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    A History of the American People
    A History of the American People
    A History of the American People
    Ebook1,730 pages35 hours

    A History of the American People

    By Paul Johnson

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    "As majestic in its scope as the country it celebrates. [Johnson's] theme is the men and women, prominent and unknown, whose energy, vision, courage and confidence shaped a great nation. It is a compelling antidote to those who regard the future with pessimism."— Henry A. Kissinger

    Paul Johnson's prize-winning classic, A History of the American People, is an in-depth portrait of the American people covering every aspect of U.S. history—from politics to the arts.

    "The creation of the United States of America is the greatest of all human adventures," begins Paul Johnson's remarkable work. "No other national story holds such tremendous lessons, for the American people themselves and for the rest of mankind."

    In A History of the American People, historian Johnson presents an in-depth portrait of American history from the first colonial settlements to the Clinton administration. This is the story of the men and women who shaped and led the nation and the ordinary people who collectively created its unique character. Littered with letters, diaries, and recorded conversations, it details the origins of their struggles for independence and nationhood, their heroic efforts and sacrifices to deal with the 'organic sin’ of slavery and the preservation of the Union to its explosive economic growth and emergence as a world power. Johnson discusses contemporary topics such as the politics of racism, education, the power of the press, political correctness, the growth of litigation, and the influence of women throughout history.

    Sometimes controversial and always provocative, A History of the American People is one author’s challenging and unique interpretation of American history. Johnson’s views of individuals, events, themes, and issues are original, critical, and in the end admiring, for he is, above all, a strong believer in the history and the destiny of the American people.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherHarperCollins
    Release dateJun 30, 2009
    ISBN9780061952135
    A History of the American People
    Author

    Paul Johnson

    Paul Johnson is a historian whose work ranges over the millennia and the whole gamut of human activities. He regularly writes book reviews for several UK magazines and newspapers, such as the Literary Review and The Spectator, and he lectures around the world. He lives in London, England.

