh things to say about the rich. To pick just a few examples from the Gospel of Luke, Jesus tells us: Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God; woe to you who are rich, for you have received your consolation; sell all that you have and distribute to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the kingdom of heaven.¹ Jesus even tells us that, in the end, we will be judged on how we treat those who are poor and powerless (Matthew 25:31 – 46).

Should we conclude from this that God is on the side of the poor and opposes the rich? This is a tempting conclusion and one that is endorsed by some very prominent people in the church, but is it supported by a careful reading of Scripture?

This chapter will examine poverty from a biblical perspective in an effort for us to better understand our call to care for those who fall into different conditions of poverty, both material and spiritual. It will also consider a biblical perspective on the rich and their responsibilities to the poor as well as the historical role of the state and the church in caring for the poor. Based on these discussions, it will then provide biblical principles for caring for the poor that must take into consideration the importance of work, moral proximity and subsidiarity, and a heart for giving.

Understanding the Poor

To determine whether God is on the side of the poor and opposed to the rich, we must first understand whom the Scriptures mean when they talk about these groups. Starting with the poor (although some passages talk about poverty meta-phorically), in the vast majority of cases, the word refers to material poverty—people who are hungry, naked, homeless, etc. Economic poverty is also typically accompanied by a broader lack of resources and connections that makes the poor particularly vulnerable to oppression and abuse. They are frequently identified as widows, orphans, and foreigners who also lack social connections. Throughout the Old Testament, God warns against mistreating the poor, the widow, the orphan, and the foreigner, and promises to judge those who abuse them. Clearly, treatment of the poor and disadvantaged is a very important part of biblical ethics.

At the same time, this does not mean that the poor are de facto virtuous. To be sure, poverty is not necessarily a sign of God’s displeasure. The poor can be blameless (Proverbs 28:6) and wise (Ecclesiastes 9:15). But other Scriptures warn us that drunkenness, gluttony, and laziness can cause poverty (Proverbs 23:21), as can chasing fantasies (Proverbs 28:19). The Bible also warns about the danger of some temptations that are particularly enticing for the poor. The most obvious temptation is theft to get food. This can be easily extended to other types of criminal behavior motivated by the need or desire for money, including gang-related activities, drug dealing, etc. This in turn points to the reality of 1 Timothy 6:9 – 10: But those who desire to be rich fall into temptation, into a snare, into many senseless and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and destruction. For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evils. It is through this craving that some have wandered from the faith and pierced themselves with many pangs.

This passage is frequently associated with those who are already rich, but the rich are not the group being addressed; it is those who desire wealth, and specifically those who are not yet rich, who are being cautioned here. This is an important reminder that greed and worship of money are not vices peculiar to the rich. In fact, the people I know who are most obsessed with money are not the wealthy but those who have to struggle to get by. Envy of the rich is another sin that Scripture warns against (e.g. Psalm 73). This ties in directly to the Tenth Commandment, which forbids coveting a neighbor’s possessions. The classical definition of envy is the desire to tear down anyone who is ahead of oneself, to take away what is that person’s because he or she has more than oneself. Whether one cloaks this in the language of fairness or income redistribution, envy and covetousness remain sins.

In other words, the Bible is realistic about the causes of poverty: people can become poor through no fault of their own, but poverty can also be the result of foolish decisions and actions; further, there are some sins to which the poor are particularly susceptible. Poverty is thus not a guarantee of virtue or righteousness.

So why are the poor described as blessed? The issue is not poverty per se, but rather the attitude of humility and reliance on God that it can produce in us. This is why Matthew’s version of the beatitude isn’t just Blessed are the poor, but "Blessed are the poor in spirit" (Matthew 5:3). Reliance on personal wealth or government help (Psalm 146, especially verses 3 – 4, 7 – 10) for security is foolish, because they do not last. Rather, we need to place our hope in God alone.