    Read more from Paul Johnson

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    • 4/5
      Very readable.
    • 5/5
      A potent," as well as "a demanding and distinctive interpretation of American history." The book covers modern subjects like education, political correctness, press power, politics of racism, and the historical impact of women. As a fervent believer in the history and future of the American people, Johnson holds unique, insightful, and inspiring opinions.
    • 1/5
      OMG!!!! This is a really long book (977 pages before you get to the footnotes) and it's broken up into only 8 chapters. I don't know about you, but I can't devote 4 or 5 hours in one sitting to reading ONE chapter. But I started reading it a little bit at a time probably 3 months ago. And, honestly, I was enjoying it overall because although I'm well educated, there are still a lot of holes in my knowledge of American history and I was hoping to get a good overview. I "learned" a lot (more about this in a moment) in the early going, but I was tired of working away on it so I resolved to finish off the last 250 pages or so in one day. Just do nothing but read until I was done. Well, things started getting a little strange right around Warren G. Harding who, according to the author, was a fabulous president who really wasn't responsible for the Teapot Dome or any of his other scandals. (Harding was a Republican.) Fast forward to Herbert Hoover (a Republican) who, according to the author, handled the Great Depression really, really well and had all his ideas stolen by the Democrat FDR (who apparently never did anything good in his entire presidency). Hmmmm. I seem to be sensing a theme here. Fast forward to Democrat LBJ and the horrible things he did to the country by trying to help little old ladies and the poor. Hmmmm. I kind of like Medicare. But then it REALLY gets interesting. Apparently, the Republican Nixon was the greatest president in the history of the world who handled the Vietnam War beautifully. Apparently, it was "the blacks," those lazy, meddling white students and the liberal media that turned the public against Vietnam and it was a totally winnable war (the author really needs to check out Ken Burns documentary and listen to the tapes where Nixon says that he knows the Americans can't win the war, but he won't leave because he wants to get re-elected). And I also "learned" that Nixon knew nothing about Watergate, obstruction of justice isn't a real thing and FAKE NEWS persecuted him!!! From this point on I skimmed the last 80 pages because I was about to have a stroke. But I did "learn" that Reagan was brilliant, but just a little "forgetful," that Iran Contra was FAKE NEWS, and that Reagan's higher deficit was somehow superior to Carter's lower deficit, that women were doing SUPER GOOD in the 90's and were really getting more high-paid jobs than those silly statistics would show us, that the only good thing Clinton did was to rein in those Welfare Queens, that Brown v. Board of Education was judicial activism, that affirmative action was evil, that the Congressional Black Caucus was/is racist, that the term Hispanic is somehow offensive and that political correctness was/is literally as bad as the Salem Witch Trials and Communist blacklisting. Wow, just wow. So the worst thing about this book is that I am now questioning every single word I read before I got to that awesome Harding fellow. So I wasted probably 30 hours of my life to read propaganda when I could just turn on Fox News and get my fill a lot more quickly. Man, this guy would have LOVED Donald Trump.
    • 3/5
      How does one determine a rating for a book like this? Do we appreciate its best parts, its fine writing, and its page-turning momentum, so rare in an almost thousand page book of history? Or do we judge it by its worst parts, where the author, near the end of the work, appears to be finishing it from a lunatic asylum, perhaps under the constant gaze of a couple of orderlies, assigned to keep him from doing something rash (other than with his pen).That is the dilemma of Paul Johnson’s History of the American People. I began my read well aware of some of the author’s biases. He is a religious man and admires America because in his opinion it is a nation firmly founded on religious (i.e., Christian) principles. Never mind that other than John Adams, the first few Presidents were rarely found in church, and that when they spoke of god, it was an acknowledgement, or perhaps simply the desire for, some overriding supernatural power greater than man—not the jealous, personal god of the Bible. But in the case of religion, Johnson’s bias is straightforward, and his opinions are clearly separated from the historical facts he presents. He is convincing when speaking about John Winthrop and the importance of religion in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, for instance. This is a book driven by the portraits of the individuals who were the protagonists in the history of their time. Johnson’s judgments can be severe—he in no way overlooks the contradictions and weaknesses of Thomas Jefferson for instance. Jefferson was no saint, and Johnson’s portrait of him is multi-sided and believable. This is true of his portraits of other great figures of the first half of American history, from the Founding Fathers to Abraham Lincoln. His portrayal of Andrew Jackson (a man Johnson tells us had killed numerous people before becoming President) is especially memorable.On the other hand, Johnson has little sympathy for the Native Americans who were relentlessly pushed back into the barren wastelands of America by the westward expansion. He says they weren’t very good farmers. He denigrates their intelligence, and pretty much makes what happened to them seem both inevitable and their own fault. Perhaps it was. There is always a little truth even in Johnson’s most drastic pronouncements.The book continues along in its fascinating way through the Civil War, Reconstruction, and into the age of the Robber Barons. Except, they weren’t Robber Barons, Johnson says. There is again some truth in this. They were certainly more industrious, talented men than the current crop of bank CEOs who have enriched themselves at the expense of their customers and our financial system in general. Johnson takes great pleasure in expounding on the incredible civic deeds of Andrew Carnegie or Andrew Mellon, while acknowledging that their may have been one or two rogues among that bunch. Amazingly, in the midst of the most outrageous parts of his book, while discussing late-20th Century America, Johnson does spend a few paragraphs highlighting the growth of income inequality and does so with some passion—but he still loves the Robber Barons. At least they created something out of nothing.To Johnson, it was probably the term of Woodrow Wilson when things really started to go wrong, with the unchecked growth of Presidential power, and along with it, the Government itself. This reached its peak—philosophically at least, as the government would continue to grow and grow—during the Roosevelt administration’s New Deal. Johnson, correctly I would say, points out that it really took World War II to end the Depression. Roosevelt was overrated and copied a lot of his ideas from Hoover anyway. (I have left out the administration of Warren G. Harding, whose reputation Johnson tries to rescue, much in the same way that Edgar Allan Poe’s reputation had to be rescued from the arch-enemy who took control of it in the wake of Poe’s death. About Harding, Johnson is somewhat convincing, and always interesting. At this point, no one has even called the loony bin.)Johnson loves Harry Truman (a Democrat) and Dwight Eisenhower (a Republican). Both men had a firm grasp on what they were doing and don’t appear to have fallen victim to excesses or grand visions. Johnson explains and defends Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bombs on Japan. Personally, I have always believed that if he hadn’t done it then, someone would have done it later. It was a weapon that had to be used to be believed. And by precluding the need for a bloodbath-inducing invasion of the Japanese homeland, lives were undoubtedly saved.The administration of Eisenhower also brought us Vice President Richard Nixon, of course, a self-made man, a solid anti-communist who beat Khrushchev in a kitchen debate, and who was immediately targeted for destruction by the liberal press. In Johnson’s telling, Nixon was robbed of the 1960 election (which is probably true) but spared the country the trauma of contesting it. He was by far superior to John F. Kennedy, whose wartime record was vastly inflated (and ghost-written), who was a secret drug addict, who had a prostitute in the White House the night of his inauguration, and so on and so forth. Again, some of this, perhaps most of it may be true. But by this point in the book, Johnson has lost all control of his storytelling. There is no more separation of facts from opinion. It is ALL opinion.The deeply flawed Lyndon Johnson gets some kudos for pushing through civil rights legislation, though this is offset by deepening the Vietnam quagmire. Thankfully, Richard Nixon consented to return to politics and put things back on the right course, aided by his “able and devoted” senior White House team of Bob Haldeman and John Ehrlichman. If it weren’t for the witch-hunt of Watergate, instigated by those who had been trying to get Nixon for the past 20 years, his administration would have gone down as one of the greatest in history! Still, despite leaving office early, Nixon did manage to save Israel from destruction in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, according to Johnson’s account.After Nixon’s departure, things would just get worse until finally Ronald Reagan appeared. Johnson’s portrayal of Reagan is quite fascinating, however. He shows hi as a man who did indeed treat the office of President much like a movie role. While not involving himself, or perhaps even understanding the fine details of what was going on, he nevertheless made most of the right decisions and brought back a sense of hope to a country which had lost faith in the Presidency after the downfall of Nixon, the well-meaning ineffectuality of Gerald Ford, and the feel good failure of Jimmy Carter. Again, there is an undercurrent of truth in Johnson’s version.After the Reagan Administration, Johnson seems to lose interest. He doesn’t dwell much on Bush I, preferring to go on a rant about Ebonics instead. Despite the doom and gloom of most of the last chapter, he closes on an optimistic note, talking about Americans as a problem-solving people, who can presumably get past that Ebonics thing. I’m assuming these closing paragraphs were written some time well before the frenzied out of control pages that come before them, which were undoubtedly written by the insane Johnson.Of course, in the end, I must admit that Johnson, so far as I know, didn’t actually go insane. He has written other books since, and I quite enjoyed his take on Mozart. If you are well-versed in history, you will find much to enjoy here. And if you are of the right (wrong) political persuasion, you’ll probably like the last part of the book as well. Johnson is a talented writer, and I don’t regret reading this book. It is in no way a waste of time. It has inspired me to write, off the top of my head, the longest review I have ever posted. So read it, and you be the judge. I can at least tell you that it goes down a lot easier than most 1,000 page tomes.Oh yes, I need to come up with a rating. It can’t be really good, given how outrageous some of this is, but I have to give Johnson credit as well. So I’ll compromise on 2 ½ stars. (Or 2 stars on Amazon, since it can’t deal with halves as well as LibraryThing, which is the world’s greatest website. How can anyone enjoy using GoodReads?)
    • 4/5
      Great read, as is everything Paul Johnson writes.
    • 4/5
      I really enjoyed his “Birth of the Modern” book, about world history 1815-1830, and how that time and the personalities who made it were pivotal in the the birth of the modern world as we know it, so I thought I would check out his take on US history. I knew from the previous book that he was conservative, and had his biases(pro free-market, pro religion, pro-individual) but that was fine with me… I liked that he was opinionated and I liked getting a good devil’s advocate argument for the other side from what seemed to be a pretty honest broker.And that held up for most of this book. He made a great case for why those values were integral in making America a great nation, and he told the story up to about FDR with balance and verve.Post New-Deal though, it just turns into a bitter screed, and loses all sense of balance. FDR and Kennedy were corrupt charlatans (sure, they definitely had their major flaws, but that is all he looked at), Vietnam would have worked if only we had been willing to wage total war (might have, for certain values of "worked" but that doesn’t make that a good idea), Nixon got a raw deal and Watergate was nothing but a witch-hunt, as was Iran Contra. Political correctness and affirmative action were creeping authoritarianism as opposed to well-meaning and ultimately pretty insignificant efforts to continue down the road of the civil rights movement that went a bit overboard. Also, moral equivocation of the anti-abortion movement with the anti-slavery movement. Praise for The Bell Curve, and breezy dismissal of the likes of C. Wright Mills, David Riesman, etc. And so on.I realize he doesn’t like a lot of the postwar trends in the US and Europe, but he also makes no effort to engage the historical forces that caused and shaped them, or the good that came out of them (he spends very little time on the Civil Rights Movement, for example.) He does things like applauding the US for engaging the world and taking its rightful place as a superpower postwar, and then turning around and criticizing the inevitable expansion of the bureaucracy that resulted from that, without connecting the one to the other. Or like saying that things like the EPA and the Clean Air act were probably necessary and desirable, even though they supposedly slowed the economy, but then praising Reagan’s economic genius in rolling them back. Feh. He just fails to engage the complexities and ambiguities and compromises that are a necessary feature of the postmodern, globalized world. He’s very good at writing history about the times when WASPS ruled the earth, before everything got complicated by race, gender, sexual orientation, colonialism, and on down the line. He acts like these are invented abstractions, as opposed to concrete social and political realities and changes that were being grappled with in very nasty and difficult ways throughout the latter 2/3rds of the 20th century.So, disappointing in the end. But, if you want a good lively, opinionated, sympathetic history of the US up to about 1929, you can’t go wrong with reading the first 3/4 of this. Even better, read it together with A People’s History of the United States, and compare/contrast. You should get most of the story between the two of them.
    • 2/5
      This is a poor overview of American history with a profoundly conservative bias. There are many errors, both typographical and in the research. This is not the place to start if you don't know much about the subject, but it is instructive for an informed reader if only because it shows how ideology can skew historical persepctive.
    • 5/5
      One of the best history books I've ever read. Very conservative and Christian in worldview and refreshing to read a history of America that portrays its greateness instead of dwelling exclusively on the negatives. The book is balanced and does speak to those less than stellar moments in America's history but sides with the good and the provident in the end.
    • 5/5
      At almost 1000 pages of reading, plus another 100 or so of source notes, the potential reader might be forgiven for thinking of this one more in door-stop terms, but you would be sadly wrong. With nearly 400 years of American history it is hardly your normal bedtime read, but it is a brilliant "dip-in" book, whilst also being almost a bible for anyone studyiny the history of the American peoples.
    • 3/5
      A biased conservative look at American history. However, there were some interesting pieces of information that I was unfamiliar with.

    Book preview

    A History of the American People - Paul Johnson

    DEDICATION

    This book is dedicated to the people of America—strong, outspoken, intense in their convictions, sometimes wrong-headed but always generous and brave, with a passion for justice no nation has ever matched.

    CONTENTS

    Title Page

    Dedication

    Preface

    Part One

    ‘A City on a Hill’

    Colonial America, 1580–1750

    Europe and the Transatlantic Adventure

    Ralegh, the Proto-American, and the Roanoke Disaster

    Jamestown: The First Permanent Foothold

    Mayflower and the Formative Event

    ‘The Natural Inheritance of the Elect Nation’

    John Winthrop and His ‘Little Speech’ on Liberty

    Roger Williams: The First Dissentient

    The Catholics in Maryland

    The Primitive Structure of Colonial America

    Carolina: The First Slave State

    Cotton Mather and the End of the Puritan Utopia

    Oglethorpe and Early Georgia

    Why Colonial Control Did Not Work

    The Rise of Philadelphia

    Elected Assemblies versus the Governors

    The Great Awakening and Its Political Impact

    Part Two

    ‘That the Free Constitution Be Sacredly Maintained’

    Revolutionary America, 1750–1815

    George Washington and the War against France

    Poor Quality of British Leadership

    The Role of Benjamin Franklin

    Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence

    The Galvanizing Effect of Tom Paine

    Washington, the War, and the Intervention of Europe

    Patriots and Loyalists: America’s First Civil War

    The Constitutional Convention

    The Ratification Debate

    Citizenship, the Suffrage, and ‘The Tyranny of the Majority’

    The Role of Religion in the Constitution

    The Presidency, Hamilton, and Public Finance

    Success of Washington and His Farewell Address

    John Adams and the European War

    Central Importance of John Marshall

    Jefferson’s Ambivalent Rule and Character

    The Louisiana Purchase

    Madison’s Blunders and Their Punishment

    Andrew Jackson, the Deus Ex Machina

    Jackson and the Destruction of the Indians

    Part Three

    ‘A General Happy Mediocrity Prevails’

    Democratic America, 1815–1850

    High Birth-Rates and the Immigrant Flood

    The Market in Cheap Land

    Spread of the Religious Sects

    Emergence of the South and King Cotton

    The Missouri Compromise

    Henry Clay

    The Advent of Jacksonian Democracy

    The War against the Bank

    America’s Agricultural Revolution

    Revolution in Transportation and Communications

    Polk and the Mexican War

    De Tocqueville and the Emerging Supernation

    The Ideology of the North-South Battle

    Emerson and the Birth of an American Culture

    Longfellow, Poe, and Hawthornian Psychology

    Part Four

    ‘The Almost Chosen People’

    Civil War America, 1850–1870

    The Era of Pierce and Buchanan

    Ultimate and Proximate Causes of the Civil War

    The Rise of Lincoln

    Centrality of Preserving the Union

    The Election of 1860

    Jefferson Davis and Why the South Fought

    Why the South Was Virtually Bound to Lose

    The Churches and the War

    The War among the Generals

    Gettysburg: ‘Too Bad! Too Bad! Oh! Too Bad!’

    The Triumph and Tragedy of Lincoln

    Andrew Johnson and the Two Reconstructions

    Part Five

    Huddled Masses and Crosses of Gold

    Industrial America, 1870–1912

    Modern America and Its Aging Process

    Mass-Immigration and ‘Thinking Big’

    Indians and Settlers, Cowboys and Desperados

    The Significance of the Frontier

    Centrality of Railroads

    Did the Robber Barons Really Exist?

    Carnegie, Steel, and American Philanthropy

    Pierpoint Morgan and Wall Street

    Trusts and Anti-Trusts

    Monster Cities: Chicago and New York

    The Urban Rich and Poor

    American Science and Culture: Edison and Tiffany

    Church, Bierstadt, and the Limitless Landscape

    Bringing Luxury to the Masses

    The Rise of Labor and Muckraking

    Standard Oil and Henry Ford

    Populism, Imperialism, and the Spanish-American War

    Theodore Roosevelt and His Golden Age

    Part Six

    ‘The First International Nation’

    Melting-Pot America, 1912–1929

    The Significance of Woodrow Wilson

    Education and the Class System

    The Advent of Statism

    Wilson’s Legislative Triumph

    McAdoo and the Coming of War

    The Disaster of Versailles and the League of Nations

    Harding, ‘Normalcy,’ and Witch-Hunting

    Women Stroll onto the Scene

    Quotas and Internal Migration

    The Harlem Phenomenon and Multiracial Culture

    Fundamentalism and Middle America

    Prohibition and Its Disastrous Consequences

    San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Californian Extremism

    Cheap Electricity and Its Dramatic Impact

    Hollywood

    The Social and Moral Significance of Jazz

    Race Prejudice, Popular Entertainment, and Downward Mobility

    Harding and Historical Deconstruction

    The Age of Coolidge and Government Minimalism

    Twenties Cultural and Economic Prosperity

    Part Seven

    ‘Nothing to Fear But Fear Itself’

    Superpower America, 1929–1960

    Government Credit-Management and the Wall Street Crash

    Why the Depression Was So Deep and Long-Lasting

    The Failure of the Great Engineer

    Roosevelt and the Election of 1932

    The Mythology of the New Deal

    FDR, Big Business, and the Intellectuals

    Transforming the Democrats into the Majority Party

    US Isolationism and Internationalism

    Roosevelt, the Nazis, and Japan

    America in the War; the Miracle in Production

    FDR, Stalin, and Soviet Advances

    The Rise of Truman and the Cold War

    Nuclear Weapons and the Defeat of Japan

    The Truman Doctrine, Marshall Aid, and Nato

    America and the Birth of Israel

    The Korean War and the Fall of MacArthur

    Eisenhower, McCarthyism, and Pop Sociology

    Piety on the Potomac

    Part Eight

    ‘We Will Pay Any Price, Bear Any Burden’

    Problem-Solving, Problem-Creating America, 1960–1997

    The Radical Shift in the Media

    Joe Kennedy and His Crown Prince

    The 1960 Election and the Myth of Camelot

    The Space Race

    The Bay of Pigs and the Missile Crisis

    Lyndon Johnson and His Great Society

    Getting into the Vietnam Quagmire

    Nixon and His Silent Majority

    Civil Rights and Campus Violence

    Watergate and the Putsch against the Executive

    Congressional Rule and America’s Nadir

    Carter, the 1980 Watershed, and Reaganism

    Rearmament and the Collapse of Soviet Power

    The Bush Interlude and Clintonian Corruption

    Fin-de-Siècle America and Its Whims

    Wyeth and the Significance of the Realist Revival

    Judicial Aggression and the Litigational Society

    The Sinister Legacy of Myrdal

    Language, Abortion, and Crime

    Family Collapse and Religious Persecution

    The Triumph of Women

    Source Notes

    Searchable Terms

    Other Books by Paul Johnson

    Copyright

    About the Publisher

    PREFACE

    This work is a labor of love. When I was a little boy, my parents and elder sisters taught me a great deal of Greek, Roman, and English history, but America did not come into it. At Stonyhurst, my school, I was given a magnificent grounding in English constitutional history, but again the name of America scarcely intruded. At Oxford, in the late 1940s, the School of Modern History was at the height of its glory, dominated by such paladins as A. J. P. Taylor and Hugh Trevor-Roper, Sir Maurice Powicke, K. B. McFarlane, and Sir Richard Southern, two of whom I was fortunate to have as tutors and all of whose lectures I attended. But nothing was said of America, except in so far as it lay at the margin of English history. I do not recall any course of lectures on American history as such. A. J. P. Taylor, at the conclusion of a tutorial, in which the name of America had cropped up, said grimly: ‘You can study American history when you have graduated, if you can bear it.’ His only other observation on the subject was: ‘One of the penalties of being President of the United States is that you must subsist for four years without drinking anything except Californian wine.’ American history was nothing but a black hole in the Oxford curriculum. Of course things have now changed completely, but I am talking of the Oxford academic world of half a century ago. Oxford was not alone in treating American history as a non-subject. Reading the memoirs of that outstanding American journalist Stewart Alsop, I was intrigued to discover that, when he was a boy at Groton in the 1930s, he was taught only Greek, Roman, and English history.

    As a result of this lacuna in my education, I eventually came to American history completely fresh, with no schoolboy or student prejudices or antipathies. Indeed my first contacts with American history were entirely non-academic: I discussed it with officers of the US Sixth Fleet when I was an officer in the Garrison at Gibraltar, during my military service, and later in the 1950s when I was working as a journalist in Paris and had the chance to meet such formidable figures as John Foster Dulles, then Secretary of State, President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and his successor at SHAPE Headquarters, General Matthew Ridgeway. From the late 1950s I began visiting the United States regularly, three or four times a year, traveling all over the country and meeting men and women who were shaping its continuing history. Over forty years I have grown to know and admire the United States and its people, making innumerable friends and acquaintances, reading its splendid literature, visiting many of its universities to give lectures and participate in debates, and attending scores of conferences held by American businesses and other institutions.