Understanding the Rich

What about the rich? Although as we have seen, Scripture has some very harsh things to say about the wealthy, this does not mean that all of them are evil or under divine judgment. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Job were rich and yet were also approved by God. Just as poverty doesn’t guarantee virtue, wealth does not guarantee vice. Scripture tells us that God gives us the power to make wealth, and that he delights in the prosperity of his servants (Psalm 35:27), which includes material prosperity (Deuteronomy 28:11 – 13). So it is clear that the wealthy are not necessarily corrupt.

Why, then, the condemnations of the rich in Scripture?² Once again, the issue is not wealth or poverty per se. Leviticus 19:15 tells us, You shall do no injustice in court. You shall not be partial to the poor or defer to the great, but in righteousness shall you judge your neighbor. God’s concern is for righteousness and justice, but this verse tells us that justice does not mean being partial to the poor, contrary to what many social justice advocates argue. Justice means judging fairly according to the law and on the basis of truth without regard to social class.

And this is precisely why the rich are so often condemned in Scripture. In our fallen world, the rich and powerful have historically taken advantage of their power to increase their privileges at the expense of the poor and weak—the widows, orphans, and foreigners who are under special protection in the Mosaic Law because of their vulnerability. A careful reading of the texts attacking the rich demonstrates that the condemnations are almost inevitably connected to one of two things. The first of these is how they made their wealth. The Bible does not see money-making as a zero-sum game, as if the only road to wealth is through exploitation; but it does recognize that the rich do sometimes further enrich themselves at the expense of the poor.

For example, the rich are condemned in Scripture for failing to pay workers promptly and completely (Deuteronomy 24:15; James 5:4). Workers should be paid a just wage for their labor and should not be exploited in any way by their employers. Taking advantage of another’s misfortune is also forbidden in Scripture, for example, in the prohibition of taking a cloak in pledge for a loan (Deuteronomy 24:12 – 13, 17) and of charging interest on loans (Leviticus 25:63).³ The rich are also condemned for using the courts to defraud the poor (e.g. James 2:6). In today’s terms, there are multitudes of ways people with money can use the legal system to take advantage of the poor. Perhaps the most obvious way is to drag out litigation to force your opponent either to give up or to go bankrupt, though there are other ways to game the system with high-end lawyers. Another modern approach would be for the well-connected to use zoning regulations to block anything that would interfere with their own quality of life—thereby pushing highways and toxic, hazardous, or undesirable industries into poor neighborhoods.

To put it differently, the rich are not always oppressors, but oppressors are almost always rich. And that is why they incur condemnation in Scripture. Chapter three gives specific examples of wealthy men who are not condemned.

The rich can also fall into other traps, particularly by relying on wealth for their security (e.g. Psalm 52:7), which in turn leads very easily to presumption, as if they rather than God were in control of their destinies (Luke 12:16 – 21). This is exactly the opposite attitude of the poor in spirit. And, of course, the rich can be just as greedy and enslaved to money as anyone else. Having money does not create any of these problems; rather, money reveals what is inside us and magnifies our character for good or for ill. And for too many in our fallen world, it is for ill.

Responsibilities of the Rich to the Poor

Along with how the rich make their wealth, the Bible is also concerned with how they use their wealth. It condemns, for example, the wealthy giving themselves over to luxurious living and ignoring the needs of the poor (e.g. Amos 6:1 – 7; Luke 16:19 – 31; James 5:5).⁴ Instead, the Bible teaches that those who are better off have positive responsibilities to those who are poor. Simply put, we are to see to it that their needs are met, and we are to do it in such a way that we preserve their dignity (e.g. Deuteronomy 24:10). In the Old Testament period, almsgiving was not a major part of the culture. Rather, there were other mechanisms in place to take care of poverty in ancient Israel, notably through providing the poor with opportunities to work. Since work is part of what it means to bear the image of God, this sort of workfare affirms the dignity of the poor while meeting their needs.⁵ The most important example of this was the law of gleaning (Deuteronomy 24:19 – 21). Landowners were prohibited from harvesting every last bit of their crops, but were to leave some for the poor who could come to collect it. The poor were thus required to do some work for their food, which in turn kept them from being reduced to complete dependence on charity and thus preserved their dignity.