    In short, I entered the study of American history through the back door. But I also got to know about it directly during the research for a number of books I wrote in these years: A History of Christianity, A History of the Jews, Modern Times: the World from the Twenties to the Nineties, and The Birth of the Modern: World Society, 1815–1830. Some of the material acquired in preparing these books I have used in the present one, but updated, revised, corrected, expanded, and refined. As I worked on the study of the past, and learned about the present by traveling all over the world—but especially in the United States—my desire to discover more about that extraordinary country, its origins and its evolution, grew and grew, so that I determined in the end to write a history of it, knowing from experience that to produce a book is the only way to study a subject systematically, purposefully, and retentively. My editor in New York, Cass Canfield Jr of HarperCollins, encouraged me warmly. So this project was born, out of enthusiasm and excitement, and now, after many years, it is complete.

    Writing a history of the American people, covering over 400 years, from the late 16th century to the end of the 20th, and dealing with the physical background and development of an immense tract of diverse territory, is a herculean task. It can be accomplished only by the ruthless selection and rejection of material, and made readable only by moving in close to certain aspects, and dealing with them in fascinating detail, at the price of merely summarizing others. That has been my method, as in earlier books covering immense subjects, though my aim nonetheless has been to produce a comprehensive account, full of facts and dates and figures, which can be used with confidence by students who wish to acquire a general grasp of American history. The book has new and often trenchant things to say about every aspect and period of America’s past, and I do not seek, as some historians do, to conceal my opinions. They are there for all to see, and take account of or discount. But I have endeavored, at all stages, to present the facts fully, squarely, honestly, and objectively, and to select the material as untendentiously as I know how. Such a fact-filled and lengthy volume as this is bound to contain errors. If readers spot any, I would be grateful if they would write to me at my private address: 29 Newton Road, London W25JR; so that they may be corrected; and if they find any expressions of mine or opinions insupportable, they are welcome to give me their comments so that I may weigh them.

    The notes at the end of the book serve a variety of purposes: to give the sources of facts, figures, quotations, and assertions; to acknowledge my indebtedness to other scholars; to serve as a guide to further reading; and to indicate where scholarly opinion differs, directing the reader to works which challenge the views I have formed. I have not bowed to current academic nostrums about nomenclature or accepted the flyblown philacteries of Political Correctness. So I do not acknowledge the existence of hyphenated Americans, or Native Americans or any other qualified kind. They are all Americans to me: black, white, red, brown, yellow, thrown together by fate in that swirling maelstrom of history which has produced the most remarkable people the world has ever seen. I love them and salute them, and this is their story.

    PART ONE

    ‘A City on a Hill’

    Colonial America, 1580–1750

    The creation of the United States of America is the greatest of all human adventures. No other national story holds such tremendous lessons, for the American people themselves and for the rest of mankind. It now spans four centuries and, as we enter the new millennium, we need to retell it, for if we can learn these lessons and build upon them, the whole of humanity will benefit in the new age which is now opening. American history raises three fundamental questions. First, can a nation rise above the injustices of its origins and, by its moral purpose and performance, atone for them? All nations are born in war, conquest, and crime, usually concealed by the obscurity of a distant past. The United States, from its earliest colonial times, won its title-deeds in the full blaze of recorded history, and the stains on them are there for all to see and censure: the dispossession of a indigenous people, and the securing of self-sufficiency through the sweat and pain of an enslaved race. In the judgmental scales of history, such grievous wrongs must be balanced by the erection of a society dedicated to justice and fairness. Has the United States done this? Has it expiated its organic sins? The second question provides the key to the first. In the process of nation-building, can ideals and altruism—the desire to build the perfect community—be mixed successfully with acquisitiveness and ambition, without which no dynamic society can be built at all? Have the Americans got the mixture right? Have they forged a nation where righteousness has the edge over the needful self-interest? Thirdly, the Americans originally aimed to build an other-worldly ‘City on a Hill,’ but found themselves designing a republic of the people, to be a model for the entire planet. Have they made good their audacious claims? Have they indeed proved exemplars for humanity? And will they continue to be so in the new millennium?

    We must never forget that the settlement of what is now the United States was only part of a larger enterprise. And this was the work of the best and the brightest of the entire European continent. They were greedy. As Christopher Columbus said, men crossed the Atlantic primarily in search of gold. But they were also idealists. These adventurous young men thought they could transform the world for the better. Europe was too small for them—for their energies, their ambitions, and their visions. In the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries, they had gone east, seeking to reChristianize the Holy Land and its surroundings, and also to acquire land there. The mixture of religious zeal, personal ambition—not to say cupidity—and lust for adventure which inspired generations of Crusaders was the prototype for the enterprise of the Americas.

    In the east, however, Christian expansion was blocked by the stiffening resistance of the Moslem world, and eventually by the expansive militarism of the Ottoman Turks. Frustrated there, Christian youth spent its ambitious energies at home: in France, in the extermination of heresy, and the acquisition of confiscated property; in the Iberian peninsula, in the reconquest of territory held by Islam since the 8th century, a process finally completed in the 1490s with the destruction of the Moslem kingdom of Granada, and the expulsion, or forcible conversion, of the last Moors in Spain. It is no coincidence that this decade, which marked the homogenization of western Europe as a Christian entity and unity, also saw the first successful efforts to carry Europe, and Christianity, into the western hemisphere. As one task ended, another was undertaken in earnest.

    The Portuguese, a predominantly seagoing people, were the first to begin the new enterprise, early in the 15th century. In 1415, the year the English King Henry V destroyed the French army at Agincourt, Portuguese adventurers took Ceuta, on the north African coast, and turned it into a trading depot. Then they pushed southwest into the Atlantic, occupying in turn Madeira, Cape Verde, and the Azores, turning all of them into colonies of the Portuguese crown. The Portuguese adventurers were excited by these discoveries: they felt, already, that they were bringing into existence a new world, though the phrase itself did not pass into common currency until 1494. These early settlers believed they were beginning civilization afresh: the first boy and girl born on Madeira were christened Adam and Eve.¹ But almost immediately came the Fall, which in time was to envelop the entire Atlantic. In Europe itself, the slave-system of antiquity had been virtually extinguished by the rise of Christian society. In the 1440s, exploring the African coast from their newly acquired islands, the Portuguese rediscovered slavery as a working commercial institution. Slavery had always existed in Africa, where it was operated extensively by local rulers, often with the assistance of Arab traders. Slaves were captives, outsiders, people who had lost tribal status; once enslaved, they became exchangeable commodities, indeed an important form of currency.

    The Portuguese entered the slave-trade in the mid-15th century, took it over and, in the process, transformed it into something more impersonal, and horrible, than it had been either in antiquity or medieval Africa. The new Portuguese colony of Madeira became the center of a sugar industry, which soon made itself the largest supplier for western Europe. The first sugar-mill, worked by slaves, was erected in Madeira in 1452. This cash-industry was so successful that the Portuguese soon began laying out fields for sugar-cane on the Biafran Islands, off the African coast. An island off Cap Blanco in Mauretania became a slave-depot. From there, when the trade was in its infancy, several hundred slaves a year were shipped to Lisbon. As the sugar industry expanded, slaves began to be numbered in thousands: by 1550, some 50,000 African slaves had been imported into São Tomé alone, which likewise became a slave entrepot. These profitable activities were conducted, under the aegis of the Portuguese crown, by a mixed collection of Christians from all over Europe—Spanish, Normans, and Flemish, as well as Portuguese, and Italians from the Aegean and the Levant. Being energetic, single young males, they mated with whatever women they could find, and sometimes married them. Their mixed progeny, mulattos, proved less susceptible than pure-bred Europeans to yellow fever and malaria, and so flourished. Neither Europeans nor mulattos could live on the African coast itself. But they multiplied in the Cape Verde Islands, 300 miles off the West African coast. The mulatto trading-class in Cape Verde were known as Lancados. Speaking both Creole and the native languages, and practicing Christianity spiced with paganism, they ran the European end of the slave-trade, just as Arabs ran the African end.²

    This new-style slave-trade was quickly characterized by the scale and intensity with which it was conducted, and by the cash nexus which linked African and Arab suppliers, Portuguese and Lancado traders, and the purchasers. The slave-markets were huge. The slaves were overwhelmingly male, employed in large-scale agriculture and mining. There was little attempt to acculturalize them and they were treated as body-units of varying quality, mere commodities. At São Tomé in particular this modern pattern of slavery took shape. The Portuguese were soon selling African slaves to the Spanish, who, following the example in Madeira, occupied the Canaries and began to grow cane and mill sugar there too. By the time exploration and colonization spread from the islands across the Atlantic, the slave-system was already in place.³

    In moving out into the Atlantic islands, the Portuguese discovered the basic meteorological fact about the North Atlantic, which forms an ocean weather-basin of its own. There were strong currents running clockwise, especially in the summer. These are assisted by northeast trade winds in the south, westerlies in the north. So seafarers went out in a southwest direction, and returned to Europe in a northeasterly one. Using this weather system, the Spanish landed on the Canaries and occupied them. The indigenous Guanches were either sold as slaves in mainland Spain, or converted and turned into farm-labourers by their mainly Castilian conquerors.⁴ Profiting from the experience of the Canaries in using the North Atlantic weather system, Christopher Columbus made landfall in the western hemisphere in 1492. His venture was characteristic of the internationalism of the American enterprise. He operated from the Spanish city of Seville but he came from Genoa and he was by nationality a citizen of the Republic of Venice, which then ran an island empire in the Eastern Mediterranean. The finance for his transatlantic expedition was provided by himself and other Genoa merchants in Seville, and topped up by the Spanish Queen Isabella, who had seized quantities of cash when her troops occupied Granada earlier in the year.⁵

    The Spanish did not find American colonization easy. The first island-town Columbus founded, which he called Isabella, failed completely. He then ran out of money and the crown took over. The first successful settlement took place in 1502, when Nicolas de Ovando landed in Santo Domingo with thirty ships and no fewer than 2,500 men. This was a deliberate colonizing enterprise, using the experience Spain had acquired in its reconquista, and based on a network of towns copied from the model of New Castile in Spain itself. That in turn had been based on the bastides of medieval France, themselves derived from Roman colony-towns, an improved version of Greek models going back to the beginning of the first millennium B.C. So the system was very ancient. The first move, once a beachhead or harbour had been secured, was for an official called the adelantano to pace out the street-grid.⁶ Apart from forts, the first substantial building was the church. Clerics, especially from the orders of friars, the Dominicans and Franciscans, played a major part in the colonizing process, and as early as 1512 the first bishopric in the New World was founded. Nine years before, the crown had established a Casa de la Contracion in Seville, as headquarters of the entire transatlantic effort, and considerable state funds were poured into the venture. By 1520 at least 10,000 Spanish-speaking Europeans were living on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean, food was being grown regularly and a definite pattern of trade with Europeans had been established.⁷

    The year before, Hernando Cortes had broken into the American mainland by assaulting the ancient civilization of Mexico. The expansion was astonishingly rapid, the fastest in the history of mankind, comparable in speed with and far more exacting in thoroughness and permanency than the conquests of Alexander the Great. In a sense, the new empire of Spain superimposed itself on the old one of the Aztecs rather as Rome had absorbed the Greek colonies.⁸ Within a few years, the Spaniards were 1,000 miles north of Mexico City, the vast new grid-town which Cortes built on the ruins of the old Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán.

    This incursion from Europe brought huge changes in the demography, the flora and fauna, and the economics of the Americas. Just as the Europeans were vulnerable to yellow fever, so the indigenous Indians were at the mercy of smallpox, which the Europeans brought with them. Europeans had learned to cope with it over many generations but it remained extraordinarily infectious and to the Indians it almost invariably proved fatal. We do not know with any certainty how many people lived in the Americas before the Europeans came. North of what is now the Mexican border, the Indians were sparse and tribal, still at the hunter-gatherer stage in many cases, and engaged in perpetual inter-tribal warfare, though some tribes grew corn in addition to hunting and lived part of the year in villages—perhaps one million of them, all told. Further south there were far more advanced societies, and two great empires, the Aztecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru. In central and south America, the total population was about 20 million. Within a few decades, conquest and the disease it brought had reduced the Indians to 2 million, or even less. Hence, very early in the conquest, African slaves were in demand to supply labor. In addition to smallpox, the Europeans imported a host of welcome novelties: wheat and barley, and the ploughs to make it possible to grow them; sugarcanes and vineyards; above all, a variety of livestock. The American Indians had failed to domesticate any fauna except dogs, alpacas and llamas. The Europeans brought in cattle, including oxen for ploughing, horses, mules, donkeys, sheep, pigs and poultry. Almost from the start, horses of high quality, as well as first-class mules and donkeys, were successfully bred in the Americas. The Spanish were the only west Europeans with experience of running large herds of cattle on horseback, and this became an outstanding feature of the New World, where enormous ranches were soon supplying cattle for food and mules for work in great quantities for the mining districts.⁹

    The Spaniards, hearts hardened in the long struggle to expel the Moors, were ruthless in handling the Indians. But they were persistent in the way they set about colonizing vast areas. The English, when they followed them into the New World, noted both characteristics. John Hooker, one Elizabethan commentator, regarded the Spanish as morally inferior ‘because with all cruel inhumanity…they subdued a naked and yielding people, whom they sought for gain and not for any religion or plantation of a commonwealth, did most cruelly tyrannize and against the course of all human nature did scorch and roast them to death, as by their own histories doth appear.’ At the same time the English admired ‘the industry, the travails of the Spaniard, their exceeding charge in furnishing so many ships…their continual supplies to further their attempts and their active and undaunted spirits in executing matters of that quality and difficulty, and lastly their constant resolution of plantation.’¹⁰

    With the Spanish established in the Americas, it was inevitable that the Portuguese would follow them. Portugal, vulnerable to invasion by Spain, was careful to keep its overseas relations with its larger neighbor on a strictly legal basis. As early as 1479 Spain and Portugal signed an agreement regulating their respective spheres of trade outside European waters. The papacy, consulted, drew an imaginary longitudinal line running a hundred leagues west of the Azores: west of it was Spanish, east of it Portuguese. The award was made permanent between the two powers by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which drew the lines 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. This gave the Portuguese a gigantic segment of South America, including most of what is now modern Brazil. They knew of this coast at least from 1500 when a Portuguese squadron, on its way to the Indian Ocean, pushed into the Atlantic to avoid headwinds and, to its surprise, struck land which lay east of the treaty line and clearly was not Africa. But their resources were too committed to exploring the African coast and the routes to Asia and the East Indies, where they were already opening posts, to invest in the Americas. Their first colony in Brazil was not planted till 1532, where it was done on the model of their Atlantic island possessions, the crown appointing ‘captains,’ who invested in land-grants called donatorios. Most of this first wave failed, and it was not until the Portuguese transported the sugar-plantation system, based on slavery, from Cape Verde and the Biafran Islands, to the part of Brazil they called Pernambuco, that profits were made and settlers dug themselves in. The real development of Brazil on a large scale began only in 1549, when the crown made a large investment, sent over 1,000 colonists and appointed Martin Alfonso de Sousa governor-general with wide powers. Thereafter progress was rapid and irreversible, a massive sugar industry grew up across the Atlantic, and during the last quarter of the 16th century Brazil became the largest slave-importing center in the world, and remained so. Over 300 years, Brazil absorbed more African slaves than anywhere else and became, as it were, an Afro-American territory. Throughout the 16th century the Portuguese had a virtual monopoly of the Atlantic slave-trade. By 1600 nearly 300,000 African slaves had been transported by sea to plantations—25,000 to Madeira, 50,000 to Europe, 75,000 to Cape São Tomé, and the rest to America. By this date, indeed, four out of five slaves were heading for the New World.¹¹

    It is important to appreciate that this system of plantation slavery, organized by the Portuguese and patronized by the Spanish for their mines as well as their sugar-fields, had been in place, expanding steadily, long before other European powers got a footing in the New World. But the prodigious fortunes made by the Spanish from mining American silver, and by both Spanish and Portuguese in the sugar trade, attracted adventurers from all over Europe. While the Spanish and Portuguese were careful to respect each other’s spheres of interest, which in any event were consolidated when the two crowns were united under the Habsburgs in 1580, no such inhibitions held back other nations. Any chance that the papal division of the Atlantic spoils between Spain and Portugal would hold was destroyed by the Reformation of the 1520s and 1530s, during which large parts of maritime northwest Europe renounced any allegiance to Rome. Protestantism took special hold in the trading communities and seaports of Atlantic France and the Low Countries, in London, already the largest commercial city in Europe, and among the seafaring men of southwest England. In 1561, Queen Elizabeth I’s Secretary of State, Sir William Cecil, carried out an investigation into the international law of the Atlantic, and firmly told the Spanish ambassador that the pope had had no authority for his award. In any case there had long been a tradition, tenaciously held by French Huguenot seamen, who dismissed Catholic claims on principle, that the normal rules of peace and war were suspended beyond a certain imaginary line running down the mid-Atlantic. This line was even more vague than the pope’s original award, and no one knew exactly where it was. But the theory, and indeed the practice, of ‘No Peace Beyond the Line’ was a 16th-century fact of life.¹² It is very significant indeed that, almost from its origins, the New World was widely regarded as a hemisphere where the rule of law did not apply and where violence was to be expected.