The importance of work for human dignity is also a part of the institution of slavery in Old Testament law. In the ancient world, slavery was found in every culture. Slaves were either prisoners of war or people who fell on hard times and sold themselves—or were sold—into slavery to pay their debts. In a world with no social safety net, that was sometimes the only option for avoiding starvation. The Law of Moses took this practice and transformed it. According to the law, any Israelite in great need could sell himself into slavery, as was the custom throughout the ancient world. The difference is that, in Israel, this slavery was not a permanent state: on the seventh year, Israelite slaves were to be set free and given a generous parting gift (Deuteronomy 15:12 – 14). This approach to slavery thus functioned as a social welfare program in which the buyer in effect paid the slave ahead of time for six years of work he would perform, and also provided the slave’s room and board. This allowed the Israelite time and resources to clear his debts and get a fresh start. And once again it affirmed his value as a human being by giving him the opportunity to work, and by communicating that the impoverished person had something to offer to her or his benefactor.⁶

The emphasis on work as an essential part of human dignity was a unique contribution of Judaism and Christianity to world culture, but its implications for helping the poor have often been forgotten. Earlier generations understood this, however. Well into the nineteenth century, many of the wealthy believed that their wealth was given to them so that they could support local farmers, manufacturers, and businesses by purchasing their products. Similarly, they hired servants in their households in part to provide employment for young men and women. This continues to be the case in other parts of the world today. Mennonite missionaries in the Philippines, for example, found that, despite their commitment to living simply, they had a moral obligation to hire servants, since failing to do so would have hurt the families in the community by not providing them the opportunity to earn the income they sorely needed.

So although we often view the activities of the rich as nothing more than conspicuous consumption, this is not necessarily the case. In previous generations, the writings of the wealthy show that they frequently recognized that their wealth created a moral obligation to provide employment and support local businesses to prevent people from falling into poverty. While there were certainly excesses, up until at least the industrial age, the wealthy spent their money in part as an effort to support people in their communities.

This emphasis on the local community brings up another important concept in dealing with people in need: our responsibilities are greatest to those who are closest to us, an idea theologian John Schneider calls moral proximity. Thus, Scripture is clear that our first responsibility is to our family, extended to two generations up and down (Proverbs 13:22; 1 Timothy 5:4). From there, we have responsibilities to those in our churches and our communities, in concentric circles outward. This is not to say we have no responsibilities to those dying of AIDS in Africa or of starvation in South Asia, but any such responsibility is secondary to the needs of those closer to us. Today, given the changes in society produced by the Industrial Revolution and large agribusinesses, it is much more difficult to use wealth to support local producers; however, these global markets give us a chance to support the poor across the globe through trade. So how do we apply this principle today?

Scripture is clear that when we are confronted with immediate, emergency needs, we should meet them. Giving to the poor without thought of repayment is a moral obligation in both the Old and New Testaments. It is important, however, not to create situations that force the poor into dependency. Once the immediate need is met, the type of assistance should be transitioned away from charity and toward opportunities to earn their own living, with the goal of paying it forward toward others in need (e.g. Ephesians 4:28; note the reason for the instructions).

Providing employment, whether in businesses or even simply hiring people to do yard work or snow shoveling, is a better method for dealing with needs than simple handouts. It may require us to spend money we would rather keep for ourselves; but if we take seriously our obligation to provide for those in need, we may need to hire sacrificially, not just to give sacrificially. Yet another option is to help set people up in their own businesses and to become their customers. We see this in the developing world with microfinance programs. In America, the number of options is limitless, from helping someone get a lawnmower and yard tools to helping them start an online business (computers with internet access are available free in public libraries). Networking with others in your church or community to provide skills, support, and patronage can help get these businesses off the ground, which in turn can change the lives of those involved.

The State and the Poor

The Bible was written in an era in which state-run social welfare programs simply did not exist (unless you were in the city of Rome itself in the New Testament period). Biblical instructions concerning the poor were thus written with the assumption that any aid given to the poor would come directly from members of the community (or, in one case, by other churches coming to the aid of the poor in Jerusalem).⁷ Today, the modern welfare state provides alternatives for caring for the poor that were not available when the Bible was written. To what extent does state-supported welfare change the nature of our obligations to the poor? Should we simply pay more taxes and let the government take care of those in need? Given the individual and church mandates to care for the poor, what responsibilities does government have in this area? The Bible does not answer this question directly. It does tell us a number of things about government, however, that have some bearing on how we answer the question.

First, government has an important role to fill in society in the related areas of administering justice impartially—including rewarding good behavior and punishing wrongdoing—and defending the body politic from attack. Biblical teaching strongly suggests that these are the principal functions of government, although in the example of Solomon we see other elements as well, such as building programs and the promotion of trade and economic prosperity. Nowhere in Scripture, however, do we find the state engaged in welfare programs. There are several possible reasons for this. For example, since no state in the ancient world provided poor-relief, the Scriptures may simply reflect common practice at the time. On the other hand, Israel was the only culture in the ancient world that tied morality and religion together, and as we have seen, the Mosaic Law transformed the practice of slavery. In view of this, it seems quite possible for the law to have mandated government welfare as a unique institution in Israel. Yet it did not. Alternately, the absence of governmental involvement in social welfare may have resulted from practical considerations: given the communication and transportation technologies of the period, it may have been impossible to organize state-run welfare. Care of the poor thus would, of necessity, have been handled on a more local level. We will return to this idea later.

Whatever the reason for the lack of governmental support of the poor in the Bible, it is clear that some functions are central to a biblical vision of government, while others, including social welfare, are at best peripheral.

The second key point about government is that Jesus is Lord and Caesar is not. This may seem obvious, but we rarely realize today how important and radical that statement is. In the ancient world, religion and government were inseparable. Kings ruled by divine authority or were seen as gods themselves. As such, nothing was beyond their control.⁸ The early Christian proclamation that Jesus is Lord challenged this concept of governmental power at its very core. As Jesus taught, Christians were prepared to render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s—they were not rebels in that sense—but they refused to render to Caesar the things that were God’s. This amounts to a de facto insistence on limited government. And as a result, the Romans considered Christians seditious and subjected the church to nearly three hundred years of sporadic persecution before Constantine finally decriminalized Christianity. Christianity is, therefore, unique among the world’s major religions in that it established itself in society without the support of the state. And since the church had been independent of the state for centuries, after Christianity was legalized, religion and government were, for the first time, seen as separable, with each having authority in its own sphere without interference from the other, though cooperating in areas of mutual interest.

The distinction of church and state had enormous implications for society. As George Weigel has argued, the church’s independence from government created the possibility of other areas developing their own authority separate from the state. Schools, business, labor, family, and other institutions emerged as largely autonomous spheres operating with minimal state regulation. And it is precisely this that created Western civil society.

What has this got to do with poverty? During the Middle Ages, social welfare programs were handled through a variety of intermediate agencies, including guilds, lay religious groups, monasteries, and churches rather than through governments. With few exceptions, states relied on these independent charities to handle social welfare.⁹ When the Reformation came, governments in some areas took social welfare functions away from the churches; but for the most part, charity continued to be handled by families, private individuals, benevolent organizations, and churches all the way into the late nineteenth century and even the twentieth century.¹⁰ This emphasis on local solutions is the flip side of Schneider’s idea of moral proximity discussed earlier: just as individuals have greater responsibility to those closest to them, so the solution to problems should come from those closest to them.

This principle, which Catholic thinkers call subsidiarity, argues that governmental institutions are subsidiary, or secondary, to more immediate groups in finding solutions to problems. Thus social welfare is better handled by families first and then by local charitable institutions rather than by governments. Only if a situation is sufficiently widespread or intractable should government get involved, and even then it should be handled on as local a level as possible. The principle of subsidiarity thus does not reject governmental involvement in poor-relief out of hand, but argues that it should be a last resort after other institutions prove