    From the earliest years of the 16th century, Breton, Norman, Basque, and French fishermen (from La Rochelle) had been working the rich fishing grounds of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland and Labrador. Encouraged by their rich hauls, and reports of riches on land, they went further. In 1534 the French seafarer Jacques Cartier, from St Malo, went up the St Lawrence River, spent the winter at what he called Stadacona (Quebec) and penetrated as far as Hochelaga (Montreal). He was back again in 1541, looking for the ‘Kingdom of Saguenay,’ reported to be rich in gold and diamonds. But the gold turned out to be iron pyrites and the diamonds mere quartz crystals, and his expedition failed. As the wars of religion began to tear Europe apart, the great French Protestant leader Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France, sent an expedition to colonize an island in what is now the immense harbor of Rio de Janeiro. This was in 1555, and the next year 300 reinforcements were dispatched to join them, many picked personally by Jean Calvin himself. But it did not prosper, and in 1560 the Portuguese, seeing that the colony was weak, attacked and hanged all its inhabitants. The French also set up Huguenot colonies at Fort Caroline in northern Florida, and at Charles Fort, near the Savannah River, in 1562 and 1564. But the Spaniards, whose great explorer Hernando de Soto had reconnoitered the entire area in the years 1539–42, were on the watch for intruders, especially Protestants. In 1565 they attacked Fort Caroline in force and massacred the entire colony. They did the same at Charles Fort the next year, and erected their own strongholds at St Augustine and St Catherine’s Island. Six years later, in 1572, French Catholic militants staged the Massacre of St Bartholomew, in which Admiral Coligny was murdered, thus bringing to an end the first phase of French transatlantic expansion.¹³

    Into the vacuum left by the discomfiture of French Protestantism stepped the English, and it is from their appearance on the scene that we date the ultimate origins of the American people. The Englishman John Cabot had been off the coast of Labrador as long ago as 1497, and off Nova Scotia the following year. Nothing came of these early ventures, but the English were soon fishing off the Banks in strength, occasionally wintering in Newfoundland. Henry VIII took many Huguenot seamen and adventurers into his service and under his daughter Elizabeth maritime entrepreneurs like Sir John Hawkins worked closely with French Protestants in planning raids on Spanish commerce ‘beyond the line.’ The West Country gentleman—seafarer Humphrey Gilbert helped the Huguenots to fortify their harbour-bastion of La Rochelle in 1562, was made privy to their Atlantic schemes, and conceived some of his own. He came of a ramifying family clan which included the young Walter Ralegh, his half-brother, and their cousin Richard Grenville. In 1578 Gilbert obtained Letters Patent in which Queen Elizabeth signified her willingness to permit him to ‘discover and occupy’ such lands as were ‘not possessed by any Christian prince,’ and to exercise jurisdiction over them, ‘agreeable to the form of the laws and policies of England.’¹⁴ He was in touch with various scholars and publicists who did everything in their power to promote English enterprise on the high seas. One was Dr John Dee, the Queen’s unofficial scientific adviser; another was the young mathematician Thomas Hariot, friend and follower of Ralegh. The most important by far, however, was Richard Hakluyt.

    Hakluyt was the son of a Middle Temple lawyer who had made a collection of maps and manuscripts on ocean travel. What his father followed as a hobby, young Hakluyt made his lifework. His countless publications, ranging from pamphlets to books, reinforced by powerful letters to the great and the good of Elizabethan England, were the biggest single impulse in persuading England to look west for its future, as well as our greatest single repository of information about the Atlantic in the 16th century.¹⁵ Young Hakluyt has some claims to be considered the first geopolitical strategist, certainly the first English-speaking one. What Dr Dee was already calling the future ‘British Empire,’ and exhorting Queen Elizabeth to create, was to Hakluyt not a distant vision but something to be brought about in the next few years by getting seamen and entrepreneurs and ‘planters’ of ‘colonies’—two new words which had first appeared in the language in the 1550s—to set about launching a specific settlement on the American coast.¹⁶ In 1582, Hakluyt published an account of some of the voyages to the northwest Atlantic, with a preface addressed to the popular young hero Sir Philip Sidney, who had already arranged with Gilbert to take land in any colony he should found. Hakluyt complained in it that the English were missing opportunities and should seize the moment:

    I marvel not a little that since the first discovery of America (which is now full forescore and ten years) after so great conquest and planting by the Spaniards and the Portingales there, that we of England could never have the grace to set fast footing in such fertile and temperate places as are left as yet unpossessed by them. But again when I consider that there is a time for all men, and see the Portingales’ time to be out of date and that the nakedness of the Spaniards and their long-hidden secrets are at length espied…I conceive great hope that the time approacheth and now is that we of England may share and part stakes (if we will ourselves) both with the Spaniard and Portingale in part of America and other regions as yet undiscovered.¹⁷

    Gilbert immediately took up Hakluyt’s challenge and set out with five ships, one of them owned by Ralegh, and 260 men. These included ‘masons, carpenters, smiths and such like requisites,’ but also ‘mineral men and refiners,’ indicating that Gilbert’s mind, like those of most of the early adventurers, was still focussed on gold. But he did not survive the voyage: his tiny ship, the Squirrel, which was only 10 tons, foundered—Gilbert was last glimpsed reading a book on deck, a typical Elizabethan touch.¹⁸ So Ralegh took his place and immediately secured a new charter from the Queen to found a colony. Ralegh is the first great man in the story of the American people to come into close focus from the documents, and it is worth looking at him in detail.

    Ralegh was, in a sense, a proto-American. He had certain strongly marked characteristics which were to be associated with the American archetype. He was energetic, brash, hugely ambitious, money-conscious, none too scrupulous, far-sighted and ahead of his time, with a passion for the new and, not least, a streak of idealism which clashed violently with his overweening desire to get on and make a fortune. He was of ancient family, but penniless, born in Devon about 1554 and ‘spake broad Devonshire until his dying day.’ He was, wrote John Aubrey, who devoted one of his Brief-Lives to him, ‘a tall, handsome and bold man,’ with a lot of swagger, ‘damnably proud.’ His good looks caught the Queen’s eye when he came to court, for she liked necessitous youngsters from good families, who looked the part and whom she could ‘make.’ But what made her single him out from the crowd of smart-looking gallants who jostled for attention was his sheer brain-power and his grasp of new, especially scientific, knowledge. The court was amazed at his rapid rise in favor. As Sir Robert Naunton, an eyewitness, put it, ‘true it is, he had gotten the Queen’s ear at a trice, and she began to be taken with his elocution, and loved to hear his reasons to her demands. And the truth is, she took him for a kind of oracle, which nettled them all.’¹⁹ Ralegh was one of the first young courtiers to make use of the new luxury, tobacco, which the Spaniards had brought back from America, and typical of the way he intrigued the Queen was his demonstration, with the help of a small pair of scales, of how you measured the weight of tobacco-smoke, by first measuring the pristine weed, then the ashes. His mathematical friend, Hariot, fed him new ideas and experiments with which to keep up the Queen’s interest.²⁰

    Ralegh was not just an intellectual but a man of action since youth, having fought with the Huguenots, aged fifteen, and taken part in a desperate naval action under his half-brother Gilbert. He had also been twice in jail for ‘affrays.’ But his main experience of action, which was directly relevant to the American adventure, was in Ireland. The English had been trying to subdue Ireland, and ‘reduce it to civility’ as they put it, since the mid-12th century. Their success had been very limited. From the very beginning English settlers who planted themselves in Ireland and took up lands to turn into English-style estates had shown a disturbing tendency to go native and join the ‘wild Irish.’ To combat this, the English government had passed a series of laws, in the 14th century, known as the Statutes of Kilkenny, which constituted an early form of apartheid. Fully Anglicized territory, radiating from Dublin, the capital, was known as the Pale, and the Irish were allowed inside it only under close supervision. The English might not sell the Irish weapons or horses and under no circumstances were to put on Irish dress, or speak the local Gaelic language, or employ ‘harpers and rhymers.’ Conversely the Irish were banned from a whole range of activities and from acquiring land in the Pale, and staying there overnight. But these laws were constantly broken, and had to be renewed periodically, and even so English settlers continued to ‘degenerate’ and intermarry with the Irish and become Irish themselves, and indeed foment and lead revolts against the English authorities. One such uprising had occurred in 1580, in Munster, and Ralegh had raised a band of 100 footmen from the City of London and taken a ruthless part in suppressing it. He had killed hundreds of ‘Irish savages,’ as he termed them, and hanged scores more for treason, and had been handsomely rewarded with confiscated Irish lands which he was engaged in ‘planting.’ In the American enterprise, Ireland played the same part for the English as the war against the Moors had done for the Spaniards—it was a training-ground both in suppressing and uprooting an alien race and culture, and in settling conquered lands and building towns. And, just as the money from the reconquista went into financing the Spanish conquest of the Americas, so Ralegh put the profits from his Irish estates towards financing his transatlantic expedition.²¹

    Ralegh’s colonizing venture is worth examining in a little detail because it held important lessons for the future. His first expedition of two ships, a reconnaissance, set out on April 27, 1584, watered at the Canaries and Puerto Rico, headed north up the Florida Channel, and reached the Carolina Banks at midsummer. On July 13, they found a passage through the banks leading to what they called Roanoke Island, ‘And after thanks given to God for our safe arrival hither, we manned our boats and went to view the land next adjoining, and to take possession of the same, in the right of the Queen’s most excellent Majesty.’²² The men spent six weeks on the Banks and noted deer, rabbits, birds of all kind, and in the woods pines, cypress, sassafras, sweat gum and ‘the highest and reddest cedars in the world.’ What struck them most was the total absence of any pollution: ‘sweet and aromatic smells lay in the air.’ On the third day they spotted a small boat paddling towards the island with three men in it. One of them got out at a point opposite the English ships and waited, ‘never making any show of fear or doubt’ as a party rowed out to him. Then:

    After he had spoken of many things not understood by us we brought him with his own good liking aboard the ships, and gave him a shirt, a hat and some other things, and made him taste of our wine and our meat, which he liked very well; and after having viewed both barks, he departed and went to his own boat again, which he had left in a little cove or creek adjoining: as soon as he was two bowshots into the water, he fell to fishing, and in less than half an hour he had laden his boat as deep as it could swim, with which he came again to the point of land, and there he divided his fish into two parts, pointing one part to the ships and the other to the pinnace: which after he had (as much as he might) requited the former benefits received, he departed out of our sight.²³

    There followed further friendly contact with the Indians, and exchanges of deerskins and buffalo hides, maize, fruit, and vegetables, on the one hand, and pots, axes, and tun dishes, from the ship’s stores, on the other. When the ships left Roanoke at the end of August, two Indians, Manteo and Wanchese, went with them. All were back in the west of England by mid-September, bringing with them valuable skins and pearls. Ralegh was persuaded by the detailed account of one of the masters, Captain Arthur Barlow, that the landfall of Roanoke was suitable for a plantation and at once began a publicity campaign, using Hakluyt and other scribes, to attract investors. He had just become member of parliament for Devonshire, and in December he raised the matter in the Commons, elaborating his plans for a colony. On January 6, 1585 a delighted Queen knighted him at Greenwich and gave him permission to call the proposed territory Virginia, after her. In April an expedition of seven ships, carrying 600 men, half of them soldiers, assembled at Plymouth. The fleet was put under the command of Ralegh’s cousin Sir Richard Grenville, with an experienced Irish campaigner, Ralph Lane, in charge of the troops. It carried aboard Hariot, as scientific expert. He had been learning the local language from the two Indians, and was given special instructions to make scientific measurements and observe flora and fauna, climate and geology. Also recruited was John White, England’s first watercolor-painter of distinction, who was appointed surveyor and painter, and a number of other specialists—an apothecary, a surgeon, and skilled craftsmen.

    After various misadventures, some losses, prize-taking from the Spaniards, and quarreling between Grenville and Lane, the bulk of the fleet reached the Roanoke area in July. There they discovered, and Hariot noted, one of the main difficulties which faced the early colonists in America. ‘The sea coasts of Virginia,’ Hariot wrote, ‘are full of islands whereby the entrance into the main land is hard to find. For although they be separated with divers and sundry large divisions, which seemed to yield convenient entrance, yet to our great peril we proved that they were shallow and full of dangerous flats.’²⁴ There are literally thousands of islands off the American coasts, especially in the region of the great rivers which formed highways inland, and early voyagers could spend weeks or even months finding their way among them to the mainland, or to the principal river-system. And when they occupied a particular island, relief and reinforcements expeditions often found immense difficulty in identifying it. Moreover, the topography of the coast was constantly changing. Ralegh’s Virginia lies between Cape Fear and Cape Henry, from latitude 33.50 to 36.56, mainly in what is now North Carolina, though a portion is in modern Virginia. The Carolina Banks, screening the Roanoke colony, are now greatly changed by wind and sea-action, though it is just possible to identify the 16th-century outlines.

    No satisfactory harbor was found, though a fort was built on the north of Roanoke Island. Lane was left with 107 men to hold it, while Grenville returned to England in August to report progress. On the return voyage, Grenville took a 300-ton Spanish vessel, the Santa Maria, which had strayed from the annual treasure convoy, and brought it into Plymouth harbor on October 18. The prize and contents were valued at £15,000, which yielded a handsome dividend for all who had invested in the 1585 expedition. But the fact that Grenville had allowed himself to be diverted into commerce-raiding betrayed the confusion of aims of the Ralegh enterprise. Was its object to found a permanent, viable colony, with an eye to the long term, or was it to make quick profits by preying on Spain’s existing empire? Ralegh himself could not have answered this question; or, rather, he would have replied ‘Both,’ without realizing that they were incompatible.

    Meanwhile Lane had failed to find what he regarded as essential to a settlement, a proper harbor, had shifted the location of the colony, fallen foul of the local Indians and fought a pitched battle; and he had been relieved by a large expedition under Sir Francis Drake, which was cruising up the east coast of America after plundering the Spanish Caribbean. Lane was a good soldier and resourceful leader, but he knew nothing about planting, especially crop-raising. The colonists he had with him were not, for the most part, colonists at all but soldiers and adventurers. Hariot noted: ‘Some also were of a nice bringing up, only in cities or towns, and such as never (as I may say) had seen the world before.’ He said they missed their ‘accustomed dainty food’ and ‘soft beds of down and feathers’ and so were ‘miserable.’ They thought they would find treasure and ‘after gold and silver was not to be found, as it was by them looked for, had little or no care for any other thing but to pamper their bellies.’ Lane himself concluded that the venture was hopeless as the area had fatal drawbacks: ‘For that the discovery of a good mine, by the goodness of God, or a passage to the south sea, or some way to it, and nothing else can bring this country in request to be inhabited by our nation.’ Lane decided to bring his men back to England, while he still had the means to do so. The only tangible results of the venture were the detailed findings of Hariot, published in 1588 as A Briefe and true report of Virginia, and a number of high-quality watercolor drawings by White, now in the British Museum, which show the Indians, their villages, their dances, their agriculture, and their way of life. White also made a detailed map, and elaborate colored sketches of flora and fauna, including a Hoopoe, a Blue Striped Grunt Fish, a Loggerhead Turtle, and a plantain.²⁵

    A further expedition of three ships set out for Roanoke on May 8, 1587, with 150 colonists abroad, this time including some women and children, and John White in charge as governor. His journal is a record of the expedition. Again there were divided aims, for Captain Simon Fernandez, master of the fleet, was anxious to engage in piracy and so quarreled with White. Roanoke was reached, and on August 18 John White’s daughter, Elenora, who was married to his assistant Ananias Dare, gave birth to a girl, who was named Virginia, ‘because this child was the first Christian born in Virginia.’ But there was more trouble with the Indians, and Fernandez was anxious to get his ships away to prey on the Spaniards while their treasure fleet was still on the high seas. So 114 colonists, including Elenora and little Virginia, sixteen other women, and ten children, were left behind while White sailed back with Fernandez to persuade Ralegh to send a back-up fleet quickly. White reached Southampton on November 8 and immediately set about organizing relief. But he found the country in the midst of what was to be its first global conflict, preparing feverishly to resist the Spanish invasion-armada, which was expected in the spring. All shipping was stayed by government order in English ports, to be available for defensive flotillas, and when Ralegh and Grenville got together eight vessels in Devon in March 1588, with the object of equipping them for Roanoke, the Privy Council commanded Grenville ‘on his allegiance to forbear to go his intended voyage’ and to place them under the flag of Sir Francis Drake, to join his anti-Armada fleet. White’s attempt to set out himself, with two small pinnaces, proved hopeless.²⁶

    As a result of the Armada campaign and its aftermath, White found it impossible to get his relief expedition to Virginia until August 17, 1590. He anchored at Roanoke Island at nightfall, lit by the lurid flickers of a forest fire. He recorded: ‘We let fall our grapnel near the shore, and sounded with a trumpet and call, and afterwards many familiar English tunes and songs, and called to them friendly. But we had no answer.’²⁷ When they landed the next day, White found no sign of his daughter or granddaughter, or anyone else. Five chests were found, broken open, obviously by Indians. Three belonged to White himself, containing books, framed maps, and pictures with which he had intended to furnish the governor’s mansion, to be built in the new town he had planned and called Ralegh. They were all, he said, ‘rotten and spoyled with raine.’ They found three letters, ‘CRO,’ carved on a tree, and nearby the full word ‘Croatoan,’ on a post, ‘in fayre Capital letters.’ White had agreed with the colonists that, if forced to quit Roanoke, they would leave behind a carved signpost of their destination; and in the event of trouble they were to put a Maltese cross beside it. There was no cross. But all the other evidence—the defensive palisade and the cabins overgrown with weed—indicated a hasty departure. And where the colonists went to was never discovered, though White searched long and anxiously. But he failed to get to Croatoan Island, and whether the frightened colonists reached it can never be known. To this day, no further trace of the lost colony has ever been found. Ralegh himself tried to sail past Virginia in 1595, on his way home from a voyage to Guyana, and he sent another search-party in 1602. But nothing came of either attempt. The most likely explanation is that the colony was overwhelmed by Indians on their way from Roanoke to Croatoan, the males killed, the women and children absorbed into the tribe, as was the Indian custom. So the bloodline of the first Virginians merged with that of the Indians they intended to subdue.

    In 1625 Sir Francis Bacon, no friend of Ralegh—who in the meantime had been executed by King James I—wrote an essay, ‘On Plantations,’ in which he tried to sum up the lessons of the tragic lost colony. He pointed out that any counting on quick profits was fatal, that there was a need for expert personnel of all kinds, strongly motivated in their commitment to a long-term venture, and, not least, that it was hopeless to try to win over the Indians with trifles ‘instead of treating them justly and graciously.’ Above all, back-up expeditions were essential: ‘It is the sinfullest thing in the world to forsake or destitute a plantation once in forwardness; for besides the dishonour, it is the guiltiness of blood of many commiserable persons.’²⁸

    There are two points which need to be added. First, as the historian A. L. Rowse has pointed out, the failure of the Roanoke colony may have been a blessing in disguise. Had it taken root, the Spanish would certainly have become aware of this English intrusion in a continent all of which they claimed. They would have identified its exact location and strength and have sent out a powerful punitive expedition, as they did against the French in Florida in the 1560s. At that stage in the game they were still in a military and naval position to annihilate any English venture on the coast. Moreover, they would almost certainly have built forts in the vicinity to deter further English ventures and have laid specific claim to the entire coast of what is now the eastern seaboard of the United States, and so made it much less likely that the English would have returned, after the turn of the 17th century and in the new reign of James I. James was anxious to be on peaceful terms with Spain and would, in those circumstances, have forbidden any more attempts to colonize Virginia. So English America might never have come into existence.²⁹

    Secondly, in listing the reasons why Roanoke failed, Francis Bacon omitted one important missing element. It was an entirely secular effort. It had no religious dimension. This was in accordance with Ralegh’s own sentiments. Though he was for form’s sake an oath-taking, church-attending Protestant, like anyone else who wanted to rise to the top in Elizabethan England, religion meant nothing to him. It is not even clear he was a Christian. It was darkly rumored indeed, by his enemies at the court, that he and his friend Hariot, and others of their circle, were ‘atheists’—though the term did not then necessarily imply a denial of God’s existence, merely a rejection of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity: in our terminology he was a deist of sorts. At all events, Ralegh was not the man to launch a colonizing venture with a religious purpose. The clergy do not seem to have figured at all in his plans. There was no attempt on his part to recruit God-fearing, prayerful men.

    In these respects Ralegh was unusual for an Elizabethan sea-venturer. Most of the Elizabethan seadogs were strict Protestants, usually Calvinists, who had strong religious motives for resisting Spanish dominance on the high seas and in the western hemisphere. Drake was typical of them: his family were victims of the papist persecution under Queen Mary, and Drake had been brought up in a Thames-side hulk in consequence, educated to thump his Bible and believe in double-predestination and to proselytize among the heathen and the benighted believers in Romish superstition. He held regular services on board his ships, preached sermons to his men, and tried to convert his Spanish prisoners. Next to the Bible itself, his favorite book was Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, that compendium of the sufferings of English Protestants who resisted the Catholic restoration under ‘Bloody Mary’ and died for their faith. Foxe’s vast book, published early in Elizabeth’s reign, proved immensely popular and, despite its size and expense, had sold over 10,000 copies before the end of it, an unprecedented sale for those times. It was not just a history of persecution: it also embodied the English national-religious myth, which had been growing in power in the later Middle Ages and came to maturity during the Reformation decades—the myth that the English had replaced the Jews as the Elect Nation, and were divinely appointed to do God’s will on earth.³⁰

    This belief in divine appointment was to become an important factor in American as well as English history, because it was transmitted to the western side of the Atlantic when the English eventually established themselves there. At the origin of the myth was the widely held belief that the Christian faith had been brought to Britain directly by Joseph of Arimathea, on the express instructions of the Apostles. Some thought the agent was St Paul; others that Christ himself had paid a secret visit. It was through Britain that the Roman Empire had embraced the faith: for the Emperor Constantine had been British—his mother Helena was the daughter of the British King Coilus. So, wrote Foxe, ‘by the help of the British Army,’ Constantine ‘obtained…peace and tranquillity to the whole universal Church of Christ.’

    In the reign of Elizabeth the myth became a historical validation of England’s role in resisting the Counter-Reformation and the Continental supremacy of the Catholic Habsburgs. The Elect Nation had imperative duties to perform which were both spiritual and geopolitical. In the second year of the Queen’s reign, John Aylmer wrote in his An Harborow for faithful and true subjects that England was the virgin mother to a second birth of Christ:

    God is English. For you fight not only in the quarrel of your country, but also and chiefly in defence of His true religion and of His dear son Christ. [England says to her children:] ‘God hath brought forth in me the greatest and excellentest treasure that He hath for your comfort and all the world’s. He would that out of my womb should come that servant of Christ John Wyclif, who begat Huss, who begat Luther, who begat the truth.’³¹

    The most strident in proclaiming the doctrine of the English as the Chosen Race were the explorers and navigators, the seamen and merchant adventurers, and the colonizers and planters. It is they who gave the myth its most direct geopolitical thrust by urging England’s divinely appointed right to break open Spain’s doomed empire of the Scarlet Woman, the popish Whore of Babylon, and replace it with an English Protestant paramountcy. One of them, John Davys, put the new English ideology thus:

    There is no doubt that we of England are this saved people, by the eternal and infallible presence of the Lord predestined to be sent into these Gentiles

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